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GREAT BOOKS OP THE WESTERN WORLD
Introductory Volumes:
1. A Liberal Education
2. The Great Ideas I
3. The Great Ideas II
4. HOMER
5. AESCHYLUS
SOPHOCLES
EURIPIDES
ARISTOPHANES
6. HERODOTUS
THUCYDIDES
7. PLATO
8. ARISTOTLE I
9. ARISTOTLE II
10. HIPPOCRATES
GALEN
11. EUCLID
ARCHIMEDES
APOLLONIUS
NICOMACHUS
12. LUCRETIUS
EPICTETUS
MARCUS AURELIUS
13. VIRGIL
14. PLUTARCH
15. TACITUS
16. PTOLEMY
COPERNICUS
KEPLER
17. PLOTINUS
18. AUGUSTINE
19. THOMAS AQUINAS I
20. THOMAS AQUINAS II
2 I.DANTE
22. CHAUCER
23. MACHIAVELLI
HOBBES
24. RABELAIS
25. MONTAIGNE
26. SHAKESPEARE I
27. SHAKESPEARE II
GREAT BOOKS OF THE WESTERN WORLD
28. GILBERT
GALILEO
HARVEY
29. CERVANTES
30. FRANCIS BACON
3 I.DESCARTES
SPINOZA
32. MILTON
33. PASCAL
34. NEWTON
HUYGENS
35. LOCKE
BERKELEY
HUME
36. SWIFT
STERNE
37. FIELDING
38. MONTESQUIEU
ROUSSEAU
39. ADAM SMITH
40. GIBBON I
41. GIBBON II
42. KANT
43. AMERICAN STATE
PAPERS
THE FEDERALIST
J. S. MILL
44. BOSWELL
45. LAVOISIER
FOURIER
FARADAY
46. HEGEL
47. GOETHE
48. MELVILLE
49- DARWIN
50. MARX
ENGELS
51. TOLSTOY
52. DOSTOEVSKY
53. WILLIAM JAMES
54. FREUD
MORTIMER J. ADLER, Editor in Chief
WILLIAM GORMAN, General Editor
Associate Editors
HERMAN BERNICK OTTO BIRD PETER WOLFF
ROBERT ANDERSON
AARON BELL
SAUL BELLOW ^
JOAN BERNICK
SEYMOUR CAIN
ROBERT CAMPBELL
FREDERIC CAMPER
JOYCE CONNOR
MARY JANE DEICHES
GORDON DUPEE
RAYMOND ELLINWOOD
WILLIAM GERHARD
ROBERT HEMENWAY
Editorial Staff
DONALD HOLLBNHORST
LEONARD OLSEN
JANET POLLAK
JOHN SLEDGE
WILLIAM SPARKS
DOROTHY HODSON VINING
URSULA VON ECKARDT
ELEANOR FRANK WHITE
BENJAMIN ZIMMERMAN
THOMAS COSGROVB
JAMES DOYLE
JAMES ELLINGTON
DANIEL FBTLER
NORMAN ATWOOD
JOHN HARMON
GERTRUDE JAEGER
JACK LANDAU
RICHARD LEWIS
WERNER Low
CHARLES NELSON
HBLOISB OLSBN
MARY REIS
lOLA SCOFIELD
SHIRLEY SHAPIRO
MARGARET STERN
Assistant Editors
VIRGINIA COLTON
RUTH GUSTAFSON
Bibliographical Assistants
MARIE SACHEY
ROBERT MALIM
GLADYS MOORE
JAMES VAIL
Executive Editor
GEORGE BRYSON
Supervisors
MARTHA DUBOIS
LORRAINE HEATH
JOSEPH J. RODDY
Editorial Assistants
ROSALIE GITTBLSON
MIYO URAKAWA
Special^Consultants
ARTHUR HYMAN
JANET KALVBN
HERBERT LAMM
MILTON MAYER
JOSEPH SCHWAB
GENERAL CONTENTS
VOLUME I
PREFACE ......... xi
EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE STYLE .... xxxiii
Chapters 1-50 : ANGEL to LOVE ..... 1-1082.
VOLUME II
EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE STYLE ix
Chapters 51-101: MAN to WORLD .... .1-1140
Appendix I. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ADDITIONAL READINGS . 1143
Appendix II. THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF
SYNTOPICAL CONSTRUCTION ..... 12.19
INVENTORY OF TERMS ....... 1303
CONTENTS
PREFACE
xi
c
Chapter 24. EVOLUTION
451
EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE
< 25. EXPERIENCE
468
STYLE
xxxiii
s 26. FAMILY '
486
Chapter i. ANGEL
i
< 27. FATE
515
2. ANIMAL
19
28. FORM
526
*. ARISTOCRACY
So
j
j
^29. GOD
543
/4. ART
64
^30. GOOD AND EVIL
605-
5. ASTRONOMY
87
•/
31. GOVERNMENT
637
' 6. BEAUTY
112
<32. HABIT
665
^ 7. BEING
126
^33. HAPPINESS
684
8. CAUSE
jce
vx-34. HISTORY
7.11
S$. CHANCE
179
35. HONOR
728
^10. CHANGE
193
36. HYPOTHESIS
749
n. CITIZEN
218
v^37- IDEA
761
12. CONSTITUTION
233
^ 38. IMMORTALITY
784
Si$* COURAGE
252
39. INDUCTION
805
14. CUSTOM AND
^ 40. INFINITY
816
CONVENTION
268
15. DEFINITION
286
^ 41. JUDGMENT
835
«/
^42. JUSTICE
850
1 6. DEMOCRACY
303
^43. KNOWLEDGE
880
Xiy. DESIRE
323
^ 44. LABOR
921
1 8. DIALECTIC
345
^ 45. LANGUAGE
941
< 19. DUTY
358
^46. LAW
962
{ 20. EDUCATION
376
47. LIBERTY
991
21. ELEMENT
400
yHft. LIFE AND DEATH
1013
^ 22. EMOTION
413
^49. LOGIC
1035
23. ETERNITY
437
X^o. LOVE '
1051
PREFACE
L THE NATURE OF THE SYNTOPICON
BY calling this work "a Syntopicon of Great Books of the Western
World" the editors hope to characterize its nature, to indicate the
function it performs in relation to the set as a whole, and to assert its
originality as an intellectual instrument. The relation of these two volumes
of The Great Ideas to the rest of the set is the key to the nature of the Syn-
topicon and its originality as an instrument. Apart from this relation, The
Great Ideas, though to some extent readable in itself, does not perform
the function for which it was created — to show that the 443 works which
comprise Volumes 4 to 54 can be seen and used as something more than a
collection of books.
The great books are pre-eminently those which have given the western
tradition its life and light. The unity of this set of books does not consist
merely in the fact that each member of it is a great book worth reading,
A deeper unity exists in the relation of all the books to one tradition, a
unity shown by the continuity of the discussion of common themes and
problems. It is claimed for this set of great books that all the works in it
are significantly related to one another and that, taken together, they ade-
quately present the ideas and issues, the terms and topics, that have made
the western tradition what it is. More than a collection of books, then, this
set is a certain kind of whole that can and should be read as such.
The Great Ideas results from and records such a reading of the great
books. The aim of this "syntopical reading" was to discover the unity and
continuity of western thought in the discussion of common themes and
problems from one end of the tradition to the other. The Syntopicon does
not reproduce or present the results of this reading in a digest to save
others the trouble of reading the great books for themselves. On the con-
trary, it only lays down the lines along which a syntopical reading of the
great books can be done, and shows why and how it should be done. The
xi
xii THE GREAT IDEAS
various uses of the Syntopicon, described in Section III of this Preface, all
derive from its primary purpose — to serve as a guide to the reading of
Great Booths of the Western World as a unified whole.
The lines along which a syntopical reading of the great books can and
should be done are the main lines of the continuous discussion that runs
through the thirty centuries of western civilization. This great conversa-
tion across the ages is a living organism whose structure the Syntopicon
tries to articulate. It tries to show the many strands of this conversation be-
tween the greatest minds of western civilization on the themes which have
concerned men in every epoch, and which cover the whole range of man's
speculative inquiries and practical interests. To the extent that it succeeds,
it reveals the unity and continuity of the western tradition.
It was with these considerations in mind that the editors called The
Great Ideas a Syntopicon of the great books— literally, a collection of the
topics which are the main themes of the conversation to be found in the
books. A topic is a subject of discussion. It is a place at which minds meet
—to agree or disagree, but at least to communicate with one another
about some common concern. Just as a number of minds, or what they
have to say, can be related by their relevance to a common theme, so a
number of topics can be related by their relevance to a common term — a
single concept or category which generates a number of problems or
themes for discussion. Hence the Syntopicon is organized, first, by a list-
ing of the ideas that are the important common terms of discussion; and,
then, by an enumeration of the topics that are the various particular points
about which the discussion of each of these ideas revolves.
The full title of this work— The Great Ideas, a Syntopicon of Great
Bool(s of the Western World— thus indicates not only that its structure
consists of terms and topics, but also that it functions as a guide to the
great books from which its terms and topics are drawn. But the title may
fail to indicate another equally important function which the Syntopicon
performs when it is taken together with the great books. By serving as a
guide to the syntopical reading of the great books, it does more than trans-
form them from a mere collection of books into a unified whole; it trans-
forms them into a new kind of encyclopaedic whole — a new kind of
reference library. Without in any way interfering with all the values the
great books have as books to be read individually, the Syntopicon gives
PREFACE xiii
them the further utility of a unified reference library in the realm of
thought and opinion.
Because of the traditional and proved importance of the thought and
opinion contained in the great books, the Syntopicon, in the editors* opin-
ion, creates an intellectual instrument which is comparable to, though
quite distinct from, the dictionary and the encyclopaedia. The dictionary
is a basic reference work in the sphere of language. The general encyclo-
paedia is a basic reference work in the sphere of fact, concerned with all
matters ascertainable in the present state of historical and scientific knowl-
edge. The Syntopicon — these two volumes taken together with the rest of
the set — is a basic reference work in the sphere of ideas, comprehending the
wisdom and understanding accumulated thus far in all major fields of
inquiry. As its utility is realized, it will, the editors hope, take its place
beside the dictionary and the encyclopaedia in a triad of fundamental ref-
erence works.
II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SYNTOPICON
The Great Ideas consists of 102 chapters, each of which provides a syn-
topical treatment of one of the basic terms or concepts in the great books.
As the Table of Contents indicates, the chapters are arranged in the alpha-
betical order of these 102 terms or concepts: from ANGEL to LOVE in Vol-
ume I, and from MAN to WORLD in Volume II.
Following the chapter on WORLD, there are two appendices. Appendix I
is a Bibliography of Additional Readings. Appendix II is an essay on the
Principles and Methods of Syntopical Construction. These two appendices
are in turn followed by an Inventory of Terms.
THE IO1 CHAPTERS
Each of the 102 chapters is constructed according to the same pattern.
Each consists of five parts — an Introduction, an Outline of Topics, Refer-
ences, Cross-References, and Additional Readings. The inner structure of
the Syntopicon is constituted by the order and relation of these five parts,
and by the integral relation of the Inventory of Terms to the 102 chaptdus
as a whole.
xiv THE GREAT IDEAS
(1) INTRODUCTION. Each chapter begins with an essay which com-
ments on the various meanings of the idea under consideration, and takes
note of the problems it has raised and the controversies it has occasioned
in the tradition of western thought.
The Introduction to a great idea is designed to serve as a guide to its
topics and, through them, to the content of the references. For certain of
the most important topics, it frequently provides, in the words of the au-
thors themselves, a foretaste of the great conversation contained in the
passages referred to. The Introduction usually expands on the necessarily
brief statement of the themes or issues in the Outline of Topics, and fur-
nishes some comment on the structure of the Outline as a whole, and on
the relation of particular topics to one another.
The Introduction serves one other purpose. It indicates some of the con-
nections between the idea it discusses and other great ideas, thus function-
ing as a commentary on the Cross-References. In some cases, the Introduc-
tion also calls attention to the way in which certain works recommended
in the Additional Readings supplement the references to the great books
in the discussion of certain aspects of the idea under consideration.
(2) OUTLINE OF TOPICS. In each chapter, the Outline of Topics
follows the Introduction. It states the major themes of the conversation to
be found in the great books on the idea of that chapter. It exhibits the in-
ternal structure of the idea by presenting its topics in relation to one an-
other. There are about 3000 topics in the Syntopicon as a whole, an average
of 30 to a chapter, though the actual number varies from as few as six top-
ics in a chapter to as many as 76.
The 3000 topics provide a statement of the scope and variety of subjects
with which the great books deal in a substantial and significant fashion.
Since the topics are divided among 102 chapters, according to the great
ideas under which they fall, the user of the Syntopicon can find a particu-
lar topic by turning to the chapter on the idea which is a central term ex-
pressed in the statement of that topic or, if not actually present in the
phrasing of the topic, is implied by it.
Almost all the topics involve one or more terms other than the name of
'the great idea under which they fall. Hence, by consulting the Inventory
of Terms, the user of the Syntopicon can ascertain whether the particular
subject in which he is interested is represented by one or more of the 3000
PREFACE xv
topics. As will be seen below, the prime function of the Inventory is to
enable the user of the Syntopicon to find topics in which he is interested
and which he could not otherwise find except by examining the Outlines
of Topics, chapter by chapter.
Since the references to the great books are organized by topics, the indi-
vidual topic, rather than a great idea, is the elementary unit of the Syntop-
icon. From the standpoint of the references, the great ideas are collec-
tions of topics. The same is true of all the other terms listed in the Inven-
tory of Terms. For each of these, one or more topics are the headings un-
der which the discussion of the subject can be found in the great books.
The user of the Syntopicon must, therefore, always use a topic rather than
a term to discover what the great books have to say on a particular subject.
However, with the help of the Inventory of Terms, he can always use a
term to find the topics which either state or approximately, represent the
subject of his interest.
For the convenience of the reader, the Outline of Topics in each chap-
ter is keyed to the pages of the Reference section which immediatelyfol-
lows. In the Outline, the number to the right of a particular topic indicates
on which page of the Reference section it begins.
(3) REFERENCES. The References are the heart of each chapter. As
the Introduction and the Outline of Topics are designed to help the reader
use the References, so the References, organized topically, are designed to
enable him to turn to the great books for the discussion of a particular
subject. For each topic they locate, by volume and page, the relevant works
and passages in Great Boo\s of the Western World. There are about
163,000 references in the Syntopicon as a whole, an average of 1500 to a
chapter, though the actual number varies from as few as 284 references
in a chapter to as many as 7065.
Under each topic, the references are arranged in the order in which the
authors and their works appear in Great Bool^s of the Western World.
References to the Bible, when present, are always placed first. The order
of references enables the user of the Syntopicon either to follow the dis-
cussion of some theme through the great books in the historical sequence,
or to select particular authors or the authors of a particular period, accord-
ing to his interest
xvi THE GREAT IDEAS
Ideally, a syntopical reading of the great books in relation to any single
topic should cover all the works or passages cited under that topic. Ideally,
such a reading should proceed, in the first instance at least, in the order in
which the references are presented. Reading the materials in chronological
order enables the reader to follow the actual development of thought on
a topic. In many passages, later authors explicitly refer to earlier ones; and
even more frequently, the expression of later views presupposes an under-
standing of earlier ones, on which they are based or with which they take
issue.
But the individual reader may deviate from this ideal procedure in a
number of ways, according to his particular interests. He may wish only to
sample the materials referred to under a given topic; or he may wish to
examine what a certain group of authors have to say on a particular topic.
The reader may know sufficiently well the position of certain authors on
the topic in question, and so may turn his attention to other authors whose
works are cited there; or he may wish to examine thoroughly the thought
of certain authors, while merely forming a general impression of what
others have to say. The Reference section is so constructed that it permits
the reader, almost at a glance, to follow any one of a wide variety of pro-
cedures.
A brief explanatory note, repeated at the beginning of every Reference
section, gives the minimum necessary directions for going from the refer-
ences to the passages to which they refer. For the sake of brevity, it offers
only such information as is uniform for all of the works cited. If the
reader wishes complete information concerning the way in which each
particular work is cited, he will find this set forth, by authors and titles, in
the Explanation of Reference Style, which immediately follows this Pref-
ace (see pg. xxxiii) and is also printed, for the reader's convenience, at the
opening of Volume II. The Explanation of Reference Style contains a com-
plete account of all the symbols and abbreviations used in the Reference
section and gives examples of the usual typographical form of the refer-
ences.
Only one further point requires comment here. In some chapters, a few
topics contain no references. These topics serve in the Outline as headings
for other topics grouped analytically under them. The user of the Syn-
topicon who wants to know what the great books have to say on a partic-
ular subject, and finds that subject represented by a topic without reference
PREFACE xvfl
content, will find in its subordinate topics references to the great books
on various aspects of the general subject he has in mind.
(4) CROSS-REFERENCES. The Cross-References follow the Refer-
ences in each chapter. They direct the reader to other chapters in which
similar or related matters are considered. By relating the topics of one
chapter to those of other chapters, the Cross-References show the inter-
connection of the great ideas.
In general, the order of the Cross-References follows that of the Outline
of Topics. Each entry in the Cross-References indicates, by its phrasing,
the subject of the topic in a given chapter to which topics in other chapters
are related or similar.
The phrasing of the Cross-References enables the reader to determine
whether the topics in the other chapters mentioned are similar or related
to the topic in this chapter. The related topics will usually offer a quite
different set of references.
The user of the Syntopicon will find that topics in different chapters
often resemble one another, both in their phrasing and in the references
set forth under them. In a few cases they are identical or almost identical.
But similar topics will usually differ in their reference content because the
meaning of a topic is partly determined by the idea under which it falls,
and by the surrounding topics which form its context. Hence, in most
cases, the reader who turns to similar topics in other chapters will find
some proportion of different references.
(5) ADDITIONAL READINGS, Great Booths of the Western World
comprises 443 works by 74 authors; if we add the 77 books of the Bible,
which are syntopically treated along with these published works, the num-
ber is 520. But this large number does not represent all the books which
make signal contributions to the great conversation in the sphere of each
of the great ideas.
The list of Additional Readings which is the last part of each chapter is
a list of books recommended as companions to the works and passages
cited in the Reference section. For the ideas and topics of each chapter,
they supplement or amplify the discussion to be found in the great books.
They represent some of the works in the wider field of literature, in which
the great books occupy a central position.
xviii THE GREAT IDEAS
In each list of Additional Readings, the recommended titles are divided
into two groups: first, works written by authors represented in Great
Boofa of the Western World; and second, works by other authors. Each
group is listed chronologically. Whenever they are available, translations
of foreign works are suggested. The existence of English translations is
always indicated by the use of English titles; these are usually accom-
panied by the title in the original language.
The 102 lists of Additional Readings, each constructed for the idea and
topics of a particular chapter, contain in all 2603 titles by 1181 authors. For
the convenience of the reader, the authors and titles in the 102 separate
lists of Additional Readings are compiled into a single list in the Bibliog-
raphy of Additional Readings, which is Appendix I (see Volume II, pg.
In the Bibliography of Additional Readings, the authors' names are in
alphabetical order and the works of each author are listed alphabetically
under his name. In addition, the Bibliography provides useful information
concerning authors and works, such as birth and death dates of authors,
date and place of writing or publication, names of editors or translators,
names of publishers, and names of standard collections in which individual
works appear. A note, preceding the Bibliography, explains the principles
of its construction.
THE INVENTORY OF TERMS
The Inventory of Terms is an integral part of the Syntopicon placed for
convenience at the end of Volume II.
The Syntopicon is both a book to be read and a reference book. The
Table of Contents sets forth its contents as a book to be read. But since this
is limited to listing the 102 great ideas chapter by chapter, it cannot indi-
cate the scope and range of the Syntopicon as a reference book. The In-
ventory of Terms performs that function; it serves as a table of contents
for the Syntopicon as a reference book.
The person who wishes to use the Syntopicon as a reference book, in
order to learn what the great books have to say on a particular subject,
must be able to find that subject among the 3000 topics. The primary func-
tion of the Inventory of Terms is to enable him to find the topic or topics
whfch either clearly express or approximately represent the subject of his
inquiry. It does so by citing, for each term listed, the topics in which that
PREFACE xix
term is a principal element. It cites these by giving the name of the chapter
in which the topic appears, and the number of the topic in that chapter.
The reader can find the topic in which he is interested by looking in the
Inventory for the term or terms that would appear in a statement of the
subject.
The user of the Syntopicon may have a broader interest than can be ex-
pressed in a particular topic. He may wish to examine the whole range of
discussion of a basic concept, whether that be one of the great ideas or
some other term. This may involve, not one or two topics, but a large
number, as is certainly the case for the great ideas, and for many other
important concepts as well. Since the Inventory of Terms cites all the top-
ics in which each term is significantly involved, it enables the reader to
investigate the whole range of the discussion in the great books relevant to
that term.
Among the terms listed in the Inventory are the names of the 102
great ideas. This does not duplicate the information furnished by the
Table of Contents. For each of the great ideas, the Table of Contents lo-
cates only the whole chapter which deals with that great idea; whereas
the Inventory of Terms usually cites topics in many other chapters, in ad-
dition to the chapter on that idea itself. For the reader who wishes to ex-
plore the discussion of a great idea as thoroughly as possible, the Inven-
tory of Terms supplements the topics to be found in the chapter on that
idea, and even those mentioned in the Cross-References of that chapter.
The 1800 terms in the Inventory are listed alphabetically, and for each
term the relevant topics are cited in the alphabetical order of the chapters
in which the topics occur. Sometimes the topics are divided into two
groups, of primary and secondary importance. Within each group, the
chapters are alphabetically arranged.
The Inventory is likely to present only one difficulty to the person who
consults it in order to find a particular topic. The first step in the location
of a topic is accomplished when the reader turns in the Inventory to the
term that he thinks is involved in a statement of the subject of his interest.
But, finding a number of topics cited there, he must choose among them.
There are two ways for him to proceed: (i) he can examine the topics
one after another, until he finds the one which satisfies him as a state-
ment of the subject; or (2) he can use the names of the chapters in which
the topics occur as a clue to finding the topic which states the subject of
xx THE GREAT IDEAS
his inquiry. Since the content of particular topics is largely determined by
the idea under which they fall, the chapter names will quite frequently
prove a reliable guide.
A brief note, at the beginning of the Inventory of Terms, explains its
construction and furnishes directions for its use. Nothing more need be
said here of its structure, or of its utility in making the Syntopicon a ref-
erence book. But a word should be added about the significance of the In-
ventory in relation to the great ideas.
The division of the Syntopicon into 102 chapters may give rise to the
notion that its editors think there are only 102 ideas worth discussing. The
number of really great, that is, primary or pivotal ideas may be smaller or
larger than 102. That number represents an editorial judgment which was
made in the course of constructing the Syntopicon. How it was reached is
explained elsewhere (see Appendix II, Section I); but here it should be
said that it does not represent a judgment by the editors that the 102 terms
selected by them are the only concepts or ideas which have notable sig-
nificance in the tradition of western thought. The Inventory of Terms
manifests exactly the opposite judgment. Its 1800 words or phrases express
important concepts. Though many of these will immediately be seen to
have much less comprehensive or critical meaning than the 102 major
terms of the Syntopicon, they all have general currency or importance
in some special field of inquiry. They also represent notions or topics
which fall under one or more of the 102 great ideas.
THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF
SYNTOPICAL CONSTRUCTION
The essay on the Principles and Methods of Syntopical Construction is
Appendix II (see Volume II, pg. 1219). It is intended as a supplement to
this Preface. The foregoing brief descriptions of the parts of the Syntopi-
con indicate its structure, but they do not explain how it was constructed.
The work of creating each part of the Syntopicon raised many difficult
intellectual and editorial problems. These problems, and especially the
principles and methods by which they were solved, may be of interest to
the reader after he has had some experience in using the Syntopicon, but
probably not before. The editors decided to make the essay on the Syn-
topicon's construction an appendix to the work, rather than burden the
Preface with an account of the methods employed and an exposition of
PREFACE xxi
the principles adopted. While freeing the Preface from the burden of
fuller explanations, they nevertheless hoped to provide systematic an-
swers to questions which might arise in the reader's mind as a result of
using the Syntopicon.
III. THE USES OF THE SYNTOPICON
The foregoing discussion of the nature and structure of the Syntopicon
has expressed the purpose for which it was designed, but it does not fully
state all its possible uses. There are four basic types of usefulness which the
editors hope the Syntopicon will have. Two of these have already been
mentioned. It has been pointed out that the Syntopicon is both a reference
book and a book to be read. But the Syntopicon is also intended to serve
as an instrument of liberal education, through the aid it can give to a cer-
tain kind of study and teaching of the great books. It is not inconsistent
with its primary function as a reference book that it should, in addition,
prove to be an instrument of research and discovery.
(i) The Syntopicon as a reference book.
The description (in Section II of this Preface) of the parts of the Syn-
topicon, and their function in the structure of the whole, includes some
indication of how it may be used as a reference book. Here we are con-
cerned with its general character as a reference work, as evidenced by the
types of questions it has been constructed to answer.
In contradistinction to books of other sorts, reference books are de-
signed to help the reader who comes to them with inquiries on particular
subjects. If, in addition to answering the questions he brings, they raise
further questions in his mind and excite him to further inquiries, which,
in turn, they are able to satisfy, they are more than answer-books. They are
pedagogues, leading the mind from question to question in the pursuit of
learning. Reference books at their best perform an educational function,
not simply by answering questions, but by arousing and sustaining inquiry.
Nevertheless, the field of any reference book is defined, in the first in-
stance, by the types of questions it is able to answer. The specific type of
inquiry which the Syntopicon is able to satisfy, and which gives it its spe-
cial character as a reference book, can be formulated by the question. What
xxii THE GREAT IDEAS
do the great booty have to say on this subject? This is not the only ques-
tion the Syntopicon is designed to answer, but it is the primary one.
The topics are the units through which the Syntopicon functions as a
reference book, since it is under the topics that the references to the great
books are assembled; and it is through reading the works or passages rec-
ommended by these references that the person who consults the Syntopi-
con finds the answer to his question, What do the great books have to say
on this subject ?
The range and variety of the particular subjects of inquiry on which
the Syntopicon can be consulted, is indicated quantitatively by the num-
ber of topics and terms: 2987 topics are covered in the 102 chapters; 1798
terms are listed in the Inventory of Terms. Qualitatively -, the range and
variety of the inquiries the Syntopicon is able to satisfy, can be seen only
through an examination of the topics, chapter by chapter, or by an exami-
nation of the chapter titles in the Table of Contents and the words or
phrases listed in the Inventory of Terms.
To every question expressed in this way— What do the great books have
to say on this subject? — the Syntopicon helps the reader to discover the
answer for himself by a syntopical reading of the great books in the light
of the topics and guided by the references assembled under them. This
fact distinguishes the Syntopicon from all other familiar reference books,
which contain within themselves the answers to the questions on which
they are consulted. The Syntopicon does not contain the answers, but only
a guide to where the answers can be found in the pages of the great books.
The references which constitute this guide do not tell the reader what the
great books have to say on a particular subject. They only tell him where
to read in the great books in order to discover for himself the thought
and opinion, the imagination and emotion, in which the authors of these
books have expressed their minds on this or that particular subject. For
this reason it was said earlier in this Preface that only when it is taken to-
gether with the great books themselves, does the Syntopicon create a ref-
erence library in the sphere of thought and opinion.
While this is true for the primary type of question which the Syntopi-
con is designed to answer through its system of references to the great
books, it is not true, at least not to the same extent, for the subordinate
types of questions now to be considered.
PREFACE xxiii
The question, What themes have been discussed in the tradition of west-
ern thought under this idea? is answered in the first instance by the Out-
line of Topics in the chapter on each of the great ideas. If the reader be-
comes interested in the actual content of the discussion under one or more
of these topics, he will then be asking the primary sort of question, to
which the references, assembled under these topics, provide the beginning
of an answer, and the great books the fullness of it.
The question, To which of the other great ideas is this idea related and
how is it related? is answered by the Cross-References in the chapter on
each of the great ideas. The Cross-References enumerate the topics in
other chapters which are related to the topics covered by the idea in ques-
tion. The introductory essay on the idea also usually contains references
to other Introductions in which related ideas are considered. By reading
the Introduction and examining the Cross-References, a person can use the
Syntopicon to discover, at least initially, the connections between one great
idea and others.
The question, What boo\s other than those published in this set contain
important discussions of this idea? is answered, to some extent, by the
Additional Readings listed in the chapter on each of the great ideas.
The question, What is the history of the idea, its various meanings, and
the problems or controversies it has raised? is answered, at least initially,
by the Introduction to the chapter on each of the great ideas. Here as be-
fore, if the reader's interest is aroused to further inquiry, the topics, the
references under them, the passages in the great books referred to, and the
books listed in the Additional Readings, provide the means for a fuller ex-
ploration of the idea, in varying degrees of thoroughness and ramification.
(^L) The Syntopicon as a book to be read.
With respect to its 102 essays on the great ideas, the Syntopicon is first
of all a book to be read. These essays are arranged in the alphabetical or-
der of the ideas, but they need not be read in that order. Each is intended
to be intelligible in itself, independently of the others.
The reader can therefore begin according to his interests with any one of
the Introductions to the great ideas. No matter where he begins, he will
find that the reading of no other Introduction is presupposed. But he will
also find that each Introduction traces some of the connections between
the particular idea which it treats and other great ideas.
xxiv THE GREAT IDEAS
With whatever idea he begins, the introductory essay will at least sug-
gest other ideas as subjects of related interest. These in turn will turn his
attention to, and may arouse his interest in, still others. Since each of the
great ideas is directly or remotely related to many others— perhaps to all-
through a network of connections radiating from each idea as a point of
origin, the reader, starting at any point in the realm of thought, can ex-
plore the whole of it by going from any one idea to all the rest by circuits
or pathways of his own choosing.
The reading of one or more Introductions should also turn attention to
the Outlines of Topics in these same chapters; and, through them and the
references organized under them, to the great books themselves. As in-
tegral parts of the Syntopicon, the Introductions to the great ideas are not
intended to satisfy the reader's interest, but rather to arouse it, and then
direct it to the great books. The name "Introduction" specifies the func-
tion these essays were designed to perform. When they function effective-
ly as introductions to the Outlines of Topics and the References, they im-
plement the use of the Syntopicon, not simply as a reference book, but as
an instrument of liberal education.
(3) The Syntopicon as an instrument of liberal education.
The Syntopicon serves the end of liberal education to the extent that it
facilitates the reading of the great books and, beyond that, the study and
teaching of them. To make the nature of this educational contribution
clear, it is necessary to distinguish between the integral and the syntopical
reading of great books.
Integral reading consists simply in reading a whole book through. But
syntopical reading does not consist simply in reading parts of a book
rather than the whole. It involves the reading of one book in relation to
others, all of them relevant to the consideration of the same topic.
In some cases, as the References show, whole works are cited along with
passages from other works, which may be as short as a paragraph or as
long as a chapter or a series of chapters. For the most part, a syntopical
reading consists in reading passages of varying length rather than whole
works; but die point remains that the essence of syntopical reading lies in
the juxtaposition of many authors under the same topic and, in conse-
quence, the reading together of their works, in whole or part.
PREFACE » xxv
Neither of these two types of reading can ever be a substitute for the
other, nor can either be taken as sufficient in itself. On the contrary, each
is incomplete without the other. Those who begin by reading in the great
books and reading them syntopically must eventually read at least some
of them integrally. Those who have already read some of the great books
through must read them syntopically to discover what an integral reading
of the great books seldom reveals, except, perhaps, to the most mature
student or conscientious scholar. For each of these two sorts of persons —
the beginning reader and the more advanced student or scholar — the Syn-
topicon functions differently and the syntopical reading of the great books
serves a different purpose.
FOR THE BEGINNING READER — in the extreme case, a person who has read
none of the great books — a syntopical reading, done in accordance with
the references under even a few topics, works in three ways: initiatively,
suggestively, and instructively.
It works initiatively by overcoming the initial difficulty that anyone
faces when confronted by a collection of books as vast and, in a sense, as
overpowering as Great Bool(s of the Western World. The problem is
where to begin and in what order to proceed. There are many solutions to
this problem, usually in the form of courses of reading based on different
principles of selection; but these usually require the reading of whole
books or, at least, the integral reading of large parts of them.
It is a matter of general experience that this kind of solutioa seldom
achieves the intended result. A syntopical reading of the great books pro-
vides a radically different sort of solution, which promises to be more ef-
fective. It initiates the reading of the great books by enabling persons to
read in them on the subjects in which they are interested ; and on those
subjects, to read relatively short passages from a large number of authors.
It assumes only that every educable mind has some interest in one or more
of the themes, problems, or ideas on which the great books touch.
A syntopical reading may also work suggestively. Starting from a read-
er's existing interest in a particular topic, it may arouse or create an interest
in other topics related to those which initiated his reading in the great
books. The syntopical reading of a collection of authors under a particular
topic may also impel the reader to look beyond the passages cited. Except
xxvi THE GREAT IDEAS
when they cite whole works, the references cite passages which neces-
sarily exist in a context, ultimately the context of the whole book. Few of
these passages are absolutely self-contained. For few of them can it be said
that it will be finally satisfactory to read them without looking further
into the author's thought. Hence, proceeding along the natural lines of
his own interests, the reader may be led from reading small parts of cer-
tain books to reading larger parts and, eventually, to reading whole books.
If this process is repeated, each syntopical reading may occasion and stimu-
late a more and more extensive integral reading of the great books.
Working initiatively and suggestively, syntopical reading opens the
great books at the pages of maximum interest to the individual and, by
the force of the passages read and their dependence on context, carries him
from reading parts to reading whole works. Syntopical reading works in-
structively when it guides the mind in interpreting and understanding the
passages or works being read. It does this in three ways.
First, the topic in connection with which the passage is being read serves
to give direction to the reader in interpreting the passage. But it does not
tell him what the passage means, since the passage cited may be relevant
to the topic in any one of a number of ways. Hence the reader is called
upon to discover precisely what relevance the passage has to the topic. To
learn to do this is to acquire a major skill in the art of reading.
Second, the collection of a number of passages on the same topic, but
from different works and different authors, serves to sharpen the reader's
interpretation of each passage read. Sometimes, when passages from the
same book or author are read in sequence and in the context of one an-
other, each becomes clearer. Sometimes the meaning of each of a series of
contrasting or conflicting passages from different books or authors is ac-
centuated when they are read against one another. And sometimes the
passages from one author, by amplifying or commenting on the passages
cited from another, materially help the reader's understanding of the sec-
ond author.
Third, if the individual does a syntopical reading of the great books
under a number of distinct topics, the fact that the same passage will often
be found cited under two or more topics will have its instructive effect.
As relevant to distinct topics, the passage must have an amplitude of
meaning which the reader will come to perceive when he interprets it
somewhat differently in relation to different topics. Such multiple inter-
-PREFACE xxvii
pretation not only is a basic exercise in the art of reading, but also tends
to make the mind habitually alert to the many strains of meaning which
any rich or complex passage can contain.
In this description of the ways in which a syntopical reading instructs in
the art of reading the great books, we have emphasized only the influence
of the topic under which the reading is done and the effect of reading one
passage in relation to another or in relation to several distinct topics. But
to assure or reinforce its instructive effect, two other factors may operate
in the background of a syntopical reading. One is the whole Outline of
Topics, which places a particular topic in the context of other topics under
the same idea. The other is the Introduction to that idea, which may help
the reader to interpret the particular topic, thereby increasing the effective-
ness of that topic as a guide to the interpretation of the works or passages
referred to under it.
IF WE TURN NOW FROM THE BEGINNING READER to the more mature student
or scholar — in the extreme case, a person who has read through many, if
not all, of the great books — we shall see that a syntopical reading works
in a different way. It no longer need function initiatively or suggestively;
nor, for the competent reader, need it serve instructively, to develop skill
in the art of reading. But it does provide the occasion and the materials
for a more intensive and critical reading of passages already read; and it
supplements the reading of whole works independently of one another by
requiring an examination of these works, or passages from them, in mu-
tual relation, as relevant to the same topic.
It is the general experience of highly competent readers that a great
book can be read through many times without the attainment of such
complete mastery that the reader knows the relevance of every passage in
it to every theme it touches. On the contrary, the integral reading of a
great book, even when done more than once, seldom reveals even a large
part of its meaning. Only the most intensive scholarly study of a particu-
lar book or author ever arrives at such mastery.
Short of that, reading a great book through one or more times will in-
evitably leave unnoticed or only partly recognized many passages of criti-
cal significance to a particular theme or problem. Only when the book is
read with that particular subject in mind will these passages, hitherto
unobserved, be found.
xxviii THE GREAT IDEAS
The truth of this can be verified by accomplished readers of the great
books if they will examine, under particular topics, passages from books
they have already read or even studied to some extent. Unless their previ-
ous reading of the books was done in the light of the particular intellec-
tual interest represented by this topic, they are likely to find some passages
that they never saw before, or at least never fully recognized as having
the significance they take on when read syntopically— in the light of this
topic and in relation to other works and passages relevant to the same
theme.
The Syntopicon can thus serve those who have already done, to a greater
or less extent, an integral reading of the great books. The method of syn-
topical reading not only provides a different and rewarding way of read-
ing them, but also carries the study of them to deeper and deeper levels of
understanding. It overcomes the defects of the ordinary integral reading
in several ways. It involves reading the great books in relation to one
another rather than in isolation. It supplements the knowledge of whole
works by concentration on the significance of parts. Taking each of 3000
topics as the occasion for a purposeful reading in all the great books, it
makes possible the close study of each work in relation to all the problems
or issues on which it bears.
There is still another way in which the method of syntopical reading
can advance the study of the great books, or rather a studious use of them.
Here the aim is not to study the books themselves, but to consider a prob-
lem or an issue to the solution or clarification of which they contribute.
The particular problem may involve many topics in one or more chap-
ters. It may involve a number of great ideas and many subordinate terms.
The organization of the Syntopicon enables the student of such a problem
to discover the range of the terms and topics traditionally involved in its
consideration. The References enable him to examine systematically, in
their chronological order or in any order he wishes, the record of western
thought concerning this problem, so far as it is contained in the great
books. The Additional Readings supplement these materials by citing
other books which bear upon the problem more or less directly.
It does not seem an exaggeration to say that a person who has done all
the syntopical reading suggested by the References and the Additional
Readings on a particular problem, will have a fairly adequate knowledge
of that problem and its proposed solutions in the development of western
PREFACE xxix
thought. The Syntopicon should be able to save the person who is begin-
ning his inquiry into a certain problem much of the preliminary labor of
research, and advance him rapidly to the point where he can begin to
think independently about it, because he knows what thinking has been
done. For the scholar, already advanced in his research on a given problem,
it may still be possible for the Syntopicon to serve some good purpose as
a reminder or a check; it may even uncover a neglected passage, or throw
new light upon one by placing it in the context of other passages.
WHAT HAS JUST BEEN SAID about the studious or scholarly use of the Syn-
topicon suggests how it may serve as an instrument in teaching the great
books, or in using them as teaching materials. For the most part, the great
books enter the curricula of schools and colleges engaged in liberal
education only by way of courses in which some of these books, or most
of them, are read integrally. Even when they are read in selections rather
than as wholes, they are, for the most part, used as materials in a general
course of study rather than as applicable to the study of particular subject
matters.
Without detracting from or competing with the unquestionable value
of such procedures, the Syntopicon offers another pedagogical use of the
great books. The method of syntopical reading makes them available in
the teaching of courses concerned with particular subject matters, or in
the conduct of seminars devoted to the study of particular problems. In
certain cases, it may encourage the reading of the great texts in place of
textbooks.
For a particular problem or subject matter, whose name is either one of
the great ideas or a major term in the Inventory of Terms, the Syntopicon
suggests some, if not all, of the topics which deserve to be studied, and
some, if not all, of the works which deserve to be read in whole or part
It thus provides a set of materials organized so as to be adaptable to the
method and interest of the individual teacher. For example, at one ex-
treme, the teacher can use the Syntopicon merely as a guide to supplemen-
tary reading; at the other extreme, he c&n ^se it to construct his own set
of textual materials, selected from the fc^ferences and the Additional
Readings and organized in the framework of a sequence of topics.
xxx THE GREAT IDEAS
(4) The Syntopicon as an instrument of discovery and researc
What has already been said about the use of the Syntopicon by the s
ous student, or even the advanced scholar, in the sphere of a partici
problem or subject matter, obviously covers part of the Syntopicon's uti
as an instrument of research or discovery. But there are three special ty
of inquiry for the pursuit of which the Syntopicon seems to be especi;
adapted.
The first of these is the study of the history of ideas. The chapter
each of the 102 great ideas presents the record of thought in the fonr
references to the great books, organized under each topic. Since the
erences are arranged in the order in which the authors and works app
in the set of great books, and since, with few exceptions, this is a stri<
chronological order, the record of thought is presented in an order sui
to the historian's interest. The Additional Readings, which supplem
the great books in the record, are also arranged chronologically. He
the Syntopicon provides an organization of materials eminently usefu
the scholar engaged in the historical study of ideas.
The second type of special inquiry concerns the thought of a single
thor, in its historical relation to the thought of predecessors who in
enced him and followers influenced by him. If that author happens to
one of the authors of the great books, the Syntopicon can facilitate si
research, since, for hundreds of distinct topics, it places references to
work of the particular author in the context of references to other auth
— earlier, later, or contemporary — whom he may have influenced or
whom he may have been influenced.
The third type of special inquiry is limited to the thought of a parti
lar period rather than a particular author. Within this limitation, the i
torical interest may extend to all the great and near-great minds v
formed the thought of this period, as well as to all the ideas with wh
they dealt. So far as the formative minds of the particular period are re{
sented by authors of the great books and by other authors cited in
Additional Readings, the Synt^ijpon can assist such research. Instead
using its references vertically, t&m one end of the tradition to the otl
as would the student of the history of aa idea, the student of an epoch
thought would cut through the references horizontally. He would t
all the authors and books which fell within the period under conside
PREFACE xxxi
tion; he would examine the materials referred to under every idea or topic
which appeared to have been considered by the minds of that period.
In these three types of historical inquiry, the Syntopicon is at best an
auxiliary instrument in the service of scholarship. If it proves to be more
than that for the ordinary student, it will probably be less than that for
the accomplished scholar whose documentary resources in a particular
field are more extensive than those from which the Syntopicon is con-
structed. This is especially true of those problems in the history of ideas
which have been investigated by prolonged research. But some problems
have not been so investigated, and the Syntopicon may have something to
contribute to the study of these. It is even possible that the Syntopicon may
uncover or call attention to new problems, or may cause the re-formulation
of old problems in a new way.
THE GRAND RESEARCH suggested by the existence of the Syntopicon is not
historical, however, but philosophical. Stated simply, it is the project of
creating in and for the twentieth century a synthesis or summation of
western thought, past and present, which will serve the intellectual needs
of our time, as analogous syntheses or summations have served antiquity,
the Middle Ages, and the period of the enlightenment.
The 102 great ideas, the 1800 other terms, and the 3000 topics of the
Syntopicon are a fair representation of the objects, as the materials to be
found in the 443 works here published and the 2600 other works listed in
the Additional Readings are a fair representation of the content, of west-
ern inquiry and discussion. The Syntopicon is, therefore, an instrument
adapted to the sort of research which might produce a summation of west-
ern thought from the beginning to the present.
Because the existence of the Syntopicon makes it possible and suggests
that it be undertaken, the project envisaged might be called a Program
of Syntopical Research. Because the method of this research, like the
method which produced the Syntopicon, would be thoroughly dialectical
in character, the intellectual summation which would be its product could
be called a Summa Dialectica.
MORTIMER J. ADLER, Editor
Chicago, 1952
EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE STYLE
THE references have a uniform typographical style, but the manner
of referring to particular works varies in certain respects. The Expla-
nation of Reference Style describes the typographical construction of the
references, with some comment on the variations. It is divided into four
parts:
I, General Typographical Style
II. Style of Bible References
III. Punctuation, Symbols, Abbreviations
IV. Table of Authors, Titles, and Author's Divisions Cited
I. GENERAL TYPOGRAPHICAL STYLE
The two examples below illustrate the general typographical pattern of
the references to Great Booths of the Western World \ and the headings
above the examples call attention to the five elements commonly present
in the construction of the references.
Volume Author's Page
Number Name Title of Work Author's Divisions Sections
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi 178a-200d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 365b-378d
(1) Volume Number:
The volume number indicates in which volume of Great Booths of the
Western World the work or passage referred to can be found. Most vol-
umes contain the work of one author. When a single volume contains the
works of two or more authors, the volume number is given for each
author. When the work of a single author is contained in two volumes,
the volume number is assigned according to the contents of the volume.
(2) Author's Name:
The author's name immediately follows the volume number, except in
the case of the American State Papers and the Federalist, which are in-
cluded in Volume 43. Authors' names are usually given in shortened form,
xxxiii
xxxiv THE GREAT IDEAS
(3) Title of Work:
The title follows the author's name, with the two exceptions above
noted. Titles are also frequently abbreviated or shortened. When two or
more works are cited for a single author, the titles are listed in the order
in which the works appear in the volume.
(4) Author's Divisions:
By "author's divisions" is meant all such subdivisions of a work as book,
part, section, chapter, paragraph, line number. The phrase "author's divi-
sions" does not necessarily mean divisions made by the author; they
may have been made by an editor of his work.
Author's divisions are given only for some works, according as, in the
judgment of the editors, their inclusion would prove meaningful or help-
ful to the reader. References to Locke, for instance, as in the example,
always cite author's divisions; whereas references to Gibbon, as in the
example, do not.
For some works, author's divisions are completely given, as for Locke.
For other works, only the most important or largest divisions are given.
Thus for Rabelais only the book but not the chapter is given.
Line numbers, in brackets, are given for all works of poetry, including
those published in prose translations. For Goethe's Faust, the line num-
bers cited refer to the lines of the English translation as well as to the lines
of the original German. For other poetical works in translation — the
works of Homer, the Greek dramatists, Lucretius, Virgil, and Dante — the
line numbers cited refer to the lines of the works in their original lan-
guages; for these works, the line numbers printed on the pages of this
edition furnish only an approximate indication of the location of the
equivalent lines in the English translation. For all poetical works written
in English, the line numbers are the numbers of the English lines. In the
case of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, the numbering of the lines is consecu-
tive for all the tales written in verse.
In references to the works of Aristotle (in Volumes 8 and 9), the figures
and letters enclosed in the brackets signify the page, column, and approxi-
mate line in the Berlin edition of the Greek text edited by Immanuel
Bekker. In references to the American State Papers (in Volume 43),
REFERENCE STYLE xxxv
the bracketed line numbers refer to the lines on the pages of this
edition only.
In references to the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas (in Vol-
umes 19 and 20), the author's division "Part I-H" stands for Part I of the
Second Part, and "Part II-H" stands for Part II of the Second Part. In the
case of the Summa Theologica^ the author's divisions cited may include
not only questions and articles, but the subdivisions of articles. In such
cases the page sections correspond in extent to that of a whole article, to
enable the reader to see the subdivision of an article, when it is cited, in
the context of other parts to which it is related.
Author's divisions precede page sections except in the case of footnote
and note numbers, which follow page sections. When more than one pas-
sage is cited within the same author's division, the author's division is not
repeated; as, for example:
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 403a-404a; 405d-406a
(5) Page Sections:
The pages of Great BooJ(s of the Western World are printed in either
one or two columns. The upper and lower halves of a one-column page
are indicated by the letters a and b. When the text is printed in two col-
umns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand column, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the
right-hand column. These half and quarter page sections are based on
divisions of a full text page.
Page sections give the page numbers and locate the sections of the page
in which the passage referred to begins and ends. For example, in the
reference:
53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b
the passage cited begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the
lower half of page 119. In the reference:
7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c
the passage cited begins in the lower half of the left-hand column of page
163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand column of page 164.
In references to works printed in two columns, the format of the page
xxxvi THE GREAT IDEAS
sometimes places continuous reading matter in the a and c sections of the
upper half of the page, or in the b and d sections of the lower half of the
page. This occurs when a work or an author's division begins in the lower,
or ends in the upper, half of the two-column page. Where continuous read-
ing matter thus appears in discontinuous page sections, it is indicated by
a,c or b,d. For example:
14 PLUTARCH: Solon 64b,d-77a,c
means that the work cited begins in the lower half of page 64 and ends in
the upper half of page 77.
Footnotes or notes are sometimes specifically cited by themselves in the
references, in which case the page sections given correspond to their loca-
tion on the pages referred to. When a footnote or a note is not specifically
cited, the page sections given mark the beginning and the end of the text
referred to. The reader is expected to consult the footnotes or notes indi-
cated in the body of that text.
Chaucer's works (in Volume 22) are printed in two columns; the inside
column of each page contains the Middle English text, the outside column
a Modern English version. Since both columns contain equivalent pas-
sages, the references to this volume employ page sections (a and b) which
divide each page only into an upper and a lower half.
II. STYLE OF BIBLE REFERENCES
All Bible references are to book, chapter, and verse in both the King
James and Douay versions of the Bible. When the King James and Douay
versions differ in the title of books or in the numbering of chapters or
verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by
a (D), follows. For example:
OLD TESTAMENT: Nehtmiah, 7:45— (Z>) // Esdras, 7:46
In references to the Bible, a colon is used to separate chapter and verse
numbers; and a comma separates the numbers of verses in the same chap-
ter. For example:
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 6:1-4,16-18
REFERENCE STYLE xxxvii
III. PUNCTUATION, SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS
(i) Punctuation
Diagonal line: When a series of references to one author includes two
or more of his works published in the same volume, a diagonal line is used
to separate references to one work from references to another. The diago-
nal line is used in the same way to separate references to different books
of the Bible. For example:
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:12-23 /Job, 11:7-9
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative Government, 327b,d-332d
Semi-Colon: When a series of references includes the citation of two or
more passages in the same work, a semi-colon is used to separate the refer-
ences to these passages. For example:
OLD TESTAMENT : Genesis, 1:12-14; 9:1-11
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 403a-404a; 405d-406a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 265c-266a; PART iv, 346c-348a
Comma: When a comma separates the title of a work, or an author's
division of a work, from the page sections which follow, passages cited are
only a part of the whole work or of the author's division indicated. For
example, in the references:
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-b; 44d-45c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73a-74b
the passages from Plutarch are only a part of Lycurgus, and the passage
from Swift is only a few pages from Part II of Gulliver's Travels.
When the title of a work, or an author's division of a work, is not
separated by a comma from the page sections which follow, the reference
is to the whole work or to the whole of the indicated author's division.
For example, in the references:
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-4Sd
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n 45a-87b
the whole of Lycurgus and the whole of Part II of Gulliver's Travels
are cited.
xxxviii THE GREAT IDEAS
(2) Symbols
esp: The abbreviation "esp" precedes one or more especially relevant
passages which are contained within the page boundaries of a larger pas-
sage or a whole work that has just been cited.
Whenever passages contained within a single reference are especially
referred to, a comma after the page sections separates these passages. For
example:
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-441d esp 435c-436b, 437c-d, 438d-441d
Whenever passages contained within a single reference to the Bible are
especially referred to, a comma is also used to separate these passages. For
example:
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1-8 esp 2:11-16, 2:27-29, 7:21-25, 8:27
passim: The word "passim" following a reference signifies that the
work or passage referred to discusses the topic under which it is cited,
intermittently rather than continuously. For example:
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 7 461d-463c passim / Athenian
Constitution, CH 1-41 553a-572d passim
(3) Abbreviations
The following is a list of the abbreviations used in the references. Unless
an abbreviation for the plural is listed below, the singular abbreviation is
used for both singular and plural words.
A
AA . . .
ARTICLE
ARTICLES
W
OT .
. note
OLD TESTAMENT
ANS
ANSWER
par . .
paragraph
APH
APHORISM ,
PREF
PREFACE
BK . . .
BOOK
PROP
PROPOSITION
CH . . .
CHAPTER
Q .
QUESTION
COROL .
(0)
COROLLARY
DOUAY
QQ . •
REP
. QUESTIONS
. REPLY
DEF .
DEFINITION
SC
SCENE
DEMONS!' .
DEMONSTRATION
SCHOL .
. SCHOLIUM
DIV
DIVISION
SECT
. SECTION
EX PL . .
EXPLANATION
SUPPL .
. SUPPLEMENT
[fn] . .
footnote
TR
. TRACTATE
INTRO .
INTRODUCTION
REFERENCE STYLE xxxix
IV, TABLE OF AUTHORS, TITLES, AND
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS CITED
The following pages present a tabulation of the contents of Great Bool(s
of the Western Worldy Volumes 4-54. The authors are enumerated in the
order in which they appear in the successive volumes of the set; and under
each author's name the titles of his works are listed in the order of their
appearance.
In the references, the name of the author is frequently given in short-
ened form. In this table, their full names are given, followed by their life
dates when these are ascertainable. Because some volumes contain the
works of two or more authors who may be separated by centuries, the
order in which the authors are cited in the references sometimes departs
from the strict chronological order. The life dates help the reader to place
the authors and their works in the right chronological order.
In the references, the title of a work is frequently given in an abbrevi-
ated or shortened form. In this table, the titles are first given exactly as
they appear in the references. Whenever this is an abbreviated or short-
ened title, the full title follows.
The table also includes a notation of the author's divisions that are used
in references to particular works.
A dash in the column headed "Author's Divisions Cite,d" means that references
to the work or works in question cite page sections only. Where the author's divisions
cited are the same for several titles, they are named only once, either opposite the set
of titles as a whole, or opposite the last title in the group.
Titles m brackets are collective titles which appear on the title page of the work,
but do not appear in the references. The names of the authors of The Federalist (in
Volume 43) are bracketed because they do not appear in the references.
ylume Number, Author, and Title Author's Divisions Cited
HOMER
The Iliad The Odyssey BOOK, Line
AESCHYLUS (c. 525-456 B.C.)
The Suppliant Maidens Agamemnon
The Persians Choephoroe
The Seven Against Thebes Eumenides Line
Prometheus Bound
xl
THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume Number, Author, and Title
5 SOPHOCLES (c, 495-406 B.C.)
Oedipus the King
Oedipus at Colonus
Antigone
Ajax
5 EURIPIDES (c. 480-406 B.C.)
Rhesus
Medea
Hippolytus
Alcestis
Heracleidae
The Suppliants
The Trojan Women
Ion
Helen
Andromache
5 ARISTOPHANES (c. 445-**. 380 B.C.)
The Acharnians
The Knights
The Clouds
The Wasps
The Peace
The Birds
6 HERODOTUS (c. 484-^. 425 B.C.)
The History
6 THUCYDIDES (c. 460-*, 400 B.C.)
Peloponnesian War The History of the Peloponnesian War
Electra
Trachiniae
Philoctetes
Electra
The Bacchantes
Hecuba
Heracles Mad
The Phoenician Maidens
Orestes
Iphigenia Among the Tauri
Iphigenia at Aulis
The Cyclops
The Frogs
The Lysistrata
The Thesmophoriazusae
The Ecclesiazusae
The Plutus
Author's Divisions CM
Line
Line
Line
BOOK
BOOK
7 PLATO (c. 428-^. 348 B.C.)
Charmides
Lysis
Laches
Protagoras
Euthydemus
Cratylus
Phaedrus
Ion
Symposium
Meno
Euthyphro
Apology
Crito
Phaedo
Gorgias
The Republic
Timaeus
Crittas
Parmenides
Theaetetus
Sophist
Statesman
Philebus
Laws
The Seventh Letter
except Republic
and Laws, BOOK
REFERENCE STYLE
Volume Number, Author, and Title
8 ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)
Categories
Interpretation On Interpretation
Prior Analytics
Posterior Analytics
Topics
Sophistical Refutations On Sophistical Refutations
Physics
Heavens On the Heavens
Generation and Corruption On Generation and Corruption
Meteorology
Metaphysics
Soul On the Soul
Sense and the Sensible On Sense and the Sensible
Memory and Reminiscence On Memory and Reminiscence
Sleep On Sleep and Sleeplessness
Dreams On Dreams
Prophesying On Prophesying by Dreams
Longevity On Longevity and Shortness of Life
Youth, Life, and Breathing On Youth and Old Age, On
Life and Death, On Breathing
9 ARISTOTLE
History of Animals
Parts of Animals On the Parts of Animals
Motion of Animals On the Motion of Animals
Gait of Animals On the Gait of Animals
Generation of Animals On the Generation of Animals
Ethics Nicomachean Ethics
Politics
The Athenian Constitution
Rhetoric
Poetics On Poetics
0 HIPPOCRATES (fl. 400 B.C.)
The Oath
Ancient Medicine On Ancient Medicine
Airs, Waters, Places On Airs, Waters, and Places
Prognostics The BooJ( of Prognostics
Regimen in Acute Diseases On Regimen in Acute Diseases
Epidemics Of the Epidemics
Injuries of the Head On Injuries of the Head
Surgery On the Surgery
Fractures On Fractures
Articulations — r-On the Articulations
Instruments of Reduction
xli
Author's Divisions Cited
CHAPTER, Line
BOOK, CHAPTER, Line
CHAPTER, Line
BOOK, CHAPTER, Line
CHAPTER, Line
BOOK, CHAPTER,
CHAPTER, Line
BOOK, CHAPTER, Line
CHAPTER, paragraph
BOOK, CHAPTER, LiftC
CHAPTER, Line
> paragraph
paragraph, APPENDIX
BOOK, SECTION, paragraph, CASE
paragraph
xlii
THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume Number, Author, and Title
10 HIPPOCRATES (continued)
Aphorisms
The Law
Ulcers On Ulcers
Pistulae On Fistulae
Hemorrhoids On Hemorrhoids
Sacred Disease On the Sacred Disease
10 GALEN (c. 130-^. 200 A.D.)
Natural Faculties On the Natural Faculties
11 EUCLID (ft. c. 300 B.C.)
Elements The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements
11 ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.)
Sphere and Cylinder On the Sphere and Cylinder,
Books HI
Measurement of a Circle
Conoids and Spheroids On Conoids and Spheroids
Spirals On Spirals
Equilibrium of Planes On the Equilibrium of Planes,
Books HI
The Sand-Reckoner
Quadrature of the Parabola
Floating Bodies On Floating Bodies, Books HI
Boo ^ of Lemmas
Method The Method Treating of Mechanical Problems
11 APOLLONIUS OF PERGA (c. 2fa-c. 200 B.C.)
Conies On Conic Sections
11 NlCOMACHUS OF GflRASA (ft. C. 100 A.D.)
Arithmetic Introduction to Arithmetic
12 LUCRETIUS (c. 98-^. 55 B.C.)
Nature of Things On the Nature of Things
12 EPICTETUS (c. 6o-c. 138 A.D.)
The Discourses
12 AURELIUS (MARCUS AURELIUS) (121-180 A.D,)
The Meditations
13 VIRGIL (70-19 B.C.)
The Eclogues
The Georgics
The Aeneid
Author's Divisions Cited
SECTION, paragraph
paragraph
BOOK, CHAPTER
BOOK, DEFINITION, POSTULATE,
COMMON NOTION, PROPOSITION, LEMMA
BOOK, DEFINITION, ASSUMPTION,
PROPOSITION, COROLLARY, LEMMA
PROPOSITION
DEFINITION, LEMMA, PROPOSITION
PROPOSITION, DEFINITION
BOOK, POSTULATE, PROPOSITION
PROPOSITION, DEFINITION
BOOK, POSTULATE, PROPOSITION
> PROPOSITION
BOOK, DEFINITION, PROPOSITION
BOOK
BOOK, Line
BOOK, CHAPTER
BOOK, SECTION
Number of Eclogue, Line
Number of Georgic, Line
BOOK, Line
REFERENCE STYLE
xliii
lume Number, Author, and Title
PLUTARCH (c. 46-^. 120 A.D.)
[The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans}
Author** Divisions Cited
Theseus
Romulus
Romulus-Theseus Romulus and
Theseus Compared
Lycurgus
Numa Pompihus
Lycurgus-Numa Lycurgus and
Numa Compared
Solon
Poplicola
Poplicola- Solon Pophcola and
Solon Compared
Themistocles
Camtllus
Pericles
Fabius
Fabius-Periclcs Fabius and
Pericles Compared
Alcibiades
Conolanus
Alcibiades -Coriolanus Alcibiades
and Conolanus Compared
Timokon
Aemihus Paulus
Aemihus Paulus-Timoleon
Aemilius Paulus and Timoleon
Compared
Pelopidas
Marcellus
Marcellus-Pelopidas Marcellus
and Pelopidas Compared
Anstides
Marcus Cato
Anstides-Marcus Cato Anstides
and Marcus Cato Compared
Philopoemen
Flamininus
Flamininus-Philopoemen
Flamininus and Philopoemen
Compared
Pyrrhus
Caius Marius
Lysander
Sulla
Lysander-Sutta Lysander and
Sulla Compared
Cimon
Lucullus
Cimon-Lucullus Cimon and
Lucullus Compared
Nicias
Crassus
Crassus -Nicias Crassus and
Nicias Compared
Sertonus
Eumenes
Eumenes-Sertorius Eumenes and
Sertonus Compared
Agesilaus
Pompey
Agesilaus-Pompey Agesilaus and
Pompey Compared
Alexander
Caesar
Phocion
Cato the Younger
Agis
Cleomenes
Tiberius Gracchus
Caius Gracchus
Cams and Tiberius Gracchus- Agis
and Cleomenes Caius and
Tiberius Gracchus and Agis and
Cleomenes Compared
Demosthenes
Cicero
Demosthenes- Cicero Demosthenes
and Cicero Compared
Demetrius
Antony
Antony-Demetrius Antony and
Demetrius Compared
Dion
Marcus Brutus
Brutus-Dion Brutus and
Dion Conipared
Aratus
Artaxerxes
Galba
Otho
xliv
THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume 'Number, Author, and Title
15 TACITUS, P. CORNELIUS (c. 55-^. 117 A.D.)
The Annals The Histories
Author's Divisions Cited
BOOK
16 PTOLEMY (c. IQO-C. 178 A.D,)
The Almagest
16 COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS (1473-1543)
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
16 KEPLER, JOHANNES (1571-1630)
Epitome Epitome ofCopermcan Astronomy: IV and V
The Harmonies of the World: V
BOOK
17 PLOTINUS (205-270)
First-Sixth Ennead-
-The Stx Enneads
18 AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
The Confessions
The City of God
Christian Doctrine On Christian Doctrine
19 AQUINAS, SAINT THOMAS (c. 1225-1274)
The Summa Theologica, First Part;
Part I of the Second Part, Questions 1-48
20 AQUINAS, SAINT THOMAS
The Summa Thfohgica, Part I of the Second
Part (continued), Questions 49-114; Part II
of the Second Part, Questions 1-46, 179-189;
Third Part, Questions 1-26, 60-65; Supplement
to the Third Part, Questions 69-99
21 DANTE ALIGHIERI (1265-1321)
The Divine Comedy \ HELL, PURGATORY, PARADISE
TRACTATE, CHAPTER
BOOK, paragraph
BOOK, PREFACE, CHAPTER
PREFACE, BOOK, CHAPTER
PROLOGUE, PART, QUESTION, ARTICLE,
ANSWER, CONTRARY, REPLY
22 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (c. 1340-1400)
Troilus and Cressida
[The Canterbury Tales]
The Prologue
The Knight's Tale
The Miller's Prologue
The Miller's Tale
The Reeve's Prologue
The Reeve's Tale
The Cook's Prologue
The Coo^s Tale
Introduction to the Man of Law's
Prologue
The Prologue of the Man of Law's
PROLOGUE, PART, QUESTION, ARTICLE,
ANSWER, CONTRARY, REPLY
Number of Canto, Line
BOOK, STANZA
Line, except prose parts (sec below)
The Tale of the Man of Law
The Wife of Bath's Prologue
The Tale of the Wife of Bath
The Friar's Prologue
The Friar's Tale
The Summoner's Prologue
The Summoner's Tale
The Clerks Prologue
The CM'/ Tale
The Merchant's Prologue
The Merchant's Tale
REFERENCE STYLE
xlv
folume Number, Author, and Title
!2 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (continued)
[The Canterbury Tales]
The Squire's Tale
The Words of the Frantfin
The Franklin's Prologue
The Franks Tale
The Physician's Tale
The Words of the Host
The Prologue of the Pardoner's Tale
The Pardoner's Tale
The Shipman's Prologue
The Shipman's Tale
The Prioress's Prologue
The Prioress's Tale
Prologue to Sir Thopas
Sir Thopas
Prologue to Melibeus
3 MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527)
The Prince
Author** Divisions Cited
The Tale of Melibeus
The Monffs Prologue
The Mon^s Tale
The Prologue of the Nun's Priest's Tale
The Nun's Priest's Tale
Epilogue to the Nun's Priest's Tale
The Second Nun's Prologue
The Second Nun's Tale
The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue
The Canon's Yeoman's Tale
The Manciple's Prologue
The Manciple's Tale
The Parson's Prologue
The Parson's Tale
L' Envoi
paragraph
3 HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679)
Leviathan Leviathan^ or, Matter, Form, and Power
of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil
4 RABELAIS, FRANCOIS (c. 1495-1553)
Gargantua and Pantagruel
5 MONTAIGNE, MICHEL EYQUEM DE (1533-1592)
The Essays
paragraph
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION, PART, CONCLUSION
BOOK
SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
1st Henry VI The First Part
of King Henry the Sixth
2nd Henry VI The Second Part
of King Henry the Sixth
3rd Henry VI The Third Part
of King Henry the Sixth
Richard III The Tragedy of
King Richard the Third
The Comedy of Errors
Titus Andronicus
The Taming of the Shrew
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
Love's Labour's Lost
Romeo and Juliet
Richard II The Tragedy of King
Richard the Second
A Midsummer-Night's Dream
King John The Life and Death of
King John
The Merchant of Venice
1st Henry IV The First Part of
King Henry the Fourth
2nd Henry IV The Second Part of
King Henry the Fourth
Much Ado About Nothing
Henry V The Life of King Henry the Fifth
Julius Caesar
AS YOU Life It PROLOGUE, ACT, SCENE, EPILOGUE, LlttC
xlvi THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume Number, Author, and Title Author's Divisions Cited
27 SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM
Twelfth Night Twelfth Night; Antony and Cleopatra
or, What You Will Coriolanus
Hamlet Hamlet, Prince ofDenmar{ Ttmon of Athens
The Merry Wives of Windsor Pericles Pericles, Prince of Tyre
Troilus and Cressida Cymbeline
All's Well That Ends Well The Winter's Tale
Measure for Measure The Tempest
Othello Othello, the Moor of Venice Henry VIII The Famous History
King Lear of the Life of King Henry
Macbeth the Eighth PROLOGUE, ACT, SCENE, EPILOGUE, Line
Sonnets Number of Sonnet
28 GILBERT, WILLIAM (1540-1603)
Loadstone On the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies PREFACE, BOOK
28 GALILEO GALILFI (1564-1642)
Two New Sciences Concerning the Two New Sciences DAY
28 HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578-1657)
Motion of the Heart On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals
Circulation of the Blood- — On the Circulation of the Blood
On Animal Generation On the Generation of Animals
29 CERVANTES, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616)
Don Quixote The History of Don Quixote de la Mancha PAR r
30 BACON, SIR FRANCIS (1561-1626)
Advancement of Learning
Novum Organum PREFACE, BOOK, APHORISM
New Atlantis
31 DESCARTES, RENE* (1596-1650)
Rules Rules for the Direction of the Mind Number of Rule
Discourse Discourse on the Method PART
Meditations Meditations on First Philosophy Number of Meditation
Objections and Replies Objections Against
the Meditations and Replies DEFINITION, POSTULATE, AXIOM, PROPOSITION
The Geometry BOOK
31 SPINOZA, BENEDICT DB (1632-1677)
Ethics PART, PREFACE, DEFINITION, AXIOM, PROPOSITION, DEMONSTRATION,
SCHOLIUM, COROLLARY, LEMMA, POSTULATE, EXPLANAIION, APPENDIX
REFERENCE STYLE
xlvii
Volume Number, Author, and Title
32 MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
[English Minor Poems]
Christs Nativity On the Morning
ofChrists Nativity and The Hymn
A Paraphrase on Psalm 114
Psalm 136
The Passion
On Time
Upon the Circumcision
At a Solemn Musicl(
An Epitaph on the Marchioness of
Winchester
Song on May Morning
On Shafespear. 1630
On the University Carrier
Another on the Same
L' Allegro
II Penseroso
Arcades
Lycidas
Comus
Paradise Lost
Samson Agonistes
Areopagitica
33 PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
The Provincial Letters
Pensees
Vacuum Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum and
New Experiments Concerning the Vacuum
Great Experiment Account of the Great Experiment
Concerning the Equilibrium of Fluids
Equilibrium of Liquids and
Weight of Air Treatises on the Equilibrium of
Liquids and on the Weight of the Mass of the Air
Geometrical Demonstration On Geometrical
Demonstration
Arithmetical Triangle Treatise on the Arithmetical
Triangle
Correspondence with Fermat Correspondence with
Permat on the Theory of Probabilities
34 NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)
Principles Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy
Optics
Author's Divisions Cited
Line, except Sonnets and Psalms
Death of a Fair Infant On the Death of
a Fair Infant
Vacation Exercise At a Vacation Exercise
The Fifth Ode of Horace The Fifth Ode
of Horace. Lib, I
Sonnets, i, vn-xix
New Forcers of Conscience On the New
Forcers of Conscience under the Long
Parliament
Lord Gen. Fairfax On the Lord Gen.
Fairfax at the siege of Colchester
Lord Gen. Cromwell To the Lord Generatt
Cromwell May 1652
Sr Henry Vane To Sr Henry Vane the
Younger
Mr. Cyriac\ Stynner To Mr. Cyriacf(
Sinner upon his Blindness
Psalms, I-VHI, LXXX-LXXXVIII
BOOK, Line
Line
Number of Pense'e
DEFINITION, SCHOLIUM, LAW, COROLLARY, BOOK, RULE,
LEMMA, PROPOSITION, PHENOMENON, HYPOTHESIS
BOOK
xlviii
THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume Number, Author, and Title
34 HUYGENS, CHRISTIAAN (1629-1695)
Light Treatise on Light
35 LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
Toleration- A Letter Concerning Toleration
Civil Government Concerning Civil Government, Second Essay
Human Understanding An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Author's Divisions Cited
PREFACE, CHAPTER
CHAPTER, SECTION
INTRODUCTION, BOOK,
CHAPTER, SECTION
35 BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685-1753)
Human Knowledge The Principles of Human Knowledge
35 HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
Human Understanding An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understanding
36 SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745)
Gulliver Gulliver's Travels
36 STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768)
Tristram Shandy
37 FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
Tom Jones The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling
38 MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES DE SECONDAT, BARON DE (1689-1755)
The Spirit of Laws
38 ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
Inequality On the Origin of Inequality
Political Economy On Political Economy
The Social Contract
39 SMITH, ADAM (1723-1790)
Wealth of Nations An Inquiry Into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
40 GIBBON, EDWARD (1737-1794)
Decline and Fall The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, Chapters 1-40
41 GIBBON, EDWARD
Decline and Fall The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire (continued), Chapters 41-71
PREFACE, INTRODUCTION, SECTION
INTRODUCTION, SECTION, DIVISION
PART
BOOK
BOOK
INTRODUCTION, BOOK
REFERENCE STYLE xlix
Volume Numkr, Author, and Title Author's Divisions Cited
42 KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)
Pure Reason The Critique of Pure Reason
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals Fundamental
Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals
Practical Reason The Critique of Practical Reason
Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics Preface
and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics With a Note on Conscience
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals General Introduction
to the Metaphysic of Morals
The Science of Right
Judgement The Critique of Judgement
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE Line
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION Number of Article, Line
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. ARTICLE, SECTION, AMENDMENT, Line
43 [HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804), MADISON, JAMES (1751-1836),
JAY, JOHN (1745-1829)]
THE FEDERALIST Papers, by NUMBER
43 MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)
Liberty On Liberty
Representative Government
Utilitarianism
44 BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795)
Johnson Life of Samuel Johnson, L.L.D.
45 LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794)
Elements of Chemistry PREFACE, PART
45 FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830)
Theory of Heat Analytical Theory of Heat —
45 FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867)
Researches in Electricity Experimental Researches in Electricity
46 HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)
The Philosophy of Right PREFACE, INTRODUCTION, PART, paragraph, ADDITION
The Philosophy of History INTRODUCTION, PART
47 GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)
Faust, Parts I and II DEDICATION, PRELUDE, PROLOGUE, PART, Line
48 MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1882)
Moby Dic^ Moby DicJ(; or, The Whale
1 THE GREAT IDEAS
Volume Number, Author, and Titk Author's Divisions Cited
49 DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1882)
Origin of Species The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection
Descent of Man The Descent of Man and Selection in
Relation to Sex
50 MARX, KARL (1818-1883)
Capital
50 MARX, KARL and ENGELS, FRIEDRICH (1820-1895)
Communist Manifesto Manifesto of the Communist Party
51 TOLSTOY, LEO (1828-1910)
War and Peace BOOK, EPILOGUE
52 DOSTOEVSKY, FYODOR MIKHAILOVICH (1821-1881)
The Brothers Karamazov BOOK, EPILOGUE
53 JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-1910)
V Psychology The Principles of Psychology
54 FREUD, SIGMUND (1856-1939)
) The Origin and Development of Repression
Psycho- Andy sis The Unconscious
Hysteria Selected Papers on General Introduction A General
Hysteria, Chapters i-io Introduction to Psycho- Analysis
The Sexual Enlightenment of Beyond the Pleasure Principle
Children Group Psychology— — Group Psychology
Psycho- Analytic Therapy The and the Analysis of the Ego
Future Prospects of Psycho- The Ego and the Id
Analytic Therapy Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety
" Wild" Psycho -Analysis Obseiva- War and Death Thoughts for the
tions on "Wild" Psycho-Analysis Times on War and Death
The Interpretation of Dreams Civilization and Its Discontents
Narcissism On Narcissism New Introductory Lectures New
Instincts Instincts and Their Introductory Lectures on Psycho-
Vicissitudes Analysis
THE GREAT IDEAS: I
Chapters 1-50: ANGEL to LOVE
Chapteri: ANGEL
INTRODUCTION
INFLUENCED by a long tradition of reli-
gious symbolism in painting and poetry, our
imagination responds to the word "angel" by
picturing a winged figure robed in dazzling
white and having the bodily aspect of a human
being.
This image, common to believers and unbe-
lievers, contains features which represent some
of the elements of meaning in the abstract con-
ception of angels as this is found in the writings
of Jewish and Christian theologians and in re-
lated discussions by the philosophers. The hu-
man appearance suggests that angels, like men,
are persons; that they are most essentially char-
acterized by their intelligence. The wings sug-
gest the function of angels — their service as
messengers from God to man. The aura of light
which surrounds them signifies, according to
established conventions of symbolism, the spir-
ituality of angels. It suggests that to imagine
angels with bodies is to use a pictorial metaphor.
Another interpretation might be put upon
this aura of light if one considers the role which
the notion of angel has played in the history of
thought. Wherever that notion has entered in-
to discussions of God and man, of matter,
mind, and soul, of knowledge and love, and
even of time, space, and motion, it has cast
light upon these other topics. The illumination
which has been and can be derived from the
idea of angels as a special kind of being or nature
is in no way affected by doubts or denials of
their existence.
Whether such beings exist or not, the fact
that they are conceivable has significance for
theory and analysis. Those who do not believe
in the existence — or even the possible exist-
ence—of Utopias nevertheless regard them as
fictions useful analytically in appraising ac-
cepted realities. What an ideal society would be
like can be considered apart from the question
of its existence; and, so considered, it functions
as an hypothesis in political and economic
thought. What sort of being an angel would be
if one existed can likewise serve as an hypothe-
sis in the examination of a wide variety of
theoretical problems.
The idea of angels does in fact serve in pre-
cisely this way as an analytical tool. It sharpens
our understanding of what man is, how his mind
operates, what the soul is, what manner of ex-
istence and action anything would have apart
from matter. Hence it suggests how matter and
its motions in time and space determine the
characteristics of corporeal existence. Pascal's
remark— that "man is neither angel nor brute,
and the unfortunate thing is that he who would
act the angel acts the brute"— points to the
different conceptions of man which result from
supposing him to be either angel or brute rather
than neither. Such views of human nature, con-
sidered in the chapters on ANIMAL and MAN,
cannot be fully explored without reference to
theories of the human mind or soul in its rela-
tion to matter and to body. As the chapters on
MIND and SOUL indicate, theories carrying the
names of Plato and Descartes, which attribute
to the human mind or soul the being and pow-
ers of a purely spiritual substance or entity,
seem to place man in the company of the angels.
In this tradition Locke applies the word "spir-
its" equally to human minds and to supra-
human intelligences.
IT WOULD BE misleading to suppose that the
idea of angels is primarily a construction of the
philosophers— a fiction invented for their ana-
lytical purposes; or that it is simply their con-
ception of a supra-mundane reality, concerning
the existence and nature of which they dispute.
In the literature of western civilization, angels
first appear by name or reference in the Old
THE GREAT IDEAS
and the New Testaments. Readers of the Bible
will remember many scenes in which an angel
of the Lord performs the mission of acquainting
man with God'j> will. Among the most memor-
able of such occasions are the visits of the angels
to Abraham and Lot and the angelic ministry
of Gabriel in the Annunciation to Mary.
In one book of the Bible, Tobias (Tobit, as
it is called in the King James Apocrypha), one
of the leading characters is the angel Raph-
ael. Through most of the story he appears as
a man, but at the end, after he has accomplished
his mission, he reveals his identity. "I am the
angel Raphael," he declares,
one of the seven, who stand before the Lord.
And when they had heard these things they were
troubled; and being seized with fear they fell upon
the ground on their face.
And the angel said to them. Peace be to you.
Fear not.
For when I was with you, I was there by the will
of God: bless ye him and sing praises to him.
I seemed to eat and to drink with you; but I use
an invisible meat and drink, which cannot be seen
by men.
It is time therefore that I return to him that sent
me. ...
And when he had said these things, he was taken
from their sight; and they could see him no more.
As A RESULT of scriptural exegesis and commen-
tary, the angels become a fundamental topic for
Jewish theologians from Philo to Maimomdes,
and for such Christian theologians as Augustine,
Scotus Engena, Gregory the Great, Aquinas,
Luther, Calvin, Pascal, and Schleiermacher.
They figure in the great poetry of the Judaeo-
Christian tradition— in the Divine Comedy of
Dante, in Paradise Lost of Milton, and in
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Goethe's Faust.
The philosophers, especially in the iyth and
1 8th centuries, are motivated by Scripture or
provoked by theology to consider the existence,
the nature, and the activity of angels. Hobbes,
for example, attacks the supposition that angels
arc immaterial on the ground that the notion
of incorporeal substance is self-contradictory,
and undertakes to re-interpret all the scriptural
passages in which angels are described as spirits.
After examining a great many, he says that "to
mention all the places of the Old Testament
where the name of Angel is found, would be
too long. Therefore to comprehend them all at
once, I say, there is no text in that part of the
Old Testament, which the Church of England
holdeth for Canonical, from which we can con-
clude, there is, or hath been created, any per-
manent thing (understood by the name o[ Spirit
or Angel) that hath not quantity . . . and, in
sum, which is not (taking Body for that which
is somewhat or somewhere) Corporeal."
All the passages can be interpreted, Hobbes
thinks, simply in the sense in which "angel"
means "messenger" and "most often, a messen-
ger of God," which signifies "anything thai
makes known his extra-ordinary presence." If,
instead of existing only when they carry God's
word to men, the angels are supposed to have
permanent being, then they must be corporeal.
As "in the resurrection men shall be permanent
and not incorporeal," Hobbes writes, "so there-
fore also are the angels ... To men that under-
stand the signification of these words, substance
and incorporeal" '—and mean by "incorporeal"
having no body at all, not just a subtle body —
the words taken together "imply a contradic-
tion." Hence Hobbes argues that to say "an
angel, or spirit, is (in that sense) an incorporeal
substance, is to say in effect that there is no
angel or spirit at all. Considering therefore the
signification of the word angel m the Old Testa-
ment, and the nature of dreams and visions that
happen to men by the ordinary way of nature,"
Hobbes concludes that the angels are "nothing
but supernatural apparitions of the fancy, raised
by the special and extraordinary operation of
God, thereby to make his presence and com-
mandments known to mankind, and chiefly to
his own people."
Locke seems to take the exactly opposite po-
sition. Asserting that we have "no clear or
distinct idea of substance in general," he does
not think spirits any less intelligible than bodies.
"The idea of corporeal substance" he writes, "is
as remote from our conceptions and apprehen-
sions, as that of spiritual substance or spirit; and
therefore, from our not having any notion of
the substance of spirit, we can no more con-
clude its non-existence, than we can, for the
same reason, deny the existence of body." Just
as we form the complex idea of bodies by sup-
posing their qualities, such as figure and motion,
or color and weight, to co-exist in some sub-
stratum; so by supposing the activities we find
in ourselves— such as "thinking, understanding,
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
willing, knowing, and the power of beginning
motion, etc."— -to co-exist in some substance,
"we are able to frame the complex idea of an
immaterial spirit"
Not only does Locke think that "we have as
clear a perception and notion of immaterial sub-
stances as we have of material," but he also
finds the traditional doctrine of a hierarchy of
angels quite acceptable to reason. "It is not im-
possible to conceive, nor repugnant to reason,
that there may be many species of spirits, as
much separated and diversified one from an-
other by distinct properties whereof we have
no ideas, as the species of sensible things are dis-
tinguished one from another by qualities which
we know and observe in them."
Locke goes even further— beyond the mere
possibility of angels to the likelihood of their
real existence. His reasoning resembles the tra-
ditional argument of the theologians on this dif-
ficult point. "When we consider the infinite
power and wisdom of the Maker," he writes,
"we have reason to think that it is suitable to
the magnificent harmony of the Universe, and
the great design and infinite goodness of the
Architect, that the species of creatures should
also, by gentle degrees, ascend upward from us
toward his infinite perfection, as we see they
gradually descend from us downwards."
Such speculations concerning the existence
and the order of angels are usually thought to
be the province of the theologian rather than
the philosopher. But Bacon, like Locke, does
not think it unfitting for the philosopher to in-
quire into such matters. In natural theology—
for him a part of philosophy—Bacon thinks it is
improper "from the contemplation of nature,
and the principles of human reason, to dispute
or urge anything with vehemence as to the
mysteries of faith." But "it is otherwise," he
declares, "as to the nature of spirits and angels;
this being neither unsearchable nor forbid, but
in a great part level to the human mind on
account of their affinity."
He does not further instruct us concerning
angels in the Advancement of Learning, but in
the Novum Organum he throws light on their
nature as well as ours by touching on one char-
acteristic difference between the human and
the angelic mind. Discussing there the theory of
(the bestower and creator of forms), and pet>
haps for angels or intelligences at once to recog-
nize forms affirmatively at the first glance of
contemplation."
UNLIKE Most of the great ideas with which
we are concerned, the idea of angel seems to be
limited in its historical scope. It is not merely
that since the i8th century the discussion has
dwindled, but also that the idea makes no ap-
pearance in the great books of pagan antiquity
—certainly not in the strict sense of the term,
whereby "angel" signifies a creature of God,
spiritual in substance and nature, and playing
a role in the divine government of the universe.
There are, nevertheless, analogous concep-
tions in the religion and philosophy of the an-
cients; and in philosophy at least, the points of
resemblance between the analogous concepts
are sufficiently strong to establish a continuity
of discussion. Furthermore, elements in the
thought of Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus exer-
cise a critical influence on Judaeo-Christian
angelology.
Gibbon relates how the early Christians made
the connection between the gods of polytheism
and their doctrine about angels. "It was the
universal sentiment both of the church and of
heretics," he writes, "that the daemons were
the authors, the patrons, and the objects of
idolatry. Those rebellious spirits who had been
degraded from the rank of angels, and cast
down into the infernal pit, were still permitted
to roam upon the earth, to torment the bodies
and to seduce the minds of sinful men. The
daemons soon discovered and abused the nat-
ural propensity of the human heart towards
devotion, and, artfully withdrawing the adora-
tion of mankind from their Creator, they
usurped the place and honors of the Supreme
Deity."
In the polytheistic religions of antiquity, the
demi-gods or inferior deities are beings supe-
rior in nature and power to man. "The poly-
theist and the philosopher, the Greek and the
barbarian," writes Gibbon, "were1 alike accus-
tomed to conceive a long succession, an infinite
chain of angels, or daemons, or deities, or aeons,
or emanations, issuing from the throne of light."
In Plato's Symposium, for example, Diotima
THE GREAT IDEAS
twecn the divine and the mortal . . . and inter-
prets between gods and men, conveying and
taking across to the gods the prayers and sacri-
fices of men, and to men the commands and re-
plies of the gods; he is the mediator who spans
the chasm which divides them." Love, Diotima
explains, is only one of "these spirits and inter-
mediate powers*' which "are many and diverse."
Such demi-gods are intermediate by their
very nature. Although superhuman in knowl-
edge and action, they still are not completely
divine. Occupying a place between men and
gods, they are, according to Plato, "by nature
neither mortal nor immortal." Their existence
is necessary to fill out the hierarchy of natures.
They are links in what has come to be called
"the great chain of being."
The analogy with the angels arises primarily
from this fact of hierarchy. Both pagan and
Christian religions believe in an order of super-
natural or at least superhuman beings graded in
perfection and power. In both, these beings
serve as messengers from the gods to men; they
act sometimes as guardians or protectors, some-
times as traducers, deceivers, and enemies of
man. But the analogy cannot be carried much
further than this. The angels, according to
Christian teaching, arc not inferior gods, or
even demi-gods. As compared with the "inter-
mediate spirits" of pagan religion, they are less
human in character, as well as less divine.
Nevertheless, the reader of the great poems of
antiquity will find a striking parallelism be-
tween the heavenly insurrection which under-
lies the action of Prometheus Bound and the
angelic warfare in Paradise Lost.
IN THE WRITINGS of Plato, Aristotle, and Ploti-
nus, philosophical inquiry turns from the sensi-
ble world of material things to consider the ex-
istence and nature of an order of purely intelli-
gible beings. As there is an inherent connection
between being perceptible to the senses and be-
ing material, so that which is purely intelligible
must be completely immaterial. If ideas exist
independently— in their own right and apart
from knowing or thinking minds— then they
constitute such an order of purely intelligible
entities,
At this point a number of difficult questions
arise. Are the intelligibles also intelligences, *>.,
arc they an order of knowers as well as a realm
of knowables? Can they be regarded as sub-
stances ? And if so, do they have a mode of ac-
tion appropriate to their mode of being — action
which is other than knowing, action which in
some way impinges on the course of events or
the motions of the physical world ?
Plotinus answers affirmatively that the pure-
ly intelligible beings are also pure intelligences,
but he does not conceive them as having any
power or action except that of knowledge. An-
other answer to these questions given in antiq-
uity and the Middle Ages is that the intelli-
gences are the celestial motors, the movers of
the heavenly bodies. "Since we see," Aristotle
writes, "that besides the simple spatial move-
ment of the universe, which we say that the
first and unmovable substance produces, there
are other spatial movements— those of the
planets— which are eternal (for a body which
moves in a circle moves eternally), each of these
movements also must be caused by a substance,
both unmovable in itself and eternal." These
secondary movers, Aristotle thinks, are "of the
same number as the movements ol the stars,"
and not only must they be eternal and unmov-
able, as is the prime mover, but also "without
magnitude" or immaterial.
Plato offers an alternative hypothesis— that
the celestial bodies are alive and have souls.
This hypothesis, like Aristotle's, tends in the
Middle Ages to be restated in terms of the
theory of angels. Aquinas reports Augustine as
thinking that "if the heavenly bodies are really
living beings, their souls must be akin to the
angelic nature." He himself holds that "spirit-
ual substances are united to them as movers to
things moved," the proof of which, he says,
"lies in the fact that whereas nature moves to
one fixed end, in which having attained it, it
rests; this does not appear in the movement of
the heavenly bodies. Hence it follows that they
are moved by some intellectual substances."
The question whether intelligences govern
the planets also occupies the attention of an
astronomer like Kepler. Although he denies
any need for such intelligences— among other
reasons because planetary motion is not circular
but elliptical — he argues that the celestial
movements are the work either "of the natural
power of the bodies, or else a work of the soul
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
acting uniformly in accordance with those bod-
ily powers." But whether or not they are to be
regarded as movers* as well as knotvers and know-
ablest the intelligences represent for ancient and
mediaeval thought a mode of being exempt
from the vicissitudes of physical change even as
it is separate from matter.
WHEN MODERN philosophers consider spirits or
spiritual being, they seldom deal with the an-
cient speculations about pure intelligibles or
separate intelligences without being influenced
by the theological doctrine of angels which de-
veloped in mediaeval thought.
The extent of this doctrine may be judged
from the fact that the Summa Theologica of
Aquinas contains a whole treatise on the angels,
as well as additional questions on the speech of
angels, their hierarchies and orders, the division
between the good and the bad angels, and
their action on men — the guardianship of the
good angels and the assaults of the demons.
That these additional questions are contained
in the treatise on divine government throws
some light on their theological significance.
The primary fact about the angelic nature is
immateriality. An angel is immaterial both in
its substantial being and in its characteristic ac-
tivity which, says Aquinas, is "an altogether
immaterial mode of operation." Being imma-
terial, they are also incorruptible. "Nothing is
corrupted except by its form being separated
from the matter . . . Consequently," Aquinas
writes, "a subject composed of matter and form
ceases to be actually when the form is separated
from the matter. But if the form subsists in its
own being, as happens in the angels, it cannot
lose its being." To signify that they are intelli-
gences existing apart from matter, the angels
are sometimes called "subsisting forms" and
sometimes "separate substances."
Although they are imperishable in being and
have immortal life, the angels are not, like God,
truly eternal. "That heaven of heavens which
Thou crcatedst in the beginning is some intellec-
tual creature," Augustine writes, but it is in
"no ways cocternal unto Thee." As created, the
angels have a beginning. Yet, while not eternal,
neither are they temporal creatures in contin-
ual flux, but, according to Augustine, they
sweetness of that most happy contemplation of
Thyself. . . cleaving dose unto Thee, placed be-
yond all the rolling vicissitudes of times." It is
for this reason that the angels are spoken of as
"aeviternal."
The familia r question concerning the num-
ber of angels able to stand on a needle's point—
if it was ever asked by mediaeval theologians—
merely poses the problem of how an incorpo-
real substance occupies space. The way in which
Aquinas discusses "angels in relation to place"
discloses how the question serves to raise gen-
erally significant issues concerning the nature of
space and quantity, and their relation to causal-
ity. He points out that a body occupies place in
a circumscribed fashion, />., its dimensive
quantity is contained within the space; whereas
"an angel is said to be in a corporeal place by
application of the angelic power in any manner
whatever to the place. ... An incorporeal sub-
stance virtually contains the thing with which it
comes into contact, and is not contained by it."
To an objector who thinks that since, unlike
bodies, angels do not fill a place, several can be
in the same place at the same time, Aquinas re-
plies that two angels cannot be in the same
place because "it is impossible for two complete
causes to be immediately the cause of one and
the same thing." Since an angel is where he
acts, and since by the power of his action he
contains the place at which he acts, "there can-
not be but one angel at one place."
Angels are also said to go from one place to
another without traversing the intervening
space and without the lapse of time. Consider-
ing their immateriality, such action is less re-
markable for angels to perform than is the ac-
tion of electrons, which, according to modern
quantum mechanics, jump from outer to inner
orbits of the atom without taking time or pas-
sing through inter-orbital space.
The immateriality of angels has other conse-
quences which throw comparative light on the
conditions of corporeal existence. In the world
of physical things we ordinarily think of a
species as including a number of individuals.
While all men have the same specific nature,
they differ numerically or individually. But be-
cause angels are immaterial substances, it is
held that each angel is a distinct species.
THE GREAT IDEAS
number," Aquinas explains, "agree in form but
are distinguished materially. If, therefore, the
angels are not composed of matter and form . . .
it follows that it is impossible for two angels to
be of one species."
Furthermore, as Aquinas states in another
place, among "incorporeal substances there can-
not be diversity of number without diversity
of species and inequality of nature." Each
species is necessarily higher or lower than an-
other, so that the society of angels is a perfect
hierarchy in which each member occupies a dis-
tinct rank. No two angels are equal as, on the
supposition that they share in the same specific
humanity, all men are. Yet such names as "sera-
phim" and "cherubim" and the distinction be-
tween archangels and angels indicate an organi-
zation of spiritual substances into various
groups — according to the tradition, into nine
orders or subordinate hierarchies.
The nine orders or ranks of angelic being are
described by Dante in the Paradtso as dis-
tinct circles of love and light. Using these meta-
phors he thus reports his vision of the heavenly
hierarchy. "I saw a Point which was raying out
light so keen that the sight on which' it blazes
must needs close because of its intense bright-
ness. . . . Perhaps as near as a halo seems to
girdle the light which paints it, when the vapor
that bears it is most dense, at such distance
around the Point a circle of fire was whirling so
rapidly that it would have surpassed that mo-
tion which most swiftly girds the world; and
this was girt around by another, and that by
the third, and the third then by the fourth, by
the fifth the fourth, and then by the sixth the
fifth. Thereon the seventh followed, so wide-
spread now in compass that the messenger of
Juno entire would be narrow to contain it. So
the eighth and ninth."
Beatrice explains to him how the relation of
the circles to one another and to the Point
which is God depends upon their measure of
love and truth, whereby there is "in each
heaven a marvellous agreement with its Intelli-
gencc, of greater to more and of smaller to less."
She then amplifies her meaning: "The first cir-
cles have shown to thec the Seraphim and the
Cherubim. Thus swiftly they follow their own
bonds, in order to liken themselves to the Point
as most they can, and they can in proportion
as they are exalted to see. Those other loves,
which go around them, are called Thrones of
the divine aspect, because they terminated the
first triad. . . . The next triad, that in like man-
ner bourgeons in this sempiternal spring which
the nightly Aries despoils not, perpetually sing
Hosannah with three melodies, which sound in
the three orders of joy ... first Dominations,
and then Virtues; the third order is of Powers.
Then in the two penultimate dances, the Prin-
cipalities and Archangels circle; the last is
wholly of Angelic sports. These orders all gaze
upward, and downward so prevail, that towards
God all are drawn, and all draw."
THE THEORY of angels raises many questions
regarding the similarity and difference between
them and disembodied souls. But for compari-
son with men, perhaps the most striking conse-
quences of the theory of angels as bodiless in-
telligences concern the manner of their knowl-
edge and government. The comparison can be
made on quite different views of the nature of
man and the soul. In fact, diverse conceptions
of man or the soul can themselves be compared
by reference to the angelic properties which
one conception attributes to human nature and
another denies.
Lacking bodies, the angels are without sense-
perception and imagination. Not being im-
mersed in time and motion, they do not'reason
or think discursively as men do by reasoning
from premises to conclusion. Whereas "human
intellects," according to Aquinas, "obtain their
perfection in the knowledge of truth by a kind
of movement and discursive intellectual opera-
tion ... as they advance from one known thing
to another," the angels, "from the knowledge
of a known principle . . . straightway perceive
as known all its consequent conclusions . . . with
no discursive process at all." Their knowledge
is intuitive and immediate, not by means of
concepts abstracted from experience or other-
wise formed, but through the archetypal ideas
infused in them at their creation by God. That
is why, Aquinas goes on to say, angels "are
called intellectual beings" as contrasted with
such rational natures as "human souls which ac-
quire knowledge of truth discursively." If men
"possessed the fulness of intellectual light, like
the angels, then in the first grasping of princi-
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
s>les they would at once comprehend their
•vhole range, by perceiving whatever could be
•easoned out from them."
It would appear from this that conceptions of
he human intellect which minimize its depend-
ence on sense and imagination, and which em-
Dhasize the intuitive rather than the discursive
:haracter of human thought, attribute angelic
x)wer to man. The same may be said of theories
)f human knowledge which account for its ori-
gin in terms of innate ideas or implanted prin-
:iples. Still another example of the attribution
>f angelic properties to man is to be found in
he supposition that human beings can commu-
ncate with one another by telepathy. The an-
jels are telepathic; one angel, it is said, can
nake its ideas known to another simply by an
ict of will and without any exterior means of
rommunication.
Lacking bodies, the angels are without bodily
-motions, free from the human conflict be-
ween reason and passion, and completely di-
ected in their love— or the motion of their will
-by what they know. In the Divine Comedy
Beatrice speaks of the angelic society as one in
vhich "the Eternal Love disclosed himself in
lew loves." Adverting to the division between
he good and the bad angels, she tells Dante,
'those whom thou seest here were modest in
grateful recognition of the Goodness which had
nade them apt for intelligence so great, where-
ore their vision was exalted with illuminant
;race and by their merit, so that they have full
ind steadfast will." Yet their vision and love of
jod is not equal. In heaven "the Primal Light
hat irradiates it all is received in it by as many
nodes as are the splendors with which the
.ight pairs Itself. Wherefore, since the affection
ollows upon the act that conceives, in this na-
ure the sweetness of love diversely glows and
varms."
Such a society, governed by knowledge and
ove, has no need for the application of coercive
orce, for angels are ordered to one another in
uch a way that no misunderstandings or
greements can occur among them. The philo-
ophical anarchist whg proposes the ideal of a
luman society without restraint or coercion
eems, therefore, to be angelicizing men, or at
sast to be wishing for heaven on earth. Con-
the writers of The Federalist remark that "if
men were angels, no government would be
necessary." If they had considered that the an-
gelic society is governed by love alone and
without force, they might have said, "if men
were angels, no coercion would be necessary in
their government."
ONE OF THE GREAT theological dogmas asserts
that, from the beginning, the angels are divided
into two hosts— the good and evil spirits. The
sin of Lucifer, or Satan, and his followers is that
of disobedience, or rebellion against God, moti-
vated by a pride which refuses to be satisfied
with being less than God. As Satan himself says,
in Paradise Lost,
. . . pride and worse Ambition threw me down
Warring in Heav'n against Heav'ns matchless King.
... All his good prov'd ill in me,
And wrought but malice; lifted up so high
I 'sdeind subjection, and thought one step higher
Would set me highest, and in a moment quit
The debt immense of endless gratitude . . .
And that word
Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame
Among the spirits beneath, whom I seduc'd
Then to submit, boasting I could subdue
Th' Omnipotent.
The theologians try to define precisely the
nature of Satan's pride in wishing to be God.
"To be as God" Aquinas explains, "can be un-
derstood in two ways: first, by equality; sec-
ondly, by likeness. An angel could not seek to
be as God in the first way, because by natural
knowledge he knew that this was impossible . . .
And even supposing it were possible, it would
be against natural desire, because there exists in
everything the natural desire to preserve its
own nature which would not be preserved were
it to be changed into another nature. Conse-
quently, no creature of a lower nature can ever
covet the grade of a higher nature, just as an ass
does not desire to be a horse."
It must be in the other way, then, Aquinas
Chinks, that Satan sinned by wishing to be like
God. But this requires further explanation. "To
desire to be as God according to likeness can
happen in two ways. In one way, as to that
likeness whereby everything is likened unto
God. And so, if anyone desire in this way to be
Godlike, he commits no sin; provided that he
8
THE GREAT IDEAS
say, that he may obtain it from God. But he
would sin were he to desire to be like God even
in the right way, but of his own power, and not
of God's, In another way, he may desire to be
like God in some respect which is not natural
to one; e.g., if one were to desire to create
heaven and earth, which is proper to God, in
which desire there would be sin."
In this last way, Aquinas asserts, "the devil
desired to be as God. Not that he desired to
resemble God by being subject to no one else
absolutely, for thus he would be desiring his
own non-being, since no creature can exist ex-
cept by participating under God." But he "de-
sired as the last end of his beatitude something
which he could attain by virtue of his own na-
ture, turning his appetite away from the super-
natural beatitude which is attained by God's
grace."
In the original sin of Lucifer and the other
fallen angels, as well as in all subsequent inter-
vention by Satan or his demons in the affairs
of men, lie the theological mysteries of the ori-
gin of evil in a world created by God's love and
goodness, and of the liberty of those creatures
who, while free, can only do God's will. As in-
dicated in the chapter on SIN, the fall of Adam
from grace and innocence involves the same
mysteries. Man's destiny is connected with the
career of Lucifer in traditional Christian teach-
ing, not only on the side of sin, but also with
regard to man's redemption— salvation replac-
ing the fallen angels by the souls of the elect in
the heavenly choir.
Among the most extraordinary moments in
our literature are those in which Lucifer talks
with God about mankind, as in Paradise Lost,
or about a particular man, as in the Book of
Job or in the Prologue in Heaven in Faust.
Their pagan parallel is the speech of Prome-
theus to a silent Zeus, but Prometheus, un-
like Satan, is man's benefactor and he can defy
Zeus because the Fates, whose secret he
knows, rule over the gods. Lucifer, on the
contrary, seems always to be in the service of
God. When he appears to Ivan in the Brothers
Karamazov, he protests, "I love men genuinely
, . . and against the gram I serve to produce
events and do what is irrational because I am
commanded to." If it were otherwise, the war-
fare between the powers of light and darkness
would have to be construed as a battle between
equals, which, according to Christian ortho-
doxy, is the Manichean heresy that regards the
world as the battle ground of the forces of good
and evil.
The word "angelic" usually has the connota-
tion of perfect moral goodness, but that must
not lead us to forget that the demons are an-
gelic in their nature although of a diabolical or
evil will. Nor should the fact of Satan's subser-
vience to God cause us to forget that Christian
theology tries not to underestimate the power
of the devil in his goings and comings on earth.
Satan tried to tempt even Christ, and through-
out the New Testament the destruction of the
diabolical influence over men occupies a promi-
nent place. The intervention of the devil in
man's life provides, if not the theme, the back-
ground of Goethe's Faust.
As the theory of demonic influences and dia-
bolical possession is an integral part of the tra-
ditional doctrine of angels, so, in modern times,
demonology has been a major focus of attack
upon theological teaching concerning spirits.
Moralists have thought it possible to explain
human depravity without recourse to the se-
ductions of the devil, and psychiatrists have
thought it possible for men to go mad or to
behave as if bewitched without the help of evil
spirits. The idea of the devil, according to
Freud, is a religious fiction— "the best way out
in acquittal of God" for those who try "to rec-
oncile the undeniable existence . . . of evil with
His omnipotence and supreme goodness."
The characteristic skepticism of our age has
been directed against the belief in angels gener-
ally. It casts doubt by satire or denies by argu-
ment the existence of spirits both good and evil.
Yet, all arguments considered, it may be won-
dered whether the existence of angels— or, in
philosophical terms, the existence of pure intelli-
gences—-is or is not still a genuine issue. Or are
there two issues here, one philosophical and the
other theological, one to be resolved or left un-
resolved on the level of argument, the other to
be answered dogmatically by the declarations
of a religious faith?
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. Inferior deities or demi-gods in polytheistic religion 10
2. The philosophical consideration of pure intelligences, spiritual substances, supra-
human persons n
2j. The celestial motors or secondary prime movers: the intelligences attached to
the celestial bodies
2b. Our knowledge of immaterial beings 12
3. The conception of angels in Judaeo-Christian doctrine
30, The first creatures of God: their place in the order of creation
3#. The angelic nature
y. The aeviternity and incorruptibility of angels 13
$d. The angelic intellect and angelic knowledge
y. The angelic will and angelic love
$f. Angelic action: its characteristics in general
3£. The angelic hierarchy: the inequality, order, and number of the angels and their
relation to one another
4. Comparison of angels with men and with disembodied souls: their relation to the
blessed in the heavenly choir 14
5. The distinction and comparison of the good and the bad angels
50. The origin of the division between angels and demons: the sin of Lucifer or
Satan 15
5& The society of the demons: the rule of Satan over the powers of darkness
6. The role of the angels in the government of the universe
6a. The ministry of the good angels in the affairs of men: guardianship
63. The intervention of the demons in the affairs of men: temptation, possession 16
7. God and Satan 17
70. Warfare between the powers of light and darkness: their struggle for dominion
over man
7& Lucifer in the service of God
8. Criticism and satire with respect to the belief in angels and demons
10
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to For example, in 4 HOMER Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES -Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 1 16 and ends in the lower half of page 1 19. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK 11 [265-283! 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Inferior deities or demi-gods in polytheistic
religion
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK vni 51a-56d esp [1-40!
51a-b; BK xiv [135-360] 99c-101d; BK xv
[1-235] 104a-106cf BK xvin [368-467] 133d-
134d; BK xx 142a-147d, BK xxi [383-513]
152a-153c / Odyssey, BK v [1-147] 208a-209c;
BK ix [231-280] 231c-232a; BK xm [125-164]
256b-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound 40a-51d /
Eumenides 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Trachtniae 170a-181a,c / Phil-
octetes [1409-1471] 194d-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES -.Rhesus [890-982] 210d-211d/H//7-
polytus 225a-236d esp [1-55] 225a-c, [1268-
1440] 235b-236d / Alcestis 237a-247a,c / Tro-
jan Women [1-97] 270a-271a / Ion 282a-297d
/ Helen 298a-314a,c / Andromache [1226-1288]
32Sc-326a,c / Electra [1233-1359] 338b-339a,c
/ Bacchantes 340a-352a,c / Heracles MadSfca-
377d esp [1-59] 365a-c / Orestes [1625-1693]
410b-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [595-626] 496a-b /
Peace 526a-541d / Birds 542a-563d esp [571-
638] 549d-550d, [1199-1261] 557c-558b,
[1494-1693] 560c-562d / Frogs 564a-582a,c /
Plutus 629a-642d
6 HERODOTUS* History, BK i, 21d-22a; 31a-b;
48c; BK n, 58a-60d; 79d-80c; 82d-83b; BK iv,
155c-156a; BK vni, 266c-d
7 PL\IO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Euthydemus,
&ld-82b/Cratylus, 92b-97d/ Phaedrus, 116b-d,
122c-125b passim, esp 124d-125a; 130d-131a;
141c / Symposium, 152b; 153b-d; 159d-161a,
163a-164c / Euthyphro, 193a-c / Apology,
204c-205c / Republic, BK ii-in, 320d-328a /
Ttmaeus, 452b / Cntias, 481c-482a / States-
man, 588a-589c / Laws, BK n, 653a-c; 662c-d;
BK iv, 680c-684a passim, BK vn, 730a-d; BK x
757d-771b
8 ARISTOTLE. Metaphysics, BK in, CH 4 [iooo»8-
18] 518d-519a; BK xn, CH 8 [io74bi-i4] 604d-
605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK HI, CH 18 [1419*8-13]
673d-674a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of 'Things, BK i [1-41] la-c;
BK H [581-660] 22b-23b; BK v [396-404] 66b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
CH 12 118d-120b; CH 14 120d-121c; BK 11,
CH 16, 158b-d; BK iv, CH 4, 226d-228a; CH n,
240d-241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT n 258a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid 103a-379a esp BK i [223-233]
109a, [297-304] Ilia, [657-694] 121a-122a, BK iv
[218-258] 173a-174a, BK x [1-117] 302a-305a
I to la
CHAPTER I: ANGEL
11
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 50d-51c; 57b-
58a / Coriolanus, 189a-c / Aemilius Paulus,
220d-221b / Pelopidas, 238a-b; 239d-240c /
Aristides, 268a-d / Dion, 781d-782a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 35d-36a; BK m,
59d-60c / Histories, BK 11, 214d-215a; BK iv,
293b-294a; BK v, 294d-296a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 9 70d-72a
passim / Third Ennead, TR v 100c-106b / Fourth
Ennead, TR HI, CH 14 149d-150a / Fifth
Enncad, TR vin, CH 3, 241a; CH 10 244c-245a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i-x 129a-322a,c
passim; BK xvm, CH 8-19 475d-482c; CH 21
482d-483b; CH 24 485a-b; BK xix, CH 9 516a~c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 17 645d-646a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22,
A 3, ANS 130d-131c; Q 63, A 7, ANS 331c-332b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi 46a-47c;
PARADISE, vin [1-15] 116d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1902-2482] 191a-
200b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 79d-82c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK m,
132b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 246d-248c; 256d-257d;
269a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Like It, ACT v, sc iv
[114-152] 625a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACT iv, sc i 541c-
544d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20b-c
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity la-7b / L Allegro
17b-21a / // Penseroso 21a-25a / Arcades 25a-
27b / Lycidas 27b-32a / Comus33a-56b / Par-
adise Lost, BK i [331-621] 100b-107a / Samson
Agonistes [896-902] 359a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 15 116c-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 152b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 12b-d; 184c-185d;
345b-347d esp 346c-347a; 461b-c; 583d-584a
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 135b; 226a-227c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 196d-
197c; PART i, 224a-b; 228a-c; 238d-239b;
252d-2$3c; PART H, 263d-265c; 268b-271c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 11 [5300-5392] 131a-
133a; [7005-8487] 171b-206b esp [7005-7039]
171b-172a, [7080-7248] 173b-177b, [7263-
7270] 178a, [7495-7820] 183b-190b
2. The philosophical consideration of pure
intelligences, spiritual substances, supra-
human persons
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 17 76b-
77a / Third Ennead, TR n, CH n 88b-c; TR v
100c-106b; TR VIH, CH 8-10 132d-136a / Fifth
Ennead, TR i, CH 4 209d-210c; TR vin, CH 3,
241a / Sixth Ennead, TR vin, CH 3 344a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn 99b-110d
lp AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22,
A 3, ANS 130d-131c; Q 45, A 5, ANS 245c-247a;
Q 47, A i, ANS 256a-257b; Q 50, A 3, ANS 272a-
273b; Q 65, A 4, ANS 342b-343c; Q 79, A 4
417a-418c; A 10, ANS 423d-424d; Q 84, A 4,
ANS and REP 1,3 444d-446b; Q 87, A i, ANS
and REP 3 465a-466c; Q 88, A i, ANS 469a-
471c; Q no, A i, REP 3 564c-565d; Q 115, A i,
ANS 585d-587c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 92, A i, ANS and REP 9-10 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
123] 109a; xxvin [1-78] 148d-149c; xxix [13-
45] 150b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 174b-176d; PART
iv, 258b-260c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
172d-173c
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 41d-42a /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 15 149a
31 DESCARTES -.Objections and Replies, 225d 226a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [142-154] 114b;
BK in [694-735] 150b-151b; BK v [388-450]
183b-185a; [469-505] 185b-186a; BK vi [316-
353] 203a-204a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT ii 165a-b; CH xxi, SECT 2 178c; CH xxm
SECT 5 205a-b; SECT 15-37 208c-214b passim,
BK in, CH vi, SECT n-12 271b-272b; BK iv,
CH in, SECT 6, 315a-b; SECT 27 321d-322a;
en xvi, SECT 12 370b-371a; CH xvn, SECT 14
378c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-27
417d-418b; SECT 135-145 440a-442a
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 136b; 136d
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 237c-d / Fund. Prtn.
Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254a; 259c-d;
263a; 263d-264d; 266a-c; 271a-277b; 278a;
280b-281a; 282c; 286a-287b / Practical Reason,
296a-c; 300a-c; 303b-304a; 305c-d; 308c-
309b; 321b-c; 325d-327a; 328b; 340c-d; 347d-
348b /Judgement, 508b; 572d-574b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 238d-
239a
la. The celestial motors or secondary prime
movers: the intelligepces attached to the
celestial bodies
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 452c-d / Laws, BK x, 765b
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK H, CH i [284*27-^]
376a; CH 12 383b-384c / Metaphysics, BK xii,
CH 8 603b-605a / 'Soul, BK i, CH 3 [4o6b27-
4o7bi3) 636b-637b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [110-145]
62c-63a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [724-732] 230b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 890a-895b esp 890 b-
893b; 896a-897a; 914a-b; 930b; 932a-933a;
959a-960a / Harmonies of the World, 1080b-
1085b esp 1083b-1085b
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR 11, CH j 40a-41a;
CH 3 41c-42a; TR in, CH 2 42c-d / Third
Ennead, TR 11, CH 3, 84b; TR iv, CH 6, 99d;
TR v, CH 6 103b-104a / Fourth Ennead, TR iv,
CH 8» 162 b-d; CH 22-27 168d I72a; en 30
12
THE GREAT IDEAS
(2. The philosophical consideration of pure in-
telligences, spiritual substances, supra-
human persons. 2a. The celestial motors or
secondary prime movers: the intelligences
attached to the celestial bodies.)
174b-c; CH 35, 177c; CH 42 180d-181b; TR
vui, CH 2, 202a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 47,
A i, ANS 256a-257b; Q 50, A 3, ANS and REP 3
272a-273b; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; o 52,
A 2 279b-280a; Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 70,
A 3 365b-367a; Q 76, A 6, REP 3 396a-d; Q no,
A i, REP 2-3 564c-565d; A 3, ANS 566d-567b;
Q 115, A 4, REP i 589d-590c; Q 117, A 4, REP i
599b-d; PART i-n, Q 6, A 5, REP 2 648b-649a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 91, A 2, REP 10 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [67-96]
lOb-c; PARADISE, i [103-126] 107b-c; n [112-
138] 109a; vni [16-39] 116d-117a; [97-ri4l
118a; xm [52-72] 126a; xxvin 148d-150b;
xxix [37-45] 150c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, 104b-105d
2b. Our knowledge of immaterial beings
ITPtoTiNus: Third Ennead, TR vni, CH 8-ro
132d-136a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xu, par 2-9 99c-
lOlc
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 50,
A 2, ANS 270a-272a; Q 84, A 7, REP 3 449b-
450b; Q 88, AA 1-2 469a-472c; Q 94, A 2 503a-
504a; Q in, A i, REP 3 568c-569b; PART i-n,
Q 3, A 6, ANS 627b-628a; A 7 628a-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 92, A i, ANS and REP 9 1025c-1032b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 41d-42a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 122c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT ii 165a-b; CH xxni, SECT 5 205a-b;
SECT 13 207d-208b; SECT 15-37 208c-214b;
BK in, CH vi, SECT ii-i2 271b-272b; CH xi,
SECT 23 305a-b; BK iv, CH in, SECT 17 317c;
SECT 27 321d-322a; CH vi, SECT 14, 336a-b;
CH xi, SECT 12 357c-d; CH xvi, SECT 12 370b-
371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 27
418a-b; SECT 81 428c-d; SECT 89 430b-c;
SECT 135-145 440a-442a
3, The conception of angels in Judaeo-Christian
doctrine
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin-xn 264b,d-
360a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 50-64
269a-338d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxvm-
xxix 148d-151d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 174b-176d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i 93a-110b esp
[84-191] 95b-97b, [423-431] 102b; BK v [769-
904] 192a-195a; BK vi [320-353] 203a-204a
*. The first creatures of God: their place in the
order of creation
OLD TESTAMENT: / Kings, 8:27— (D) III Kings,
8:27 / 77 Chronicles, 2:6; 6:18— (D) II Para-
lipomenon, 2:6; 6:18 / Psalms, 8:4-5; 115:16;
148:4— (D) Psalms, 8:5-6; 113:16; 148:4 /
Isaiah, 6:1-3— (D) Jsaias, 6:1-3 / Eze^iel,
i—(D) Ezechiel, i / Daniel, 7:10
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 18:10 /John, 1:51 /
Acts, 23:8 / Hebrews, 1-2 esp 1:1-8, 2:1-9 /
1 Peter, 3:22 / Revelation, 5:11-14— (Z)) Apoc-
alypse, 5:11-14
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xii 99b-110d; BK
xint par 4 lllc / City of God, BK xi 322b,d-
342a,c; BK xxii, CH i 586b,d-587b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 45,
A 5, ANS and REP i 245c-247a; Q 47, A i, ANS
256a-257b; A 2, ANS 257b-258c; Q 50, AA 1-3
269b-273b; Q 61 314d-317c; Q 62, A i 317d-
318c; A 3 319c-320b; Q 65, AA 3-4 341c-343c;
Q 66, A 3, ANS and REP 3 347b-348d; A 4, ANS
and REP i 348d-349d; Q 67, A 4, ANS and REP 4
352a-354a; Q 85, A i, ANS 451c-453c; Q 90,
A 3 482c-483a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xn [25-
27] 70c; PARADISE, vii [121-148] 116b-c; xix
[40-51] 135c; xxix [1-48] 150b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 174d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
132b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [86-102] 137a-b;
BK v [800-868] 192b-194a / Samson Agonistes
[667-673] 354a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 140 199a-b
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 11-12 271b-272b; BK iv, CH xvi, SECT 12
370b-371a
&. The angelic nature
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 103:20-22; 104:4— (D)
Psalms, 102:20-22; 103:4 / Isaiah, 6:1-3— (D)
Isaias, 6:1-3 / Ezetyel, i; 10— (D) Ezechiel, i;
10
NEW TESTAMENT: Hebrews, 1-2 esp 1:1-8 / 77
Peter, 2:10-11 / Revelation, 18:1— (D) Apoc-
alypse, 18:1
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 7 lOOd-
lOla; par 9 lOlb-c; par 12 101d-102a; par
18-22, 103b-104a / City of God, BK xxi, CH r
560a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 50-
53 269a-284d; Q 79, A i, REP 3 414a-d; Q 87,
A i, ANS and REP 2-3 465a-466c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxix [i~
48] ISOb-d; [127-145] 151c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART m, 174b-176d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 218d;
225d-226a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [84-191] 95b:97b;
[423-431] 102b; BK v [800-868] 192b-194a;
BK vr [320-353] 203a-204a
3c to 3g CHAPTER 1 : ANGEL
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 87a-88a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH x,
SECT 9, 143a-b; BK in, CH vi, SECT 11-12
271b-272b
13
3c. The aeviternity and incorruptibility of
angels
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK xn, par 9 lOlb-c;
par 12 101d-102a; par 15-16 102b-103a, par
18-22, 103b-104a; par 28, 105c / City of God,
BK xn, CH 15 351b-352d; BK xm, CH i 360a-b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 3, ANS and REP i 42c-43b; AA 5-6 44b-46d;
Q 50, A 5 274b-275a; Q 61, A 2 315c-316a; Q 97,
A i, ANS 513c-514c, Q 104, A i, ANS and REP
i,3534c~536c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-69]
115d; [121-148] 116b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 175d-176d
24 R \BELAIS Gargantua and Pantagiuel, BK in,
173a-c
32 MILTON Paradise Lost, BKI [i 16-159] 96a-97a;
BK ii [81-105] 113a-b, UK v [846-860] 193b-
194a; [889-892] 194b; BK vi [296-353] 202b~
204a esp [320-353] 203a-204a; [430-436] 205b
3d. The angelic intellect and angelic knowl-
edge
OLD TESTAMfcNr Genesis, 167-12; 18-9-15;
22. 1 5-1 8 /Judges, 6 11-16, 13.2-14 / // Samuel,
14*20— (D) II Kings, 14:20 / Daniel, 10-12
NEW TFSTAMENT: Matthew, 2435-36 / Mar^,
13 28-32 / / Timothy, 3 16 / / Peter, i 12
/ Revelation, 17; 18.21-24; 21.9-22.7— (D)
Apocalypse, 17; 18-21-24; 21:9-22:7
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK xn, par 12 lOld-
102a, par 16 102d-103a, par 20 103c-d / City
of God, BK ix, CH 20-22 296a-297a; BK x, CH 2
299d-300a; BK xi, CH n 328d-329b; CH 13-15
329c-331a; CH 29 339a-b; BK xvi, CH 6 426c-
427a; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b; CH 29,
614b-d
19 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 2,
ANS and REP 2 31d-32c; Q 12, A 4, REP 2
53b-54c; QQ 54-58 284d-306b; Q 64, A i 334a-
335c; Q 75, A 7, REP 3 384d-385c; Q 79, A i,
REP 3 414a-d; A 2, ANS 414d-416a; A 8, ANS
and REP 3 421c-422b; A 10, ANS 423d-424d;
Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c; A 3, REP i 443d-
444d; A 7, ANS 449b-450b; Q 85, A i, ANS
451c-453c; A 5, ANS 457d-458d; Q 87, A i,
ANS and REP 2 465a-466c; A 3, ANS 467b-
468a; Q 89, A 3, ANS 475d-476c; A 4, ANS
476c-477a, Q 117, A 2 597c-598c; PART i-n,
Q 3, A 8, REP 2 628d-629c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 6 lla-12a; Q 51, A i, ANS and REP 2 12b-13c;
PART H-II, Q 5, AA 1-2 410a-412a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy >, PARADISE, xix [40-
57] 135c; xxi [73-102] 139a-b; xxvm [98-
114] 149d-150a; xxix [67-84] 151a; [127-145]
151c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organutn, BK n, APH 15 149a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [242-255] 98b-
99a; BK 11 [142-151] 114b; BK in [654-735]
149b-151b esp [681-693] 150a-b; BK v [388-
505] 183b-186aesp [388-41 3] 183b-184a, [469-
505] 185b-186a; BK vm [66-79] 233b-234a
33 PASCAL- Pensles, 285 224a
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH x,
SECT 9 143a-c; CH xxm, SECT 13 207d~208b;
SECT 36 213c-d; BK in, CH vi, SCCT 3 268d;
CH xi, SECT 23 305a-b; BK iv, CH in, SECT 6,
315a-b; SECT 23 320a-c; CH xvn, SECT 14
378c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 8j
428c-d
36 STERNE- Tristram Shandy, 318b
3e. The angelic will and angelic love
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK xn, par 9 lOlb-c;
par 12-13 101d-102b; par 15 102b-c; par 18,
103b-c; par 21-22, 103d-104a; par 28, 105c /
City of God, BK ix, en 20-22 296a-297a; BK x,
CH 7 302d-303a; BK xn, CH 3 343d-344b;
CH 6-9 345b-348b; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-
587b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 59-
60 306b-314c; Q 62, A 2 318d-319c; Q 64, AA
2-3 335d 337c
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 6 lla-12a; PART II-H, Q 5, A 2 411b-412a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vm [31-
39] 117a; xxm [70-139] 142a-c; xxvm 148d-
150b esp [106-114] 150a; xxix [55-66] 150d-
151a; [127-145] 151c-d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK v [535-543] 187a;
BK vin [612-643] 245b-246a
35 LOCKL. Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 50-51 191b-c
47 GOETHE- Faust, PART n [11,676-824] 284a-
287b; [11,854-12,111] 288b-294b
3/. Angelic action: its characteristics in general
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 45,
A 5, ANS and REP i 245c-247a; QQ 51-53 275a-
284d; Q 91, A 2, REP i 485b-486b; A 4, REP 2
487d-488c; QQ 106-107 545c-552b; QQ iio-in
564c-571d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 174c; 175c-d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK vm [107-114]
234b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxm, SECT 13 207d-208b
3#. The angelic hierarchy: the inequality, order,
and number of the angels and their rela-
tion to one another
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 80:1— (D) Psalms,
79:2 / Isaiah, 6:1-7; 37:16— (D) Isaias, 6:1-8;
37:16 / Ezetyel, 10; 11:22— (D) Ezechicl, 10;
11:22 / Daniel, 7:10
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 12:15-21— (D) OT, Tobias,
12:15-21
14
THE GREAT IDEAS
4/o 5
(3. The conception of angels in Judaeo-Cbristian
doctrine. 5g. The angelic hierarchy: the
inequality, order, and number of the angels
and their relation to one another.)
NEW TESTAMENT: Colossians, 1:16 / / Thessa-
Ionian* , 4:16— (D) / Thessalonians, 4:15 / He-
brews, 12:22-23 / Jude, 9 / Revelation, 5:11—
(D) Apocalypse, 5:11
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 12, 102a;
par 31, 106c-d / City of God, BK vm, CH 24,
283b; BK xxn, CH 30, 617c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 47,
A 2, ANS 257b-258c; Q 50, AA 3-4 272a-274b;
Q 63, A 7 331c-332b; A 9, REP 3 333b-d; QQ
106-109 545c-564b; PART i-n, Q 4, A 5, REP 6
632c-634b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 8,
A4759b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
138] 109a; xxviii 148d-l50b; xxix [127-145]
151c-d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 17d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [600-904] 188b-
195a esp [769-799] 192a-b, [809-845] 193a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH HI,
SECT 27 321d-322a; CH xvi, SECT 12, 370c-
371a
35 BERKELEY : Human Knowledge, SECT 8 1 428c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-270] 7a-b;
PART ii [11,844-12,111] 288a-294b
4. Comparison of angels with men and with
disembodied souls: their relation to the
blessed in the heavenly choir
OLD TESTAMENT '-Job, 4:18-19 / Psalms, 8:4-5—
(D) Psalms, 8:5-6
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 22:23-33 / Mar\,
12:18-27 / Lufe, 20:27-38 / / Corinthians,
6:2-3 / Hebrews, 1:13-14; 2:7; 12:22-23 / Rev-
elation, 22 8-9— (D) Apocalypse, 22*8-9
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 23 104b-c
/ City of God, BK vii, CH 30, 261d; BK vm,
CH 14-18 273d-277a; CH 25 283b-c; BK ix, CH
5-13 288b-292d; CH 22 296d-297a; BK xi, CH 29
339a-b; BK xm, CH i 360a-b; BK xvi, CH 6
426c-427a; BK xxi, CH 10 569d-570b; BK xxn,
CH 29, 614b-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 23
630a-c; CH 30 632c-633b; CH 33 633d-634b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 2, REP 2 31d-32c; Q 23, A i, REP 3 132c-133b;
Q 47, A 2, ANS 257b-258c; Q 51, A i, ANS and
REP 2-3 275b-276b; QQ 54-60 284d-314c pas-
sim; Q 62 317c-325b passim; Q 66, A 3, ANS
and REP 3 347b-348d; Q 75, A 7 384d-385c;
Q 76, A 2, REP z 388c-391a; A 5, ANS 394c-
396a; Q 79, A i, REP 3 414a-d; A 2, ANS 414d-
416a; A 8, ANS and REP 3 421c-422b; Q 84,
A 3, REP i 443d-444d; A 7, ANS 449b-450b;
Q 85, A i, ANS 451c-453c; A 5, ANS 457d-458d;
Q 87, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 465a-466c; A 3,
ANS 467b-468a; Q 89, A 3, ANS 475d-476c;
A 4, ANS 476c-477a; A 7, REP 2 478d-479c;
Q 93, A 3 493d-494c; Q 97, A i, ANS 513c-514c;
Q 108, A i, ANS 552c-553c; A 8 561a*562a;
Q 117, A 2 597c-598c; PART i-n, Q 2, A 3,
REP i 617b-618a; Q 4, A 5, REP 6 632c-634b;
Q 5, A i, REP i 636d-637c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 50,
A 6 lla-12a; Q 51, A i, ANS and REP 2 12b-13c;
PART ii-n, Q 5, A 2 411b~412a; PART in, Q 6,
A 3, REP 2 742a-743a; Q 8, A 4 759b-d; PART
HI SUPPL, Q 69, A 3, REP 5 887d-889c; Q 70,
A 3, CONTRARY 897d-900d; Q 89, A 3 1007d-
1008b; A 8 1011b'1012a; Q 95, A 4 1046d-
1047d; Q 96, A 9 1062d-1063b; Q 99, A 3
1081d-1083a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [28-48]
Ilia; vn [121-148] 116b-c; vm [22-39] 116d-
117a; xix [40-66] 135c-d; xxi [73-102] 139a-b;
xxix [13-36] 150b-c; xxxi 153b-154c; xxxn
[85-ii4]155c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [314-322]
43d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 80d-81a /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 15 149a
32 MILTON: At a Solemn Music^ 13a-b / Para-
dise Lost, BK n [345-353] 118b-119a; BK in
[654-735] 149b-151b esp [681-693] 150a-b; BK
iv [358-365] 160a-b; BK v [388-450] 183b-
185a; [469-505] 185b-186a; BK vi [316-353]
203a-204a; BK vm [66-178] 233b-236a; BK x
[888-908] 293b-294a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 140 199a-b; 418 243a; 793,
326b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH x,
SECT 9 143a-c; CH xxm, SECT 13 207d-208b;
BK IV, CH III, SECT 17 317c; CH XVII, SECT 14
378c-d
36 STERNE- Tristram Shandy, 318b-319a; 394a
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 51, 163b-c
44 BoswELL:/0^/w0«, 363a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,894-12,111] 289b-
294b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 295b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 22c-
23a
5. The distinction and comparison of the good
and the bad angels
OLD TESTAMENT : Job, 4:18
NEW TESTAMENT: // Peter, 2:4 / Jude, 6
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 67 88b-c /
City of God, BK ix 285b,d-298a,c passim; BK
xi 322b,d-342a,c passim, esp CH 11-13 328d-
330b, CH 19-20 332b-333a; BK xn, CH 1-9
342b,d-348b; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 33, 633d-634a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 47,
A 2, ANS 257b-258c; QQ 63-64 325b-338d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxix [49-
81] 150d-151a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART HI, 174d-175a;
! PART iv, 258d-259b
5a to 6a
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
15
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i 93a-110b esp
[27-282] 94a-99b, [587-^15] 106a-b; BK n
[229-283] 116a-117a; [477-485] 121b; BK in
[613-742] 148b-151b; BK iv [1-130] 152b-155a;
[788-1015] 169b-174b; BK v [577J-BK vi [912]
187b-216a passim
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-292] 7a-8a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 219b
5a. The origin of the division between angels
and demons: the sin of Lucifer or Satan
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 14:4-27— (D) Isaias,
14:4-27
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:24— (D) OT,
Boo^of Wisdom, 2*24-25
NEW TESTAMENT: // Peter, 2:4 / Jude, 6 / Revela-
tion, 12:7-10— (D) Apocalypse, 12:7-10
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 67 88b-c/
City of God, BK xi, CH 9-20 326d-333a; BK
xn, CH 3 343d-344b; CH 6-9 345b-348b; BK
xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 47,
A 2, ANS 257b-258c; Q 63 325b-333d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [22-51] 4b-c;
XXXIV [28-36] 51c; PURGATORY, XII [25-27]
70c; PARADISE, xix [40-51] 135c; xxix [49-
66] 150d-151a
22 CHAUCER: Monies Tale [14,005-012] 434a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 81a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i 93a-110b csp
[27-83] 94a-95a; BK iv [32-104] 153a-154b;
BK v [600-904] 188b-195a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 11 [10,075-121] 246a-
247a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
344c-d
5b. The society of the demons: the rule of Satan
over the powers of darkness
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 39:28— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 39:33-34
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 9.34; 10:25; 12:22-30
/ Marf(, 3:22 / Luke, 11:14-23 /John, 8:31-59 /
Ephesians, 2:1-3; 6:12 / Hebrews, 2:13-15 /
/ John, 3:8-12 / Revelation, 2:9,13; 9:1-11;
18:2— (D) Apocalypse, 2:9,13; 9:1-11; 18:2
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xx, CH n 541a-c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 37, 673d-674a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
AA 8-9 332c-333d; Q 109 562a-564b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL la-52d esp vin
[65)-ix [103] llc-13b, xvni [19-39] 25c-d,
xxi-xxiii 30a-34c, xxvin [1-42] 41b-c, xxxiv
[16-31] 51c
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [6957-7220] 279a-283b
/ Summons's Prologue 284b-285a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 195a; PART iv,
247a-248a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [242-263] 98b-
99a; BK n [1-520] llla-122b csp [11-42]
lllb-112a; BK iv [89-92] 154b; BK v [600-904]
188b-195a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 116a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [2338-2604] 56b-63b
csp [2465-2531] 60a-61b; [3835-4222] 93b-
103a; PART n [11,636-675] 283a-284a
6. The role of the angels in the government of
the universe
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:24; 28:12 / Psalms,
103-20-22— (D) Psalms, 102:20-22 / Daniel,
7:10 / Zechariah, 1:7-21; 4:1-6:8— (D) Zacha-
rias, 1:7-21; 4:1-6:8
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:31 / Marf(, 13:27
/ John, 1:51 / Revelation, 5:2,11-14; 8-20
passim— (D) Apocalypse, 5:2,11-14; 8-20 pas-
sim
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vii, CH 30, 261d;
BK vni, CH 24, 283a-b; BK x, CH 15 308a-b;
CH 21 311c~312a; BK xn, CH 27 359c-360a,c;
BK xvi, CH 5-6, 426a-c; BK xxn, CH i, 586b,d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 45,
A 5, ANS and REP i 245c-247a; Q 63, A 7, ANS
331c-332b; Q 64, A 4, ANS 337d-338d; Q 66,
A 3, REP 2 347b-348d; Q 89, A 8, REP 2 479c-
480c; Q 91, A 2, REP 1,3 485b-486b; A 4, REP 2
487d-488c; QQ 106-114 545c-585c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vii [67-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, n [10-51] 54c-55a; vin
[22-36] 64c; xv [1-36] 75b-d; xvn [40-63]
78d-79a; xxiv [133-154] 91a-b; PARADISE, 11
[112-138] 109a; vin [91-148] 117d-118c; xm
[52-72] 126a; xxvin [120-129] 150a; xxix
[13-45] 150b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
117d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [119-134] 113b-
114a; [237-249] 116b; [402-416] 120a, BK vn
[550-601] 229a-230a / Areopagitica, 410a
6a. The ministry of the good angels in the
affairs of men: guardianship
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 16:7-12; 18:1-19:22;
21:9-21 ',22:1-19; 24:7, 40; 32:1-2,24-30; 48:15-
16 / Exodus, 14:19-20; 23:20-23; 32:34; 33:2 /
Numbers, 20:16; 22:22-35 /Joshua, 5:13-15—
(D) Josue, 5:13-16 / Judges, 2:1-4; 6:ii-24;i3
/ II Samuel, 24:15-17— (D) II Kings, 24:15-
17/7 Kings, i9:5-8-(D) /// Kings, 19:5-8 /
// Kings, i9,'32-35-(D) IV Kings, 19:32-35
/ 1 Chronicles, 21:11-30— (D) I Paralipomcnon,
21:11-30 / // Chronicles, 32:21— (D) II Para-
lipomenon, 32:21 / Psalms, 34:7; 35:5-6; 91:10-
13— (D) Psalms, 33:8; 34:5-6; 90:10-13 /
Isaiah, 6:6-7; 37:3^~(^) Isatast 6:6-7; 37:36
/ Daniel, 3:28; 6:22; 8-12— (D) Daniel, 3:95;
6:22; 8-12 / Hosea, 12:2-4— (D) Osee, 12:2-4
/ Zechariah, 1:7-21; 3— (D) Zacharias, 1:7-
2i;3
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 3:17; 5-12— (D) OT, Tobias,
3:25; 5-12 / Baruch, 6:7— (D) OT, Baruch,
6:6 / Song of Three Children, 25-26— (D) OT,
Daniel, 3:49-50 / Bel and Dragon, 31-42—
(D) OT, Daniel, 14:30-41
16
THE GREAT IDEAS
(6. The role of the angels in the government of
the universe. 6a. The ministry of {he good
angels in the affairs of men: guardianship.)
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1.18-25; 2.13,19-20;
13:24-30,36-43,47-51; 18:10; 24:31; 28-1-7 /
Mar{, 1:13; 13 27 / Luke, 1:1-38; 2-8-15; 16 22
I John, 5.4; 12 28-29 / Acts, 5:17-20; 7-52-53;
8.26, 10.1-7,22,30-32; 12:5-11; 23 9; 27-21-24
/ Galatians, 3:19 / Hebrews, 1:13-14 / Revela-
tion, i.i; 7-11; 14.6-20; 15-18, 19.17-18, 22.16
— (D) Apocalypse, 1:1; 7-11; 14.6-20; 15-18;
19:17-18; 22:16
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 37, 108d
/ City of God, BK vin, CH 25 283b-c; BK x, CH
8 303a-d; CH 12-13 306d-307c; BK xix, CH 9
516a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 30 632c-
633b, CH 33 633d-634b
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 64,
A 4, ANS 337d-338d; Q 66, A 3, REP 2 347b<
348d, Q 86, A 4, REP 2 463d-464d; Q 89, A 8,
REP 2 479c-480c; o 91, A 2, REP 1,3 485b-486b;
QQ 111-113 568b-581d; PART i-n, Q 3, A 7,
RLP 2 628a-d; Q 5, A 6 641a 642a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 98,
A 3 241c-242b; PART in SUPPL, Q 76, A 3
942b-d; Q 89, A 3 1007d-1008b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vin [65]-ix
[103] llc-13b; PURGAIORY, v [85-129] 59d-
60c; vin [1-108] 64a-65b; ix [70-145] 66c-67b;
xn [73-136] 71a-d; xvn [40-63] 78d-79a;
PARADISE, XXXII [85-114] 155c-d
22 CHAuchR: Second Nun's Tale [15,588-825]
463b-467b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 174d-175a;
175c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
132b-c; 158c-159b; 168c
27 SHAKFSPI-ARE- King Lear, ACT iv, sc n [38-
50] 270d-271a
32 MILTON- Comus 33a-56b esp [170-229] 37a-
38b / Paradise Lost, BK n [1024-1033] 133b,
BK iv [549-588] 164b-165a; [776-843] 169b-
170b; BK v [224-247] 180a-b; BK vi [893-912]
215b-216a; BK vin [630-643] 246a / Areopa-
gitica, 410a-b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 124a / Pensees, 722,
309b-312a; 846 339a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,676-12,111] 284a-
294b
48 MELVILLE: MobyDic^, 409b-410a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vn,
185a-c
66. The intervention of the demons in the
affairs of men: temptation, possession
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / / Samuel, 16:14-23
—(D) I Kings, 16:14-23 / / Kings, 22:20-23—
(D) III Kings, 22:20-23 / I Chronicles, 21:1—
(D) IParalipomenon, 21:1 / 77 Chronicles, 18:20-
22— (D) 11 Paralipomenon, 18:20-22 / Job,
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 3:8— (D) OT, Tobias, 3:8 /
Wisdom of Solomon, 2-24— (D) OT, Boo^of
Wisdom, 2.24-25
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11; 8:28-34;
9:32-34; 12:22-30,43-45; 13:19,24-30,36-43;
17:14-18 / Mar{, 1.13; 4:15; 5:1-20 / Lu^e,
4*1-13; 8*2-3,12,26-36; 11:14-26; 22:3-6 /
John, 8:31-59; 10-19-21; 13:2,21-27 / Acts,
5:1-11; 85-8; 1037-38, 16 16-18 / Romans,
8.38-39 / // Corinthians, 2 IO-H; 11-13-15 /
Galatians, 1-8 / Ephesians, 2-2/7 Thessalon-
tans, 2.18 / I Peter, 5:8-9 / Revelation, 2:10;
9, 12-13— (D) Apocalypse, 2.10, 9; 12-13
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 67 88b-c /
City of God, BK n, CH 24-26, 164c-166d; BK
vni, CH 15-24 274d-283b; BK ix, CH 18 295c-
d; BK x, CH 9-11 303d-306d; en 21-22 311c-
312b; BK xvin, CH 18 480d-482a, BK xix, CH 9
S16a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 23-24
648a-649a; BK in, CH 37, 673d-674a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
A 9, RLP 3 333b-d, Q 64, A 4, ANS 337d-338d;
Q 86, A 4, REP 2 463d-464d; Q 89, A 8, REP 2
479c-480c; Q 114 581d-585c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 80
159d-162d, P\RT in, Q 8, AA 7-8 761d-763b
21 DANTE Divmc Comedy^ HELL, vin [65]-ix
[103] llc-13b, xxvii [55-136] 40a-41b, xxxni
[91-157] 50c-51b, PURGAIORY, v [85-129] 59d-
60c, vin [1-108] 64a-65b
22 CHAUCLR: Tale of Man of Law [4778-4805]
240b-241a / Friar's Tale 278a-284a / Physi-
cian's Tale [12,055-072] 368a-b / Pardoner's
Tale [12,778-828] 380b-381b / Parson's Tale,
par 20 508b-509a
23 HOBBPS. Leviathan, P\RT i, 69c-71a, PART HI,
174d-175a, 195a, PART iv, 258c-261a
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
93d-94a; BK in, 169d-173d; BK iv, 261a-265a;
285c-288d, 300b-d
27 SHAKLSPEARE- Othello, ACT n, sc HI [356-
379] 220c-d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK i [27-36] 94a;
[331-621] 100b-107a; BK n [310-389] 118a-
119b; [496-505] 122a; [1024-1033] 133b: BK iv
[32-113] 153a-155a; [358-392] 160a-161a; [502-
535] 163b-164a; [776-1015] 169b-174b; BK vi
[893-912] 215b-216a; BK ix [404-794] 256a-
264b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 140a / Pensfes, 784
325b; 843, 337b-338a; 850 340a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 184c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE 7a-9b; PART i
[482-517] 14a-b; [1178-2336] 29b-56a esp
[1322-1384] 32b-34a, [1530-1867] 37a-44b;
[3776-3834] 92a-93b; [4176-4205] 102a-103a;
PART H [4941-4970] 122b-123a; [5357~53921
132b-133a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
21d-22b; BK iv, 86b-c; BK v, 130b-132c;
BK vi, 169c-170b; BK vn, 175b-176b; BK x,
295a-c
7 to 8
CHAPTER 1: ANGEL
17
7. God and Satan
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xx 530a-560a,c
passim
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 63
325b-333d esp A 3 327b-328b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 80,
A i, REP 2-3 159d-160c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxiv 5lb-52d
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale 278a-284a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 195a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK I-H
93a-134a, BK HI [56-134] 136b-138a, BK iv
[1006-1015] 174b, BK v [224-245] 180a-b, BK
v [563]-BK vi [892] 187b-215b, BK x [1-62]
274b-275b, [460-584] 284b-287a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 784 325b; 820 331b; 826
332b-333a; 846 339a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
337a-346a
la. Warfare between the powers of light and
darkness: their struggle for dominion
over man
OLD TESTAMENT: 7 Samuel, 16:14-23— (D)
I Kings, 16:14-23 / Job, 1-2 / Zechariah, 3:1-
7— (D) Zacharias, 3:1-7
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 8:}-(D) OT, Tobias, 8:3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11; 12:22-30;
13:19,24-30,36-43; 25:41 / Marl(, 1:13; 5:1-20
/ Lufa 4:1-13; 8:26-36; 10:17-20; 11:14-23;
22:31-34 /John, 12:31-32 / Acts, 8:5-8; 19:11-
20; 26.9-29 / Romans, 16:17-20 / / Corin-
thians, 10:20-21 / // Corinthians, 2:10-11;
4:3-4; 10:2-5; 11:13-15 / Ephesians, 4:27; 6:10-
i8/77 Thessalonians, 2:8-9/7 Timothy, 4:1-5 /
77 Timothy, 2:24-26 / Hebrews, 2:13-15 /
James, 4:7 / 7 Peter, 5:8-9 / I John, 3.8-12 /
Jude, 9 / Ret/elation, 2:9-13; 3:9-13; 12-14;
16:13-14; 20:1-10— (D) Apocalypse, 2:9-13;
3:9-13; 12-14; 16:13-14; 20:1-10
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 24-27
25b-26a; BK v, par 20 32d-33a; BK x, par 67
88b-c / Cuy of God, BK n, CH 25 165c-166b;
BK XH, CH 6 345b-346c; BK xx, CH 11-13
541a-542d / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 23
648a-c; BK in, CH 37, 673d-674a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8, A i,
REP 4 34d-35c; A 3, ANS 36b-37c; Q 49, A 3
266d-268a,c; Q 63, A 2, ANS 326c-327b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 74, A i, REP i 925c-926c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VIH [titf-ix
[103] llc-13b; XXVH [55-136] 40a-41b; PURGA-
TORY, v [85-129] 59d-60c; vin [1-108] 64a-
65b; xi [1-30] 68d-69a; xiv [130-151] 75a-b
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [7227-7246] 284a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 247a-248a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK H [890-1009] 130b-
133a; BK in [1-415] 135b-144b; BK ix [679-
779] 262a-264a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 116a*b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 330b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE 7a-9b; PART i
[1335-1378] 33a-34a; PART n [11,612-843]
282b-288a
48 MELVILLE: Moby D/^esp 4b-5a, 117a-122b,
131a-138a, 144a-b, 370b-372a, 418a-419b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in, 50c-
54b esp 54a-b; BK iv, 86b-c; BK v, 130b-136b;
BK vi, 151b-d; 169c-170b; BK VH, 175b-176c;
185a-c; BK xi, 342d-343b
7b. Lucifer in the service of God
OLD TESTAMENT '.Job, 1-2 / Psalms, 78:49~(O)
Psalms, 77:49
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 39:28 — (D) OT, EC-
clestasticus, 39:33-34
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin, CH 24, 283a-
b; BK x, CH 21 311c-312a; BK xn, CH 27 359c-
360a,c; BK xxu, CH i 586b,d-587b
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 64,
A 4, ANS 337d-338d; Q 114, A i 581d-582c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 89, A 4 10Q8b-1009b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xvui [19-39]
25c-d; XXI-XXHI 30a-34c; xxvn [55]-xxvm
[42] 40a-41c; xxxiv 51b-52d
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [7055-7085] 281a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [157-168] 97a;
[209-220] 98a; BK x [616-640] 288a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [271-353] 7b-9b;
PART n [7127-7137] I74b-175a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
151b-d; BK xi, 341a-344d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 790d
8. Criticism and satire with respect to the belief
in angels and demons
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 51d-52b; 69c-71a;
PART HI, 174b-176d; 195a; PART iv, 258b-
261a; 276c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
171a 173d; BK iv, 285c-288d; 300b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 500a-501a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 41d-42a /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 62, 113d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xn, 86d-
87b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 184c-d; 189c; 347a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 229d; 231 b; 244c;
334c
42 KAMI Judgement, 592a-c; 599d-600e
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 354c-
355b
50 MARX: Capital, 31d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 21d-
22b; BK xi, 337a-346a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 148b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 876d-877a;
877c
18
THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions relevant to the theory of angels, see ETERNITY 43; IDEA ic; KNOWLEDGE
70; MIND IDC; Soui^dfe); and for the metaphysical consideration of immaterial substances,
see BEING ybfa),
The theological doctrine of the fallen angels, see SIN 3, 3b; and for the related doctrines of
Heaven and Hell, see ETERNITY 4d; GOOD AND EVIL id, 2b; IMMORTALITY 5e~5f; PUNISH-
MENT 5e(i).
The theory of the celestial motors, see ASTRONOMY 8b; CHANGE 14.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AUGUSTINE. De Genesi ad Litteram
AQUINAS. On Being and Essence, CH 4
. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK n, CH 46-55, 91-
101; BK in, CH 104-110
. Quaesttones Disputatae, De Ventate, QQ 8-9, De
Halo, Q 16; De Anima, A 7
. On Spiritual Creatures, AA 1-3, 5-8
. De Substantiis Separates
DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE,
CH5-7
MACHIAVELLI. Belfagor
II.
PHILO JUDAEUS. On the Cherubim
PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (M)
"DJONYSIUS". On the Celestial Hierarchy
ERIGENA. De Divisione Naturae, BK i (4, 7-9), n (6,
22), iv (7-9), v (13)
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART i,
CH 49; PART n, CH 2-7
BONAVENTURA. Breviloquium, PART n (6-8)
R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART VH
ALBO. The Boof( of Principles (Sefer ha-Ilfarim), BK
II, CH 12
CALVIN. Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK i,
CH 14 (3)
LUTHER, Table Tal{
DONNE. Aire and Angells
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xn (14),
xxxiv (3, 5), xxxv, XLI (2), LI (3-4)
MARLOWB. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus
HEYWOOD. The Hierarchic of the Blessed Angells
H. LAWRFNCE. Of Our Communion and Wane with
Angels
CAMFIELD A Theological Discourse of Angels and
Their Ministries
LEIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, xxnr, xxxiv-
XXXVI
JOHN REYNOLDS, Inquiries Concerning the State and
Economy of the Angelical Worlds
SWEDENBORG Angelic Wisdom Concerning the Dwme
Providence
VOLTAIRE. "Angels," in A Philosophical Dictionary
SCHLEIERMACHFR The Christian Faith, par 42-45
W. SCOTT. Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft
J, H. NEWMAN. "The Powers of Nature," in VOL u,
Parochial and Plain Sermons
HEINE. Gods in Exile
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK ix, CH 2
MICHELET. Satanism and Witchcraft
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART iv, BK i, CH 4;
PART VI ; PART VII, CH 4-7
WENDELL. "Were the Witches of Salem Guiltless?"
in Stelligeri
LEA. Materials Toward a History of Witchcraft
FRANCE. The Revolt of the Angels
FARNELL. Greef( Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality
WILLIAMS. The Place of the Lion
GLOVER. "The Daemon Environment," in Grec\
Byways
ZILBOORG. The Medical Man and the Witch During
the Renaissance
VONIER. The Angels
C. S. LEWIS. Out of the Silent Planet
. The Sci&vtape Letters
Chapter r ANIMAL
INTRODUCTION
ALPHABETICAL ordering places ANIMAL
Zi. after ANGEL in this list of ideas. There
is a third term which belongs with these two
and, but for the alphabet, might have come be-
tween them. That term is MAN.
These three terms — and a fourth, GOD,
which rounds out the comparison — are con-
joined in Shakespeare's statement of what is
perhaps the most universal reflection of man
upon himself. "What a piece of work is man!"
says Hamlet, "How noble in reason! how infi-
nite in faculty! in form and moving, how ex-
press and admirable! in action, how like an an-
gel! in apprehension, how like a god! the beauty
of the world! the paragon of animals!" Animal,
angel, god— in each of these man has seen his
image. And at different moments in the history
of thought, he has tended to identify himself
with one to the exclusion of the others.
Yet predominantly man has regarded him-
self as an animal, even when he has understood
himself to be created in God's image, and to
share with the angels, through the possession of
intellect, the dignity of being a person. As his
understanding of himself has varied, so has he
altered his conception of what it is to be an
animal.
In terms of a conception of personality which
involves the attributes of reason and free will,
man has legally, as well as morally and meta-
physically, drawn a sharp line between persons
and things, and placed brute animals in the
class of things. According to the principle of
this distinction, being alive or even being sen-
sitive does not give animals, any more than
plants and stones, the dignity or status of per-
sons.
When man's animality— either in terms of
his biological affinities or his evolutionary ori-
gins—has seemed an adequate definition of his
nature, man has attributed to animals many of
his own traits, his intelligence and freedom,
even his moral qualities and political propensi-
ties. Nevertheless, he has seldom ceased to re-
gard himself as the paragon of animals, possess-
ing in a higher degree than other animals the
characteristic properties of all.
There are exceptions to this, however. Ani-
mals have been glorified by man for skeptical
or satiric purposes.
Montaigne, for example, doubts that man
can lay claim to any special attributes or excel-
lences, and further suggests that, in some par-
ticulars at least, men are less able and less noble
than the beasts. Relying on legends found in
Pliny and Pluta-rch which describe the marvel-
ous exploits of animals, he argues that "it is not
upon any true ground of reason, but by a fool-
ish pride and vain opinion, that we prefer our-
selves before other animals, and separate our-
selves from their conditions and society."
Why, Montaigne asks, "should we attribute
to I know not what natural and servile inclina-
tion the works that surpass all we can do by na-
ture and art" ? We have no grounds for believ-
ing that "beasts, by natural and compulsory
tendency, do the same things that we do by our
choice and industry." Rather "we ought," he
continues, "from like effects, to conclude like
faculties, and consequently confess that the
same reason, the same method, by which we op-
erate, are common with them, or that they have
others that are better."
Nor can we excuse our presumption of su-
periority by the fact that we are compelled to
look at animals from our human point of view.
"When I play with my cat," Montaigne writes,
"who knows whether I do not make her more
sport than she makes me? We mutually divert
one another with our monkey tricks; if I have
my hour to begin or to refuse, she also has hers."
Suppose animals were to tell us what they
19
20
THE GREAT IDEAS
thought of us. "The defect that hinders com-
munication betwixt them and us, why may it
not be on our part as well as theirs? 'Tis yet to
determine," Montaigne thinks, "where the fault
lies that we understand not one another; for we
understand them no more than they do us; by
the same reason they may think us to be beasts
as we think them."
If Montaigne's view were to prevail, no spe-
cial significance could be given to "brute" as
opposed to "rational" animal. For that matter,
the same holds true whenever man is conceived
as just an animal, paragon or not. Animals are
brute only when man is not— only when to be
human is to be somehow more than an animal,
different in kind, not merely in degree.
Satirists like Swift idealize an animal nature
to berate the folly and depravity of man. In his
last voyage, Gulliver finds in the land of the
Houyhnhnms a race of human- looking crea-
tures, the Yahoos, who by contrast with their
noble masters, the horses, are a miserable and
sorry lot. Here it is the Yahoos who are brutes,
bereft as they are of the intelligence and virtue
which grace the splendid Houyhnhnms.
THE COMPARISON of men and animals takes still
another direction in the allegories of fable and
poetry. From Aesop to the mediaeval Bestiaries,
there is the tradition of stories in which animals
arc personified in order to teach a moral lesson.
In the Divine Comedy Dante uses specific ani-
mals to symbolize the epitome of certain pas-
sions, vices, and virtues. The intent of his alle-
gory is, however, never derogatory to man as
man. But when Machiavelli allegorizes the qual-
ities required for political power, he advises the
prince "knowingly to adopt the beast" and "to
choose the fox and the lion." This tends to re-
duce human society to the j ungle where strength
and guile compete for supremacy.
The comparison of men and animals fails to
touch the distinction, or lack of distinction, be-
tween animals and plants. This is basic to the
definition or conception of animal nature. As in
the case of men and animals, this problem can
be approached in two ways: cither torn the side
of plant life, and with respect to those functions
which seem to be common to all living things;
or from the side of animal life, and with respect
to those functions which seem to belong only to
animals, never to plants. On either approach
the issue remains whether plants and animals
are different in kind, not merely in degree.
On the one hand, it may be argued that sensi-
tivity, desire, and locomotion (even perhaps
sleeping and waking) are, in some form or de-
gree, to be found in all living things. On the
other hand, it may be argued that such func-
tions as nutrition, growth, and reproduction,
though obviously common to plants and ani-
mals, are performed by animals in a distinctive
manner. If plants manifest all the vital powers
or activities present in animals; or if in func-
tions common to both, animals differ only in
degree, then the scale of life would seem to be a
continuous gradation rather than a hierarchy.
The opposite position, which affirms a differ-
ence in kind and consequently a hierarchy, is
taken by Aristotle. In his biological writings, as
well as in his treatise On the Soul, he draws a
sharp line between plant and animal life by ref-
erence to faculties or functions absent in the one
and found in the other. Aristotle first points out
that "living may mean thinking or perception
or local movement and rest, or movement in the
sense of nutrition, decay, and growth. Hence,"
he goes on, "we think of plants also as living,
for they are observed to possess in themselves
an originative power through which they in-
crease or decrease in all spatial directions; they
grow up and down, and everything that grows
increases its bulk alike in both directions or in-
deed in all, and continues to live so long as it
can absorb nutriment."
This leads him to assign to plants what he
calls a nutritive or vegetative soul, whereby
they have the three basic faculties common to
all living things— nutrition, growth, and repro-
duction. But Aristotle does not find in plants
any evidence of the functions performed by
animals, such as sensation, appetite, and local
motion. These are the characteristic powers of
the animal soul, called by him the "sensitive
soul" because sensation is the source both of
animal desire and animal movement.
Galen follows Aristotle in this distinction. In
his Natural Faculties he limits his investigations
to the functions common to all living things.
He uses the word "natural" for those effects,
such as "growth and nutrition . . . common to
plants as well as animals,"' which, in his view,
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
21
are opposed to such activities as "feeling and
voluntary motion . . . peculiar to animals," that
he calls "effects of the soul," or "psychic." It
may seem surprising at first that Galen's study
of nutrition, growth, and reproduction— not
only of the functions themselves but of the
bodily organs and processes involved in these
functions— should be restricted to their mani-
festation in animals, and not in plants as well.
The reason may be that for the naturalists of
antiquity, the biological functions of vegetable
matter did not yield their secrets readily enough
to observation. A treatise on plants, not written
by Aristotle but attributed to his school, be-
gins with the remark that "life is found in ani-
mals and plants; but whereas in animals it is
clearly manifest, in plants it is hidden and less
evident,"
This view of the world of living things as di-
vided into the two great kingdoms of plant and
animal life prevailed through centuries of spec-
ulation and research. But from the time that
Aristotle began the work of classification, it has
been realized that there exist numerous exam-
ples of what Bacon called "bordering instances
. . . such as exhibit those species of bodies which
appear to be composed of two species, or to be
the rudiments between the one and the other."
Within the last hundred years the difficulty
of classifying such specimens, particularly those
which seem to fall between plant and animal,
has raised the question whether the traditional
distinction can be maintained. "If we look even
to the two main divisions, namely, to the ani-
mal and vegetable kingdoms," writes Darwin,
"certain low forms are so far intermediate in
character that naturalists have disputed to which
kingdom they should belong." Yet Darwin
does not find the evidence available to him suf-
ficient to determine whether all living things
have descended "from one primordial form" or
whether the evolution of life is to be represented
in two distinct lines of development.
Since Darwin's day the researches of scien-
tists like Loeb and Jennings on the behavior of
micro-organisms, and the phenomena of tro-
pisms (e.g., the sunflower's turning toward the
sun), and the study of what appears to be local
motion in plants, have contributed additional
evidence relevant to the issue. It is, however,
still considered open and arguable.
The fact that organisms exist which do not
readily fall into either classification may signify
continuity rather than separation between plants
and animals; but it may also be taken to mean
that more acute observations are required to
classify these so-called "intermediate forms."
Plant tropisms may or may not require us to
deny that sensitivity belongs to animals alone.
The apparent local motion of plants may be a
mode of growth or a random movement rather
than a directed change from place to place; and
the attachment to place of apparently station-
ary animals, such as barnacles and mussels, may
be different from the immobility of rooted
plants.
AGAINST THE BACKGROUND of these major issues
concerning plants, animals, and men as con-
tinuous or radically distinct forms of life, the
study of animal organisms — their anatomy and
physiology— acquires much of its critical sig-
nificance.
Anatomy is an ancient science. Several sur-
gical treatises of Hippocrates display an exten-
sive knowledge of the human skeletal structure
and the disposition of some of the organs of the
human body. The dissection of animals, as well
as gross observation, provides Aristotle with a
basis for the comparative anatomy of different
species of animal. For Galen as well as Aris-
totle, much of this anatomical study was mo-
tivated by an interest in the structure and rela-
tion of the organs involved in the local motion
of the body as a whole, and in local motions
within the body, such as the motions of the
alimentary or reproductive systems.
It remains for a later investigator, schooled in
the tradition of ancient biology, to make the
startling discovery of the circulation of the
blood through the motions of the heart. Harvey
not only does this, but he also suggests the
functional interdependence of respiration and
circulation, based on his observation of the in-
timate structural connections between heart,
arteries, veins, and lungs. His contribution is at
once a departure from and a product of the
scientific tradition in which he worked, for
though his conclusions arc radically new, he
reaches them by a method of research and rea-
soning which follows the general principles of
Aristotle and Galen. His insistence, moreover,
22
THE GREAT IDEAS
on the necessity of finding a functional purpose
for an organic structure stands as the classic
rejoinder to Francis Bacon's recommendation
that formal and final causes be separated from
material and efficient causes in the study of
nature. Bacon assigns the first two types of
cause to metaphysics, and limits physics to the
last two.
Harvey's work on the generation of animals
is another example of the continuity between
ancient and modern biology. In some respects,
Aristotle's researches on the reproductive or-
gans and their functions are more general than
Harvey's. They represent for him only part of
the large field of comparative anatomy, and
have significance for the study of mating habits
in different classes of animals. Yet on the prob-
lem of the act of generation itself, its causes and
consequences, especially the phenomena of em-
bryonic development, Harvey's treatise reads
partly as a conversation with Aristotle, and
partly as the record of original observations un-
dertaken experimentally.
"Respect for our predecessors and for antiq-
uity at large," he writes, "inclines us to defend
their conclusions to the extent that love of
truth will allow. Nor do I think it becoming in
us to neglect and make little of their labors and
conclusions, who bore the torch that has lighted
us to the shrine of philosophy." The ancients,
in his opinion, "by their unwearied labor and
variety of experiments, searching into the na-
ture of things, have left us no doubtful light
to guide us in our studies." Yet, Harvey adds,
"no one of a surety will allow that all truth was
engrossed by the ancients, unless he be utterly
ignorant . . . of the many remarkable discoveries
that have lately been made in anatomy." Re-
ferring to his own method of investigation, he
proposes as a "safer way to the attainment of
knowledge" that "in studying nature," we
* 'question things themselves rather than by
turning over books."
It is particularly with respect to animal gen-
eration that the great books exhibit continuity
in the statement of basic problems in biology,
as well as indicate the logical conditions of their
solution. The issue of spontaneous generation
as opposed to procreation runs through Aris-
totle, Lucretius, Aquinas, Harvey, and Dar-
win* The problem of sexual and asexual repro-
duction, with all the relevant considerations of
sexual differentiation and sexual characteristics,
is to be found in Aristotle, Darwin, and Freud.
Questions of heredity, though they are raised
with new significance by Darwin and William
James, have a lineage as ancient as Plato.
Scientific learning has, of course, advanced
in recent times with regard to the nature and
behavior of animals. On such topics as heredity,
the work of Mendel, Bateson, and Morgan is
crucial; or, to take another example, our
knowledge of the functioning of the respira-
tory and the nervous system has been greatly
enlarged by the researches of Haldane, Sher-
nngton, and Pavlov. Yet even in these areas,
the background of recent scientific contribu-
tions is to be found in the great books — in the
writings, for example, of Harvey, Darwin, and
William James.
ANOTHER INTEREST which runs through the
whole tradition of man's study of animals lies
in the problem of their classification — both
with respect to the principles of taxonomy it-
self, and also in the systematic effort to con-
struct schemes whereby the extraordinary va-
riety of animal types can be reduced to order.
In this field Aristotle and Darwin are the two
great masters. If the names of Buffon and Lin-
naeus also deserve to be mentioned, it must be
with the double qualification that they are fol-
lowers of Aristotle on the one hand, and pre-
cursors of Darwin on the other.
The Aristotelian classification is most fully
set forth in the History of Animals. There one
kind of animal is distinguished from another by
many "properties": by locale or habitat; by
shape and color and size; by manner of locomo-
tion, nutrition, association, sensation; by or-
ganic parts and members; by temperament, in-
stinct, or characteristic habits of action. With
respect to some of these properties, Aristotle
treats one kind of animal as differing from an-
other by a degree— by more or less— of the same
trait. With respect to other properties, he finds
the difference to consist in the possession by one
species of a trait totally lacking in another. He
speaks of the lion as being more "ferocious**
than the wolf, the crow as more "cunning1*
than the raven; but he also observes that the
cow has an "organ of digestion" which the spi-
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
23
der lacks, the lizard an "organ of locomotion"
which the oyster lacks. The sponge lives in one
manner so far as "locale" is concerned, and the
viper in another; reptiles have one manner of
locomotion, birds another. So ample were Aris-
totle's data and so expert were his classifica-
tions, that the major divisions and sub-divisions
of his scheme remain intact in the taxonomy
constructed by Linnaeus.
The radical character of Darwin's departure
from the Lmnaean classification stems from a
difference in principle rather than a correction
of observational errors or inadequacies. Where
Aristotle and all taxonomists before Darwin
classify animals by reference to their similarities
and differences, Darwin makes inferred geneal-
ogy or descent the primary criterion in terms
of which he groups animals into varieties, spe-
cies, genera, and larger phyla.
Naturalists, according to Darwin, "try to ar-
range the species, genera, and families in each
class, on what is called the Natural System. But
what is meant by this system? Some authors
look at it merely as a scheme for arranging to-
gether those living objects which are most alike,
and for separating those which arc most unlike.
. . . The ingenuity and utility of this system are
indisputable," but Darwin thinks that its rules
cannot be explained or its difficulties overcome
except "on the view that the Natural System is
founded on descent with modification— that
the characters which naturalists consider as
showing true affinity between any two or more
species, are those which have been inherited
from a common parent, all true classification
being genealogical— that community of descent
is the hidden bond which naturalists have been
unconsciously seeking, and not some unknown
plan of creation, or the enunciation of general
propositions, and the mere putting together
and separating objects more or less alike."
In Darwin's opinion, classification "must be
strictly genealogical in order to be natural.'1
Only by the principle of descent— "the one
certainly known cause of similarity in organic
beings"— can we arrange "all organic beings
throughout all time in groups under groups";
see "the nature of the relationships by which all
living and extinct organisms are united by com-
plex, radiating, and circuitous lines of affinities
into a few grand classes"; and understand "the
wide opposition in value between analogical or
adaptive characters, and characters of true af-
finity." Furthermore, "the importance of cm-
bryological characters and of rudimentary or-
gans in classification" becomes "intelligible on
the view that a natural arrangement must be
genealogical." By reference to "this element of
descent," not only shall we be able to "under-
stand what is meant by the Natural System,"
but also, Darwin adds, "our classifications will
come to be, as far as they can be so made, gene-
alogies; and will then truly give what may be
called the plan of creation."
Whereas the Aristotelian classification is static
in principle, having no reference to temporal
connections or the succession of generations,
the Darwinian is dynamic— almost a moving
picture of the ever-shifting arrangement of ani-
mals according to their affinities through com-
mon ancestry or their diversities through ge-
netic variation. Connected with this opposition
between static and dynamic principles of clas-
sification is a deeper conflict between two ways
of understanding the nature of scientific classi-
fication itself.
The point at issue is whether the classes which
the taxonomist constructs represent distinct
natural forms. Do they exist independently as
objects demanding scientific definition or are
the scientist's groupings somewhat arbitrary
and artificial? Do they divide and separate
what in nature is more like a continuous distri-
bution with accidental gaps and unevennesses ?
This issue, in turn, tends to raise the metaphysi-
cal question concerning the reality and fixity of
species, which relates to the problem of the dif-
ference between real and nominal definitions,
and the difference between natural and arbi-
trary systems of classification.
On these matters Aquinas and Locke have
much to say, as well as Aristotle and Darwin.
Fuller discussion of such questions is to be found
in the chapters on DEFINITION and EVOLU-
TION. Insofar as problems of classification and
the nature of species have a bearing on evolu-
tion, they are treated in that chapter, as are the
related issues of continuity or hierarchy in the
world of living things, and of difference in de-
gree or tynd as between plants and animals, ani-
mals and men. The last two problems also occur
in the chapters on LIFE and MAN.
24
THE GREAT IDEAS
ON THE THEME of comparisons between ani-
mals and men, two further points should be
noted.
The first concerns the soul of animals. When
soul is conceived as the principle or source of
life in whatever is alive, plants and animals can
be said to have souls. Like Aristotle, Augustine
distinguishes "three grades of soul in universal
nature'*: one which has "only the power of
life . . . the second grade in which there is sen-
sation . . . the third grade . . . where intelli-
gence has its throne."
Though he also follows Aristotle in defining
three kinds of soul, Aquinas distinguishes four
grades of life, and in so doing differentiates be-
tween perfect and imperfect animals. "There are
some living things," he writes, "in which there
exists only vegetative power, as the plants.
There are others in which with the vegetative
there exists also the sensitive, but not the loco-
motive power; such are immovable animals, as
shellfish. There are others which besides this
have locomotive power, as perfect animals,
which require many things for their life, and
consequently movement to seek the neces-
saries of life from a distance. And there are
some living things which with these have in-
tellectual power— namely, men."
On this theory, man, viewed in terms of his
animal nature, is a perfect animal. Viewed in
terms of his reason or intellect, he stands above
the highest animals. Yet having a soul is not
peculiar to man, just as being alive, or sensi-
tive, or mobile, is not. But when, as with Des-
cartes, soul is identified with intellect— as "a
thing which thinks, that is to say a mind ... or
an understanding, or a reason"— and, in addi-
tion, soul is conceived as a spiritual and im-
mortal substance, then the conclusion seems
to follow that animals do not have souls.
For Descartes, the theory of the animal as a
machine or automaton follows as a further cor-
ollary. "If there had been such machines, pos-
sessing the organs and outward form of a mon-
key or some other animal without reason,"
Descartes claims that "we should not have had
any means of ascertaining that they were not
of the same nature as those animals." Hobbes
likewise would account for all the actions of
animal life on mechanical principles. "For what
is the heart, but a spring," he asks, "and the
nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but
so many wheels, giving motion to the whole
body?" The animal is thus pictured as an elab-
orate system of moving parts, inflexibly de-
termined to behave in certain ways under the
impact of stimulation by external forces.
The doctrine of the animal automaton is
sometimes generalized, as by La Mettne, a
follower of Descartes, to include the conception
of man as a machine. The same conclusions
which are reached from the denial of soul in
animals seem to follow also from the theory
that the soul, even in the case of man, is ma-
terial or a function of matter. According to
those who, like Lucretius, hold this view, the
phenomena of life, sensation, and thought can
be explained by the movement of atomic par-
ticles and their interaction.
The second point concerns the relation be-
tween instinct and intelligence in animals. The
nature of animal instincts (or innate habits) is
considered in the chapters on EMOTION and
HABIT, as is the nature of animal intelligence
in the chapters on MAN and REASONING. But
here we face the issue whether instinct func-
tions in animals, as reason does in man, to meet
the exigencies of life; or whether in both,
though varying in degree, intelligence cooper-
ates with instinct to solve the problems of ad-
justment to environment.
Those who, like Aquinas, regard instinct and
reason as the alternative and exclusive means
which God provides for the ends of animal and
human life, necessarily tend to interpret ani-
mal behavior in all its detail as pre-determined
by elaborate instinctive endowments. Accord-
ingly, animal behavior, even when voluntary
rather than purely the action of physiological
reflexes, is said not to be free, or an expression of
free choice on the part of the animal; for, as
is pointed out in the chapter on WILL, Aquinas
calls behavior "voluntary" if it involves some
knowledge or consciousness of the objects to
which it is directed.
Instinctive behavior, such as an animal's
flight from danger or its pursuit of food or a
mate, involves sense-perception of the objects
of these actions, as well as feelings or emotions
about them. But though it is "voluntary" in
the sense in which Aquinas uses that word, in-
stinctive behavior is, according to him, the
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
25
exact opposite of action based upon free will.
It is completely determined by the inborn pat-
tern of the instinct. It may vary in operation
with the circumstances of the occasion, but it
does not leave the animal the freedom to act
or not to act, or to act this way rather than
that. Such freedom of choice, Aquinas holds,
depends on reason's ability to contemplate al-
ternatives, to none of which is the human will
bound by natural necessity.
Aquinas does not limit human reason and
will to a role analogous to the one he ascribes
to instinct and emotion in animal life. Their
power enables man to engage in speculative
thought and to seek remote ends. Never-
theless, on the level of his biological needs, man
must resort to the use of his reason and will where
other animals are guided by instinct. "Man
has by nature," Aquinas writes, "his reason and
his hands, which are the organs of organs, since
by their means man can make for himself in-
struments of an infinite variety, and for any
number of purposes." Just as the products of
reason take the place of hair, hoofs, claws,
teeth, and horns — "fixed means of defense or
of clothing, as is the case with other animals" —
so reason serves man's needs, in the view of
Aquinas, as instinct serves other animals.
Others, like Darwin, James, and Freud, seem
to take a different view. They attribute in-
stinct to men as well as to animals. In their
opinion instinctively determined behavior is
influenced by intelligence, and affected by
memory and imagination, in animals as well as
in men. They recognize, however, that instinct
predominates in some of the lower forms of
animal life, and acknowledge that the contribu-
tion of intelligence is great only among the
more highly developed organisms.
"Man has a far greater variety of impulses
than any lower animal," writes James; "and any
one of these impulses taken in itself, is as * blind*
as the lowest instinct can be; but, owing to
man's memory, power of reflection, and power
of inference, they come each one to be felt by
him, after he has once yielded to them and ex-
perienced their results in connection with a
foresight of those results." On the same grounds,
James argues that "every instinctive act, in an ani-
mal with memory, must cease to be * blind" after
being once repeated, and must be accompanied
with foresight of its 'end1 just so far as that end
may have fallen under the animal's cognizance."
If instinct, in animals or men, were sufficient
for solving the problems of survival, there
would be no need for what James calls "sagac-
ity" on the part of animals, or of learning from
experience. Like Montaigne, James assembles,
anecdotes to show that animals exercise their
wits and learn from experience. "No matter
how well endowed an animal may originally be
in the way of instincts," James declares, "his
resultant actions will be much modified if the
instincts combine with experience, if in addi-
tion to impulses he have memories, associations,
inferences, and expectations, on any consider-
able scale,"
In his consideration of "the intellectual con-
trast between brute and man," fames places
"the most elementary single difference between
the human mind and that of brutes" in the
"deficiency on the brute's part to associate
ideas by similarity," so that "characters, the
abstraction of which depends on this sort of
association, must in the brute always remain
drowned." Darwin similarly makes the differ-
ence in degree between human and animal in-
telligence a matter of greater or less power to
associate ideas. In consequence, human in-
stincts are much more modified by learning
and experience than the instincts of other ani-
mals, as in turn the higher animals show much
greater variability in their instinctive behavior
than do lower organisms.
It is not necessary to deny that men alone
have reason in order to affirm that, in addition
to instinct, animals have intelligence in some
proportion to the development of their sensi-
tive powers, especially their memory and im-
agination. The position of Aristotle and Aqui-
nas seems to involve both points. But if we at-
tribute the extraordinary performances of ani-
mals to their intelligence alone, rather than
primarily to instinct, then we are led to con-
clude with Montaigne that they possess not
merely a sensitive intelligence, but a reasoning
intellect.
"Why does the spider make her web tighter
in one place and slacker in another?" Mon-
taigne asks. "Why now one sort of knot and
then another, if she has not deliberation,
thought, and conclusion?" And in another
26
THE GREAT IDEAS
place he asks, "What is there in our intelli-
gence that we do not see in the operations of
animals? Is there a polity better ordered, the
offices better distributed, and more inviolably
observed and maintained than that of bees?
Can we imagine that such and so regular a dis-
tribution of employments can be carried on
without reason and prudence?"
GREGARIOUSNESS in animals and the nature of
animal communities are considered in the chap-
ter on STATE, in connection with the formation
of human society. But so far as human society
itself is concerned, the domestication of ani-
mals signifies an advance from primitive to
civilized life and an increase in the wealth and
power of the tribe or city.
Aeschylus includes the taming of animals
among the gifts of Prometheus, who "first
brought under the yoke beasts of burden, who
by draft and carrying relieved men of their
hardest labors . . . yoked the proud horse to
the chariot, teaching him obedience to the
reins, to be the adornment of wealth and lux-
ury." The Mad pays eloquent testimony to the
change in the quality of human life which ac-
companied the training of animals to respond
to human command. Homer's reference to
Castor as "breaker of horses" indicates the
sense of conquest or mastery which men felt
when they subdued wild beasts; and the oft-
repeated Homeric epithet "horse- taming,"
which is intended as a term of praise for both
the Argives and the Trojans, implies the rise of
a people from barbarous or primitive condi-
tions—their emancipation from the discom-
forts and limitations of animal life.
Aristotle points out that one mark of wealthy
men is "the number of horses which they keep,
for they cannot afford to keep them unless they
are rich." For the same reason, he explains,
"in old times the cities whose strength lay in
their cavalry were oligarchies."
Legend and history are full of stories of the
loyalty and devotion of animals to their human
masters, and of the reciprocal care and affection
which men have given them. But, motivated as
it is by their utility for economic or military
purposes, the breaking of animals to human will
also frequently involves a violent or wanton
misuse.
The use, or even the exploitation, of animals
by man seems to be justified by the inferiority
of the brute to the rational nature. As plants
exist for the sake of animals, so animals, accord-
ing to Aristotle, "exist for the sake of man, the
tame for use and food, the wild, if not all, at
least the greater part of them, for food, and for
the provision of clothing and various instru-
ments." Aristotle's conception of the natural
slave, discussed in the chapter on SLAVERY,
uses the domesticated animal as a kind of
model for the treatment of human beings as
tools or instruments.
Though he does not share Aristotle's view
that some men are by nature slaves, Spinoza
takes a comparable position with regard to
man's domination and use of animals. "The
law against killing animals," he writes, "is
based upon an empty superstition and woman-
ish tenderness, rather than upon sound reason.
A proper regard, indeed, to one's own profit
teaches us to unite in friendship with men, and
not with brutes, nor with things whose nature
is different from human nature ... I by no
means deny," he continues) "that brutes feel,
but I do deny that on this account it is unlaw-
ful for us to consult our own profit by using
them for our pleasure and treating them as is
most convenient to us, inasmuch as they do not
agree m nature with us."
But other moralists declare that men can be-
friend animals, and insist that charity, if not
justice, should control man's treatment of
beasts. Nor is such contrary teaching confined
to Christianity, or to the maxims of St. Francis,
who would persuade men to love not only their
neighbors as themselves, but all of God's crea-
tures. Plutarch, for instance, argues that al-
though "law and justice we cannot, in the na-
ture of things, employ on others than men,"
nevertheless, "we may extend our goodness and
charity even to irrational creatures." In kind-
ness to dumb animals he finds the mark of the
"gentle nature"—- the sign of a man's humane-
ness. "Towards human beings as they have
reason, behave in a social spirit," says Marcus
Aurelius; but he also writes: "As to animals
which have no reason, and generally all things
and objects, do thou, since thou hast reason and
they have none, make use of them with a gen-
erous and liberal spirit."
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL 27
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1 . General theories about the animal nature 29
i a. Characteristics of animal life: the animal soul
(1) Animal sensitivity: its degrees and differentiations 30
(2) Animal memory, imagination, and intelligence
(3) Animal appetite: desire and emotion in animals
(4) Locomotion: degrees of animal motihty 31
(5) Sleeping and waking in animals
ib. The distinction between plants and animals in faculty and function: cases difficult
to classify
ic. The distinction between animal and human nature 32
(1) Comparison of brutes and men as animals 33
(2) Comparison of animal with human intelligence 34
id. The habits or instincts of animals: types of animal habit or instinct; the habits
or instincts of different classes of animals
ic. The conception of the animal as a machine or automaton 35
2. The classification of animals
20. General schemes of classification: their principles and major divisions
2b. Analogies of structure and function among different classes of animals
20. Continuity and discontinuity in the scale of animal life: gradation from lower
to higher forms 36
3. The anatomy of animals
30. Physical elements of the animal body: kinds of tissue
3^. The skeletal structure
y. The visceral organs 37
$d. The utility or adaptation of bodily structures
4. Animal movement
40. Comparison of animal movement with other kinds of local motion
4#. The cause of animal movement: voluntary and involuntary movements
4^. The organs, mechanisms, and characteristics of locomotion 38
5. Local motion within the animal body
50. The ducts, channels, and conduits involved in interior bodily motions
5^. The circulatory system: the motions of the heart, blood, and lymph 39
y. The glandular system: the glands of internal and external secretion
5^. The respiratory system: breathing, lungs, gills
5*. The alimentary system : the motions of the digestive organs in the nutritive process
28 THE GREAT IDEAS
PAGB
$f. The excretory system: the motions of elimination 39
5£. The brain and nervous system: the excitation and conduction of nervous impulses 40
6. Animal nutrition
6a. The nature of the nutriment
6b. The process of nutrition: ingestion, digestion, assimilation
7. Animal growth or augmentation: its nature, causes, and limits 41
8. The generation of animals
Sa. The origin of animals: creation or evolution
8£. Diverse theories of animal generation: procreation and spontaneous generation
8r. Modes of animal reproduction: sexual and asexual 42
(1) Sexual differentiation: its origins and determinations; primary and secondary
characteristics
(2) The reproductive organs: their differences in different classes of animals
(3) The reproductive cells and secretions: semen and catamenia, sperm and egg 43
(4) The mating of animals: pairing and copulation
(5) Factors affecting fertility and sterility
Sd. Comparison of human with animal reproduction 44
9. The development of the embryo: birth and infancy
ga. Oviparous and viviparous development
9#. The nourishment of the embryo or foetus
9^. The process of embryogeny : the stages of foetal growth
yd. Multiple pregnancy: superfoetation
ge. The period of gestation: parturition, delivery, birth 45
cf. The care and feeding of infant offspring: lactation
V: o,£. Characteristics of the offspring at birth
10. Heredity and environment: the genetic determination of individual differences and
similarities
1 1 . The habitat of animals 46
n a. The geographical distribution of animals: their natural habitats
lib. The relation between animals and their environments
12. The treatment of animals by men
120. The taming of animals
izb. The use and abuse of animals 47
i2c. Friendship or love between animals and men
13. The attribution of human qualities or virtues to animals: personification in allegory "
and satire ' 48
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
29
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to, For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES -.Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends m the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in t\\o columns, the letters a and h refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage. Forexample, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included m the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ m title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; eg, OLD TESTA-
MENT. Nehemiah, 7 45— (D) 77 Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. General theories about the animal nature
la. Characteristics of animal life: the animal
soul
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 93c-d / Phaedo, 233b-c /
Republic, BK x, 440b-c/ Timaeus, 476d-477a,c
8 ARISTOTLE- Metaphysics, BK v, CH 8 [ioi7bio-
17] 538b / Soul 631a-668d esp BK n, CH 2
9ARIS1OTLF. History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487aio-488b29] 7d-9d; BK vin, CH i 114b,d-
115b/ Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [64i*33-bio]
164b-c; CH 5 [645^4-646*5] 169c-d; BK m,
CH 5 [667b2i~32] 196a / Motion of Animals,
CH 6-1 1 235d-239d esp CH 10 238c-239a /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 23 [73ift24-b8]
271c-d; BK n, CH 3 [736*24-737*19] 276d-278a;
CH 5 [74iB6-3i] 282a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b;
CH 12 172d-173c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [94-416]
31b35c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 16, 262d;
BK ix, SECT 9 292b-d
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 855a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH n 5b-c /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 23 153d-154b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par n 74a-b /
City of God, BK vii, CH 23, 256b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A i 104c-105c; Q 72, A i, REP i 368b-369d,
Q 75, A 3 380c-381b; A 6, REP i 383c-384c;
Q 78, A i 407b-409a; Q 118, A i 600a-601c;
PART i-n, Q 17, A 2, REP 2 687d-688b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 79, A i, ANS 951b-953b
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[34-78] 91d-92a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
138a-b; 192d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 302d-303a / On
Animal Generation, 369d-370b; 372b; 384d-
390b passim; 403d-404b; 418b-419d; 431b-
434a esp 433c-d; 456b-458a esp 457a-d; 488d-
496d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48, 186a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 56a-b; 59a-60c / Objections and
Replies, 156a-d; 208c; 226a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 12 140c; CH xxvn, SECT 3-5 219d-220c
passim; BK HI, CH vi, SECT 33 278b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b; 8a-14b passim, esp
llb-12a; 47b-52a passim
30
THE GREAT IDEAS
la(l) to la(3)
(1. General theories about the animal nature, la.
Characteristics of animal life: the animal
soul.)
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
657d esp 651d-652c, 655b<656a / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 85la-c
la(l) Animal sensitivity: its degrees and differ-
entiations
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 453b-454a
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK u, CH 2 [4i3bi-i3]
643c-d; [414*1-3] 644a; BK n, CH 5-BK in,
CH 3 647b 661b; BK in, CH 8-13 664b-668d /
Sense and the Sensible 673a-689a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 3
[489*17-20] lOb; CH 4 [489*23-27] lOc; CH
9-11 13b-15a; CH 15 [494bn-i8] 16d; BK 11,
CH 10 25b-c; CH 12 [504*19-29] 26c-d; CH 13
[505a33-39] 27d-28a; BK iv, CH 6 [53ia27-b4]
58b; CH 7 [532*5-10] 58d-59a; CH 8 59d-62a,
BK v, CH 16 [548bio-i5] 75b-c; BK vin, CH i
[588bi7~3i] 115a-b; BK ix, en 34 [620*1-5]
145c / Pans of Animals, BK 11, CH i [647*i-bio]
171a-d; CH 8 [65^22-29] 179b; CH 10-17 181d-
188a,c esp CH 10 [656ai4J-cn 12 [657*25] 182b-
183d, CH 16-17 185d-188a,c; BK in, CH 4
[666*34-bi] 194b; [667*10-15] 195b; BK iv, CH
5 [68i1)i4-682R9] 2l2b-d; CH n [690bi7-6pia28]
222d 223c / Gait of Animals, en 4 [705^9-13]
244b / Generation of Animals, BK i, cn 23
[73i*24~b8] 271c-d; BK n, CH i [732*12-14]
272c; cn 3 [736*25-bi4] 276d-277b; CH 5
[741*6-30] 282a-b; CH 6 [743b25-744bn] 285a-
d; BK v, CH i [778b2o]-cH 2 [78ib3o] 321a-324a
/ Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [i 097^3-1098*2] 343b;
BK in, CH 10 [ni8*i7-b8] 364d-365a; BK vi,
CH 2 [1139*17-21] 387d; BK ix, CH 9 [1170*13-
19] 423d-424a; BK x, CH 4 [ii74bi5~i 175*2]
429a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [398-477]
20a-21a; BK in [231-287] 33 a -d; [323-416]
34b-35c; BK iv [216-268] 47a-d; [524-548]
51a-b, [615-721] 52b-53d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations^ BK in, SECT 16, 262d
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 855a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par n 74a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 2
380c-381b; Q 78, AA 3-4 410a-413d; Q 91, A 3,
RBP 1,3 486b-487d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 286a-287b; 290c-291b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 369d-370b;
433c-435a; 456b-458a esp 457a-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27,
157b-d; APH 40, 173c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH ix,
SECT 11-15 140b-141a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 103a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 244a-245b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 261c-262a; 301c-
302a; 397d-398a; 402b-c; 406c; 432c-434c
passim; 447b-d; 474a-b; 480a-482b passim;
529a-b; 553d-554a; 568d-569b; 595b-596a
esp 595d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 8a; 9b-13a passim, esp 13a;
27a-42b passim
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-
648a
la(2) Animal memory, imagination, and in-
telligence
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xvn [290-327] 280a-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 112b-c
7 PLATO. Republic, BK n, 319c-320b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*28-
b27] 499a-b / Soul, BK HI, CH 3 [427^ 4-429*9]
660a-661b; CH 10 [433*8-12] 665d; CH 10
[433b27]-cH ii [434*9] 666c-d / Memory and
Reminiscence 690a-695d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488^5-27] 9d; BK vm, CH i [588*18-31]
114b,d; [589*1-3] 115b; BK ix, CH i [608*11-
32] 133b,d; CH 7 [6i2bi8~32] 138b-c, CH 46
[630^7-23] 156a / Ethics, BK vn, CH 3
[ii47b3-5J397d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [962-
1036] 56d-57c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 26, 78b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 78,
A 4, ANS and REP 3,5-6 411d-413d; PART i-ii,
Q 13, A 2, REP 3 673c-674c
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 50a-51b; 52b;
53d; 64b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 218c-219b; 229d-230b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 454a
31 DESCARTES. Rules, xii, 19d-20a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [369-451]
240a-242a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH x,
SECT 10 143c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix, DIV 83
487c-d
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART iv, 163b-164b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a; 341d-342a
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 291d-294c; 296c-
297b; 400a-c; 412d; 447b-c; 480a-481b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 3b-6b esp 5b; 13a-14a;
49a-50a; 51a-52a; 679a-683a; 704a-706b
Animal appetite: desire and emotion in
animals
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvn [426-455] 126c-d /
Odyssey, BK xvn [290-327] 280a-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 146c-d
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165c-166b / Republic, BK
n, 319c-320b / Laws, BK vi, 712b
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 9-11 664d-667a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 18
97b-99c; BK vm, CH i [588^4-589*10] 115b;
la(4) to \b CHAPTER 2:
BK ix, CH 4 [611*9-14] 136d; CH 37 [621*28-
622*10] 147c / Parts of Animals, BK H, CH 4
[65ob20-65i*i5] 175c-176a; BK HI, CH 4
[667*10-22] 195b; BK iv, CH 5 [679*5-32]
209a-c; CH n [692*22-27] 224b-c / Motion of
Animals, CH 6-n 235d-239d / Ethics, BK in,
CH 8 [iii6b23-ni7*9] 363a-c; CH 10 [1118*17-
b8] 364d-36Sa; BK VH, CH 6 [ii49b30-36] 400c;
CH 12 [1153*27-35] 404c-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 6 202d-
203a;cH8,206b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [136-160]
31d-32a; [288-322] 33d-34b; [741-753] 39c-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK xi [745-760] 348b; BK xn
[5-n]354a
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 23, 154b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 6, A i,
REP 2 28b-d; QQ 80-8 1 427a-431d; PART i-n,
Q 6, A 2 646a-c; Q n, A 2 667b-d; Q 12, A 5
672a-c; Q 13, A 2 673c-674c; Q 15, A 2 682a-c;
Q 16, A 2 684d-685b; Q 17, A 2 687d-688b;
Q 40, A 3 794c-795a; Q 46, A 4, ANS and REP 2
815bd
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Tale [17,104-135] 490a-b
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART i, 61a-d; 64a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 224c-225b
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc vi [109-
125] 274c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 346a-347d;
349a-350a; 391a-c; 402a-d; 405c-406a; 476c-
477a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART in, PROP 57, SCHOL 415b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-345a
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, 215d-216a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtcf(, 289b-291a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 289a-291a; 303c;
305c-309d; 371c-372c; 447b-c; 480a-481b;
543d-545d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xni, 575b; BK
xiv, 605d-606a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 14a-b; 49b-51a; 700b-711a
passim, esp 702a-703a; 717b; 723b-725a; 729b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 607d-609b csp
609b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety,
721a; 737c-d
1<*(4) Locomotion: degrees of animal motility
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 9-11 664d-667a;
CH 12 [434*3o-b9] 667 b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487b5~34] 8b-d; BK n, CH i [497bi8-498bio]
20a-d; BK iv, CH i [523b20~524*24] 48d-49d;
CH 4 [528*30-bn] 55b; BK vin, CH i [588bn-
24] 115a; BK ix, CH 37 [62^2-13] 147a-b; CH
48 [631*20-30] 156c-d / Parts of Animals, BK
iv, CH 6-9 213b-217b passim; CH 10 [686*25-
b35] 217d-218c; CH 12 [693*25]-^ 13 [696*34]
225b-228a / Motion of Animals, CH 1-2 233a-
234a; CH 8 [702*22]-CH 10 [703bi] 237c-239a /
Gait of Animals 243a-252a,c / Generation of
Animals, BK n, CH i [732*12-24] 272c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 8, 193b-c
ANIMAL 31
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [837-859]
72a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A i, ANS 104c-105c; A 2, REP 1 105c-106b; A 3,
ANS 106b-107c; Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 4 407b-
409a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
192d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 19d-20a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT n 140b-c; SECT 13 140d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 279a-280c; 37ld-
372c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 10a-12b esp 12a b; 699a
la(5) Sleeping and waking in animals
8 ARISTOTLE: Sleep 696a-701d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK in, CH 19
[521*15-17] 46a; BK iv, CH 10 63c-64b; BK vi,
CH 12 [566bi3~i5] 92d; BK vm, CH 14 [599*20]-
CH 17 [6oobi5] 125b-126d / Parts of Animals,
BK n, CH 7 [653*10-20] 178b-c / Motion of
Animals, CH n [703b8-i5] 239b / Generation
of Animals, BK v, CH i [778^0-779*28 ] 321a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [907-961]
56a-d
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 8 1, A 4, ANS 966d-967d; Q 82, A 3, ANS 971a-
972d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337c
ib. The distinction between plants and animals
in faculty and function: cases difficult to
classify
\7 PLATO: Timaeus, 469d-470a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 10 [148*23-38]
202b-c / Physics, BK 11, CH 8 [i99*2o-bi3J
276c-d / Heavens, BK 11, CH 12 [292bi-n] 384a
/ Soul, BK i, CH 5 [4 1 ob 1 6-4 1 1*2] 640d-641a;
BK n, CH 2 [4i3*20-bio] 643b-c; CH 3 644c-
645b; BK in, CH 12 [434*22-b9] 667a-c / Sleep,
CH i 696a-697c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK iv, CH 6
[53ib8-9] 58b; BK v, CH i [539*15-25] 65b-d;
BK vm, CH i [588b4-589*2] 114d-115b / Parts
of Animals, BK n, CH 3 [650*1-37] 174c-175a;
CH 10 [655b27-656*8] 181d-182a; BK iv, CH 4
[677b36-678"i5] 207d-208a; CH 5 [68i*io-b9]
211c-212b; CH 6 [682b26-28] 213d; CH 10
[686b23-687*i] 218b-c / Gait of Animals, CH 4
[705*26-b9] 244a-b / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH i [715^8-716*1] 255d-256a; CH 23
271b-d; BK n, CH i [732*12-14] 272c; [735*16-
19] 275d; CH 3 [736*25-bi4] 276d-277b; CH 4
[740b25]-CH 5 [741*30] 281d*282b; BK in, CH 7
[757bi5~3o] 298c-d; CH n 302b-304d; BK v,
CHi[778b3o-779*4]321a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [700-710]
23d-24a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vin, SECT 7 286a;
BK ix, SECT 9, 292c
32
THE GREAT IDEAS
\c
(1. General theories about the animal nature. \b.
The distinction between plants and animals
in faculty and function*, cases difficult to
classify!)
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK vii, CH 23, 256b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q 18,
A i, REP 2 104c-105c; A 2, REP i 105c-106b;
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 69, A 2, REP 1 361c-362c;
Q 72, A i, REP i 368b-369d; Q 78, A i, ANS
407b-409a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 278b / Circula-
tion of the Blood, 327d-328a / On Animal
Generation, 368a-b; 369d-370b; 372b; 397c-
398c; 457c-d; 461b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 30
159c-d
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 11-15 140b-141a; BK in, CH vi, SECT 12
271d-272b
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 37, 119c
49 DARWIN Origin of Species, 241 b-c / Descent of
Man, 372b-c
53 JAMFS: Psychology, 8a
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 429c-d
Ic. The distinction between animal and human
nature
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-20 -30 / Psalms, 8 esp
8'4-8-(D) Psalms, 8 esp 85-97 Ecclesiastes,
3 18-22
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [436-505] 44c-
45a
5 EURIPIDES. Trojan Women [669-672] 275d
7 PLATO: Laches, 35b-d / Protagoras, 44a-45k /
Cratylus, 93a-b / Timaeus, 452d-453a / Laws,
BK n, 653b-c; BK vn, 723c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK v, CH 3 [132*17-22]
183a / Heavens, BK 11, CH 12 [292bi-ii] 384a /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98oa28-b27] 499a-b /
Soul, BK n, CH 3 [4i4bi7~2o] 644d, [4i5a7-i2]
645b; BK in, CH 3 [427^-14] 659d-660a;
[428*20-24] 660c; CH 10 [433a8-i3] 665d /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453*5-14]
69Sb
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488b20-27] 9d; BK iv, CH 9 [536*34-b8] 63a-b;
BK VIH, CH i [588ai8-b4] 114b,d / Parts of
Animals, BK i, CH i [64ib5-io] 164b-c; BK n,
CH 10 [656*4-14] 182a-b; BK HI, CH 10 [673*4-
10] 201d-202a; BK iv, CH 10 [686*25-687b5]
217d-219a / Generation of Animals, BK v, CH 7
[786bi5-22] 328c-d / Ethics, BK i, CH 7
[io97b33-io98*4] 343b; BK HI, CH 2 [imb6-9]
357b; BK vi, CH 2 [1139*17-20] 387d; CH 13
[ii44bi-io] 394b; BK vn, CH i [1145*15-26]
395a; CH 5 399a-d; CH 6 [i 149^4-1 150*8]
400b-c; BK x, CH 8 [i 178^3-32] 433c / Poli-
tics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*7-18] 446b-c; BK in, CH 9
[1280*31-34] 477d-478a; BK vn, CH 13
Ji332*39-b5] 537a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i
[i355bi-3] 594d / Poetics, CH 4 [1448 V8] 682c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
CH 6, llla-c; CH 9, 114c-115a; CH 16 121d-
122d; CH 28, 134a*b; BK n, CH 8, 146a-c;
BK in, CH 7, 183d; BK iv, CH 5, 228c-d; CH 7,
233a b; CH 11, 240d-241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 16 262d-
263a,c; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d; BK vi, SLCT 23
276b; BK ix, SECT 9 292b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par n 74a-b;
BK xni, par 35-37 120b-121a esp par 37, 121a
/ City of God, BK vn, CH 23, 256b-c; BK xi,
CH 27-28 337b-338d; BK xxix, CH 24, 610c-d
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8 626c-627a;
CH 22, 629b-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP 2 14b-15b; A 4, REP i 16d-17c; Q 18, A 2,
REP i 105c-106b; A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19,
A 10, ANS 117d-118b; Q 30, A 2, REP 3 168a-
169b; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q 72, A i,
REP 1,3 368b-369d; Q 75, AA 2-3 379c-381b;
A 6, REP i 383c-384c; Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-
396a; Q 78, A i, ANS 407b-409a; A 4, ANS
411d-413d; Q 79, A 8, REP 3 421c-422b; Q Si,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 430c-431d; Q 83, A i, ANS
436d-438a; Q 91, A 3, REP 1-3 486b-487d;
O 92, A i, ANS 488d-489d; Q 96, A i 510b-511b;
Q 115, A 4, ANS 589d-590c; Q 118, AA 1-2
600a-603b; PART i-n, Q i, A i, ANS 609b-610b;
A 2, ANS and REP 1,3 610b-611b; Q 2, A 5,
CONTRARY 618d-619c; Q 6, A 2 646a-c; Q 10,
A 3, ANS 664d-665c; Q n, A 2 667b-d; Q 12,
A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2 673c-674c; Q 15, A 2
682a-c; Q 16, A 2 684d-685b; Q 17, A 2 687d-
688b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 50,
A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; Q no, A 4, REP 3 350d-351d;
PART III, Q 2, A 2, REP 2 711d-712dj Q 7, A 9,
ANS 751d-752c; PART in SUPPL, Q 79, A i,
ANS 951b-953b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi [112-120]
39b; PURGATORY, xxv [34-78] 91d-92a; PARA-
DISE, v [19-24] 112b; vn [121-148] 116b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1303-1333] 181b-
182a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52b; 53a-b; 54a;
59b-c; 63a; 79b-c; PART n, lOOa-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 207a-c; 215a-232c
27 SHAKESPEARE* Hamlet, ACT iv, sc iv [32-39]
59a
31 DESCARTES- Rules, xn, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART i, 41d; PART v, 56a-b; 59a-60b / Objec-
tions and Replies, 156a-d; 226a-d; 276c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 57, SCHOL
415b; PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL i, 435a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [449-549] 227a-
229a; BK vin [369-451] 240a-242a; BK ix
[549-566] 259b
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 140 199a-b; 339-344 233a-b;
418 243a / Vacuum, 357a-358a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT i
93a-b; BK n, CH xi, SECT 4-11 144d-146a pas-
sim, esp SECT lo-n 145d-146a; CH xxvn, SECT
Ml)
CHAFER 2: ANIMAL
8 221a-222a; SECT 12 223a-b; BK HI, CH i,
SECT 1*3 251b,d-252a; CH vi, SECT 12 27ld-
272b; SECT 22 273d-274a; SECT 26-27 274d-
276a; SECT 29 276b-d; SECT 33 278b-c; CH xi,
SECT 20 304c-d; BK iv, CH xvi, SECT 12,
370c-371a; CH xvn, SECT i 371c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
n407b-408a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix 487b-
488c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, ld-2a
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 334d-335a; 337d-338d;
341d; 357c-d / Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 6d-8b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164a-c; 199c-200c / Prac-
tical Reason, 316c-317a / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 372a-b / Intro. Metaphysic
of Morals, 385c-386d / Judgement, 479a-c;
584d-585c; 587a-588a; 602b,d (fn i]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-449c passim;
469b-d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 47
24a-b; PART 11, par 132 46b-47a; par 139 48d-
49b; PART in, par 190 66a-b; par 211, 70a-b;
ADDITIONS, 4-5, 116a-d; 8 117c-d; 10 117d-
118a; 28 121b; 62 126a; 118 136a-b; 121 136c-d
/ Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c; 168d;
178a-b; 186a; PART i, 257d-258a; PART in,
304d-305a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 255a-b; 278a-c;
287a-c; 294c-305c csp 294c-295a, 297a-298a,
304a; 311d-312c; 319b-d; 349d; 591d-593c
50 MARX: Capital, 85b-c; 86b-c
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 689c-
690a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi, 167c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 85a-b; 677a; 678b-686b
csp 678b, 683b-684a, 686a-b; 691a-b; 704a-
706b csp 704a-b; 721a; 873a
54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 122c
/ Interpretation of Dreams, 385b-c / General
Introduction, 616b-c
lc(l) Comparison of brutes and men as ani-
mals
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK HI [1-35] 19a-b; BK v [133-
143] 31c; [159-165] 31d; BK vi [503-516]
45b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Sow/, BK n, CH 9 [421*6-26] 652c-
d; (42ib8-33] 653a-b / Sense and the Sensible,
CH i [436^7-437*17] 673d-674a; CH 4 [440b25~
441*3] 678b-c; CH 5 [443bi7-445*3i] 681c-
683b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals 7a-158d pas-
sim, csp BK i, CH i [488*5-10] 8d-9a, BK i, CH 6
[49i*i4]-BK in, CH 22 [523*27] 12d-48a,c, BK
vii 106b,d-H4a,c, BK ix, CH i [6o8*io-bi9]
133b,d-134a / Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 7
[653*2^5] M8d; CH 9 [655b3-i6] 181c; CH 10
[656*3-14] 182a~b; CH 14 184d-185c; CH 16
[659b28]-CH 17 I66ob3) 186d-187c; BK in, CH i
[66ib5-i5) 188b,dJ (662bi7-23] 190a; CH 6
33
197d~l98a; BK iv, CH 10 [686*25-
69obio] 217d-222c / Gait of Animals 243a-
252a,c csp CH 4 (705b3o-7o6*25] 244c-245a,
CH 5 [706^7-16] 245b, CH 11-12 248d-249d /
Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c csp BK n,
CH 4 278b-282a, CH 6 [744*15-31] 285b-c /
Ethics, BK in, CH 10 [in8*i8-b7] 364d-365a;
CH n [iii9*5-n]365c; BK vm, CH 12 [1162*16-
25] 414c / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*29-39] 446d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 8 93c-94b;
par 13 96b-c; par 46, 106a / Instruments of
Reduction, par i, 122b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d; BK in [288-322] 33d-34b; BK iv [962-
1036] 56d-57c; [1192-1208] 59d-60a; [1251-
1267] 60c-d; BK v [878-900] 72c-d; [1028-1090]
74c-75b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 75,
A 6, REP i 383c-384c; Q 76, A 5, ANS and REP
3-4 394c-396a; Q 78, A 4, ANS 411d-413d, QQ
80-81 427a-431d; Q 91, A 3, REP 1-3 486b-
487d; Q 98, A 2, ANS and REP 3 517d-519a;
Q 99, A i, ANS and REP 2 519b-520a; PART i-n,
Q 2, A 5, CONTRARY 618d-619c; A 6, CONTRARY
619d-620d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A 2, REP 2 711d-712d
22 CHAUCER- Manciple's Tale [17,104-144]
490a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215a-232c passim; 286a-
287b; 290c-291b; 424d-425c
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc vi [109-
125] 274c
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d-304a,c csp
280c-283a / On Animal Generation, 338a-496d
csp 449a-454a, 463d-464a, 470c-472c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 40,
173c-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xii, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 56a-b; 59a-60b / Objections and
Replies, 156a-d; 226a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART m, PROP 57, SCHOL 415b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 78-80
42b-43a / Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 12-15 140c-141a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 58a-b; PART iv, 147b-
148b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334b,d-337d; 338c;
346b-d; 348d-349c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [281-292] 8a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 284a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 255a-286d csp
265c-d, 273d-275c, 285c-286d; 287d-290c;
310a-312d; 331a-336a; 590a-593a
51 TOLSTOV: War and Peace^ EPILOGUE n, 689c-
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov^ BK v,
122d-123a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 49a-50a; 702a-b; 704a-
706b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 782a-d
ffn i]; 785a-b,d [fa i]
34
THE GREAT IDEAS
lc(2) to id
(lc. The distinction between animal and human
nature!)
lc(2) Comparison of animal with human in-
telligence
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 319c-320c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 8 [199*20-23]
276c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*28-981*12]
499a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488b2o-27] 9d; BK vm, CH i [588Ri8-b4]
114b,d; BK ix, CH i [6o8aio-bi9] 133b,d-134a;
CH 7 [6i2bi8-32] 138b-c / Parts of Animals,
BK i, CH i [64ib5-io] 164b-c; BK iv, CH 10
[686b22-687a23] 218b-d / Generation of Ani-
mals, BK i, CH 23 [73ia24-b8] 271c-d; BK n,
CH 6 [744*27-31] 285c / Ethics, BK vi, CH 7
[1141*20 35] 390a-b, BK VH, CH 3 [ii47b3~5]
397d / Politics, BK i, CH 5 [1254^0-25] 448b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12 172d-
173c
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK ix, SECT 9 292b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59,
A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-
396a; Q 79, A 8, REP 3 421c-422b; Q 83, A i,
ANS 436d-438a; Q 96, A i, ANS and REP 4
510b-511b, PART I-H, Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 17,
A 2 687d-688b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 79, A i, ANS 951b-953b
23 HOBBFS: Leviathan, PART i, 52b; 53a-b; 53d-
54a; 59b-c; 63a; 64b-c; 79b-c; PART n,100a-c;
PART iv, 267b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215a-224a; 231d-232c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428a-b; 454a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 73 117d-
118a; BK n, APH 35, 163d-164a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xii, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 59d-60b / Objections and Replies,
156a-d; 226a-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [369-451] 240a-
242a; BK ix [549-566] 259b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 339-344 233a-b / Vacuum,
357a-358a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 12-15 140c-141a; CH x, SECT 10 143c-d;
CH xi, SECT 4-11 144d-146a passim; CH xxvn,
SECT 8 221a-222a; SECT 12 223a-b; BK in,
CH vi, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK iv, CH xvi,
SECT 12, 370c-371a; CH xvn, SECT i 371c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
u407b-408a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix 487 b-
488c; SECT xii, DIV 118, 504c
36 SWIFT: Gullwer, PART iv 135a-184a esp 151b-
152a, 159b-160a
38 ROUSSEAU; Inequality, 337d-338a; 341d-342a
/ Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 6d-8b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 199c-200c; 235c-d / Prcf.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 372a-b /
Judgement, 479a-c; 584d-585c; 602b,d [fn i]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 25
121a; 121 136c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 134b-135a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 287a-303d esp 291c-
297b; 319b-<l; 591d-592a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 689c-
690a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 5a-6b; 13a-15a passim;
49a-50a; 85a-b; 665a-666b; 677a; 678b-686b;
704a-706b; 873a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 385b-c
id. The habits or instincts of animals: types of
animal habit or instinct; the habits or in-
stincts of different classes of animals
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 62c-64c passim;
67b-c; BK in, llld-112c; BK vn, 236c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 320b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 8 [199*20-30]
276c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487*io-488b29] 7d-9d; BK iv, CH 9 62a-63c;
BK v-vi 65a-106d esp BK v, CH 8 [542*18^2]
68d-69a; BK vin-ix 114b,d-158d esp BK vm,
CH I [588^3-589*9] H5b, CH 12 [596b20-28]
122d / Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 4 [650^9-
651*5] 175c-d; BK iv, CH 5 [679*5-32] 209a-c /
Generation of Animals, BK HI, CH 2 [753*8-17]
294a-b/ Politics, BK i, CH 5 [1254^3-24] 448b;
CH 8 [1256*18-30] 450a; BK vn, CH 13 [i332b3~
4] 537b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12,
173a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [333-370]
19b-d; [661-668] 23b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 10, ANS 117d-118b; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a;
Q 78, A 4, ANS 411d-413d; Q 81, A 3, ANS and
REP 2 430c-431d; Q 83, A i, ANS 436d-438a;
Q 96, A i, ANS and REP 2,4 510b-511b; Q 115,
A 4, ANS 589d-590c; PART I-H, Q 12, A 5, ANS
and REP 3 672a-c; Q 13, A 2 esp REP 3 673c-
674c; Q 15, A 2, ANS 682a-c; Q 16, A 2, REP 2
684d-685b; Q 17, A 2, REP 3 687d-688b; Q 40,
A 3 794c-795a; Q 41, A i, REP 3 798b-d; Q 46,
A 4, REP 2 815b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3, REP 2 8b-9a
22 CHAUCER: Nun's Priest's Tale [15,282-287]
457b / Manciple's Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, lOOa-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
247d-248b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 184a-b; 216b-219a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc n [187-204]
535d~536a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, ACT iv, sc
HI [320-348] 414b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 339a-b;
346a-347d; 349a-350a; 361c-362a; 402 a- d;
405c-406a; 428a-c; 476b*477b
\eto2b
CHAFER 2: ANIMAL
35
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 72c / No-
vum Organum, BK i, APH 73 117d-118a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 60b / Objec-
tions and Replies, 156a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 57, SCHOL
415b
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 342-344 233b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 38,
466b; DIV 45 469c; SECT ix, DIV 85 488c;
SECT XII, DIV Il8, 504C
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 162a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334d-335a; 337d-338a;
343d-344a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256d-257a / Practical Reason, 316c-317a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 221b-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 144a-b; 146b-147a;
283b-284a; 289b-292a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 66a-69c passim;
82d-85c; 108d-lllb; 119a-135a,c esp 119a-
122d, 134d-135a,c / Descent of Man, 287d-
289a; 304b-310d esp 308a-310a; 312c-d;
369b-371b; 456b-457c; 463a-464b; 470d-475c
passim, esp 475c; 504d-507a passim, esp 506c;
583a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 499c-500c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 49b-50a; 68a-73b; 700a-
711a; 724a-b; 730a-b; 890b-891b [fn 3]
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401a-c / Instincts, 412b-
415d / General Introduction, 615b-616c / Be-
yond the Pleasure /V;«r/^,650c-662b esp 651d-
654a / Group Psychology, 684d-686c esp 684d-
685b / Ego and Id, 711c-712a / New Introduc-
tory Lectures, 846a-851d esp 846b-d, 849c-
850a, 851a
le. The conception of the animal as a machine
or automaton
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[64ob5-i8j 163a-b / Motion of Animals, CH 7
[70ibi-i3] 236d-237a / Generation of Animals,
BK it, CH i (734b3~ 20] 275a-b; CH 5 [74ib5-io]
282c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 3,
185a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56a-b; 59a-
60c / Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 226a-d
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 340 233a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH x,
SECT 10 143c-d; CH xi, SECT n 145d-146a;
CH xxvn, SECT 5 220b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Judgement, 558b-559a; 575b-578a;
578d-582c
50 MARX: Capital, 190d [fn i]
51 TptsTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 449b-c;
EPILOGUE H, 689c-690a
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 3b*6b passim, esp 5b-6b;
lla-12a; 47b-52b esp 51a-52a; 84a-94b; 700a-
706b esp 705a-706b
2. The classification of animals
2a. General schemes of classification: their
principles and major divisions
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-31; 2:19-20 /
Leviticus, ii
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 13
[96b25~97a6] 132a-b; CH 14 133c-134a / Top-
ics, BK vi, CH 6 [144*27-145*2] 197d-198c
passim / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 28 546b-c;
BK vii, CH 12 [103^28-1038*35] 561c-562a /
Soul, BK ii, CH 3 644c-645b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[486Ri5]-CH 6 [491*5] 7b-12c esp CH i [486*15-
487*1] 7b-d; BK n, CH i [497Vi8] 19b,d-20a;
CH 15 [505^5-321 28b-c; BK iv, CH i [523*30-
b2o] 48b,d; BK v, CH i [539<VI5l 65b» BK
vm, CH i [588b4]-CH 2 [590*18] 114d-116c /
Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4 165d-168c; CH 5
[645b2o-28] 169c-d; BK in, CH 6 [669by-i4]
198a / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i
[7i5*i8-b25] 255b-d; BK n, CH i [732*13-
733bi7] 272c-274a; BK in, CH ii ~
302c-d / Politics, BK iv, CH 4
489d-490a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 4, REP 1 16d-17c; Q 50, A 4, REP i 273b-274b;
QQ 71-72 367a-369d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 468b-
469b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27,
158b-c; APH 30 159c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi
268b-283a passim, esp SECT 7 270b, SECT 36-
37 279a-b; CH xi, SECT 19-20 304b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 193a-200c / Judgement,
579b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby DicJ(, 95b-105b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 24a-b; 25d-29a
esp 28c-29a; 30d-31d; 63d-64d; 207a-212c;
215b-217b; 224d-225b; 228c-229a,c; 238b-
239a; 241d-242a / Descent of Man, 331a-34ld
esp 331b-333a, 337a-338c; 342a-350b passim,
esp342a-b
2b. Analogies of structure and function among
different classes of animals
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK ii, CH 14
[98*20-23] 134a / Youth, Life, and Breathing
714a-726d passim
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals 7a-158d esp
BK i, CH 1-6 7a-13a, BK n, CH i 19b,d-23d,
BK iv, CH S-BK v, CH i 59d-66a, BK vm, CH i
114b,d-115b / Parts of Animals 161a-229d pas-
sim, esp BK i, CH 4 167d-168c, CH 5 [645bi-
646*5] 169b-d / Gait of Animals 243a-252a,c /
Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c esp BK n,
CH i 272a-276a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 2 199d-
200a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 274b-d; 277b-
278d; 280c-283a; 299b-302c / On Animal
36
THE GREAT IDEAS
(2. The classification of animals. 2b. Analogies
of structure and junction among different
claues oj animals.)
Generation, 336b-d; 338a-496d esp 449a-454a,
463d-464a, 468b-472c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27, 157b-
15Sc
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH vi,
SECT 12 271d-272b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix, DIV 82
487b-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 579 b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick^ 273a-b; 279b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 75b-78c; 82d-94c;
112b-113c; 212d-215a; 217b-219d; 225c-228c;
238c-239a/ Descent of Man, 255a~265d; 271c-
275c; 279a-284b; 331a-335a; 338d-340c pas-
sim ;348b-c
2c. Continuity and discontinuity in the scale of
animal life: gradation from lower to
higher forms
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-25
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK H, CH 2 [413^-10] 643c;
[414*1-3] 644a; BK in, CH n [433^32-434*9]
666d; CH 12 [434bo-3o] 667c-d / Sense and the
Sensible, CH i [436^12-437*17] 673c-674a; CH 5
[443bi7-445*3] 681c-682d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vm, CH i
114b,d-115b / Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 10
[686b23-687Bi] 218b-c / Generation of Animals,
BK n, CH i [732*i3-733bi7] 272c-274a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 2, REP i 105c'106b; A 3, ANS 106b-107c;
Q 50, A 4, REP i 273b-274b; Q 71, A i, REP 4-5
367a-368b; Q 72, A i, REP i 368b-369d; Q 76,
A 5, REP 3394c-396a; Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 4
407b-409a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 336b-d;
400d-401a; 412c-413a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 30
159c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 11-15 140b-141a passim, esp SECT 12
140c; BK in, CH vi, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK
iv, CH xvi, SECT 12, 370c-371a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 199c-200c / Judgement,
578d-580a esp 579b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 3a-b;-55J>62a esp
60b-61a; 64a-d; 80a-82d; 117a-118d; 167a~
180d esp 180a-d; 207a-208a; 224d 225b;
228c-229a,c; 238b-243d esp 241a-d, 243b-c /
Descent of Man, 337a-338c; 340d-341c
53IAMES: Psychology^ 41b; 51a-52b; 95b-98a;
705b-706b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 768d-
769a
3. The anatomy of animals
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 63b~64c passim
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 466a-469c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i-iv 7a-
65a,c esp BK i, CH 1^6 7a-13a / Parts of Ani-
mate, BK Ji-iv 170a-229d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 91,
A 3 486b-487d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
271a-272d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 343b-345d;
377c-380c passim; 485a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 52b-c /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 7 139c-140a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56b*57a
42 KANT: Judgement, 579b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 243b-252a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 14c-15b passim;
85d-87b; 89b-90c; 217b-219d / Descent of
Man, 255c-265a passim; 266a-c; 271c-274d;
278c-284b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-
648a
^. Physical elements of the animal body: kinds
oftissue
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 468a-469d
8 ARISTOTLE: Meteorology, BK IV,CH 10 [389*19-
23] 493b; CH n [389^7-18] 493c-d; CH 12
493d-494d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[486*5-15] 7a; [487*1-10] 7d; BK in, CH 2
[5iibi-io] 35a; CH 5 [515*27]-^ 20 [52ibi7]
39c-46c / Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [640bn-
, 24] 163a-b; BK n, CH i [646*7]-^ 2 [648*20]
170a-172c; CH 3 {649b22J-cH 9 [655^6] 174b-
181d; BK in, CH 2 [663^2-36] 191b-c /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [715*8-11]
255a; CH 18 [722ai8-bi] 262a-b; BK n, CH 6
[743*i-bi8] 284b-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 6 169c-
170c; BK n, CH 6 188c-191a; BK HI, CH n
207d-208b; CH 15, 215a-b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 79, A 3, ANS and REP i 955c-956b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 274d-275c;
302c-d / Circulation of the Blood, 316d / On
Animal Generation, 414c-415b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
39a-41a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 226b-228b; 276b-
277b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 53a-b; 118a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-d
£. The skeletal structure
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 91 b-c; 112a;
BK ix, 306b
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 468a*469d . -
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals* BK rv OH 7
13a-b; CH 13 {493*21-24] 15b; CH 15 (493^12-
494*18! 15d-16b; BK n, CH i [499*i8-5ooai4]
21c-22b; l5oob2o-25) 23a; CH i [5Oi*a]^drt 5
(502*3! 23b-24bicH 15 (506*7-10) 28c; UK m,
CH 7-9 40b-41d; CH 20 (521*4*17] 46ct IK iv,
Icto
CHAPTER 2 .-ANIMAL
37
CH i [523bi-i8] 48b,d; [524^1-30] 50c-d; CH
2 (525bn-i4] 51d; CH 4 [528*1-30] 54d-55b;
CH 7 [532ft3i-b5] 59b; BK vn, CH 10 [587**! 1-18]
113d-114a / Parts of Animals, BK 11, CH 6
176d-177c; CH 7 [653*34-b2] 178d; CH 8
[653b3o]-CH 9 [655bio] 179b-181c; BK in, CH
1-2 188b,d-191d; CH 4 [666*17-22] 194c-d; BK
iv, CH 5 [679bi3~35] 209d-210a; CH 10 [690*5-
29] 221d-222b; CH 12 [695*1-26] 226c-227a;
CH 13 [696bi-7] 228a-b / Motion of Animals,
CH i [698ai5-b9] 233b-c / Gait of Animals,
CH ii 248d-249a / Generation of Animals, BK
ii, CH 6 [744b28-745b9] 286a-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Injuries of the Head, par 1-2
63b,d-64c; par 18 69a-b / Fractures 74b,d-91d
esp par 2-4 75a-76c, par 9-12 78c-80a, par 18
82b~c, par 20 83a, par 37 89a-b / Articulations
91b,d-121d passim / Instruments of Reduction
121b,d-130d passim, esp par i 121b,d-122c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 15,
215a-b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 132c;
SECOND DAY, 187b-188c, 195c-d
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 443d-444c
48 MELVILLE. Moby Dic1{, 333b<338a
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, 15a-b; 94a; 107a-
113c passim, 217b-219d / Descent of Man,
263c-264d; 273a, 280c-282c
3c. The visceral organs
7 PLATO. Timaeus, 466a-468a
8 ARISTOTLE Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 10
[io35b26-28] 559b / Soul, BK ii, CH 8 [420^3-
27] 652a-b / Sleep, CH 3 [458*14-19] 701c /
Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 3 [468b28]-cH
4 [469b2o] 715b-716b; CH 14 720d-721a
9 ARISIOILE. History of Animals, BK i, CH 16-17
16d-19d, BK ii, en I5-BK in, CH i 28b-35a;
BK in, CH 3 [513*22-39] 36d-37a; CH 13-15
44a-c; BK iv, CH i [524^-22] 50a-c; CH 2
[526b22-527a2o] 53b-d; CH 3-7 54b-59d pas-
sim / Parts of Animals, BK in, CH 4 193a-195d;
CH 6-14 197b-205c; BK iv, CH 1-5 205b,d-213b
/ Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 3-16 256c-
261b passim
10 HIPPOCRATES . Ancient Medicine, par 22 8a-d /
Sacred Disease, 156a
10 GALEN. Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 13 173d-
177a, BK in, CH 8 205a-207b; CH n 207d-208b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 80, A 2, ANS 957c-958b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
14a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 271b-273a;
274d~275c; 278b-c; 299b-302d / On Animal
Generation, 339c-343a; 344d-345a; 350a-352d;
375d-376c; 450d-451b; 452c-453b; 473b-
476b; 485a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 266c; 281a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 19a-42b; 118a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-b
3</. The utility or adaptation of bodily struc-
tures
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK iv, CH 4
[528b29~529*i] 55d; CH 5 [530bi9~24] 57c;
BK ix, CH 37 [62obio~33] 146b-c; [622b9~i5]
148a / Parts of Animals, BK n-iv 170a-229d
passim / Gait of Animals 243a-252a,c esp CH i
243a-b / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 2
[7i6ai8-b2] 256b-c; CH 4-13 257a-260b; BK iv,
CH i [765b33~766*io] 307a-b; BK v, CH 8
330b-331a,c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 6, 170b-c;
CH 10 171b-172b; CH 13, 173d-174d; BK u,
CH 4, 187c-d; BK in, CH 3 200a-201a; CH 8
205a-207b; CH n 207d-208b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [823-857]
55a-b; BK v [837-877] 72a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XXH, CH 24,
610c-611b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 269a-b; 299b-
304a,c / On Animal Generation, 390b-c; 401 b;
402c;418b-c;453c-454c
34 NEWTON* Optics, BK in, 529a
48 MELVILLE. Moby Dici(, 227b-228a; 277b-
279b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, Ic; lOd-llb; 38c;
41c-44c esp 43a-b, 43d-44a; 66a-68b; 82d-
98a,c esp 97b-98a,c; 103c-113c; 115c-116b;
225c-228c / Descent of Man, 258b-259a; 320b,
532d-543d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 701a
4. Animal movement
4a. Comparison of animal movement with other
kinds of local motion
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vni, CH 4 [254^2-33]
339a-b / Heavens, BK n, CH 2 376b-377c
9 ARISTOTLE- Motion of Animals, CH i 233a-c;
CH 4 [700*5-27] 235b-c; en 6 235d-236b; CH 7
[70ibi]-CH 8 [702bi2] 236d-238a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A i, REP 1-3 104c-105c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvn, SECT 4-5 220a-c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 115b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b
4b. The cause of animal movement: voluntary
and involuntary movements
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241d-242a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vin, CH 2 [252bi6-
28] 336c-d; [253*6-21] 337a-b; CH 4 [254b
12-33] 339a-b / Soul, BK in, CH 9-11 664d-
667a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[64ob30-64ibio] 163c-164c / Motion of Ani-
mals, CH 6-1 1 235d-239d / Ethics, BK HI, CH 2
[mib6-9]357b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b
38
THE GREAT IDEAS
4c to 5a
(4. Animal movement. 4b. The cause of animal
movement: voluntary and involuntary move-
ments.)
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of 'Things, BK 11 [251-293]
18b-d; BK in [161-167] 32b; BK iv [877-906]
55d-56a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 4
407b-409a; Q 80, A 2, REP 3 428a-d; Q 115,
A 4, ANS 589d-590c; PART i-n, Q 6, A 2 646a-c;
Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2 673c-674c; Q 15,
A 2 682a-c; Q 16, A 2 684d-685b; Q 17, A 2
687d-688b
23 HOB BBS: leviathan, PART i, 61 a- b
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
192d-193a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267a-b; 285d-
286a; 302d-303a / Circulation of the Blood,
316d; 325d-326d / On Animal Generation,
369d-370b; 415b-429c csp 417a-419b, 423b-
424a, 427c-428c; 456b-458a; 488d-496d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 58d-59a; 60b / Objections and Replies,
156a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 5 179c-d; SECT 7-11 180a-d; CH xxxni,
SECT 6 249a-b; BK iv, CH x, SECT 19 354a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
5i-52472b-473c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164 b-c / Intro. Metaphysic
of Morals, 386b-d
49 DARWIN Origin of Species, 115b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 3b; 5a; 8a-15a csp 12a-b,
15a; 71b [fn ij; 694a-702a; 705a-706b; 761a-
765b; 767b-768a; 827a-835a
54 FREUD- Interpretation of Dreams, 351d-352a;
363b-d / Instincts, 412b-414b passim
4c. The organs, mechanisms, and characteris-
tics of locomotion
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 454b
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 10 [433bi3-27]
666b-c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487bi4-34) 8c-d; CH 4 [489*27-29] lOc; CH 5
[489b2o-49ob6] lla-12a; CH 15 [493b26-494*i8]
16a-b; BK n, CH i [497bi8-498bio] 20a-d;
CH 12 26b-27a passim; BK in, CH 5 39c-40a;
BK iv, CH i [523b2 1-524*32] 48d*50a; CH 2
[525bi5-526bi8] 51d-53b; CH 4 [528a29-bn]
55b; CH 7 [532*19-29] 59a-b / Parts of Animals,
BK n, CH 9 [654*3i-b35] 180a-d; BK iv, CH 6-9
213b-217b passim; CH 10 [690*4-^1] 221d-
222c; CH 12 [693*24]-CH 13 [696*34] 225b
228a / Motion of Animals, CH 1-2 233a-234a;
CH 7 [7oibi-i3) 236d-237a; CH 8 [702*22]-
CH 10 [7Q3bi] 237c-239a / Gail of Animals
243a-252a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 60 113b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [877-897]
55d-56a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 855b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 71,
A i, REP 2 367a-368b; Q 99, A i, ANS 519b-
520a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 84, A i, REP 4 983c-984c
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 301d-302a /
Circulation of the Blood, 319b / On Animal
Generation, 450a b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xii, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 58d-59a / Objections and Replies,
156a-d
34 NEWTON: Principles, COROL n 15a~16b esp 16b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 276b-278a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 23a-b; 66a-67a;
83b-84b; 93b-c; 94d-9Sa; 105c-106a / Descent
of Man, 278c-280c; 365b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 9a-12b; 19b-26b; 714a-
715b passim
5. Local motion within the animal body
5a. The ducts, channels, and conduits involved
in interior bodily motions
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 470a-471b
8 ARISTOTLE: Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 14
[474b2-9] 720d; CH 17 [476a26-b8] 722b-c;
CH 22 724b-d passim
9 ARISTOTLE • History of Animals, BK i, CH 2
[488b29]-CH 3 [489*14] 9d-10b; CH 4 [489*20-
23] lOb-c; CH 12 15a, CH 16 [495ni8]-cH 17
[497*29] 17b-19d; BK n, CH I5-BK m, CH 4
28b-39c; BK in, CH 20 [52^4-8] 46c; BK v,
CH 5 [540^29-541*12] 67b-c; BK vi, CH 11
[566*2-14] 92a-b; BK vn, CH 8 [586bi2-24]
112d-113a / Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 9
[654*3 i-bi2] 180a-b; BK in, CH 3 191d-193a;
CH 4 [665bio]-cH 5 [668b3i] 193b-197b; CH 7
[670*7-18] 198c-d; CH 8 [67ob34]-cn 9 [67^28]
199c-200c, CH 14 203b-205c; BK iv, CH 2
[676bi6~677*24] 206b-207a; GH 4 [677^36-
678*20] 207d-208a / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 2 [7i6*33]-cn 16 [721*26] 256b-261a
passim; BK n, CH 4 [738*9-739*2] 278d-279d;
[740*21-35] 281a-b; CH 6 [743*1-11] 284b; CH 7
J745b22-746*i9] 287a-c; BK iv, CH 4 [773*13-
29] 315a-b
10 HIPPOCRATES : Ancient Medicine, par 22 8a-d/
Sacred Disease, 156a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 10 171b-
172b; CH 13 173d-177a; BK i, CH I5-BK n, CH
3, 179d-185b; BK n, CH 5-6 188b-191a; CH 9
195c-199a,c; BK HI 199a-215d passim
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d-304a,c csp
295d-296a / Circulation of the Blood 305a-
328a,c / On Animal Generation, 339c-340c;
342d-345a; 347d; 350a-353b; 368b-371c;
373b-374d; 378b-d; 379b-c; 388d-389a; 401c-
402c; 430b d; 438c-441a; 449c-d; 473d-476b;
485a-487b
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART v, 56b-59a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 2S7c
5b to 5f
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
39
5b. The circulatory system: the motions of the
heart, blood, and lymph
7 PLATO. Timaeus, 466c-d; 471c-d
8 ARISTOTLE : Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 26
725d-726b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK in, CH 19
[521*6-31] 45d-46b; BK vi, CH 3 [561*9-15] 87c
/ Parts of Animals, BK in, CH 4-5 193a-197b /
Generation of Animals, BK n, CH i [735*10-26]
275d-276a; CH 5 [74^15-24] 282d; CH 6
[742b33-743*i] 284a; BK iv, CH i [766ft30-b2]
307c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES : Sacred Disease, 160a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH I5-BK n,
CH 2 179d-185a; BK n, CH 4-6, 188a-d; BK in,
CH 13-15, 213a-215d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR HI, CH 23, 154b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 17,
A 9, REP 2 692d-693d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
138a-d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d-304a,c csp
285b-296a / Circulation of the Blood 305a-
328a,c esp 309b-d, 324a-326d / On Animal
Generation, 368a-371b; 374a~d; 429c-441a;
449c-d; 456b-d, 488d-496d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48,
186d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56b-59a /
Objections and Replies, 156c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 64a-65a; 695a-696a
5c. The glandular system: the glands of in-
ternal and external secretion
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 472a-474b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 12
[493*10-16] 15a; BK ii, CH 13 [504b22-27] 27a-
b; BK in, CH 2 [5iibi-io] 35a, CH 20 [52ib2i]-
CH 21 [523*13] 46d-48c; BK vi, CH 20 [574b7-
13] lOOb; CH 21 [575b9-i2] lOlb; CH 26 103d;
CH 33 [580*2-4] 105c-d; BK vn, CH 3 [583*26-
34] 108d-109a; CH 5 [585*29-32] lllb; CH n
114a,c / Parts of Animals, BK u, CH 7 [653b8-
19] 179a; BK in, CH 5 [668bi-io] 196d; CH 15
205d; BK iv, CH 10 [688*i9-b34] 219d-220d /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 20 [727b34~
728*9] 268a-b; BK in, CH 2 [752^3-24] 293d;
BK iv, CH 8 318b-319c
10 HIPPOCRATES : Ancient Medicine, par 19 6d-7b
/ Airs, Waters, Places, par 8, 12a-b / Prognos-
tics, par 6 20c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 13, 175d-
177a; BK n, CH 2 184b-185a; CH 4-5, 188a-c;
CH 8-9 191b-199a,c; BK in, CH 5 202c-d; CH
12, 209a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 288d / Circula-
tion of the Shod, 320a-b / On Animal Genera-
tion, 396c-d; 435a-c; 451b; 461b; 464c-d;
487c-488a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PREF 451a-452c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 538a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, HOc-llla / Descent
of Man, 339d-340c; 547c-548c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 66b-67a; 696b-697b
5d. The respiratory system: breathing, lungs,
gills
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 470b-471b
8 ARISTOTLE: Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 7-
27 717a-726d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487*14^3] 8a-b; CH 5 [489*34^6] lOd; CH n
J492b5-i2] 14b-c; CH 16 [495*2o-bi9] 17b-d;
CH 17 [496*27-34] 18c; BK n, CH 13 J5O4b27-
505*19] 27b-c; CH 15 [505^2-506*4] 28c; BK
iv, CH 2 [526bi8-22] 53b; BK vi, CH 12 [566b2-
14] 92c-d; BK vin, CH 2 [589*io-b29] 115c-116b
/ Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 16 [658^6-
659bi9l 185d-186c; BK in, CH i [662*16-28]
189b-c; CH 3 191d-193a; CH 6 197b-198a;
BK iv, CH 13 [696*37^24] 228a-c; [697*16^1]
229a-b / Motion of Animals, CH 11 [703b3-i5J
239a-b
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par 5 20b-c /
Articulations, par 41 103c-104b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 13,
211b-d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d-273a pas-
sim; 282b-285b; 303d-304a,c / Circulation of
the Blood, 309c; 317c-d; 324a; 325d / On
Animal Generation, 339c-340c; 458a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 12,
141d-142a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 58b-c
33 PASCAL: Weight of Air, 415a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 272b-276b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 87d-88c; 90c-91a;
238d / Descent of Man, 339a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 696a-b; 740b [fn i]
5e. The alimentary system: the motions of the
digestive organs in the nutritive process
7 PLATO- Timaeus, 467d-468a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 3
[650*1-37] 174c-175a; BK in, CH i [66i*34-bi2]
188b; CH 3 191d-193a; CH 14 203b-205c; BK
iv, CH n [69obi8-69i*i] 222d-223a; [691*28-
b27] 223c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par n 4b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 9-10 171b-
172b; CH 16, 180c-181b; BK in, CH 4-5 201b-
202d; CH 7-8 203b-207b; CH 13, 211d-212d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 279a-b / On
Animal Generation, 350a-c; 451b; 452d-453a;
456d; 460a-461a
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART v, 58c-d
3/. The excretory system: the motions of elim-
ination
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK HI, CH 15
44b-c; BK iv, CH i [524*9-14] 49d; BK vi,
OH 20 [574bi9-25] lOOb-c; BK vn, CH 10 [587*
27-33] 113c; BK vin, CH 5 [594b2i~a6] 120d;
40
(5. Local motion within the animal body. 5/. The
excretory system: the motions of elimination.)
BK ix, CH 45 [63ob7-i7] 155d-156a / Parts of
Animals, BK in, CH 7 [6yob2^]-cH 9 [672*26]
199b-201a; CH 14 ^•y-^S] 204d-205c; BK
iv, CH i [676*29-35] 206a; CH 2 206b-207b;
CH 5 [679-5-32] 209a-c; CH 10 [689*3-34] 220d-
221 b / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 13
[7i9b29-72o*n] 259d-260a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 9 12d-
13b / Prognostics, par 11-12 21c-22b
10 GALEN. Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 13, 1 73d-
175d; CH 15-17 179d-183d; BK H, CH 2 184b-
185a; BK HI, CH 5 202c-d; CH 12-13 208b 213b
1Q AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A i, REP i 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 80, A 2, REP i 957c-958b; A 3, ANS and REP 2
958b-959c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
16c-18b; BK in, 138b-c; BK iv, 293a-b; 310d-
311d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 273b-c; 283a-b
/ On Animal Generation, 344b-345a; 351a-b;
356c-d; 380c
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 26a-b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
45c-d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, lllb-c; 120b-c
5g. The brain and nervous system: the excita-
tion and conduction of nervous im-
pulses
9ARismTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 7
177c-179a; CH 10 [656*i4~b28] 182b-183a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Sacred Disease, 156a-160b
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 6 188c-
191a
16 KEPLLR: Epitome, BK iv, 855a b
17 PLOHNUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 23, 153d-
154a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 99,
A i, ANS 519b-520a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49b-d
24 RABFLAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
190a-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 456b-458a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, XH, 19d-20a / Discourse,
PART v, 58d-59a / Meditations, vi, 102a-d /
Objections and Replies, 156a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PREF 451a-452c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 518b-519b; 522a-b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 540a-541a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 2b-3a; 8a-67b csp 9b-17a,
42a-b, 46b-47a; 70a-77b esp 70a-71a; 152a-
153a; 497a-501b esp 500b-501b; 694a-695a;
698b-699a; 705a-b; 758b-759a; 827b-835a
54 FREUD • Hysteria, 87a / Interpretation of Dreams,
351c-352d; 363c-364b; 378a-b / Instincts,
413a-d / Unconscious, 431d / Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, 646b-649d / Ego and Id,
700a-b
THE GREAT IDEAS
6. Animal nutrition
5g to 6b
6a. The nature of the nutriment
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-29-30
5 ARISTOPHANES. Peace [1-172] 526a-527ld
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 469d-470a; 471d-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption. BK i,
CH 5 [322*4-28] 419d-420b / Metaphysics, BK
i, CH 3 [983bi9-25] 501d-502a / Soul, BK n,
CH 4 [4i6ai8-b3i] 646c-647b / Sense and the
Sensible, CH 4 [44ib24-442si2] 679b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488*15-20] 9a,' BK III, CH 20 [52Ib2l]-CH 21
[523*13] 46d-48c; BK vm, CH 2 [59oai8]-cH 11
[596bi9] 116d-122d; CH 21 [60^25-34] 129d;
BK ix, CH i [6o8bi9]-cH 2 [6iobi9] 134a-136b;
CH 9 140a-b / Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 4
[651*12-19] 176a / Generation of Animals, BK
iv, CH 8 [777*4-19] 319a-b / Politics, BK i, CH 8
[1256*18-30] 450a; [1256^1-20] 450b-c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 3-8 Id-
3b, par 13-15 4c-5d / Regimen in Acute Dis-
eases, par 4 27c-28a; par 14-17 32c-34c;
APPENDIX, par 18 41a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 168a~b;
CH lo-n 171b-172d; BK n, CH 8, 191b-193d
esp 192d-193b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK iv [633-672]
52c-53a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 97,
A 3, REP 2 515a-d; A 4 515d-516d; Q 119, A i
604c-607b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
138b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 378b-d;
398d-399c; 408c-d; 409c-d; 414a-b; 435a-
438b, 439a-440a; 448a-c; 461a-d, 463b-466b;
486c-d, 487c-488a; 494a-496d esp 494b,
495c-496a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 50,
193b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d
6b. The process of nutrition: ingestion, diges-
tion, assimilation
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 467d-468a; 471c-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Meteorology, BK iv, CH 2 [379bio-
24] 483d-484a / Soul, BK n, CH 4 [4i6*i8-b29]
646c-647b / Sleep, CH 3 699b-701d passim
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIH, CH 4
[594*11-21] 120a-b; CH 6 [595*6-13] 121a; CH
17 [6oob7~i2] 126c / Parts of Animals, BK 11,
CH 3 [65o*i-bi3] 174c-175b; BK HI, CH i
[66i*36-bi2] 188b; CH 3 191d-193a; CH 14
203b-205c; BK iv, CH 3 [677b3o]-cn 4 [678*20]
207d-208a; CH n [69ob20-69i*i] 222d-223a;
[69ia28-b27] 223c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par n 4b /
Regimen in Acute Diseases, APPENDIX, par 18
41a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2 167b-
168c; CH 7-12 170c-173c esp CH 10-11 171b*
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
41
172d; CH 16, 180c-181b; BK n, CH 4, 187 a- b;
CH 6-7 188c-191b; BK in, CH i 199a-c; CH 4
201b-202c; CH 6-9 202d-207b; CH 13 209b-
213b esp 211d-213a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [871-882]
26a; [1118-1147] 29b-c; BK iv [858-876] 55b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 97,
A 3, REP 2 515a-d; A 4 515d-516d; Q 118, A i,
ANS and REP 3-4 <KX)a-601c; Q 119, A i 604c-
607b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 80, A 3, ANS 958b-959c; A 4 959c-963a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
134d-135a; 138a-139b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACTI, sc i [92-150]
352b-353a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 279a-b; 296a-
297a esp 296d-297a; 297d-298b / Circulation
of the Blood, 307c-308c; 319b; 320a-b / On
Animal Generation, 350a-c; 408c-d; 413a-415a;
435a-438b; 441b-443b; 446c-447a; 455c-d;
460b-461d; 465b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48,
184a-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 58c-d
7. Animal growth or augmentation: its nature,
causes, and limits
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 63b
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 471d-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH i [i93bi3~i9]
269d-270a; BK vi, CH 10 [24ia27-b2] 325b-c;
BK VHI, CH 7 [26o*27~bi] 346b-c / Generation
and Corruption, BK i, CH 5 417b-420b / Meta-
physics, BK v, CH 4 [ioi4b2o-26] 535a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 19
[55ob26-3i] 77d; CH 33 [558*18-24) 84d-85a /
Motion of Animals, CH 5 235c-d / Generation
of Animals, BK i, CH 18 [723*9-23] 263a-b;
BK 11, CH i [735*13-23] 275d-276a; CH 3
[7S7*35-b7] 278b; CH A '[739^4-741*2] 280d-
281d; CH 6 [744b32~745b9] 286a-d; BK iv, CH 4
[77ib33~772Bi] 313d / Politics, BK vn, CH 4
[1326*35-40] 530c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 3 ld-2b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 1-2, 167a-
d; CH 5 169b-c; CH 7 170c-171a; BK n, CH 3,
186c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [184-214]
3b-d; BK n [1105-1147] 29a-c; BK v [783-820]
71b-d; [878-900] 72c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 97,
A 4 515d-516d; Q 99, A i 519b-520a; Q 119,
A i, ANS and REP 4 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Tbeologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 80, A 4, ANS 959c-963a; A 5, REP i 963a-964b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY,
187b-188c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 353b-354b;
374b-d; 388c-d; 408c-409b; 412b*415b csp
415a; 441a-443b; 450b-d; 494a-496d esp
495c-496a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^ 338a-339a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 71a-d; 227c-228b /
Descent of Man, 402a-b; 405a-d; S40a-541c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 770b
8. The generation of animals
8*. The origin of animals: creation or evolu-
tion
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:11-12,20-28; 2:4-
9,19-23
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 452c-454a; 476b-477a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK in, CH
n [762^8-763*8] 303d-304a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [783-836]
71b-72a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 21 357a-
b; CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK xvi, CH 7 427a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 71-
72 367a-369d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [387-550]
225b-229a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 542b
42 KANT: Judgement, 578d-580a csp 579b-c;
581b-582c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [8245-8264] 201a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species la-251a,c csp la-
7d, 63b-64d, 85b-c, 217d-219a, 230a-243d /
Descent of Man, 265a-d
8^. Diverse theories of animal generation: pro-
creation and spontaneous generation
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 476b-477a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Meteorology, BK iv, CH i [379b6-
8] 483c; CH 3 [38^9-13] 485d; CH n [389*28-
b7J 493c / Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 9 [1034*32-
b8] 557c-d; BK xn, CH 6 [io7ib29-3i] 601c;
CH 7 [io72b30-io73*2] 603a
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK v, CH i
[539*i5-bi3] 65b-66a; CH n [543^8-19] 70b;
CH 15 [546bi7-547*i] 73c; CH 15 [547bi2]-cH
16 [548^] 74b-75b; CH 19 [550^1-551*13]
77d-78a; [55ibi9-552b27] 78c-79c; CH 21
[553*i6-b2] 80a-b; CH 31 [556b25]-cn 32
[557bi4] 83c-84b; BK vi, CH 15-16 95a-96a /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [715*18-
716*2] 255b-256a; CH 16 [721*3-11] 260d-261a;
BK ii, CH i [732b8-i4] 272d-273a; CH 3 [737*1-
5] 277d; BK in, CH 9 299b-300a; CH n
[76ib24-763bi7] 302d-304d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [865-943]
26a-27a; BK v [783-820] 71b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BKXII.CH n 349a-b;
BK xvi, CH 7 427a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 25,
A 2, REP 2 144c-145b; Q 45, A 8, REP 3 249b-
250a; Q 71, A i, REP i 367a-368b; Q 72, A i,
REP 5 368b-369d; Q 92, A r, ANS ana REP i
488d-489d; Q 118, AA 1-2 600a-603b; Q 119,
A 2 607b-608d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 60,
A i, ANS 49d-50c
42
THE GREAT IDEAS
(8. The generation of animals. 8b. Diverse the-
ories of animal generation: procreation and
spontaneous generation.)
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
28 GILBERT: Loadstone^ BK v, 105a-b
28MARVEY: On Animal Generation, 338b-d;
390b-c; 400d-401a; 406c-d; 412c-413a; 428c-
d; 449a-b; 454d-455a; 468b-472c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK nf APH 50,
192a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, Ic; 61a
8c. Modes of animal reproduction: sexual and
asexual
7 PLATO: Svmposium, 157d-158b / Timaeus,
476b-d / Statesman, 587a<588a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK iv, CH n
[537b22~5 38*21] 64b-d; BK v-vii 65a-114a,c
csp BK v, CH i 65a-66a, BK vi, CH i897b-99c
/ Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c esp BK i,
CH 1-2 255a-256c, BK i, CH 2I-BK n, CH i 269c-
276a, BK n, CH 5 282a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 3 185a-
186d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A 2, ANS 607b-608d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 331a; 338a-
496d csp 390b-429c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 47c-49c; 220a-b /
Descent of Man, 390c-391b; 395a-399c pas-
sim
54 FREUD: Imtmcts, 41 5b / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 655b-657d; 659d-660c
8c(l) Sexual differentiation: its origins and
determinations; primary and secondary
characteristics
7 PLATO: Symposium, 157b-159b / Ttmaeus,
476b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK n, CH 3
[50ib2o-25J 24a; BK HI, CH 7 [516*15-20] 40c;
CH ii [5i8*3o-b4] 42d-43a; CH 19 [521*21-31]
46b; CH 20 [522*11-21] 47a-b; BK iv, CH i
(524b3 1-525*1 3] 50d-51a; CH 2 [525b34~526*6]
52b; CH 3 [527bjo-34] 54c-d; CH 11 64b-65a,c;
BK v, CH 5 [540bi4-28] 67b; CH 7 [54ib3o]-cn
8 [542*1] 68c; CH 14 [544^2-545*22] 71c-72a;
CH 18 [55obi7~2i] 77c-d; CH 28 [555^8-23]
82c; CH 30 [556bn~i3] 83b; BK vi, CH 2
[559*27-29] 86a; CH 10 [565bi3~i5] 91d; CH 19
l573b32-574*1] &&'> BK vn, CH i [582*27-32]
107d-108a; CH 3 [583bi4~29] 109b-c; CH 6
(585b2i-27] Hid; BK vni, CH 2 [589b29~59o*4]
116b'c; BK ix, CH i [6o8»2i-bi9] 133b,d-134a
/ Parts of Animals, BK in, CH i [66^33-662*5]
189a-b; BK iv, CH 10 [688*20-26] 219d-220a;
[688b3o-34] 220c-d / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 2 256a-c; CH 18 [723*23-^3] 263b-c;
CH 19-20 266c-269c; BK H, CH i [7^ibi8-
732*12] 272a-b; BK HI, CH 10 [759bi-7l 300c;
BK iv, CH 1-2 304b,d-308d esp CH i [766*30-
b8] 307c-d; CH 3 [767b5-i4] 309a; BK v, CH 7
[786^6-788*13] 328c-330a
10 HIPPOCRATES- Airs, Waters, Places, par 9 12d-
13b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1225-
1232] 60b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A i, ANS and REP i 488d-489d; Q 98, A 2, ANS
517d-519a; Q 99, A 2 520a-d; Q 115, A 3, REP 4
588c-589c; Q 118, A i, REP 4 600a-601c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART in SUPPL,
Q 81, A 3 966a-c; A 4, REP 2 966d-967d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 346b; 400c-
401b; 402c-d; 454a-b, 462b; 481c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27, 158a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvi, 116d-
117a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 339b-340c; 364a-
561d esp 364a-366b, 373b-374c, 384c-d;
586b-587d; 594a-595b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 659d-
661c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 7$5a
[fn i] / New Introductory Lectures, 853d-855b
8c(2) The reproductive organs: their differ-
ences in different classes of animals
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 476b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 3
[489*8-14] lOb; CH 13 [493*24]-cH 14 [493b6]
15b-c; CH 17 [497*24-34] 19c-d; BK n, CH i
[5ooa32-b25] 22c-23a; CH 10 [503*4-7] 25b-c;
CH 13 [504bi8-i9] 27a; BK HI, CH i 32a-35a;
BK iv, CH i [524*2-9] 49a-c; [524b3i~525*8]
50d; CH 2 [527*11-30] 53c-d, BK v, CH 2
[540*3]-cH 3 [540*33] 66c-67a; CH 5 [540^9-
541*12] 67b-c; CH 6 [54ib7~i2] 68a-b; BK vi,
CH 9 [564bio]-cH 10 [564^4] 90d-91a; CH 10
[565*12-22] 91b-c; CH n [566*2-14] 92a-b; CH
12 [567*1 I]-CH 13 [567*24] 93b; CH 32 105b-c;
BK ix, CH 50 [63ib22-25] 157a; [632*22-27]
157c / Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 5 [680*12-
681*5] 210b-211c; CH 10 [689*3-34] 220d-221b;
CH 12 [695*26-27] 227a; CH 13 [697*10-14]
228d-229a / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH
1-16 255a-261b; BK in, CH 5 [755b5~756a5]
296c-297a; CH 6 [756b30~757*i3] 297d-298a;
CH 8 [758*7-15] 299a; BK iv, CH i [765^5-
766b26] 307a-308a;cH 4 [772b27~773*25) 314d-
315b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 2-3 199d-
. 201a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
lOc-lla; 15a-c; BK H, 70b-c; 95a-97b; BK in,
131b,d; 143a-144c; 178b-185d; 192b-193b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 338d-352d;
401b-405c; 452c; 473b-476b; 477b-479c; 485a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK H, APH 27, 158a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 310a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 136b / Descent of
Man, 264d<265a; 272a-d; 339b-c; 364a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction^ 592a
8r(3) to 8<r(5)
CHAPTER 2i ANIMAL
43
8c(3) The reproductive cells and secretions:
semen and catamenia, sperm and egg
8 ARISTOTLE* Metaphysics, BK VH, CH 9 [1034*
32-b8) 557c-d; BK ix, CH 7 [1049*12-19] 574d;
BK xn, CH 6 [io7ib29-3i] 601c; CH 7 [1072^6-
1073*2] 603a
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK x, CH 5
[489b6-io] lOd; BK in, CH 22 48c; BK iv, CH i
[525*2-8] 50d; CH 2 [527*31-33] 53d-54a; BK
vi, CH 2 [559ai5-56ob2] 85d-87a; CH 10 [564**
24-26] 91a, CH 13 [567ai6-bi5] 93b-d; BK vn,
CH i [582tti6]-cH 2 [583*13] 107d-108c / Gen-
eration of Animals, BK i, CH 2 [716*2-17] 256a;
CH 17-23 261b-271d, BK n, CH i [733b23]-cn
4 [739b33l 274a-280d; CH 5 [741*6-32] 282a-b;
BK II, CH 7 [746b25]-BK III, CH 2 [752bI5]
288a-293d; BK m, CH 3-5 295b-297c; CH 7-9
298a-300a; BK iv, CH i [764b4~2i] 305c-d;
CH i [765bjo]-cH 2 [767*8] 306d-308b; CH 3
[767bi6-769bio] 309a-311b / Politics, BK vn,
CH 16 [1335*24-27] 540b
10 HIPPOCRA n s • Am, Waters, Places, par 14 15a-
b / Sacred Disease, 155d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 3 185a-
186d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1051] 57d; [1209-1277] 60a-d
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 71,
A i, REP i 367a-368b; Q 92, A 3, REP 2 490c-
491b; A 4, ANS 491b-d, Q 97, A 2, REP 3 514c-
515a; Q 118, A\ 1-2 600a-603b; Q 119, A i, ANS
604c-607b; A 2 607b-608d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 80, A 2, REP 2 957c-958b; A 3, ANS 958b-
959c; A 4, ANS and REP 2,4-5 959c-963a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[37-51] 91d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
144b; 189b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 269b-d
28 HARVEY : On Animal Generation, 338a-d ; 340c-
342d, 347d-348d; 353a-363d; 365a; 383d-
407a esp 402d-405c; 417a-429c; 461d-472c;
473c-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 192a~b
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 257c; 372b-c
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 653b-c;
655b-d / New Introductory Lectures, 853d-854c
8c(4) The mating of animals: pairing and
copulation
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK n, 67b; BK in, 113a-b
7 PLATO: Symposium, 158a-b / Republic, BK v,
361c-d / Laws, BK vin, 737d-738b
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK n, CH i
(5oob7-i4) 22d; BK v, CH 2-14 66b-73b; CH 19
J55ob2i-26] 77d; CH 28 [555bi8-2j] 82c; CH 30
[556*25-28] 83a; BK vi, CH 2 [560*25-32] 87b;
CH 4 [562b26~29] 89a; CH 13 fe67a28-bi2] 93c;
CH 17 [570*27-29] 96b; CH 18-37 97b-106d;
BK vn, CH 7 [586*15-20] 112b; BK ix, CH x
[6o9b2i-26] 135b; CH 8 (6i3b24~6 14*30} J3.9b-
140a; CH 37 [62ib22-28] 147b; CH 41 [628bn-
17] 153d; CH 47 156b / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 4-7 257a-258b; CH 14-16 260b~261b;
CH 1 8 [72^9-724*3 ) 263c-264a; CH 19 [727b7J
-CH 23 [73^14] 267c-271d passim; BK n, CH 4
l737b*5-739b2o] 278c-280c; CH 7 [746*29)-cH
8 [749*5] 287c-290a,c; BK in, CH i (749b7-
750*7] 290d-291b; CH 5-6 296c-298a; CH 8
298d-299b; CH 10 [760^33-761*12] 302a; BK
iv, CH 5 [773b2 3-774*1 3] 315d-316a / Politics,
BK i, CH 2 [1252*26-31] 445c
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Waters, Places, par 21
17b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
I057l 57d; [1073-1120] 58a-d; [1192-1208]
59d-60a; [1263-1279] 60d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A 3, REP 2 490c-491b; Q 97, A 2, REP 3 514c-
515a;Q98, A 2 517d-519a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 224a-225b; 399a-b
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 343b-350a
passun; 394b-398c; 401b-406a; 406d-407a;
417a-429c passim, csp 423b-c; 476b-477b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 162b; 166a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 555a-556a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 287a-b; 289b-292a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 43d-44a; 47c-d;
49b-c / Descent of Man, 366c-368b; 369b-
372c; 387d; 395a-480a passim; 482b-486c;
532a-d; 543d-545d; 580c-581b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 14b
54 FREUD: Ego and Id, 711d-712a
8c(5) Factors aflFecting fertility and sterility
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK in, CH n
[5i8bi-3] 43a; BK v, CH n [54^21-31] 70c;
CH 14 71b-73b; BK vn, CH i [58ib22]-cn 3
[583*25] 107b-108d passim; CH 5 [585*33]-^ 6
[585b29] lllb-d; BK ix, CH 50 [63 ib 19-632*32]
157a-c / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 4
[7i7*29~b5] 257b; CH 7 258a-b; CH 18 [725*4-
726*7] 265a-266a; CH 19 [727b6-26] 267c-268a;
BK ii, CH 4 [739*26-35] 280b; CH 7 (746bi2]-CH
8 [749*5] 287d-290a,c; BK in, CH i [749^6-
750*13] 291a-b; BK iv, CH 2 [767*13-35] 308c-
d; CH 5 [77^29-33] 315d / Politics, BK vn, CH
16 [i335*7-bi] 540a-c
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Waters, Places, par 3 9c-
lOa; par 19-23 16c-18c / Aphorisms, SECT v,
par 46 139b; par 59 139d; par 62-63 139d-
140a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1233-
i277)60b-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 474b-475a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxin,
190c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 404b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, Mte-b; 47d-48a;
132a-133a; 136a-151d esp 136a-b, 141a-c,
143b-145c; 230b-231b / Descent of Man, 354b-
355a
44
(8. The generation of animals,)
&d. Comparison of human with animal repro-
duction
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[489*36-^8] lOd-lla; BK v-vn65a-114a,c esp
BK v, CH i 65a<66a, CH 8 [542*i7~bi] 68d-69a,
BK vi, CH 1 8 97b-99c, BK vn 106b,d-114a,c /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 9-11 258d-
259b; BK n, CH i (732*24-733*23) 272c-274a;
CH 4-7 278b-288b csp CH 4 [737b25-739b33l
278c-280d / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1252*26-31]
445c; BK vn, CH 16 [1335*11-18] 540a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XXH, CH 24,
609b-610a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 75,
AO\REP i383c-384c;Q92,A i, ANs488d-489d;
Q 98, A 2, ANS and REP 1,3 517d-519a; Q 118,
AA 1-2 600a-603b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[34-78] 91d-92a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 399a-b; 424d-425c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 338a-496d
esp 449a-454a, 463d-464a, 470c-472c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 555a-556a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 346b-d; 348d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [6838-6847] 167b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 256c-257a; 354b-
355a
54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children,
121d
9. The development of the embryo: birth and
infancy
9a. Oviparous and viviparous development
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[489*34^19] lOd-lla; BK v, CH 18 [549^0-
550*31] 76d-77b; BK vi, CH 3 87c-88d; CH 10
[564^6-565*12] 91a-b; CH 13 [567^7-568*4]
93d-94a; BK vn, CH 7 112b-c / Pans of Ani-
mals, BK iv, CH 12 [693b2i-27] 225c / Genera-
tion of Animals, BK i, CH 8-13 258b-260b;
BK n, CH i [732*24~733b23] 272c-274a; CH 4
[737b7~25] 278b-c; [739b2'-33] 280c-d; BK
in, CH i [749*12-33] 290b-d; CH i [751*5]-^ 4
[755*34] 292a-296c / Politics, BK i, CH 8
[1256^11-15] 450b-c
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 277c-d; 298b-c
/ On Animal Generation, 338a<496d esp 449a-
454a, 463d-464a, 470c-472c
9b. The nourishment of the embryo or foetus
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 18
[550*16-24] 77a; BK vi, CH j 87c-88d; CH 10
[564b26-565*u] 91a-b; [565*2-10] 91c-d; CH
13 [568*1-4] 94a; BK vn, CH 8 112c-113a /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 22 [730*33^9]
270d; BK n, CH 4 [740*17-741*2] 281a-d; CH 7
[745*22-746*28] 287a-c; BK in, CH i [751*6-7]
292ft;, CH 2 [752*24^28] 293b-294a; [753*36-
754*15] 294c-295b; CH 3 [754bi~755*6] 295c-
THE GREAT IDEAS
296a; BK iv, CH 6 [775b2-24] 317c-d; CH 8
318b-319c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 118,
A i, REP 4 600a-601c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 80, A 4, REP 5 9S9c-963a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 298b-c / On
Animal Generation, 366d-367b; 373b-c; 378b-
d; 379b-381a; 396b; 398d-399c; 408b-415b;
438c-443b;446c-447a; 458a-461d csp461a-d;
463b-466b; 471d-472a; 481d-482b; 484c;
485c-488c
9c. The process of embryogeny: the stages of
foetal growth
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4 [ioi4b2o-
22] 535a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 3
87c-88d; CH 10 [564^6-565*12] 91a-b; CH 13
[567^7-568*4] 93d-94a; BK vn, CH 3 [583^-
8] 109a; CH 7-8 112b-113a; BK VIH, CH 2
[589^9-590*1 1] 116b-c / Parts of Animals, BK
in, CH 4 [665*3 i-bi] 19^a / Generation of Ani-
mals, BK i, CH 20 [729*i2]-CH 23 [731*21] 269b-
271c; BK n, CH i [733b22-735ft28] 274a-276a;
CH 3 [737ai8-34i 278a-b; CH 4 [739b2i-74ift5]
280c-282a; CH 5 [74ib5]-cn 6 [745b22] 282c-
287a; BK HI, CH 2 [752bi2]-cn 4 [755*34]
293d-296c; CH n [762*io-bio] 303a-d; BK iv,
CH i 304b,d-308a; CH 4 [771 19-772*39] 313c-
314b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 5-6 169b-
170c; BK n, CH 3 185a-186d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 118,
A i, REP 4 600a-601c; A 2, REP 2 601c-603b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[34-78] 91 d-92a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 277c-d; 298b-c;
302b-c / On Animal Generation, 359a-c; 363d-
398c esp 394b-d; 402d-405c; 407c-431b esp
415a-b; 438c-456a esp 451c-453b; 478a-488d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 143d-144a; 219d-
225b csp 219d-222a / Descent of Man, 257c-
258b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 509d-510a
9d. Multiple pregnancy: superfoetation
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 25:24-26; 38:27-30
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 112d 113a
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK v, CH 9
[542b3o-33] 69c; BK VI,CH 3 [562*24~b2] 88c-d;
CH ii [566*15-16] 92b; CH 12 (566b6-8) 92c-d;
CH 19 [573bi9-32] 99c-d; CH 20 [574^5-26]
lOOc; CH 22 t575b34-576*3l lolc? CH 3° (579*
20-21] 104d; en 31 (579*34~bi2) 105a-b; CH
33-35 105c-106a; CH 37 (58obio-2o] 106b-c;
BK vn, CH 4 (584b26-585*27] UOc-lllb / Parts
ofAninufifi BK iv, CH 10 [688*28^25] 220a-c /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 18 [723b9~i6]
263c-d; CH 20 {728b33-729*2o] 269a-b; BK iv,
CH 4-5 3IIc-3l6c
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
45
10 HIPPOCRATES: Aphorisms, SECT v, par 38 139a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 363a; 382d-
384a; 481 a; 482 b; 482d-483a; 484b; 488a;
488c
9e. The period of gestation: parturition, de-
livery, birth
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 25:24-26; 38:27-30 /
Job, 39:1-4
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 7:2— (D) OT,
Boo\ of Wisdom, 7 .2
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK in, 112d-113b; BK
vi, 197b-c; 198b-d
9 ARISTOTLE. History of Animals, BK v, CH n
[543bi4-i7] 70b; CH 12 [544*1-3] 70c; CH 14
[545b6-9] 72b; [540bi-i4l 73a-b; CH 17 [549*
14-20] 76a; [549^-13] 76b-c; CH 18 [550*26-
29] 77b, [55ob6-i4] 77c; CH 20 [553*2-11] 79d;
BK vi, CH 2 [559bn-i6] 86b; [56obi7-24J 87a-
b; CH 4 [562bi5~3i] 89a; CH 10 [565*22-31]
91c, [565^4-32] 92a; CH n [566*15-16] 92b;
CH 12 [566bi9-2o] 92d; CH 13 [567*28^27]
93c-d; CH 17 96b-97b; CH 18 [572b3i-573*32]
98d-99a, CH 19 [573b2i] 99c; CH 20 [574a2o-b7J
lOOa-b; CH 21 [575*25-29] lOla; CH 22 [575b
26-27] lOlc, [576*21-25] 101d-102a; CH 23
[577a24-bio] 102d-103a; CH 26 [578aio]-cH 29
[578bi8] 103d-104b; CH 30 [579ai9]-CH 31
[579b5] 104d-105a; CH 33 [579b3i]-cn 35
[580*19] 105c-106a; BK VH, CH i [582*16-21]
107d; CH 3 [583bn]-cH 4 [584b25] 109b-110c;
CH 9 [586b26]-cn 10 [587^] 113a-d; BK vin,
CH 21 [603*34-604*3] 129d; CH 24 [604*29-
605*1] 130c / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH
n [719*2-30] 259a-b; BK n, CH 8 [748*27-31]
289c; BK in, CH 2 [752ftio-bi7] 293a-d, BK iv,
CH 4 [772b5-n] 314b-c; CH 6 [775*28^2]
317b-c, CH 8 [777*22]-cH 10 [778*12] 319b-
320a,c / Politics, BK vu, CH 16 [1335*11-22]
540a; [H35bi2-i9] 540c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 4-5
lOa-d; par 7, lla-c / Aphorisms, SECT v, par
29-62 138d-139d
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 3 200a-
201a; CH 12, 208c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
5c-6b; 8c-9c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 343d; 353a-
b; 381b-382d; 406a-b; 458c-459d; 476c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 268a-b; 270a-274a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 254a-255a; 287a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 94a / Descent of
Man, 341b,d [fn 32], 384b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 180d-183b
54 FREUD: Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety,
737c-738a passim
9f. The care and feeding of infant offspring:
lactation
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 362b-c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK n, CH i
[500*13-33] 22b-c; CH 13 [504b22-27] 27a-b;
BK III, CH 20 [52Ib2l]-CH 21 [523*13] 46d-48cj
BK v, CH 18 [550a32-b6J 77b-c, CH 22 [553b24~
554b6] 80c-81b; CH 26-27 82a-c; CH 33
[558a4 ]~CH 34 [558b4l 84d-85a,c; BK vi, CH 4
88d-89b; CH 6-9 89c-90d; CH 12 (566bi6-
567*7] 92d-93a; CH 14 [568b 13-569*4] 94c-
9Sa, CH 20 [574b7-i3] lOOb; CH 21 [575b9~i2]
lOlb, CH 22 [576bn-i2] 102a-b; CH 26-27
103d; CH 33 [580*2-5] 105c-d; BK vu, CH 3
[583*26-33] 108d-109a; CH 5 [585*29-33] lllb;
CH ii 114a,c; BK vm, CH i [588b3 1-589*3]
115b; BK ix, CH 4 [6n*9]-CH 5 [611*21] 136d;
CH 7 [612^6-613*16] 138od; CH 8 [613^-33]
139a-c; CH n [6i4b3i~34] 140c; CH 29 143c-d;
CH 32-34 144b-145c passim; CH 37 [62i*2i-bi]
146d-147a; CH 49 [63ibi3-i7] 156d-157a /
Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 10 [688*i9-b34]
219d-220d / Generation of Animals, BK in, CH
2 [752bi7-753*i7] 293d-294b; CH 10 [759*36-
b8] 300c; BK iv, CH 8 318b-319c / Politics,
BK i, CH 8 [i256b7~i5] 450b-c; BK vu, CH 17
[1336*3-22] 541a-b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK v [806-815]
71c
28 HARVEY Motion of the Heart, 288d / On
Animal Generation, 350c-d; 361b-362c; 381 b-
382d; 402a-b; 439a-d; 461b; 464c-d; 487c-
488a
33 PASCAL: Weight of Air, 415a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 78-80
42b-43a
36 STHRNL- Tristram Shandy, 316b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 336a-b; 337b; 340c
44 ROSWELL- Johnson, 510b-c
48 MELVILLE Moby Dtc{, 286b-287b
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, HOc-lllb / De-
scent of Man, 289d-290a; 339d-340c; 441c-d;
443b-444a
51 TOLSIOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 661 d;
662c-d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 709a-710a
54 FREUD- New Introductory Lectures, 854c
9g. Characteristics of the offspring at birth
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 20
[574*20-29] lOOa; CH 30 [579*2i]-cH 31 [579*9]
104d-105b; CH 33 [580*4]-^ 35 [580*29]
105d-106a / Generation of Animals, BK iv, CH 6
[774*5-775*6] 316c-317a; BK v 320a-331a,c
passim
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 222b-223b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 49b-50a; 691a-b; 710a
10. Heredity and environment: the genetic
determination of individual differences
and similarities
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 340b-341a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 19
[573b32-574a9l 99d; CH 29 [57^26-30] 104c;
BKjvn, CH 6 [585*29-586*14] llld-112b / Parts
of Animals, BK i, CH i [640*14-28] 162c-d;
[641*27-39] 164d-165a; CH 17 [72i*i4]-cH 18
46
THE GREAT IDEAS
ll/o [la
(10. Heredity and environment: the genetic de-
termination of individual differences and
similarities.)
[724*13] 261c-264b; BK iv, CH i [766^-12]
307d; CH 3-4 308d-315b / Politics, BK n, CH 3
[1262*14-24] 457a; BK vn, CH 16 [i335bi7-i9]
540c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 14
15a-b / Sacred Disease, 155d-156a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [741-753]
39c-d; BK iv [1209-1232] 60a-b
19 AQUINAS; Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A 2, REP 2 607b-608d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 363a-c;
386d-387b; 391c-393b; 395a-396a; 425b-d;
446b-c; 455d-456a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH vi,
SECT 23 274b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335a-b; 337a; 347a-b
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 7d-8a
42 KANT: Judgement, 580a; 581d-582a
49 DARWIN : Origin of Species, 9b-12a esp 9b-10d;
53b-55b; 62a-63a; 65a-71a; 98c; 132a-134c
csp 134a-c; 144a; 149b-150c; 182d-183a; 220b-
228a esp 222a-224b / Descent of Man, 268b-
269a; 375a-382d esp 381c-382a; 413d [fn 61];
429d-430c; 500a-525a passim, esp 500a-502a,
511a-b, 524d-525a; 529d-531a,c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 853a 858a esp 857b; 890b-
897b esp 896a-897a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 594d-595a
1 1. The habitat of animals
I la. The geographical distribution of animals:
their natural habitats
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-21,24-26
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 113a-b; BK v,
161b-c; BK vn, 236d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
(487*14-^] 8a-b; BK iv, CH i [525*12-25] 51a-
c; BK v, CH 15 [547*4-12] 73d; CH 15 [547bn]-
CH 16 [548*28] 74b-75a; CH 16 [548^8-30]
75c-d; CH 17 [549bi4-22] 76c; CH 22 [554b8-
18] 81b-c; CH 28 [556*4-6] 82d; CH 30 [556*21-
24] 83a; CH 31 [557*4-32] 83d-84a; BK vi, CH 5
[563*5-12] 89b; BK vm, CH 2-20 115c-129b esp
CH 2 [589*10-590*19] 115C-116C, CH 12-17
122d-127b; CH 28-29 131c-132d; BK ix, CH
11-27 140c-143c passim; CH 32 [6i8bi8-6i9*8]
144b-c / Generation of Animals, BK in, CH n
[76ib9-24] 302c-d
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK n [532-540]
21d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 71-
72 367a-369d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [387-498] 225b-
228a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 630b-c [n 43]
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic!(, 146b-148a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 181a-206a,c esp
181a-184d, 196a-199d, 204d-206a,c; 231b-c;
237c-238b
1 \b. The relation between animals and their
environments
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 129a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 8 [i98bi6-33]
275d-276a / Longevity 710a-713a,c passim
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487*i4~b33] 8a-d; BK HI, CH 12 [519*3-19]
43d-44a; CH 21 [522^2-523*1] 47d-48a; BK
iv, CH 5 [530^9-24] 57c; BK v, CH n [543bi9-
31] 70b-c; CH 22 [553^0-24] 80c; BK vm, CH
2-29 115c-132d; BK ix, CH i [6o8bi8-6io*34]
134a-136a; CH 37 [622*8-15] 14?c / Parts of
Animals, BK n, CH 16 [658^0-659*36] 185d-
186b; BK iv, CH 5 [68oa28-b3] 210d; CH 8
[684*1-14] 215b; CH 12 [693*10-24] 225a/ Gait
of Animals, CH 15 [713*4]-^ 18 [714^] 250d-
252a / Generation of Animals, BK n, CH 4
[738*9-27] 278d-279a; BK iv, CH 2 308b-d;
BK v, CH 3 [782b23-783b22] 324d-325d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 12
14b-d; par 19 16c-17a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [845-854]
72a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
242a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 223c
28 GALILEO' Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 160c-
d; SECOND DAY, 187b-188c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 13, 146c
33 PASCAL: Equilibrium of Liquids, 401a-403a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 79a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 224b; 295b-296b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Latvs, BK xiv,
102b,d-104a
42 KANT, judgement, 553c-554b; 585b
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER n, 56a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART n,
57b-c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 209b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 534c-535b
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, 9a-10d; 32a-39a,c
passim, esp 34c-36a, 39a,c; 40d-42c; 53d-55b;
65a-69c esp 65b-66a; 106b-107a; 144a-145c;
182d-183a; 230d-231b / Descent of Man,
268b-269a; 320a-c; 341b,d [fn 32]; 354c-355a;
430d-432c; 442a-443b; 468d-469a; 525b-
527c;554d-555b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 857b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents > 791 d-
792a
12. The treatment of animals by men
\2a. The taming of animals
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK iv [625-637] 205c
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [459-468] 44d
5 SOPHOCLES : Antigone [332-352] I34a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 128a-d
\lbto \2c
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
47
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488*26-31] 9b; BK vi, CH 21 [575bi-3J lOla;
BK ix, CH i [608*24-27] 133b,d; [6o8b3o-
609*3] 134b'' I6i°*24-34l 135d; CH 26 143b;
CH 46 [630bi8-2i] 156a / Politics, BK i, CH 5
14 PLUTARCH- Alexander, 542d-543b
19 AQUINAS : Swnma Theologica, PART i, Q 96, A i,
REP 2 510b-511b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 50,
A 3, REP 2 8b-9a
25 MONTAIGNE- Ewayj, 220d-222c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 146b-148b; 164b;
167b-168a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337a; 356d-357a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d; 107a-b; 221d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 56
26b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 13c-d; 121b-122c
passim; 233c-d
50 MARX- Capital, 87b
53 JAMES . Psychology, 708a-709a
2£. The use and abuse of animals
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:4; 8:6-12; 22:1-13 /
Exodus, 20:8-11; 22-19; 23:i2 / Leviticus pas-
sim, esp 11, 18-23, 20-15-16 / Numbers, 22:21-
34 / Deuteronomy, 5-12-14; 22*6-7,10; 25:4;
27:21 / Proverbs, 12:10 / Daniel, 6:6-28
APOCRYPHA: Bel and Dragon, 23-28— (D) OT,
Daniel, 14:22-27
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 21:1-11 / Mar^ 1:6;
6:34-44; 11:1-11 / Lu^e, 19:29-38 / John,
12:14-15 / I Corinthians, 9:9 / / Timothy, 5:18
4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d passim, esp BK i [428-
471] 7c-8a, BK ii [394-431] 14a-b, [760-779]
17c-d, BK iv [104-111] 25a, BK v [191-208]
32a-b, BK xxin [262-611] 164a-167c / Odyssey,
BK in [418-463] 197b-d; BK xi [23-50] 243b-c;
BK xn [260-419] 252d-254c
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [459-468] 44d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [1-181] 526a-528a /
Birds [294-382] 545d-547b; [1076-1087] 556a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK 11, 57b-58b; 59b-c;
62c-64c; BK m, 95b-c; llld'112c; 113c-d; BK
iv, 127d-128a; 146d-147a; BK v, 183b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK HI, CH 20
[522*25]-CH 21 [523*13] 47b-48c; BK v, CH 22
80b-81c; BK ix, CH i [610*15-34] 135d / Poli-
tics, BK i, CH 8 [i 256^8-26] 450b-c; CH n
[i258bi2-2o] 452d-453a; BK iv, CH 3 [i289b33~
40] 488d-489a; BK vi, CH 7 [1321*9-12] 524d;
BK VH, CH 2 [i324b36-4i] 528d-529a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [860-870]
72b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 16, 121d-122a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 23 276b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid 103a-379a esp BK HI [218-257]
153a-154a, BK v [84-99] 189b, BK vin [81-87]
261a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 278d-279c / Alex-
ander, 541 b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 72,
A i, REP 6 368b-369d; Q 96, A i 510b-511b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologies, PART i-n, Q
102, A 3 272b-276c; Q 105, A 2, REP 11-12
309d-316a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
143b-d; BK iv, 245d 248c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 139c-143c; 206b-208a;
219b-d; 220d-222c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL i,
435a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv 135a-184a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 474b-477a; 483b-
485a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331b
40 GIB BON: Decline and Fall, 38b-39a; 139c-
140a; 411d-412c; 619d-620a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 107a-b; 221c-
222a
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 312b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 82b-83a; 307b-310b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 13c-d; 233c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 86b; 183b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 19c-d; BK VH,
278a-287a; 296d-297d; BK vin, 330d-332a;
BK XH, 538a-d; BK xiv, 592a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 705a; 720a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 758b-c / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 771d-772a
12c. Friendship or love between animals and
men
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvn [426-455] 126c-d; BK
xix [399-424] 141a,c; BK xxm [272-286] 164a
/ Odyssey, BK xvn [290-327] 280a-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [294-382] 545d-547b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 5b-d
9 ARISIOTLL: History of Animals, BK ix, CH 44
[630*9-12] 155b; CH 48 [631*7-10] 156b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-b / Marcus Cato,
278d-279c / Alexander, 562b; 570a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARI n-n, Q 25,
A 3 502c-503b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 206b-208a; 224c-225b;
227b-228b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
iv, sc iv [1-42] 248b-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 2c-d;
112b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL i,
435a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, xixa; PART iv, 180a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 483b-485a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 221c-d passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 229a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 289c; 303c; 307a-c;
317d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 278a-287a
passim; BK xm, 575b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
16 7c; BK x, 282a 288d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 722a-b
48
THE GREAT IDEAS
13
13. The attribution of human qualities or vir-
tues to animals: personification in alle-
gory and satire
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3.1-5 / Numbers,
22:21-31
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvn [426-455] 126c-d;
BK xix [399-424] 141a,c; BK xxm [272-286]
164a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [591-610] 477b-d /
Wasps 507a-525d / Birds 542a-563d / Frogs
[205-270] 566d-567b
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK i, 21d-22a; 33a-b,
BK ii, 61a-b; BK vi, 211a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 128a-d / Republic, BK n,
319c-320c / Statesman, 583c-d; 588b-c
9 ARISTOILL: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488^-25] 9c-d; BK vni, CH i [588ai8-b3]
114b,d; BK ix, CH i [6o8aii-bi9] 133b,d-134a;
CH 29 [618*25-30] 143d; CH 38 148b; CH 48
[631*8-20] 156b-c / Politics, BK in, CH 13
[i284ttn-i8] 482b / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 20
[139^8-1394*1] 641b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 357a / Sulla, 382c-d
17 PLOTINUS- Third Ennead, TR iv, CH 2, 98a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i [i-m] la-
2b, vi [1-33] 8b-d; xn [1-30] 16b-c; xvi [106]-
xvii [36] 23c-24b; PURGATORY, xiv [16-66]
73d-74b; xxix 97d-99b; xxxn [106-160]
103c-104a
22 CHAUCER: Nun's Priest's Tale [14,853-15,452]
450b-460b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvm, 25a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i, 2b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215a 232b passim
27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, ACT iv, sc
in [320-348] 414b-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 39b-d;
40d-41a
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK ix [48-96] 248b-
249b; [523-612] 258b-260b csp [549-566]
259b; BK x [209-590] 279a-287a
36 SWIFT* Gulliver, PART iv 135a-184a
44 Bos WELL* Johnson, 215b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 253b-
254d
47 GOEIHE Faust, PART i [1202-1209] 30a
48 MLLVILLE. Moby Dic{ esp 131a-145a, 248b-
249a, 289b-292a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 553d-554a
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general discussion of the grades of life and the kinds of soul, see LIFE AND DEATH 3, 3b;
SOUL 2c-2c(3).
Other considerations of the issue concerning continuity or discontinuity in the relation of
plants, animals, and men, as well as between living and non-living things, see EVOLUTION
3e, 7a~7b; LIFE AND DEATH 2, 33; MAN la-ic; NATURE 3b; SENSE 2a.
The comparison of men and animals, or of different species of animals, with respect to
sensitivity, memory, imagination, and intelligence, see MEMORY AND IMAGINATION i;
MIND 3a~3b; REASONING la; SENSE 20-20.
The general theory of instinct, see HABIT 3-36; and for the emotional aspect of instincts, see
EMOTION ic.
Diverse theories of classification, see DEFINITION 2a-2e; EVOLUTION la-ib.
Alternative theories of the origin and development of living organisms, see EVOLUTION 43, 40.
Other discussions of heredity, see EVOLUTION 3-36; FAMILY 6b.
Other discussions of sexual attraction, mating, and reproduction, see CHANGE lob; FAMILY 73;
LOVE 23(1), 2d.
The causes of animal movement, see CAUSE 2; DESIRE 2c; WILL 33(1), 6c.
Another consideration of sleeping and waking, see LIFE AND DEATH 50.
The comparison of human and animal societies, see STATE la.
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL
49
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
GALEN. On the Utility of Parts
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART iv, CH 25
GOETHE. Metamorphose der Pflanzen
II.
Aesop's Fables
THEOPHRASTUS. Enquiry into Plants
OVID. Metamorphoses
PLINY. Natural History
VESALIUS. The Epitome
SUAREZ. Disputatwnes Metaphysicae, XLIV (3)
LA FONTAINE. Fables
LINNAEUS. Systema Naturae
LAMETTRIE. Man a Machine
CONDILLAC. Traite des animaux
BUFFON. Natural History
E. DARWIN. The Loves of the Plants
CUVIER. The Animal Kingdom
BALZAC. A Passion in the Desert
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, BK v
SCHWANN. Microscopical Researches into the Accord-
ance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and
Plants
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK i, CH 5
BERNARD. Introduction to Experimental Medicine
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of 'the Unconscioust(c)nt
IV
T. H. HUXLEY. Methods and Results, v
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART v, CH 9, 13-17
WUNDT. Outlines of Psychology, (19)
JENNINGS. Behavior of the Lower Organisms
SHERRINGTON. The Integrative Action of the Nervous
System
DRIESCH. The Science and Philosophy of the Organism
HENDERSON. The Fitness of the Environment
KOEHLER. The Mentality of Apes
D. W. THOMPSON. On Growth and Form
LOEB. The Organism as a Whole
, Forced Movements, Tropisms and Animal
Conduct
J. S. HALDANE and J. G. PRIESTLEY. Respiration
PAVLOV. Conditioned Reflexes
ALVERDES. Social Life in the Animal World
WHEELER. Foibles of Insects and Men
BOSE. Life Movements in Plants
. Growth and Tropic Movements of Plants
NEEDHAM. Order and Life
WHITEHEAD. Modes of Thought, LECT vn-vm
LARGE. The Advance of the Fungi
WIENER. Cybernetics
Chapter y. ARISTOCRACY
INTRODUCTION
rT""fHE forms of government have been vari-
JL ously enumerated, differently classified,
and given quite contrary evaluations in the
great books of political theory. In the actual
history of political institutions, as well as in the
tradition of political thought, the major prac-
tical issues with respect to the forms of govern-
ment—the choices open, the ideals to be
sought, or the evils to be remedied —have shifted
with the times.
In an earlier day— not merely in ancient
times, but as late as the i8th century— the
form of government called "aristocracy" pre-
sented a genuine alternative to monarchy, and
set a standard by which the defects and infir-
mities of democracy were usually measured. If
aristocracy was not always regarded as the ideal
form of government, the principle of aristoc-
racy always entered into the definition of the
political ideal.
Today, both in theory and practice, aristoc-
racy is at the other end of the scale. For a
large part of mankind, and for the political
philosopher as well as in prevailing popular
sentiment, aristocracy (together with mon-
archy) has become a subject of historical inter-
est. It is a form of government with a past
rather than a future. It no longer measures, but
is measured by, democracy. If the aristocratic
principle still signifies a factor of excellence in
government or the state, it does so with a mean-
ing now brought into harmony with demo-
cratic standards.
This change accounts for one ambiguity
which the word "aristocracy" may have for
contemporary readers. Formerly its primary,
if not only, significance was to designate a form
of government. It is currently used to name a
special social class, separated from the masses
by distinctions of birth, talent, property, power,
or leisure. We speak of "the aristocracy" as we
speak of "the elite" and "the four hundred";
or we follow Marx and Engels in thinking of the
"feudal aristocracy" as the class "that was
ruined by the bourgeoisie." The Communist
Manifesto wastes little sympathy on the aristo-
crats who, while seeking an ally in the prole-
tariat, forgot that "they [too] exploited under
circumstances and conditions that were quite
different." For Marx and Engels, the aristoc-
racy and the bourgeoisie alike represent the
propertied classes, but they differ in the man-
ner in which they came by their property and
power. The landed gentry and the feudal no-
bility got theirs largely by inheritance, the
bourgeoisie by industry and trade.
Today, for the most part, we call a man an
"aristocrat" if, justly or unjustly, he claims a
right to certain social distinctions or privileges.
We seldom use that word today to indicate a
man who deserves special political status or pre-
eminence, though we do sometimes use it to
name the proponent of any form of government
which rests upon the political inequality of
men.
Since the discussion of aristocracy in the
great books is largely political, we shall here be
primarily concerned with aristocracy as a form
of government. The general consideration of
the forms of government will be found in the
chapter on GOVERNMENT. Here and in the
other chapters which are devoted to particular
forms of government, we shall consider each of
the several forms, both in itself and in relation
to the others.
THERE is ONE element in the conception of
aristocracy which does not change with chang-
ing evaluations of aristocratic government. All
of the writers of the great political books agree
with Plato that aristocracy is a "government
of the few," according as the few rather than
50
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY
51
the one or the many exercise political power
and dominate the state. By this criterion of
number, aristocracy is always differentiated
from monarchy and democracy.
Though he uses the word "oligarchy" to
name what others call "aristocracy," Locke
defines the three forms of government by refer-
ence to numbers. When the majority them-
selves exercise the whole power of the commu-
nity, Locke says, "then the form of the govern-
ment is a perfect democracy." When they put
"the power of making laws into the hands of a
few select men . . . then it is an oligarchy; or
else into the hands of one man, and then it is
a monarchy." Kant proceeds similarly, though
again in somewhat different language. "The re-
lation of the supreme power to the people," he
says, "is conceivable in three different forms:
either one in the state rules over all; or some,
united in relation of equality with each other,
rule over all the others; or all together rule
over each individually, including themselves.
The form of the state is therefore either auto-
cratic, or aristocratic, or democratic."
Hegel claims, however, that "purely quanti-
tative distinctions like these are only super-
ficial and do not afford the concept of the
thing." The criterion of number does not seem
to suffice when other forms of government
are considered. It fails to distinguish monarchy
from tyranny or despotism, which may consist
of rule by one man, as has usually been the case
historically. Number alone likewise fails to dis-
tinguish aristocracy from oligarchy. In the de-
liberations of the Medean conspirators, which
Herodotus reports or invents, the rule of "a
certain number of the worthiest" is set against
both democracy and monarchy and identified
as "oligarchy." How, then, shall aristocracy be
distinguished from oligarchy?
There seem to be two answers to this ques-
tion. In the Statesman* Plato adds to the char-
acteristic of number the "criterion of law and
the absence of law." The holders of political
power, whatever their number, may govern
either according to the established laws, or by
arbitrary caprice in violation of them. "To go
against the laws, which are based upon long ex-
perience, and the wisdom of counsellors who
have graciously recommended them and per-
suaded the multitude to pass them, would be,"
the Eleatic Stranger declares in the Statesman,
"a far greater and more ruinous error than any
adherence to written law."
Taking the division of governments accord-
ing to number, "the principle of law and the
absence of law will bisect them all." Monarchy
divides into "royalty and tyranny" depending
on whether "an individual rules according to
law ... or governs neither by law nor by cus-
tom, but . . . pretends that he can only act for
the best by violating the laws, while in reality
appetite and ignorance are the motives." By
the same criterion, the rule of the few divides
"into aristocracy, which has an auspicious
name, and oligarchy." While democracy is sub-
ject to the same division, Plato makes the same
name apply to both its good and bad forms.
The second way in which aristocracy differs
from oligarchy is also brought out in the States'
man. Since "the science of government," ac-
cording to Plato, is "among the greatest of all
sciences and most difficult to acquire . . . any
true form of government can only be supposed
to be the government of one, two, or, at any
rate, of a few . . . really found to possess sci-
ence." Because of this demand for "science,"
which presupposes virtue and competence in
ruling, monarchy and aristocracy came to be
defined as government by the single best man
or by the few best men in the community.
A high degree of competence or virtue is,
however, not the only mark by which the few
may be distinguished from the many. The
possession of wealth or property in any size-
able amount also seems to divide a small class
in the community from the rest, and Plato at
times refers to aristocracy simply as the govern-
ment of the rich. Yet if wealth is the criterion
by which the few are chosen to govern, then
oligarchy results, at least in contrast to that
sense of aristocracy in which the criterion is
excellence of mind and character. Aristocracy
is called aristocracy, writes Aristotle, "either
because the rulers are the best men, or because
they have at heart the best interests of the state
and of the citizens."
By these additional criteria— never by num-
bers alone—the ancients conceive aristocracy.
When it is so defined, it always appears to
be a good form of government, but never the
only good form, or even the best. The same
52
THE GREAT IOTAS
criteria also place monarchy among the good
forms, and— at least in Plato's Statesman—^-
mocracy is a third good form, when it is lawful
government by the many, the many being com-
petent or virtuous to some degree. In this triad
of good forms, aristocracy ranks second-best,
because government by one man is supposed to
be more efficient, or because, in the hierarchy
of excellence, the few may be superior, but only
the one can be supreme. Aristotle, however,
seems to rank aristocracy above monarchy.
"If we call the rule of many men, who are all
of them good, aristocracy, and the rule of one
man royalty," he writes, "then aristocracy will
be better for states than royalty."
THE INTRODUCTION of democracy into the com-
parison tends to complicate the discussion. Not
only are the many usually the poor, but they
are also seldom considered pre-eminent in vir-
tue or competence. According to the way in
which either wealth or human excellence is dis-
tributed, both oligarchy and aristocracy organ-
ize the political community in terms of inequal-
ities in status, power, and privilege. This fact
leads Rousseau, for example, to use the different
kinds of inequality among men as a basis for
distinguishing "three sorts of aristocracy — nat-
ural, elective, and hereditary."
Natural aristocracy, according to Rousseau,
is based on that inequality among men which is
due primarily to age and is found among simple
peoples, where "the young bowed without
question to the authority of experience." Elec-
tive aristocracy arose "in proportion as artificial
inequality produced by institutions became
predominant over natural inequality, and rich-
es or power were put before age." This form, in
Rousseau's opinion, is "the best, and is aris-
tocracy properly so called." The third, which
is characterized as "the worst of all govern-
ments," came about when "the transmission of
the father's power along with his goods to his
children, by creating patrician families, made
government hereditary."
This emphasis upon inequality radically sep-
arates aristocracy from democracy. From Aris-
totle down to Montesquieu, Rousseau, and our
bwn day, equality has been recognized as the
distinctive element of democracy. Disregarding
slaves who, for the ancients, were political
pariahs, Aristotle makes liberty the other mark
of democracy— all freemen having, apart from
wealth or virtue, an equal claim to political
status. As "the principle of an aristocracy is
virtue," Aristotle writes, so wealth is the prin-
ciple "of an oligarchy, and freedom of a de-
mocracy."
To the defenders of democracy, ancient or
modern, aristocracy and oligarchy stand to-
gether, at least negatively, in their denial of
the principle of equality. To the defenders of
aristocracy, oligarchy is as far removed as de-
mocracy, since both oligarchy and democracy
neglect or underestimate the importance of
virtue in organizing the state. Yet oligarchy
more than democracy is the characteristic per-
version of aristocracy. It also puts government
in the hands of the few, but it substitutes
wealth for virtue as the criterion. The demo-
cratic critic of aristocracy usually calls atten-
tion to the way in which oligarchy tries to wear
the mask of aristocracy. However far apart aris-
tocracy and oligarchy may be in definition, he
insists that in actual practice they tend to be-
come identical, in proportion as wealth, or
noble birth, or social class is taken as the sign
of intrinsic qualities which are thought to de-
serve special political recognition.
The defenders of aristocracy have admitted
the tendency of aristocratic government to de-
generate into oligarchy. Its critics are not satis-
fied with this admission. They deny that aris-
tocracy has ever existed in purity of principle—
they deny that the governing few have ever
been chosen solely for their virtue. Machiavelh
assumes it to be a generally accepted fact that
"the nobles wish to rule and oppress the people
. . . and give vent to their ambitions/' Mon-
tesquieu, although more optimistic about the
possibility of a truly virtuous aristocracy, rec-
ognizes its tendency to profit at the expense of
the people. To overcome this he would have
the laws make it "an essential point . . . that
the nobles themselves should not levy the taxes
. . . and should likewise forbid the nobles all
kinds of commerce . . . and abolish the right of
primogeniture among the nobles, to the end
that by a continual division of the inheritances
their fortunes may be always upon a level."
But perhaps the strongest attack upon aris-
tocracy in all of the great political boob is
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY
53
made by Mill in his Representative Government.
He admits that "the governments which have
been remarkable in history for sustained mental
ability and vigour in the conduct of affairs have
generally been aristocracies." But he claims
that, whatever their abilities, such govern-
ments were "essentially bureaucracies," and
the "dignity and estimation" of their ruling
members were "quite different things from the
prosperity or happiness of the general body of
the citizens, and were often wholly incompati-
ble with it." When their actions are dictated by
"sinister interests," as frequently happens, the
aristocratic class "assumes to themselves an
endless variety of unjust privileges, sometimes
benefiting their pockets at the expense of the
people, sometimes merely tending to exalt
them above others, or, what is the same thing
in different words, to degrade others below
themselves."
Yet except by those political thinkers who
deny the distinction between good and bad
government, and hence the relevance of virtue
to institutions which are solely expressions of
power, the aristocratic principle is seldom en-
tirely rejected. Even when the notion of a pure
aristocracy is dismissed as an ideal which can
never be fully realized, the aristocratic princi-
ple reappears as a counsel of perfection in the
improvement of other forms of government.
Eveivso, one difficulty remains, which tends
to prevent aristocracy from being realized in
practice, quite apart from any question of its
soundness in principle. It lies in the reluctance
of the best men to assume the burdens of public
office. The parable told in the Book of Judges
applies to aristocracy as much as to monarchy.
The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king
over them; and they said unto the olive tree, Reign
thou over us.
But the olive tree said unto them, Should I leave
my fatness, wherewith by me they honor God and
man, and go to be promoted over the trees ?
And the trees said to the fig tree, Come thou, and
reign over us.
But the fig tree said unto them, Should I forsake
my sweetness, and my good fruit, and go to be
promoted over the trees ?
Then said the trees unto the vine, Come thou,
and reign over us.
And the vine said unto them, Should I leave my
wine, which cheereth God and man, and go to be
promoted over the trees?
Then said all the trees unto the bramble, Come
thou, and reign over us.
And the bramble said unto the trees, If in truth ye
anoint me king over you, then come and put your
trust in my shadow: and if not, let fire come out of
the bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebanon.
Socrates thinks he has a solution for this prob-
lem. In the Republic, he proposes a new way
to induce good men to rule. Since "money and
honor have no attraction for them," necessity,
Socrates says, "must be laid upon them, and
they must be induced to serve from fear of
punishment. . . . Now the worst part of the
punishment is that he who refuses to rule is lia-
ble to be ruled by one who is worse than him-
self. And the fear of this, as I conceive, induces
the good to take office . . . not under the idea
that they are going to have any benefit or en-
joyment themselves, but as a necessity, and
because they are not able to commit the task
of ruling to anyone who is better than them-
selves, or indeed as good."
THE POLITICAL ISSUES, in which monarchy,
aristocracy, oligarchy, and democracy represent
the major alternatives, cannot be clarified with-
out recourse to the distinction between govern-
ment by laws and government by men.
It has already been noted that in the States-
man Plato makes respect for the laws and vio-
lation of the laws the marks of good and bad
government respectively. But he also proposes
that "the best thing of all is not that the law
should rule, but that a man should rule, sup-
posing him to have wisdom and royal power."
The imperfections of law could then be avoided,
because one or a few men of almost superhuman
wisdom would govern their inferiors even as
the gods could direct the affairs of men without
the aid of established laws. But if no man is a
god in relation to other men, then, in Plato's
opinion, it is better for laws or customs to be
supreme, and for men to rule in accordance
with them.
The larger issue concerning rule by law and
rule by men is discussed in the chapters on
CONSTITUTION and MONARCHY. But here we
must observe how the difference between these
two types of rule affects the understanding of
all other forms of government. This can be seen
in terms of Aristotle's distinction between royal
54
THE GREAT IDEAS
and political government, which closely resem-
bles the modern conception of the difference
between absolute or despotic government on
the one hand, and limited, constitutional, or
republican government on the other.
There are passages in which Aristotle regards
absolute rule by one or a few superior men as
the divine or godlike form of government.
When one man or a few excel "all the others to-
gether in virtue, and both rulers and subjects
are fitted, the one to rule, the others to be
ruled/' it is right, in Aristotle's opinion, for the
government to be royal or absolute rather than
political or constitutional— whether one man
rules or a few. "Royal rule is of the nature of an
aristocracy," he says. "It is based upon merit,
whether of the individual or of his family."
But in other passages Aristotle seems to re-
gard absolute government as a despotic regime,
appropriate to the family and the primitive
tribe, but not to the state, in which it is better
for equals to rule and be ruled in turn. In either
case, it makes a difference to the meaning of
aristocracy, as also to monarchy, whether it be
conceived as absolute or constitutional govern-
ment.
When it is conceived as absolute government,
aristocracy differs from monarchy only on the
point of numbers— the few as opposed to the
one. Otherwise, aristocracy and monarchy are
defended in the same way. The defense usually
takes one of two directions. One line of argu-
ment which stems from Plato and Aristotle
claims that inequality in wisdom or virtue be-
tween ruler and ruled justifies absolute rule by
the superior. The other line is followed by those
who, like Hobbes, maintain that since sover-
eignty is absolute, unlimited, and indivisible,
the difference between kinds of government
"consisteth not in the difference of Power, but
in the difference of Convenience, or Aptitude
to produce the Peace, and Security of the peo-
ple." When they are conceived as forms of ab-
solute government, aristocracy and monarchy
are attacked for the same reason; to those who
regard absolutism or despotism in government
as unjust because it violates the basic equality
of men, an absolute monarchy and a despotic
aristocracy are both unjust.
Aristocracy, however, can also be conceived
as a form or aspect of constitutional govern-
ment. Montesquieu, for example, divides gov-
ernments into "republican, monarchical, and
despotic," and under "republican" places those
"in which the body, or only a part, of the peo-
ple is possessed of the supreme power," thus
including both democracy and aristocracy. In
both, laws, not men, are supreme, but the spirit
of the laws is different. In democracy, the
"spring," or principle, "by which it is made to
act," is virtue resting on equality; in aristoc-
racy, "moderation is the very soul ... a mod-
eration . . . founded on virtue, not that which
proceeds from indolence and pusillanimity."
Hegel's comment on this theory deserves men-
tion. "The fact that 'moderation' is cited as the
principle of aristocracy," he writes, "implies
the beginning at this point of a divorce between
public authority and private interest."
For Aristotle, in contrast to Montesquieu,
the two major types of constitution are the
democratic and the oligarchical, according as
free-birth or wealth is made the chief qualifica-
tion for citizenship and public office. Aristoc-
racy enters the discussion of constitutional
governments mainly in connection with the
construction of the polity or mixed constitu-
tion. Although in most states "the fusion goes
no further than the attempt to unite the free-
dom of the poor and the wealth of the rich,"
he points out that "there are three grounds on
which men claim an equal share in the govern-
ment, freedom, wealth, and virtue."
When the fusion goes no further than the
attempt to unite the freedom of the poor and
the wealth of the rich, "the admixture of the
two elements," Aristotle says, is "to be called a
polity." But sometimes the mixture of democ-
racy with oligarchy may include an ingredient
of aristocracy, as in "the distribution of offices
according to merit." The union of these three
elements "is to be called aristocracy or the
government of the best," and "more than any
other form of government, except the true and
the ideal," it has, in Aristotle's judgment, "a
right to this name." Polity and aristocracy, as
mixed constitutions, are fusions of some of the
same elements; hence, he says, it is "obvious
that they are not very unlike."
BEGINNING IN the i8th century, and with the
rise of representative government, the discus-
CHAFFER 3: ARISTOCRACY
55
sion of aristocracy as a distinct form of govern-
ment is largely super-ceded by the consideration
of the role which the aristocratic principle plays
in the development of republican institutions.
The writers of The Federalist^ for example,
respond in several places to the charge that the
constitution which they are defending shows
tendencies toward aristocracy or oligarchy. Yet
in their consideration and defense of the new
instrument of government as essentially repub-
lican, they frequently appeal to principles that
are aristocratic in nature.
In giving their own meanings to the terms
"republic" and "pure democracy"— that is,
government by elected representatives on the
one hand, and by the direct participation of the
whole people on the other— the Federalists also
give an aristocratic bent to the very notion of
representation. They seem to share the opinion
of Montesquieu that "as most citizens have
sufficient ability to choose, though unqualified
to be chosen, so the people, though capable of
calling others to account for their administra-
tion, are incapable of conducting administra-
tions themselves."
Thus Madison praises "the delegation of the
government ... to a small number of citizens
elected by the rest" as tending "to refine and
enlarge the public views, by passing them
through the medium of a chosen body of citi-
zens, whose wisdom may best discern the true
interest of their country." He further points
out that "it may well happen that the public
voice, pronounced by the representatives of
the people, will be more consonant to the pub-
lic good than if pronounced by the people
themselves, convened for the purpose."
On such a view, the people's representatives
in the legislature, or other branches of govern-
ment, are supposed to be not their minions,
but their betters. For the American constitu-
tionalists, as for Edmund Burke, the represent-
ative serves his constituents by making inde-
pendent decisions for the common good, not by
doing their bidding. This theory of representa-
tion, to which Mill and other democratic think-
ers agree in part, supposes that the representa-
tive knows better than his constituents what is
for their good.
The effort to ensure leadership by superior
men may involve the aristocratic principle, yet
it is also claimed by Hamilton, Madison, and
Jay to be a necessary safeguard for popular gov-
ernment. The senate, for instance, is not only
to provide elder statesmen, but is also to serve
as "a salutary check on the government . . .
[which] doubles the security to the people, by
requiring the concurrence of two distinct bodies
in schemes of usurpation or perfidy, where the
ambition or corruption of one would otherwise
be sufficient," The electoral college aims di-
rectly at placing the immediate election of the
president in the hands of "men most capable
of analyzing the qualities adapted to the sta-
tion . . , under circumstances favorable to de-
liberation." In addition it may serve as an
"obstacle . . . opposed to cabal, intrigue, and
corruption," which are the "most deadly ad-
versaries of republican government."
In all these respects, as well as in the restric-
tions on suffrage which it permitted the states
to impose, the unamended American constitu-
tion appears to have adopted an aristocratic
principle in government. Whether the motiva-
tion of its proponents was m fact simply aris-
tocratic, or whether it was partly or even
largely oligarchical— leadership being the right
of men of "good" family and substantial prop-
erty—will always be a question to be decided
in the light of the documents and the relevant
historic evidence.
MORE DEMOCRATIC than the American consti-
tutionalists of the 1 8th century, certainly so
with regard to the extension of suffrage, John
Stuart Mill appears to be no less concerned
than they are to introduce aristocratic elements
into the structure of representative govern-
ment.
According to Mill, two grave dangers con'
front a democracy: "Danger of a low grade of
intelligence in the representative body, and
in the popular opinion which controls it; and
danger of class legislation on the part of the
numerical majority." Claiming that much of
the blame for both dangers lies in the rule of
the majority, Mill looks for means to overcome
the situation in which "the numerical majority
. . . alone possess practically any voice in the
State."
His major remedy was a system of propor-
tional representation. This would supposedly
56
THE GREAT IDEAS
constitute a democratic improvement by secur-
ing representation for "every minority in the
whole nation ... on principles of equal justice.1*
But it may also serve to increase an aristocratic
element, since it "affords the best security for
the intellectual qualifications desirable in the
representatives." This would be brought about
by making possible the election of "hundreds
of able men of independent thought, who
would have no chance whatever of being chosen
by the majority," with the result that Parlia-
ment would contain the "very elite of the
country."
To make still more certain that men of su-
perior political intelligence exert an effect upon
government, Mill also proposes a plurality of
votes for the educated and the establishment of
an upper legislative chamber based on a spe-
cially qualified membership. Such proposals
seem to indicate Mill's leanings toward aris-
tocracy, not only because they aim at procur-
ing a "government of the best," but also be-
cause they are designed to prevent a govern-
ment based on a majority of "manual labour-
ers" with the consequent danger of "too low a
standard of political intelligence."
THE ISSUES RAISED by the theory of aristocracy,
or by the aristocratic principle in government,
seem to be basically the same in all centuries,
however different the terms or the context in
which they are expressed. Even when, as today,
a purely aristocratic form of government does
not present a genuine political alternative to
peoples who have espoused democracy, there
remains the sense that pure or unqualified de-
mocracy is an equally undesirable extreme. The
qualifications proposed usually add an aristo-
cratic leaven.
One issue concerns the equality and in-
equality of men. The affirmation that all men
are created equal does not exclude a recognition
of their individual inequalities — the wide di-
versity of human talents and the uneven dis-
tribution of intelligence and other abilities.
Nor does it mean that all men use their native
endowments to good purpose or in the same
degree to acquire skill or knowledge or virtue.
To grasp the double truth—that no man is
essentially more human than another, though
one may have more of certain human abilities
than another— is to see some necessity for the
admixture of democratic and aristocratic prin-
ciples in constructing a political constitution.
But the issue is whether distributive justice re-
quires, as a matter of right, that the best men
should rule or hold public office.
Some political philosophers, like Plato and
Aristotle, tend to take the aristocratic view
that men of superior ability have a right to
govern — that for them to be ruled by their in-
feriors would be unjust. This theory places
greater emphasis on the inequality than on
the equality of men. Their democratic oppo-
nents insist that the equality of men as men is
the fundamental fact and the only fact hav-
ing a bearing on the just distribution of suffrage.
That certain individuals have superior aptitude
for the exercise of political authority does not
automatically confer that authority upon them.
The inequality of men in merit or talent does
not establish a political right, as does their
equality in human nature. The selection of the
best men for public office is, on this theory, not
a matter of justice, but of expediency or pru-
dence.
Another issue concerns the weight to be given
the opinion of the majority as against the
opinion of the wise or the expert when, as
frequently happens, these opinions diverge or
conflict. As the chapter on OPINION indicates,
the experts themselves disagree about the
soundness of the popular judgment.
Where Thucydides believes that "ordinary
men usually manage public affairs better than
their more gifted fellows," because "the latter
are always wanting to appear wiser than the
laws," Herodotus observes that "it seems easier
to deceive the multitude than one man."
Where Hegel holds it to be "a dangerous and a
false prejudice, that the People alone have rea-
son and insight, and know what justice is,"
John Jay declares that "the people of any coun-
try (if, like the Americans, intelligent and well-
informed) seldom adopt and steadily persevere
for many years in an erroneous opinion respect-
ing their interests," and Hamilton adds that
"the people commonly intend \hz public good."
Sometimes the same author seems to take
both sides of the issue, as Aristotle does when,
though he says that "a multitude is a better
judge of many things than any individual," he
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY 57
yet prefers government by the one or few who present ambiguity. We have already noted it in
are eminent in wisdom or virtue. Each side, considering the reality of the line between aris-
perhaps, contributes only part of the truth, tocracy and oligarchy. The agreement or dis-
Certamly those who acknowledge a political agreement of Mill and Aristotle, of Burke and
wisdom in the preponderant voice of the many, Plato, of Hamilton and Paine, of Veblen and
but who also recognize another wisdom in the Pareto, or fohn Dewey and Matthew Arnold
skilled judgment of the few, cannot wish to ex- cannot be judged without determining whether
elude either from exerting its due influence the distinction between the many and the few
upon the course of government. derives from nature or convention.
Still another issue has to do with education. It is this distinction which Jefferson had in
Shall educational opportunity be as universal mind when, writing to Adams in 1813, he said,
as the franchise? Shall those whose native en- "There is a natural aristocracy among men.
dowments fit them for political leadership be The grounds of this are virtue and talents . . .
trained differently or more extensively than There is also an artificial aristocracy founded on
their fellow citizens? Shall vocational educa- wealth and birth* without either virtue or tal-
tion be given to the many, and liberal educa- ents; for with these it would belong to the first
tion be reserved for the few? class. The natural aristocracy I consider as the
These questions provide some measure of the most precious gift of nature, for the instruc-
extent to which anyone's thinking is aristo- tion, the trusts, the government of society . . .
cratic or democratic— or involves some admix- The artificial aristocracy is a mischievous in-
ture of both strains. In the great discussion of gradient in government, and provision should
these questions and issues, there is one ever- be made to prevent its ascendancy."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAOB
1. The general theory and evaluation of aristocracy 58
\a. Aristocracy as a good form of government
ib. Criticisms of aristocracy as unrealizable or unjust 59
2. The relation of aristocracy to other forms of government
20. Aristocracy and monarchy
2b. Aristocracy and constitutional government: the polity or mixed constitution
2C. Aristocracy and democracy 60
2d. Aristocracy and oligarchy
2e. Aristocracy and tyranny
3. The causes of degeneration or instability in aristocracies: aristocracy and revolution
4. Aristocracy and the issue of rule by men as opposed to rule by law 61
5. The training of those fitted for rule: aristocratic theories of education
6. The selection of the best men for public office: the aristocratic theory of representation
in modern constitutional government
7. Historic and poetic exemplifications of aristocracy 62
58
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 J MAES -.Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nchemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The general theory and evaluation of aris toe- la. Aristocracy as a good form of government
racy OLD TESTAMENT- Exodus, 18-13-26 / Deuteron-
omy, 1.9-17 / Proverbs, 29.2
APOCRYPHA- Ecclesiasticus, 10:1-2— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 10.1-2
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107d-108a
6 TmjcYDiDES'.Peloponnetian War, BK iv, 478d-
479b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in-iv, 339b-350a; BK
vin, 401d-402d / Timaeus, 442a-443b /
Statesman, 598b-604b esp 603d-604b
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK vin, en n [1161*23-24]
413c / Politics, BK HI, CH 7 [i27QR28-38] 476d;
CH 15 [i28(>h3-7J 484d; CH 18 487a,c; BK iv,
CH 7 493a b; CH 8 [i294H9-24] 493d-494a
14 PLUTARCH- Lycuigus, 47a-48d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 106a-107b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 218d-
219b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-309d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus 351a-392a,c esp
ACT i, sc i [51-192] 351d-353c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ij, 7c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 411c-412a
43 MILL: Representative Government ', 340a-c;
353b-354b; 363d-364b
44 EoswELL-johnson, 125c-d; 141a; 211b-c; 220b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK ii-vn, 316a-401d /
Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK HI, 665c-
666c; 669d-672a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK viii, CH 10 [n6ob32-
n6ia2] 413a-b; CH 11 [n6ift23-25] 413c / Poli-
tics, BK in, CH 7 [1279*33-37] 476d; CH 9
[1281*2-8] 478c-d; CH 15 [i286b4-5l 484d; CH
17 [1288*8-10] 486d, CH 18 487a,c; BK iv, CH 7
493a-b; CH 8 [1294*9-24! 493d-494a; CH 14
[i298b5-io] 499a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[i365b32-39] 608a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan^ PART n, 104d-105a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 319-324 229b-230b; 335
232b; 337-338 232b-233a
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b-7c;
BK HI, lOc-lla; BK v, 23a-25a; BK VH,
45b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-c / Social Con-
tract, BK HI, 410b-c; 411c-412c; 418c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-d
\b to 2b
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY
'59
lb. Criticisms of aristocracy as unrealizable or
unjust
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 108b-c
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
520a-c
7 PLATO* Republic, BK v, 368c-369c; BK vi,
380b-383a; BK vn, 401c-d; BK ix, 426d-427b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 10-13 478d-
483a; BK iv, CH 8 [i2gf2i-2&] 493c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 193c-194a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 105a; PART rv,
273a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 138
57b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 7c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 411d
42 KANT- Science of Right, 442c-d; 445a-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 366a-367b
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 297
99b / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 356c-
35'/ 365a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420c
2. The relation of aristocracy to other forms of
government
6 HERODOTUS' History, BK HI, 107c-108c
6THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK vni,
579c-590c passim
7 PLATO' Republic, BK i, 301c-d; BK vin-ix,
401d-421a esp BK vm, 401d-402d / Statesman,
598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 669d-672a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 3 [ii3ift24-29]
378d; BK vin, CH 10-11 412c-413d / Politics,
BK in, CH 5 [1278*15-34] 475b-c; en 7 476c-
477a; CH 13 [i284*3-b34] 482a-483a; CH 15
[ia86b8-22] 484d-485a, CH 17 [i287b37]-cn 18
[1288*37] 486c-487a,c; BK iv, CH 2 [1289*26 -b4)
488b-c; CH 3 [1290*13-29] 489b; CH 14 [1298*
34-bio] 498d-499a; CH 15 [i 299^0-1 300*8]
500b-d; on 16 [1301*10-16] 502c / Rhetoric, BK
i, CH 8 608a-c
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 34d-35d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b; PART 11,
104d-108b passim; 154b-c
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 304 227b-228a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a~b; CH xi, SECT 138 57b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ii-ni 4a-
13d esp BK n, 4a, 6b-7c, BK in, lOc-lla;
BK vi, 34d-35a; BK vin, 56b-57c; BK xn,
90b*c; BK xv, 109a-b; BK xvm, 125a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-c / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 410b-c; 415d; 418c; BK iv, 427a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-452£ esp 450b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125b-d
43 MILL: "Representative Government* 363b-369b
passim; 387c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART; HI, par 273,
90d-91c; par 279, 94b
2a. Aristocracy and monarchy ^
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 355d-356a / States-
man, 598b-604b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 7 476c-477a;
CH 13 [1284*3-35] 482a-c; CH 15 [i286*23-b8J
484c-d esp [i286b4-8] 484d; CH 16 [i287b8-35J
486a-c; CH 17 [1288*5-25] 486c-487a; c» 18
487a,c; BK iv, CH 2 [1289*26-35] 488b; BK v,
CH 10 [i3io*39-bi4] 512d-513a; [i3iob3i-
1311*8] 513b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 608a-c
15 TACITUS' Annals, BK vi, 97b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 218d-
219b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS and REP
1-2 307d-309d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH iv 7a-8a; CH ix
14c-16a passim; CH xix, 27a-b
23 HOB BBS- Leviathan, PART n, 104d-109a pas-
sim; PART in, 201a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b-8c;
BK in, lOc-lld; BK v, 23a-25d; 32b-c; BK vin,
53d-54a; BK xi, 75b-d; 77b-c; BK xn, 90c;
BK xx, 147a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 418c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 308b~c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81c-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 17, 70a-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 351d 352b;
366a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 273,
90c-91d; par 279, 94b / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 356d-357a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vi, 241c-242b;
BK ix, 384c-388a,c; EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c
26. Aristocracy and constitutional government:
the polity or mixed constitution
6 THUCYDIDES Peloponnesian War, BK vin,
579d-580d; 581b-c; 582a; S87a-b; 588a-589a;
590a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 7 476c-477a;
BK iv, CH 8 493c-494a; CH n [1295*31-34]
495b-c; CH 14 [i298b5~io] 499a; BK v, CH 7
[1307*5-27] 509a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[i365b22-i366*2] 608a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d / Dion, 800c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 72a-b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK nt 4a;
6b-8c; BK v, 21d-22c; BK vin, 52c; BK xi,
71d-72b; 75b-d; 76c-77c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81c*d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439c-440a; 450a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125b-d; NUMBER
63, 194b-195b; NUMBER 71, 216a-b
60
THE GREAT IDEAS
2<r/o3
(2. The relation of aristocracy to other jorms of
government. 2b. Aristocracy and constitu-
tional government: the polity or mixed con-
stitution.)
43 MILL: Representative Government, 353d-354b;
406a-409c; 419b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 279,
94b / Philosophy of History, PART n, 275b-
276a; 277c-d; PART iv, 356d-357a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d
passim, esp 241c-242b; BK ix, 384c-388a,c
passim
2c. Aristocracy and democracy
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponncsian War, BK vi, 520a-
c; 533a-c; BK vm, 579c-581c; 582b-c; 590a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 401d-402d; 408b-
409d / Statesman, 598b-604b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH n [1281*3^-
b25] 479b-c; CH 13 [i284*3-b25] 482a-d; BK iv,
CH 7 [i293bi2-i8] 493b; BK v, CH 7 [1307*5-27]
509a-b; CH 8 [1307^ 9-1 308*24] 510a-b;
[i}o8b3 1 -1309*10] 511a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[I365b22~i366a2] 608a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d / Lycurgus-Numa,
62b c / Dion, 792d-802a,c csp 800c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 97b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-309d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH ix 14c-16a passim
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 104d-105a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [1-47]
351a-d; ACT n, sc i [i-io6j 361a-362a; ACT HI,
sci [140-161] 370d~371a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 294 225b-226b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-7c;
BK HI, 9b-lla; BK v, 23a-b; 23d; BK vn, 44d-
45c; BK vni, 51d; 53d-54a; BK ix, 58b; BK x,
64a-d; BK xn, 90b-c; BK xv, 109b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369c-d / Social
Contract, BK iv, 427a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125b-d; NUMBER 57
176d-179b passim; NUMBER 58, 181b-c; NUM-
BER 60, 185b-187a
43 MILL: Liberty, 298b-299a / Representative
Government, 353b-354b; 364b-d; 366a-369b
passim ;376b-c
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 125c-d; 141a; 211b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273,
91b-c; par 279, 94b / Philosophy of History,
PART n, 275b-276a; 277c-d; PART in, 285b-d;
310a-c
2d. Aristocracy and oligarchy
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 401d-402d; 405c-
407a / Statesman. 598b-604b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 3 [1131*24-29]
378d; BK vm, on K> [1160^11-16] 412d;
[n6ob32-i 161*2] 413a-b / Politics, BK n, CH 10
[i272*27-bio] 468c-469a; CH n 469a-470b;
BK in, CH 5 [1278*15-24] 475b-c; CH 7 476c-
477a esp [i279b4~io] 476d-477a; CH 13
[i283*25-b26]481b-d; CH 15 [i286bi2-i6] 485a;
BK iv, CH 2 [i289*26-b4] 488b-c; CH 4
[i290bi7~2o] 489d; CH 5 [1292*39-^] 491d-
492a; CH 7 [i293b2-i2] 493a-b; CH 8 [i293b3o-
1294*28] 493c-494a; CH 12 [1297*6-9] 497b;
BK v, CH 7 508c-509d; CH 12 [i3i6*39-bio]
519c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i365b22-i366*6]
608a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b; 47a-48a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 35d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xvi [64-78]
23a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 104d-105a; PART
iv, 273a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK H, 7b-c;
BK v, 23a-25a; BK xx, 151c-152a
'38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 419b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 165c-166a;
BK v, 309c-310d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 63, 194d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 363d-364d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 277c-d;
PART in, 292d-293b
2e. Aristocracy and tyranny
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
533a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 401d-402d; BK vm-
ix, 411d-421a / Statesman, 598b-604b passim,
esp 603b-604b / Laws, BK iv, 679c-680b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v, CH 10 [1310*40-
1311*7] 512d-513b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[1365^32-1366*6] 608a-b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 193c-194a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 273a-b
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 380 238a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xvin, SECT 201
71c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a; BK
vi, 34d-35a; BK vni, 52c-d; BK xi, 70c; 78d-
79b; BK xv, 109a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 47, 153d; NUMBER 48,
157b-c; NUMBER 70, 213d-214a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART mt par 273,
91c / Philosophy of History, PART n, 277c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 9b-c; EPILOGUE
1, 668a-669d
3. The causes of degeneration or instability in
aristocracies: aristocracy and revolution
OLD TESTAMENT: / Samuel, 7:15-8:5— «(D)
/ Kings, 7U5-S-.5
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK HI, 108b-c
4/o 6
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY
61
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK vt 482d-
483a; BK vm, 579c-583c; 587a-589a; 590a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK m-iv, 339b-350a; BK
vm, 403a-404a / Cntias, 485a-c / Seventh
Letter, 806d-807b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i27ob7~34]
466d-467a; CH 12 [i273b36-i274*7] 470c; BK
in, CH 15 [i286bi2-i6] 485a; BK v, CH 3
[1303*2-10] 504 b-c; CH 4 [1304*18-29] 505d-
506a, CH 7 508c-509d; CH 8 [no7b39-i3o8a24]
510a-b; CH 12 [i3i6a39-b3] 519c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 35c-d; 47a-48a / Carlo-
lanus, 180a-184a / Lysander, 361a-368a,c /
Cams Gracchus, 683b-c / Cicero, 708a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lb-2a; 3a-b / His-
tories, BK i, 193c-194a
21 DAN IE- Divine Comedy, HELL, xvi [64-78]
23a-b, PARADISF, xv-xvi 128b-132a
23 MACIIIAVLLLI: Prince, CH iv 7a-8a, CH ix
14c-16a
36 SWIFF. Gulliver, PART iv, 158a-b
38 MoNFFsouitu: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6c-7b;
BK in, lOc-lla, BK v, 23a-25a; BK vn, 45b;
BK vm, 52c-53a; BK x, 64a-d; BK xn, 91c-
92b; BK xm, 96d-97a; BK xx, 151c-152a
38 ROUSSEAU. Social Contract, BK in, 411c-d;
418c-419b
39 SMITH Wealth of Nations, BK v, 420b-c
42 KANT. Science of Right, 451a
43 FEDERALIST' NUMBER 17, 70a-d
43 MILL. Representative Government, 366a-367b
46 HEGEL' Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273,
91c / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 355d-
357a csp 356c-357a, 364a-b
50 MARX-ENGLLS- Communist Manifesto, 423d-
424b, 429c-430b
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 666c-
669d
4. Aristocracy and the issue of rule by men as
opposed to rule by law
7 PLATO- Republic, BK vi, 380b-c / Statesman,
598b-604b / Seventh Letter, 806d-807b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 10 [1281*29-38]
479a; CH 13 [1284*3-18] 482a-b;cn 15 [1286*7-
b8] 484b-d; CH 17 486c-487a esp [1288*5-14]
486c-d
23 HOB BBS: leviathan, PART iv, 273a-c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xvni, SECT 199-
202 71a-72a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a; BK
vin, 52c; BK xi, 69a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450d-451d
5. The training of those fitted for rule: aristo-
cratic theories of education
OLD TESTAMENT* Exodus, 18:13-26 / Deuteron-
omy, 1:9-17
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 38:24-34— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 38 125-39
7 PLATO: Republic, BK ii-in, 320c-339a; BK vi-
vii, 383b-401d csp BK VH, 389d-401d /
Timaeus, 442c-d / Statesman, 607b-608a /
Laws, BK VH, 728b; BK xn, 794b-798b esp
796d-798b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK ni, CH 4 [i277*i4-bi5]
474a-d; CH 18 487a,c; BK iv, CH 15 [1300*3-8]
500d; BK vi, CH 8 [i 322^7-1 323*6] 526d; BK
vn, CH 14 [I3$2bi3-i333*i6] 537b-538a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i365b32~39] 608a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 38a-45c / Alcibiades,
156b-158b / Marcus Cato, 286c-287b / Lysan-
der, 354b,d-355a / Dion, 781b,d-788b
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK 11, 34c-d; BK xm, 125d-
126a / Histories, BK iv, 267c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vm [115-
148] 118b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART i,
94b-c; PART n, 112d; 154a; 158c-d; 164a,c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19d, 24a-30c; BK 11, 75a-77a; 78b-83b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60a-62a; 63d-64a; 71d-
72b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc i [1-45] 202c-203a/ 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc
n [218-240] 437c-d / Henry V, ACT i, sc i [22-
66] 533b-c / As You Li{e It, ACT i, sc i [1-28]
597a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 332c-
336a; 362a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART iv,
158a-b; 166b-167a
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK v, 18d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 347c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86c
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 508d-509d
43 MILL: Liberty, 298b-299a / Representative
Government, 384a-387d; 415a-417c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 169
145d / Philosophy of History, PART in, 310a-c;
PART iv, 368a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245c
6. The selection of the best men for public
office: the aristocratic theory of repre-
sentation in modern constitutional gov-
ernment
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:33-40 / Exodus,
18:13-26 / Deuteronomy, 1-9-18 / Judges esp
9:8-15 / / Samuel, 1:1-25:1— (D) I Kings,
1:1-25:1 / / Kings, 3:5-i5_(D) /// Kings,
3:5-15 / II Chronicles, 1:7-12— (D) II Para-
lipomenon, 1:7-12 / Proverbs, 29:2 / Daniel,
6:1-4
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6; 9— (D) OT,
Boo^of Wisdom, 6; 9 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:1-3—
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:1-3
5 EURIPIDES: Electra [367-400] 330c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 93c; 107d-108a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK 11, 396c-
d; BK in, 425b-c; BK iv, 478d; BK vi, 520b-c
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44d-45b / Republic, BK 11,
319a-320c; BK in, 339b-341a; BK v, 369c-
370a; BK vi, 373c-375b; 3S3b-d; BK vn,
62
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 7
(6, The election of the best men for public office:
the aristocratic theory of representation in
modern constitutional government.)
390b-391b / Statesman, 598b-604b; 608c-d /
Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c passim; BK xn, 786b-
787b; 794b-799a,c csp 796d-798b / Seventh
Letter, 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i2jobj-
1271*17] 466d-467b; CH n [1272* 35-127 3*2]
469b-c; [1273*22-*?] 469d-470a; BK in, CH 4
(1277*13-23) 474a-b; CH 5 [i278*4o-b5] 475d;
CH 7 [i279*24~b4] 476c-d; CH 10-13 478d-
483a; CH 15 [i286*22-bi4] 484c-485a; CH 16
[I287bi2-i4] 486a; CH 18 487a,c; BK iv, CH 7
[i293b2-2i] 493a-b; CH 8 [1294*9-24] 493d-
494a; CH 14 [i298b5~io] 499a; CH 15 [1300*9-
b4] 500d-501b; BK v, CH 8 [i3o8b3 1-1309*10]
Slla-b; CH 9 [i309*33~bi3] 511c-d; BK vi, CH 4
[I3i8b2i-i3i9*4] 522b-c; BK vn, CH 9 [i328b
33-1329*17] 533b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[I365b32-39]608a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 45c-d / Lysander, 365a-
366a/ Lysander-Sulla, 387d-388a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 105d-107b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 92,
A i, REP 3 213c-214c; Q 105, A i, ANS and REP
1-2 307d-309d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 136b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 364b-365a; 411a-d;
452a-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [90-166]
352b-353a; ACT n 361a-369a
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 94,
46b; CH VIH, SECT 105-112 48c-51b passim
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28b-29a; PART n,
73a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4d-5a;
BK in, 10c-lla; BK v, 21d-22c; BK xi, 71a~72b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 412b-c;
BK iv, 427a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271d;
BK v, 309c-311c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 61d-62a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. : ARTICLE i, SECT 2
[11-16] lib; SECT 3 [67-72] 12a; ARTICLE n,
SECT i 14b-15a; SECT 2 [424-439] 15b;
AMENDMENTS, XII 18d-C
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3, 33d-34a; NUMBER
10, 51d-53a; NUMBER 28, 98a; NUMBER 35,
113a-114b; NUMBER 52-63 165a-195b passim,
csp NUMBER 57, 176d-177a; NUMBER 68 205b-
207a; NUMBER 76-77, 225a-229b
43 MILL: Liberty, 290d-291a; 320c-322a / Repre-
sentative Government, 336b-337a; 338a-b;
341d-424c passim, csp 363b-366a, 384a-387d;
439d-442a
44 BoswELL:/oAmo», 125c-d; 141a; 178b-c; 191c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 279,
94b-c; par 291-295 97d-99a; par 308 102c-
103a; ADDITIONS, 169 145d; 182 148c-d /
Philosophy of History, PART 11, 277c-d; PART
iv,368b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 241c-242b
7. Historic and poetic exemplifications of
aristocracy
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108d; BK v,
160d-161a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 355a-
356a; BK n, 409a; BK in, 434c-438b passim;
BK iv, 458d-459c; 463a-b; 465c; 478d-479b;
BK v, 482d-483a; BK vi, 533a-c; BK vm, 568d-
569a; 579c-590c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i270b7~34]
466d-467a; BK v, CH 7 [i3O7*27->24] 509b-d /
Athenian Constitution, CH 1-41 553a-572a
passim, esp CH 23-26 563c-565a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Romulus, 20c-21a
/ Lycurgus 32a-48d / Pericles 121a-141a,c csp
126d-127a / Coriolanus, 174b,d-184a / Arts-
tides, 263c-266a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lb-2a; 3a-b; BK n,
32b-d; 34a-c; BK iv, 65a-c; 72a-b; BK vi, 97b;
BK xi, 105d-107b / Histories, BK i, 193c-194a;
212a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 218d-
219b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, vin
[112-1 39] 65c-d
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Wife of Bath [6701-6758]
274b-275b
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 181d-183c
27 SHAKFSPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [33-54] IQSc/ All's Well That Ends Well,
ACT n, sc in [115-151] 152c-153a / Coriolanus
351a-392a,c esp ACT i, sc i [1-47] 351a-d, ACT
11, sc i [1-106] 361a-362a
36 SWIFT: Gulltver, PART n, 73a-76b; PART iv,
157a-158b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirtt of Laws, BK n, 6b-7c;
BK v, 23a-25a; BK vn, 45b-c; BK xi, 76c-84c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369c-d / Social
Contract, BK in, 418c-d [fn 2]
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 165b-181a,c
passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 61d-62a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-73c passim;
217d-219a; 387d-390b passim; 427d-428a;
452d-456a,c esp 452d-453a,c, 453a-b; 570d;
574b-582c; 588a-589a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 17, 70a-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 363d-364d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 277c-d;
PART in, 285b-d; 310a-c; PART iv, 368b-d
50 MARX: Capital, 355d-364a csp 356a-357a,
359a-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 419b,d;
420b-c; 423d-424b; 429c-430b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 384c-388a,c
CHAPTER 3: ARISTOCRACY
63
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general theory of the forms of government, see GOVERNMENT 2-ae.
Other chapters on particular forms of government, see CONSTITUTION; DEMOCRACY; MON-
ARCHY; OLIGARCHY; TYRANNY; and for the conception of the ideal state, see STATE 6-6b.
The comparison of aristocratic with democratic theories of education, see EDUCATION 8d.
Discussions of the role of virtue in political theory, in relation to citizenship and public
office, see CITIZEN 5; VIRTUE AND VICE j-jd.
Another discussion of the theory of representation, see CONSTITUTION 9-o,b.
The role of honor in the organization of the state, and the theory of timocracy, see HONOR 43.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Eoo^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals, These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
MONTALEMBERT. On Constitutional Liberty
ARNOLD. Culture and Anarchy
WHITMAN. Democratic Vistas
RENAN. The Future of Science
I.
DANTE. Convwio(The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE,
CH 10-14
SPINOZA. Tractatus Pohticus (Political Treatise), CH
8-10
II.
Volsung Saga
SPENSER. The Faerie Queene
CAMPANELLA. A Discourse Touching the Spanish
Monarchy
FILMER. Patriarcha
HARRINGTON. Oceana
SEVIGNE. Letters
A. SIDNEY. Discourses Concerning Government
MILLAR. Observations Concerning the Distinction of
Ran^s in Society
PAINE. Common Sense
J. ADAMS. A Defense of the Constitutions of Govern-
ment of the United States of America
JEFFERSON. Notes on the State of Virginia
SIEYES. An Essay on Privileges
GODWIN. An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice,
BK v, CH lo-n, 13
BURKE. An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs
. Letter to Sir Hercules Langrishe
. Letter to a Noble Lord
AUSTEN. Pride and Prejudice
J. MILL. An Essay on Government, in-v
STENDHAL. The Red and the Blac^
BALZAC. Gobsed^
TOCQUEVILLE. Democracy in America
THACKERAY. Vanity Pair
GOBINEAU. The Inequality of Human Races
EMERSON. "Aristocracy," in English Traits
-. Philosophical Dialogues
H. JAMES. The American
T. H. HUXLEY. Methods and Results, vi-vn
IBSEN. An Enemy of the People
NIETZSCHE. Thus Spaty Zarathustra
MOSCA. The Ruling Class
MALLOCK. Social Equality
. Aristocracy and Evolution
T. VEBLEN. The Theory of the Leisure Class
SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 4
BOUGL£. Essais sur le regime des castes
SOREL. Reflexions on Violence
WENDELL. The Privileged Classes
SHAW. Socialism and Superior Brains
WELLS. The New Machiavelli
WEBER. Essays in Sociology, PART iv
PONSONBY. The Decline of Aristocracy
P. E. MORE. Aristocracy and Justice
PARETO. The Mind and Society
BRYCE. Modern Democracies, PART i, CH 7; PART in,
CH75
DEWEY. The Public and Its Problems
MAIRET. Aristocracy and the Meaning of Class Rule
TAWNEY. Equality
BERGSON. Two Sources of Morality and Religion,
CH i, pp 62-82
J. B. S. HALDANE. The Inequality of Man
NOCK. The Theory of Education in the United States
MADARIAGA. Anarchy or Hierarchy
LANDTMAN. The Origin of the Inequality of the Social
Classes
T.S.ELIOT. Notes Towards the Definition of Culture
Chapter^. ART
INTRODUCTION
THE word "art" has a range of meanings
which may be obscured by the current
disposition to use the word in an extremely
restricted sense. In contemporary thought, art
is most readily associated with beauty; yet its
historic connections with utility and knowledge
are probably more intimate and pervasive.
The prevalent popular association reflects a
tendency in the i9th century to annex the
theory of art to aesthetics. This naturally led
to the identification of art with one kind of art
—the so-called "fine arts," "beaux arts" or
"Schone Kunste" (arts of the beautiful). The
contraction of meaning has gone so far that the
word "art" sometimes signifies one group of
the fine arts— painting and sculpture—as in
the common phrase "literature, music, and
the fine arts." This restricted usage has be-
come so customary that we ordinarily refer to
a museum of art or to an art exhibit in a
manner which seems to assume that the woid
"art" is exclusively the name for something
which can be hung on a wall or placed on a
pedestal.
A moment's thought will, of course, correct
the assumption. We are not unfamiliar with the
conception of medicine and teaching as arts.
We are acquainted with such phrases as "the
industrial arts" and "arts and crafts" in which
the reference is to the production of useful
things. Our discussions of liberal education
should require us to consider the liberal arts
which, however defined or enumerated, are
supposed to constitute skills of mind. We rec-
ognize that "art" is the root of "artisan" as
well as "artist." We thus discern the presence
of skill in even the lowest forms of productive
labor. Seeing it also as the root of "artifice"
and "artificial," we realize that art is dis-
tinguished from and sometimes even opposed
to nature.
The ancient and traditional meanings are all
present in our daily vocabulary. In our thought
the first connotation of "art" is fine art; m the
thought of all previous eras the useful arts
came first. As late as the end of the i8th cen-
tury, Adam Smith follows the traditional usage
which begins with Plato when, in referring to
the production of a woolen coat, he says: "The
shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the wool-
comber or carder, the dyer, the scribbler, the
spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dresser,
with many others, must all join their different
arts in order to complete even this homely
production."
In the first great conversation on art—that
presented in the Platonic dialogues— we find
useful techniques and everyday skills typify-
ing art, by reference to which all other skills
are analyzed. Even when Socrates analyzes the
art of the rhetorician, as in the Gorgias, he con-
stantly turns to the productions of the cobbler
and the weaver an%to the procedures of the
husbandman and the physician. If the liberal
arts are praised as highest, because the logician
or rhetorician wor||s in the medium of the soul
rather than in matter, they are called arts "only
in a manner of speaking" and by comparison
with the fundamental arts which handle phys-
ical material.
The Promethean gift of fire to men, which
raised them from a brutish existence, carried
with it various techniques for mastering matter
—the basic useful arts. Lucretius, writing in
a line that goes from Homer through Thucy-
dides and Plato to Bacon, Adam Smith, and
Rousseau, attributes the progress of civilization
and the difference between civilized and primi-
tive society to the development of the arts and
sciences. "Ships and tillage, walls, laws, arms,
roads, dress, and all such like things, all the
prizes, all the elegancies too of life without
CHAPTER 4: ART
exception, poems, pictures, and the chiselling
of fine-wrought statues, all these things prac-
ticed together with the acquired knowledge of
the untiring mind taught men by slow degrees
as they advanced on the way step by step."
At the beginning of this progress Lucretius
places man's discovery of the arts of metal-
working, domesticating animals, and cultivat-
ing the soil. "Metallurgy and agriculture," says
Rousseau, "were the two arts which produced
this great revolution"— the advance from prim-
itive to civilized life. The fine arts and the
speculative sciences come last, not first, in the
progress of civilization.
The fine arts and the speculative sciences
complete human life. They are not necessary
—except perhaps for the good life. They are
the dedication of human leisure and its best
fruit. The leisure without which they neither
could come into being nor prosper is found
for man and fostered by the work of the use-
ful arts. Aristotle tells us that is "why the
mathematical arts were founded in Egypt; for
there the priestly caste was allowed to be at
leisure."
THERE is ANOTHER ambiguity in the reference
of the word "art." Sometimes we use it to name
the effects produced by human workmanship.
We elhptically refer to works of an as art. Some-
times we use it to signify the cause of the things
produced by human work— that skill of mind
which directs the hand in its manipulation of
matter. Art is both in the artist and in the work
of art — in the one as cause* in the other as the
effect. What is effected is a certain ennoble-
ment of matter, a transformation produced
not merely by the hand of man, but by his
thought or knowledge.
The more generic meaning of art seems to
be that of art a§ cause rather than as effect.
There are many spheres of art in which no
tangible product results, as in navigation or
military strategy. We might, of course, call a
landfall or a victory a work of art, but we
tend rather to speak of the art of the navi-
gator or the general. So, too, in medicine and
teaching, jpe look upon the health or knowledge
which results frorn healing or teaching as natural.
We do not find *tt in them, but rather in the
skill of the healer or teacher who has
to produce that result. Hence even in the case
of the shoe or the statue, art seems to be
primarily in the mind and work of the cobbler
or sculptor and only derivatively in the objects
produced.
Aristotle, in defining art as a "capacity to
make, involving a true course of reasoning,"
identifies it with making as distinct from doing
and knowing. Though art, like science and
moral action, belongs to the mind and involves
experience and learning, imagination and
thought, it is distinct from both in aiming at
production, in being knowledge othow to make
something or to obtain a desired effect. Science,
on the other hand, is knowledge that something
is the case, or that a thing has a certain nature.
Knowledge is sometimes identified with science^
to the exclusion of art or skill; but we depart
from this narrow notion whenever we recognize
that skill consists in knowing how to make some-
thing.
"Even in speculative matters," writes Aqui-
nas, "there is something by way of work; e.g.,
the making of a syllogism, or a fitting speech,
or the work of counting or measuring. Hence
whatever habits are ordained to suchlike works
of the speculative reason, are, by a kind of com-
parison, called arts indeed, but liberal arts, in
order to distinguish them from those arts which
are ordained to works done by the body, which
arts are, in a fashion, servile, inasmuch as the
body is in servile subjection to the soul, and
man as regards his soul is free. On the other
hand, those sciences which are not ordained to
any suchlike work, are called sciences simply,
and not arts."
The discussion of medicine in the great books
throws light on the relation of art and science,
in their origin as well as their development.
Hippocrates writes of medicine as both an art
and a science. In his treatise on Ancient Medicine,
he says, "It appears to me necessary to every
physician to be skilled in nature, and strive to
know — if he would wish to perform his duties
—what man is in relation to the articles of food
and drink, and to his other occupations, and:
what are the effects of each of them on every
one. And it is not enough to know simply tha,t
cheese is a bad article of food, as disagreeing
with whoever eats of it to satiety, but what
sort of disturbance it creates, and wherefore*
66
THE GREAT IDEAS
and with what principle in man it disagrees. . . .
Whoever does not know what effect these
things produce upon a man, cannot know the
consequences which result from them, nor how
to apply them." As a science, medicine in-
volves knowledge of the causes of disease, the
different kinds of diseases, and their charac-
teristic courses. Without such knowledge, di-
agnosis, prognosis, and therapy would be a
matter of guesswork — of chance, as Hippocrates
says— or at best the application of rule-of-
thumb in the light of past experience.
But the scientific knowledge does not by it-
self make a man a healer, a practitioner of med-
icine. The practice of medicine requires art in
addition to science— art based on science, but
going beyond science in formulating general
rules for the guidance of practice m particular
cases. The habit of proceeding according to
rules derived from science distinguishes for
Galen the artist in medicine from the mere
empiric. The antithesis of artist and empiric
—suggesting the contrast between operation
by tested rule and operation by trial and
error — parallels the antithesis between scientist
and man of opinion.
IT HAS SELDOM, if ever, been suggested that an
art can be originally discovered or developed
apart from some science of the subject matter
with which the art deals. This does not mean
that an individual cannot acquire the habit of
an art without being taught the relevant scien-
tific knowledge. An art can be learned by prac-
tice; skill can be formed by repeated acts. But
the teacher of an art cannot direct the learning
without setting rules for his pupils to follow;
and if the truth or intelligibility of the rules
is questioned, the answers will come from the
science underlying the art.
According to Kant, "every art presupposes
rules which are laid down as the foundation
which first enables a product if it is to be called
one of art, to be represented as possible.** In
the case of "fine art," which he distinguishes
from other kinds of art as being the product of
"genius," Kant claims that it arises only from
"atalent for producing that for which nodefinite
ftife can be given." Yet he maintains that a
"rule" is still at its basis and may be "gathered
from the performance, i.e., from the product,
which others may use to put their own talent
to the test."
Granting that there is no art without science,
is the reverse true, and is science possible with-
out art ? The question has two meanings. First,
are there arts peculiarly indispensable to the
development of science? Second, does every
science generate a correlative art and through
it work productively ?
Traditionally, the liberal arts have been con-
sidered indispensable to science. This has been
held to be particularly true of logic. Because
they were intended to serve as the instrument
or the art for all the sciences, Aristotle's logical
treatises, which constitute the first systematic
treatment of the subject, deserve the title Or-
ganon which they traditionally carry. Bacon's
Novum Organum was in one sense an effort to
supply a new logic or art for science, and to
institute a renovation of the sciences by the
experimental method.
As an art, logic consists of rules for the con-
duct of the mind in the processes of inquiry,
inference, definition, and demonstration, by
which sciences are constructed. Scientific meth-
od is, in short, the art of getting scientific
knowledge. In the experimental sciences, there
are auxiliary arts— arts controlling the instru-
ments or apparatus employed in experimenta-
tion. The experiment itself is a work of art,
combining many techniques and using many
products of art: the water-clock, the inclined
plane, and the pendulum of Galileo; the prisms,
mirrors, and lenses of Newton.
The second question— whether all sciences
have related arts and through them productive
power — raises one of the great issues about the
nature of scientific knowledge, discussed in the
chapters on PHILOSOPHY and SCIENCE.
For Francis Bacon, and to some extent Des-
cartes, art is the necessary consequence of sci-
ence. At the beginning of the Novum Organum>
Bacon declares that "knowledge and human
power are synonymous since the ignorance of
the cause frustrates the effect; for nature is only
subdued by submission, and that which in con-
templative philosophy corresponds with the
cause, in practical science becomes the rule."
The distinction Bacon makes here between the
speculative and practical parts of knowledge
corresponds to the distinction between science
CHAPTER 4: ART
67
and art, or as we sometimes say, "pure and
applied sdence." He opposes their divorce from
one another. If science is the indispensable foun-
dation of art and consists in a knowledge of
causes, art in Bacon's view is the whole fruit
of science, for it applies that knowledge to the
production of effects.
His theory of science and his new method for
its development are directed to the establish-
ment of man's "empire over creation" which
"is founded on the arts and sciences alone."
Just as the present state of the arts accounts
for "the immense difference between men's
lives in the most polished countries of Europe,
and in any wild and barbarous region of the
new Indies," so further advances in science
promise the untold power of new inventions
and techniques.
On Bacon's view, not only the value, but
even the validity, of scientific knowledge is to
be measured by its productivity. A useless nat-
ural science— a science of nature which cannot
be used to control nature — is unthinkable. With
the exception of mathematics, every science
has its appropriate magic or special productive
power. Even metaphysics, in Bacon's concep-
tion of it, has its "true natural magic, which
is that great liberty and latitude of opera-
tion which dependeth upon the knowledge of
forms."
The opposite answer to the question about
science and art is given by Plato, Aristotle, and
others who distinguish between speculative and
productive sciences. They differ from Bacon on
the verbal level by using the word "practical"
for those sciences which concern moral and
political action rather than the production of
effects. The sciences Bacon calls "practical"
they call "productive," but under either name
these are the sciences of making rather than
doing — sciences which belong in the sphere of
art rather than prudence. But the significant
difference lies in the evaluation of the purely
speculative sciences which consist in knowledge
for its own sake, divorced from art and morals,
or from the utilities of production and the
necessities of action.
In tracing the history of the sciences, Aris-
totle notes that those men who first found the
useful arts were thought wise and superior.
"But as more arts were invented, and some were
directed to the necessities of life, others to
recreation, the inventors of the latter were nat*
urally always regarded as wiser than the in-
ventors of the former, because their branches
did not aim at utility. Hence, when all such in-
ventions were already established, the sciences
which do not aim at giving pleasure or at the
necessities of life were discovered, and first in
the places where meH first began to have lei-
sure. ... So that the man of experience is
thought to be wiser than the possessors of any
sense-perception whatever, the artist wiser than
the man of experience, the master-worker than
the mechanic, and the theoretical kinds of
knowledge to be more of the nature of Wisdom
tjian the productive." That the theoretic sci*
ences are useless, in the sense of not providing
merrVith the necessities or pleasures of life, is a
mark of their superiority. They give what is
better than such utility— the insight and un-
derstanding which constitute wisdom.
The Baconian reply condemns the concep-
tion that there can be knowledge which is
merely contemplation of the truth. It an-
nounces the revolution which, for John Dewey,
ushered in the modern world. The pragmatic
theory of knowledge had its origin in a concep-
tion of science at every point fused with art.
THE ANCIENTS, trying to understand the nat*
ural phenomena of change and generation,
found that the processes of artistic production
provided them with an analytic model. Through
understanding how he himself worked in mak-
ing things, man might come to know how na-
ture worked.
When a man makes a house or a statue, he
transforms matter. Changes in shape and posi-
tion occur. The plan or idea in the artist's mind
comes, through his manipulation of matter, to
be embodied and realized objectively. To the
ancients a number of different causes or factors
seemed to be involved in every artistic produc-
tion—material to be worked on; the activity
of the artist at work; the form in his mind
which he sought to impose on the matter, thus
transforming it; and the purpose which moti-
vated his effort.
In the medical tradition from Aristotle
through Galen to Harvey, there is constant
emphasis upon the artistic activity of nature.
68
THE GREAT IDEAS
Galen continually argues against those who do
not conceive Nature as an artist, Harvey con-
sciously compares the activity of nature in
biological generation to that of an artist. "Like
a potter she first divides her material, and then
indicates the head and trunk and extremities;
like a painter, she first sketches the parts in
outline, and then fills them in with colours;
or like the ship-builder, who first lays down his
keel by way of foundation, and upon this raises
the ribs and roof or deck: even as he builds his
vessel does nature fashion the trunk of the body
and add the extremities.'*
Of all natural changes, the one most closely
resembling artistic production appears to be
generation, especially the production of living
things by living things. In both cases, a new
individual seems to come into being, But upon
further examination, artistic production and
natural generation reveal significant differences
—differences which divide nature from art,
Aquinas considers both and distinguishes
them in his analysis of divine causation. In
things not generated by chance, he points out
that there are two different ways m which the
form that is in the agent is passed on to another
being. "In some agents the form of the thing to
be made pre-exists according to its natural
being, as in those that act by their nature; as
a man generates a man, or fire generates fire.
Whereas in other agents the form of the thing
to be made pre-exists according to intelligible
being, as in those that act by the intellect;
and thus the likeness of a house pre-exists in
the mind of the builder. And this may be called
the idea of the house, since the builder intends
to build his house like to the form conceived
in his mind."
Thus in biological procreation the progeny
have the form of their parents— a rabbit pro-
ducing a rabbit, a horse, a horse. But in artistic
production, the product has, not the form of
the artist, but the form he has conceived in his
mind and which he seeks to objectify. Further-
more, in generation, and in other natural changes
as well , the ma t ter which undergoes change seems
to have in itself a tendency to become what it
changes into, as for example the acorn naturally
tends to become an oak, whereas the oaken
wood does not have in itself any tendency to
become a chair or a bed. The material the
artist works on is entirely passive with respect
to the change he wishes to produce. The artistic
result is in this sense entirely of his making.
The realm of art, or of the artificial, is then
opposed to the natural and differentiated from
it. Kant, for whom art is distinguished from
nature "as making is from acting or operating
in general," claims that "by right, it is only
production through freedom, i.e., through an
act of will that places reason at the basis of its
action, that should be termed art." Conse-
quently, art is that which would not have come
into being without human intervention. The
man-made object is produced by man, not in
any way, but specifically by his intelligence,
by the reason which makes him free.
Animals other than man are apparently pro-
ductive, but the question is whether they can
be called "artists." "A spider conducts opera-
tions that resemble those of a weaver, and a
bee puts to shame many an architect in the
construction of her cells. But," according to
Marx, "what distinguishes the worst architect
from the best of bees is this, that the architect
raises his structure in imagination before he
erects it in reality. At the end of every labour-
process, we get a result that already existed
in the imagination of the labourer at its com-
mencement. He not only effects a change of
form in the material on which he works, but
he also realizes a purpose of his own that gives
the law to his modus operandi, and to which he
must subordinate his will."
As indicated in the chapter on ANIMAL, some
writers, like Montaigne, attribute the produc-
tivity of animals to reason rather than to
instinct. Art then ceases to be one of man's dis-
tinctions from the brutes. But if man alone has
reason, and if the productions of art are works
of reason, then those who refer to animals as
artists speak metaphorically, on the basis of
what Kant calls "an analogy with art ... As
soon as we call to mind," he continues, "that
no rational deliberation forms the basis of their
labor, we sec at once that it is a product of their
nature (of instinct), and it is only to their
Creator that we ascribe it as art."
This in turn leads to the question whether
nature itself is a work of art. "Let me suppose,"
the Eleatic Stranger says in the Sophist, "that
things which are said to be made by nature
CHAPTER 4: ART
are the work of divine art, and that things
which are made by man out of these are the
work of human art. And so there are two kinds
of making and production, the one human and
the other divine.'*
If we suppose that the things of nature are
originally made by a divine mind, how does
their production differ from the work of hu-
man artists, or from biological generation?
One answer, given in Plato's Timaeus, con-
ceives the original production of things as a
fashioning of primordial matter in the patterns
set by the eternal archetypes or ideas. In conse-
quence, the divine work would be more like
human artistry than either would be like nat-
ural reproduction. The emanation of the world
from the One, according to Plotmus, and the
production of things out of the substance of
God in Spinoza's theory, appear, on the other
hand, to be more closely analogous to natural
generation than to art.
Both analogies— of creation with art and
with generation— are dismissed as false by
Christian theologians. God's making is abso-
lutely creative. It presupposes no matter to
be formed; nor do things issue forth from
God's own substance, but out of nothing.
Thus Augustine asks: "How didst Thou
ma^e the heaven and the earth ?" And he answers:
"It was not as a human artificer, forming one
body from another, according to the discretion
of his mind, which can in some way invest with
such a form, as it seeth in itself by its inward
eye . . . Verily, neither in the heaven, nor in
the earth, didst Thou make heaven and earth;
nor in the air, or waters, seeing these also be-
long to the heaven and the earth; nor in the
whole world didst Thou make the whole world;
because there was no place where to make it,
before it was made, that it might be ... For
what is, but because Thou art ? Therefore Thou
sparest, and they were made, and in Thy Word
Thou madest them." According to this view,
human art cannot be called creative, and God
cannot be called an artist, except metaphor-
ically.
The issue concerning various theories of cre-
ation, or of the origin of the universe, is dis-
cussed in the chapter on WORLD. But here we
must observe that, according to the view we
take of the similitude between human and di-
vine workmanship, the line we are able to draw
between the realms of art and nature becomes
shadowy or sharp.
THE DISCUSSIONS OF ART in the great books af-
ford materials from which a systematic classi-
fication of the arts might be constructed, but
only fragments of such a classification are ever
explicitly presented.
For example, the seven liberal arts are enu-
merated by various authors, but their distinc-
tion from other arts, and their ordered relation
to one another, do not receive full explication.
There is no treatment of grammar, rhetoric,
and logic (or dialectic) to parallel Plato's con-
sideration of arithmetic, geometry, music, and
astronomy in the Republic, nor is there any
analysis of the relation of the first three arts
to the other four— traditionally organized as
the tnvtum and the quadnvium.
However, in Augustine's work On Christian
Doctrine we have a discussion of these arts as
they are ordered to the study of theology.
That orientation of the liberal arts is also the
theme of Bonaventura's Reduction of the Arts
to Theology. Quite apart from the problem of
how they are ordered to one another, particular
liberal arts receive so rich and varied a dis-
cussion in the tradition of the great books that
the consideration of them must be distributed
among a number of chapters, such as LOGIC,
RHETORIC, LANGUAGE (for the discussion of
grammar), and MATHEMATICS.
The principles of classification of the fine
arts are laid down by Kant from "the analogy
which art bears to the mode of expression of
which men avail themselves in speech, with a
view to communicating themselves to one
another as completely as possible." Since such
expression "consists in word, gesture, and
tone," he finds three corresponding fine arts:
"the art of speech, formative art, and the art
of the play of sensations." In these terms he
analyzes rhetoric and poetry, sculpture, archi-
tecture, painting and landscape gardening, and
music.
A different principle of division is indicated
in the opening chapters of Aristotle's Poetics.
The principle that all art imitates nature sug-
gests the possibility of distinguishing and re-
lating the various arts according to their char-
70
THE GREAT IDEAS
actcristic differences as imitations— -by refer-
ence to the object imitated and to the medium
and manner in which it is imitated by the poet,
sculptor or painter, and musician. "Color and
form," Aristotle writes, "are used as means by
some . . . who imitate and portray many things
by their aid, and the voice is used by others. . . .
Rhythm alone, without harmony, is the means
in the dancer's imitations There is, further,
an art which imitates by language alone, with-
out harmony, in prose or in verse." Aristotle's
treatise deals mainly with this art— poetry; it
does not develop for the other fine arts the
analysis it suggests.
Aristotle's principle also suggests questions
about the useful arts. Are such arts as shoe-
making and house-building imitations of na-
ture in the same sense as poetry and music?
Does the way in which the farmer, the physi-
cian, and the teacher imitate nature distinguish
these three arts from the way in which a statue
is an imitation, or poem, or a house?
The Aristotelian dictum about art imitating
nature has, of course, been as frequently chal-
lenged as approved. Apart from the issue of
its truth, the theory of art as imitation poses
many questions which Aristotle left unanswered.
If there are answers in the great books, they
are there by implication rather than by state-
ment.
THE MOST FAMILIAR distinction between arts—
that between the useful and the fine —is also the
one most frequently made in modern discus-
sion. The criterion of the distinction needs little
explanation. Some of man's productions are
intended to be used; others to be contemplated
or enjoyed. To describe them in terms of imi-
tation, the products of the useful arts must be
said to imitate a natural function (the shoe, for
example, the protective function of calloused
skin). The imitation merely indicates the use,
and it is the use which counts. But in the pro-
ducts of the fine arts, the imitation of the form,
quality, or other aspect of a natural object is
considered to be the source of pleasure.
The least familiar distinction among the arts
is implied in any thorough discussion, yet its
divisions are seldom, if ever, named. Within
the sphere of useful art, some arts work toward
a result which can hardly be regarded as an
artificial product. Fruits and grains would grow
without the intervention of the farmer, yet
the farmer helps them to grow more abundantly
and regularly. Health and knowledge are
natural effects, even though the arts of medi-
cine and teaching may aid in their production.
These arts, more fully discussed in the chap-
ters on MEDICINE and EDUCATION, stand in
sharp contrast to those skills whereby man pro-
duces the useful things which, but for man's
work, would be totally lacking. In the one case,
it is the artist's activity itself which imitates
or cooperates with nature's manner of working;
in the other, the things which the artist makes
by operating on passive materials supplied by
nature imitate natural forms or functions.
For the most part, the industrial arts are of
the second sort. They transform dead matter
into commodities or tools. The arts which co-
operate with nature usually work with living
matter, as in agriculture, medicine, and teach-
ing. The distinction seems warranted and clear.
Yet it is cut across by Adam Smith's division
of labor into productive and non-productive.
The work of agriculture is associated with in-
dustry in the production of wealth, but what-
ever other use they may have, physicians and
teachers, according to Smith, do not directly
augment the wealth of nations.
If to the foregoing we add the division of the
arts into liberal and servile, the major tradi-
tional distinctions are covered. This last di-
vision had its origin in the recognition that
some arts, like sculpture and carpentry, could
not effect their products except by shaping
matter, whereas some arts, like poetry or logic,
were free from matter, at least in the sense that
they worked productively in symbolic medi-
ums. But by other principles of classification,
poetry and sculpture are separated from logic
and carpentry, as fine from useful art. Logic,
along with grammar, rhetoric, and the mathe-
matical arts, is separated from poetry and
sculpture, as liberal from fine art. When the
word "liberal" is used to state this last distinc-
tion, its meaning narrows. It signifies only the
speculative arts, or arts concerned with pro-
cesses of thinking and knowing.
The adequacy of any classification, and the
intelligibility of its principles, must stand the
test of questions about particular arts. The
CHAPTER 4: ART
71
great books frequently discuss the arts of ani-
mal husbandry and navigation, the arts of
cooking and hunting, the arts of war and gov-
ernment. Each raises a question about the na-
ture of art in general, and challenges any anal-
ysis of the arts to classify them and explain
their peculiarities.
THERE ARE TWO OTHER major issues which have
been debated mainly with respect to the fine
arts.
One, already mentioned, concerns the imi-
tative character of art. The opponents of imi-
tation do not deny that there may be some
perceptible resemblance between a work of art
and a natural object. A drama may remind us of
human actions we have experienced; music may
simulate the tonal qualities and rhythms of the
human voice registering the course of the emo-
tions. Nevertheless, the motivation of artistic
creation lies deeper, it is said, than a desire to
imitate nature, or to find some pleasure in such
resemblances.
According to Tolstoy, the arts serve pri-
marily as a medium of spiritual communica-
tion, helping to create the ties of human
brotherhood. According to Freud, it is emotion
or subconscious expression, rather than imita-
tion or communication, which is the deepest
spring of art; the poet or artist "forces us to
become aware of our inner selves in which the
same impulses are still extant even though they
are suppressed." Freud's theory of sublimation
of emotion or desire through art seems to con-
nect with Aristotle's theory of emotional ca-
tharsis or purgation. But Freud is attempting
to account for the origin of art, and Aristotle
is trying to describe an effect proper to its en-
joyment,
The theories of communication, expression,
or imitation, attempt to explain art, or at least
its motivation. But there is also a conception
of art which, foregoing explanation, leaves it a
mystery— the spontaneous product of inspi-
ration, of a divine madness, the work of un-
fathomable genius. We encounter this notion
first, but not last, in Plato's Ion.
THE OTHER MAJOR controversy concerns the
regulation of the arts by the state for human
welfare and the public good.
Here, as before, the fine arts (chiefly poetry
and music) have been the focus of the debate.
It is worth noting, however, that a parallel
, problem of political regulation occurs in the
sphere of the industrial arts. On the question
of state control over the production and dis-
tribution of wealth, Smith and Marx represent
extreme opposites, as Milton and Plato are poles
apart on the question of the state's right to
censor the artist's work. In this debate, Aris-
totle stands on Plato's side in many particulars,
and Mill with Milton.
The problem of censorship or political regu-
lation of the fine arts presupposes some prior
questions. Plato argues in the Republic that all
poetry but ' 'hymns to the gods and praises of
famous men" must be banned from the State;
"for if you go beyond this and allow the
honeyed muse to enter, either in epic or lyric
verse, not law and the reason of mankind,
which by common consent have ever been
deemed the best, but pleasure and pain will be
the rulers in our State." Such a view pre-
supposes a certain theory of the fine arts and
of their influence on the citizens and the whole
character of the community. Yet because both
Plato and Aristotle judge that influence to be
far from negligible, they do not see any reason
in individual liberty for the state to refrain
from interfering with the rights of the artist
for the greater good of the community.
To Milton and Mill, the measure of the
artist's influence does not affect the question
of the freedom of the arts from political or ec-
clesiastical interference. While admitting the
need for protecting the interests of peace and
public safety, Milton demands: "Give me the
liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely
according to conscience, above all liberties."
The issue for them is entirely one of liberty.
They espouse the cause of freedom— for the
artist to express or communicate his work and
for the community to receive from him what-
ever he has to offer.
PAGE
72 THE GREAT IDEAS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The generic notion of art: skill of mind in making 73
2. Art and nature
2a. Causation in art and nature: artistic production compared with natural generation
ib. The role of matter and form in artistic and natural production 74
2C. The natural and the artificial as respectively the work of God and man
3. Art as imitation 75
4. Diverse classifications of the arts: useful and fine, liberal and servile
5. The sources of art in experience, imagination, and inspiration 76
6. Art and science
6a. The comparison and distinction of art and science
6b. The liberal arts as productive of science: means and methods of achieving knowl-
edge 77
6c. Art as the application of science: the productive powers of knowledge
7. The enjoyment of the fine arts 78
70. Art as a source of pleasure or delight
7#. The judgment of excellence in art 79
8. Art and emotion: expression, purgation, sublimation
9. The useful arts 80
90. The use of nature by art: agriculture, medicine, teaching
9^. The production of wealth: the industrial arts 81
9C. The arts of war
yd. The arts of government 82
10. The moral and political significance of the arts 83
1 00. The influence of the arts on character and citizenship: the role of the arts in the
training of youth
io£. The political regulation of the arts for the common good: the problem of censor-
ship
1 1. Myths and theories concerning the origin of the arts 84
12. The history of the arts: progress in art as measuring stages of civilization
CHAWER 4: ART . 73
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers m heavy type, whicji are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number I2d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the Upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage. Forexample,in 7 PLATO- Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, m brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7*45— (D} II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
1. The generic notion of art: skill of mind in A 8 82c-83b; Q 15, A i, ANS 91b-92a; A 2, ANS
making and REP 2 92a-93b; Q 36, A 3, ANS 194c-195d;
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45b / Phaedrus, 136b; Q 117, A i, ANS and REP 2 595d-597c; PART
138c-139a / Ion, 145d-146c / Symposium, i-n, Q 14, A 4, ANS 679b-d; Q 21, A 2, REP 2
160c-d; 164d / Gorgias, 260a-262a; 280d-283c 718a-d; Q 34, A r, REP 3 768c-769d
/ Republic, BK i, 302c-306a; 307a-308a; BK 20 AQUINAS: Summa Tkeologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
in, 333b-d;BKX,427c-434c/$taA?/wtf«, 593d- AA 3-4 37b-39a; Q 58, A 2, REP i 42a-43a;
595a / Phtlebus, 633a-c / Laws, BK iv, 679a-c A 5, REP 2 44d-45c; Q 65, A i, REP 4 70b-72a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH i [i92b23-32] 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 437 b
268d-269a; [i93bi2-i6] 269d-270a; CH 8 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333a
[i99b26~3i] 277a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 85, 121d-
[98ob25-98ib34] 499b-500b; BK vn, CH 7 122b
(i032a25-b29J 555b-d; BK ix, CH 2 571c-572a; 31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-c
CH 5 573a-c; CH 7 [io48b35-io498i2] 574c-d 42 KANT: Judgement, 523c-524b; 525c-527b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 68
[640*25-33] 162d / Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [io97b23~ 29d-30a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176a-c ;
1098*18] 343a-c; BK vi, CH 4 388d-389a; BK PART n, 266a-274a; PART iv, 346c-d
ix, CH 7 [n67b3j-ii68ai8] 421b-c / Politics, 47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [134-157] 4a-b
BK i, CH n [1258^35-39] 453b; BK vn, CH 13 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 278b-c
[i33ib30-38] 536c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i 50 MARX: Capital, 8Sb-d
[I354»r-i2] 593a; [i355bo-I4l 594d-595a; CH 2 53 JAMES: Psychology, 186b; 774a
[1355*26-36] 595b; [1356^6-1357*7] 596b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 16, 275c 2* Art and Q*ture
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR vui, CH i 239b-
240a 2a' Causation in art and nature; artistic produc-
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xxn, CH 24, tion compared with natural generation
610a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30 ' 7 PLATO* Ion, 144b / Symposium, 155d-157a /
651c-d ' Timaeus, 447a-449c / Laws, BK x, 760a-761d
74
THE GREAT IDEAS
2a to 2c
(2. Art and nature. 2a. Causation in art and na-
ture: artistic production compared with
natural generation?)
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH n
[95*3-9] 129d / Physics, BK i, CH 8 [i9i*33~b9]
267b; BK ii, CH i [i92b8-32] 268b,d-269a; CH2
[i94*33-b8] 270d-271a; CH 8-9 275d~278a,c
csp CH 8 [i99*8-b7J 276b-d / Generation and
Corruption, BK n, CH 9 [33 5bi 8-336*13] 437b-d
/ Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12 [390^2-14] 494c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [988*1-7] 506a; CH 9
[992*29-34] 510c; BK vi, CH i [1025^8-27]
547d; BK VH, CH 7-9 555a-558a; BK ix, CH 2
571c-572a; CH 5 573a-c; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*10-
16] 592b-c; BK XH, CH 3 [1070*4-8] 599b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639bi2~640*35] 161d-162d; [64^13-29] 164c-
d / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 21-22
269c-271a; BK n, CH i [734ai7~735a5] 274c-
275c; CH 4 [738bi8-28] 279c; [740*13-18] 281a;
[740^5-741*2] 281d; CH 6 [743^0-25] 285a;
BK in, CH ii [762*15-20] 303b; BK iv, CH 2
[767*16-25] 308c; CH 6 [775*20-23] 317b /
Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99bi8-24] 345a-b; BK vi,
CH 4 [i 140*1 i-i6]388d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 7 170c-
171a; CH 12 172d-173c; BK n, CH 3 185a-186d;
CH 6, 189a-190a
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK iv [823-857]
55a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK vi, SECT 40 277d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vin, CH 3-4
130a-131a / Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 10 147c-
148b; TR iv, CH 31, 174d-175a / Fifth Ennead,
TR viii, CH 1-2 239b-240c; CH 5, 242a; TR ix,
CH 2, 247a / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH ii, 275c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 36, A 3, ANS 194c-195d;
Q 41, A 3, ANS 219d-221c; Q 45, A 2, ANS 242d-
244a; Q 104, A i, ANS 534c-536c; Q 105, A 5,
ANS 542a-543b; Q 117, A i, ANS and REP 1-2
595d-597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 80, AA 1-2 956c-958b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [91-111]
16a-b; PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d; n [112-
138] 109a; vin [91-111] 117d-118a; xm [52-
84] 126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [11,941-972] 366b-
367a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays,, 93b-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 385a-c;400d-
401a;407c;412b-415b;427d-428c;442d-443b;
443d-444c; 447d-448a; 450c; 492a-b
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART u, 251d-252a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 4 107b
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 437a
35 LOCKB; Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx»vi,
.SECT 2 217b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 188c-189a / Judgement,
523c-d; 557c-558b; 564d-565b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-328d
passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 266a-
267b
50 MARX: Capital, 85b-d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 186b
2b. The role of matter and form in artistic and
natural production
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 7 [191*7-12]
266d; BK n, CH i [i93a9-bi9] 269b-270a; CH 2
[i94*2i-bi3J 270c-271a; CH 3 271a-272c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [988*1-7] 506a; BK
vii, CH 7-9 555a-558a esp CH 8 556b-557b;
BK viii, CH 3 [io43b5~24] 567d-568b / Soul,
BK n, CH i [4i2bio-i8] 642c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640aio-64ib42] 162b-165a / Generation of
Animals, BK i, CH 20 [729*0]-^ 22 [730^2]
269b-271a; BK n, CH i [734*8-735*10] 275a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties 167a-215d esp BK
n, CH 3 185a-186d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vii, SECT 23
281b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-
23a / Fifth Ennead, TR vin, CH 1-2 239b-240c;
TR ix, CH 2, 247a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 7 90d-91a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 41,
A 3, ANS 219d-221c; Q 45, A 2, ANS 242d-244a;
Q 47, A i, REP i 256a-257b; Q 91, A 3, ANS
486b-487d; Q 104, A i, ANS 534c-536c; Q 105,
A 5, ANS 542a-543b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A i, ANS 710a-711c; PART in SUPPL, Q 79, A 2,
REP 4 953b-955c; Q 80, AA 1-2 956c-958b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy \ PARADISE, i [127-142]
107c-d; xni [52-84] 126a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412b-415b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-d; 43c-
45a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [468-505]
185b-186a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 56-57
26b-27a; ADDITIONS, 32 121d-122a / Philos-
ophy of History, INTRO, 165a-166b; 185c-d;
PART ii, 266a-267b
50 MARX: Capital, 17a; 85b-c; 86d-87c
2c. The natural and the artificial as respectively
the work of God and man
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2 / Leviticus, 26:1 /
Numbers, 33:52 / Deuteronomy, 5:7-10; 16:21-
22 / Job, 37:1-40:5— (D) Job, 37-39 / Isaiah,
, 40 : 1 8-26— (D) Isaias, 40 : 1 8-26
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 427c-428d / Timaeus,
447a-449c / Sophist, 577d-578d / Laws, BK x,
760a-76Xd
12 AURBLIUS: Meditations, BK vi> SECT 40 277d
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1048a
CHAPTER 4: ART
75
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 31, 174d-
175a / Fifth Ennead, TR vin, CH 5, 242a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 7 90d-91a
/ City of God, BK xxii, CH 24, 610a-d / CAra-
tian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30 651c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 14, A 8 82c-83b; A
n, ANS 84c-85c; Q 15 91b-94a; Q 16, A i
94b-95c; Q 17, A i lOOd-lOld; Q 22, A 2, ANS
and REP 3 128d-130d; Q 41, A 3, ANS 219d-
221c; QQ 44-46 238a-255d passim; QQ 65-66
339a-349d passim; Q 74, A 3, REP i 375a-
377a,c, Q 91, A 3, ANS 486b-487d; Q 93, A 2,
REP 4 493a-d; Q 103, A i, REP 1,3 528b-529a;
Q 104, A i 534c-536c; PART i-n, Q i, A 2
610b-611b; Q 13, A 2, REP 3 673c-674c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 3,
A 8, ANS 729b-730b; PART in SUPPL, Q 75,
A 3, REP 4 938a-939d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [91-111]
16a-b; PARADISE, vm [91-111] 117d-118a; ix
[103-108] 119d; x [7-21] 120b-c; xm [52-84]
126a-b; xvm [70-117] 134b-d esp [109-111]
134d
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [11,941-972] 366b-
367a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 427d-428c;
442d-443b; 492a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [694-735]
150b-151b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 663d-664a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 188c-189a / Judgement,
521b-523d
49 DARWIN . Origin of Species, 87a-b
3. Art as imitation
4 HOMER Iliad, BK xvm [478-608] 135a-136c
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 104c-106c; 108c-110d /
Republic, BK ii-in, 320c-334b; BK vi, 382a c;
BK x, 427c-434c / Timaeus, 443b-d; 455b-c /
Cntias, 478c-d / Sophist, 552c-d; 560b-561d;
577c-579d / Statesman, 596c-d / Laws, BK n,
654a-c; 660a-662a; BK x, 760a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 2 [194*22-26]
270c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH n [i28ibio-i5]
479b-c; BK vin, CH 5 [i3408i4-bi9] 545c-546a
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [i37ib4~io] 615a /
Poetics 681a-699a,c esp CH 1-5 681a-684a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1379-
1383] 79a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK xi, SECT 10 303 b-c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1048a
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-23a
/ Fourth Ennead, TR HI, CH 10 147c-148b /
Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 1-2 239b-240c; TR
ix, CH 2, 247a; CH n 250c~251a / Sixth
Ennead, TR n, CH u, 275c
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 25
649b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 9,
REP i 8d-9c; Q 93, A 2, REP 4 493a-d; Q 117,
A i, ANS 595d-597c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HBLL, xi [91-111]
16a-b; PURGATORY, x [22-99] 67c-68b; XH
[10-72] 70b-71a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
149 41a / Physician's Tale [11,941-972] 366b-
367a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART iv,
262c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc 11 [576-592]
46b; ACT in, sc n [1-39] 49a-b / Timon of
Athens, ACT i, sc i [28-38] 393d-394a; [156-
160] 395b-c / Winter's Tale, ACT iv, sc iv
[77-108] 508c-509a / Sonnets, LXVII-LXVIH
596c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332c-333c;
438c;444b-c;492b
29 CERVANTES. Don Quixote, PART i, 82c-d;
184a-185b; PART n, 237b-c; 251d-252a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 33c-d /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29 159b-c
31 DESC \RTES: Meditations, i, 76a-b
32 MILTON: Samson Agomstes, 337a-338a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 29 176a; 32-33 176a-b; 120
195a; 134 196a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5,
452d-453a
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 121b,d-123a; 243a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 158d
42 KANT: Judgement, 521b-524b, 525a-528c esp
527b-528c; 557a-558b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 196d-197a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 68
29d-30a / Philosophy of History, PART i, 219b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY' Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
284b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 186b; 686b-688a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 265c / Civil-
ization and Its Discontents, 779c-d
4. Diverse classifications of the arts: useful and
fine, liberal and servile
7 PLATO. Euthydemus, 74b-76b / Ion, 145d-
148a,c/Gor£wy,253c-255c; 260a-262a; 280d-
282b / Republic, BK i, 305b-306a / Sophist,
552c-553a; 560b-561d; 577c-579d / Statesman,
592d-593a; 593d-595a / Philebus, 633a-635b
/ Laws, BK n, 662c-663b; BK x, 760a b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK H, CH 2 [i94*33-b9]
270d-271a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98ibi3~
24] 500a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH i 339a-b; CH 7
[1097*15-23] 342c / Politics, BK i, CH n
[i258b9-39] 452d-453b; BK vm, CH 2 [i337b3-
23] 542c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i355b26~36]
595b / Poetics, CH 1-3 681a<682c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 31, 175a
/ Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH n 250c-251a
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30
651c-d
76
THE GREAT IDEAS
5 to6a
(4. Diverse classifications of the arts: useful and
fine, ttberal and servile.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 103, A 2, REP 2 529a-
530a; PART i-n, Q 8, A 2, REP 3 656a-d; Q 9,
A i, ANS 657d-658d
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 3, REP 3 37b-38a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
82c-d; BK in, 190d-191a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-70d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 251b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38c-39d;
56a-b/ Novutn Qrganum, BK i, APH 85, 121d-
122b
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b; 526a-527b; 532a-
536d
5. The sources of art in experience, imagina-
tion, and inspiration
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 31:1-11; 35*30-36:8
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [1-7] 3a; BK n [484-493]
14d-15a / Odyssey, BK i [i-io] 183a
7 PLATO: Phaedru's, 124a / Ion 142a-148a,c /
Symposium, 160c-d / Apology, 202 b-d /
Gorgias, 253a; 260a-262a / Sophist, 561b-d;
577d-579d / Laws, BK iv, 684b-c
8 ARISTOTLE. Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[100*3-9] 136c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[980^5-982°!] 499b-500b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i [no3a26-bi3)
348d-349a; BK x, CH 9 [ii8ob29-ii8ib23J
435d-436a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*1-12]
593a; BK in, CH i [i4O4fti3~i9] 654b; CH 2
[1405*3-9] 655b; CH 10 [i4iob5~8] 662c /
Poetics, CH 17 [1455*22-36] 690c
10 HIPPOCRATES' Ancient Medicine la-9a,c esp
par 1-8 la-3b / Articulations, par 10, 94d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv [1-3] 14a; vi [1-12] 19a
/ Aeneid, BK i [i-n] 103a; BK vn [37-44]
237a
14 PLUTARCH: Demosthenes, 692d-695d
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR vin, CH i 239b-
240a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 68,
A 4, REP i 91b-92c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, n [7-9] 2c;
xxxn [1-12] 47c; PURGATORY, i [1-12] 53a;
xxiv [49-63] 90a-b; xxix [37-42] 98a; PARA-
DISE, i [1-36] 106a-b; n [1-18] 107d; [91-105]
108d; xvni [70-117] 134b-d csp [109-111]
134d; xxii [112-123] 140d; xxm [55-69]
141d-142a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 262c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
2d-3a,c; BK in, 129c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 52d-53a; 309c-310c;
450d-451a; 523c-524a; 532a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Midsummer-Night's Dream,
ACT v, sc i [1-27] 370d-371a / Henry V, PRO-
LOGUE 532b,d; ACT in, PROLOGUE 543c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, xxxn 591a-b;
LXXVIII-LXXXV 598b-599b; c-cvi 601c-602c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332c-333c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 251d-
252a; 340b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning^ 32d; 38c-
39b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43b / Medi-
tations, i, 76a-b
32 MILTON: On Sha^espear. 1630 16a/ Paradise
Lost, BK i [1-26] 93b-94a; BK HI [1-55] 135b-
136b; BK vn [1-39] 217a-218a; BK ix [1-47]
247a-248a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 97a-98a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 198a-b; 302a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 152a-155b; 190b-191c;
273a-274c; 280a; 296b,d-298a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 185b; 627b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 528c
42 KANT: Judgement, 463a-464c; 473a-c; 482b-
483d; 523d-524b; 525c-532a esp 526a-d,
528c-530c;542b-543c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-c;
176a-c;pARTii, 263d-268b
47 GOETHE: Faust, DEDICATION la-b; PART n
[9945-9960] 242a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 288d-289a; 292a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 85b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 165b [fn i]; 686b-688a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 181a-b; 239c-
240a; 246c-248c; 383d / General Introduction,
483c; 600d-601b / Group Psychology, 670a-b;
692c-693a
6. Art and science
6a. The comparison and distinction of art and
science
7 PLATO. Republic, BK vi, 386d-388a; BK vn,
391b-398c, BK x, 427c-434c / Laws, BK iv,
684b-685a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[100*6-9] 136c / Physics, BK n, CH 2 [194*21-
bi3] 270c-271a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[980^5-982*1] 499b-500b; BK vi, CH i
[io25bi8-28] 547d; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*10-18]
592b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; BK
in, CH 3 [ni2*30-bio] 358b-c; BK vi, CH 3
[ii39bi4~i8] 388b; CH 4 [1140*10-16] 388d;
CH 5 [ii40*33~b2] 389b; CH 7 390a-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Regimen in Acute Diseases, par
3 27a-c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vin, CH 3-4
130a-131a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 16,
A i, ANS 94b-95c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n,
Q 57» A 3» ANS an(^ REP J»3 37b-38a; A 4,
ANS and REP 2 38a-39a; Q 95, A 2, ANS 227c-
228c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333a-b
6b to 6c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 5b-6a;
48d-49b; 50c-51d; 53a-b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i, la-b / Discourse, PART
vi, 61b-d
34 NEWTON- Principles, la-b
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 388d /
Judgement, 463a-464c; 515b-c; 523d-524a;
526a-527b esp 527a-b
43 MILL. Utilitarianism, 445c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART rv, 346c-
348a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 687a-688a; 863a-866a
54 FREUD New Introductory Lectures, 874c-875a
6b. The liberal arts as productive of science:
means and methods of achieving knowl-
edge
7 PLATO Protagoras, 50d-52d; 57a-c / Phaedrus,
134a-d; 139d-140b / Meno, 179d-183c / Gor-
gias, 252a-262a / Republic, BK vi, 386d-388a;
BK VH, 391b-398c / Parmemdes, 491a-d /
Theaetetus, 525d-526b / Sophist, 571a-c /
Statesman, 594d-595d / Philebus, 610d-613a;
633a~635a / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOILE. Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 63d-
64b / Posterior Analytics 97a-137a,c esp BK i,
CH 1-3 97a-100a, BK n, CH i-io 122b,d-128d /
Topics, BK i, CH 1-3 143a-144b; CH 10-11
147b-148c; BK vm, CH i [i55bi-i6] 211a-b;
en 14 [i63b8-i6] 222a / Sophistical Refuta-
tions, CH 9-11 234b-237c; CH 16 [175*1-12]
241a; CH 34 252c-253d / Physics, BK i, CH i
259a-b, CH 2 [i84b25-i85*i9] 259c-260a /
Heavens, BK i, CH 10 [279b4-i2] 370d, BK in,
CH 7 f3o6lli-i8] 397b-c / Generation and Cor-
ruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d / Meta-
physics, RK ii, CH 3 513c-d; BK in, en i
[995*23 -b4] 513b,d; BK iv, CH 3 [1005^-4]
524c; CH 4 [ioo5b35-ioo6*28] 525a-c; BK xi,
CH 3 589a-d, CH 5 [106^34-1062*19] 590a-c;
BK xni, CH 2 [io77bi]-cH 3 [1078*32] 608d-
609d, CH 4 [io78bi8-32] 610b-c / Soul, BK i,
CH i 631a-632d; BK n, CH 4 [415*14-22] 645b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
161a-165d / Ethics, BK i, CH 3 339d-340b;
CH 7 [io98*20-b8] 343c-344a; BK vi, CH 3
388b-c / Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*18-24] 445b
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [1358*3-33] 597d-
598b
11 ARCHIMEDES: Method, 569b-570a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 7 112b-113d;
CH 17 122d-124a; BK n, CH 25 174b-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 20-24 6a-
7a / City of God, BK vm, CH 3-4 266a-267c
esp CH 4, 267b / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH
3i-37651d-654b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 117,
A i 595d-597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 3, REP 3 37b-38a; A 6, REP 3 40a-41a; PART
in, Q 9, A 3, REP 2 765b-766b
CHAPTER 4: ART 77
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 58a-61a;
65c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-77a passim; 240c-
242a;446d-450a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 331a-337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 56b-69c
esp 56b-58c / Novum Organum, PREF 105a-
106d; BK i 107a-136a,c esp APH 11-26 107d-
108d, APH 39-69 109c-116b, APH 103-106
127d-128c / New Atlantis, 210d-214d
31 DESCARTES: Rules la-40a,c esp x 15d-17a /
Discourse 41a-67a,c esp PART i, 41d-42b, PART
n, 46c-48b, PART in, 50b-51a, PART iv, 52a,
PART vi, 61d-62c / Meditations, i 75a-77c /
Objections and Replies, 128a-129a / Geometry,
BK i, 295a-298b; BK n, 304a-305a; BK in, 353a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 1-4 171a-172d / Vacuum,
355a-358b passim; 365b-366a / Great Experi-
ment 382a~389b / Geometrical Demonstration,
430a-434a; 442a-446b
34 NEW ION: Principles, BK in, RULES 270a-271b;
LEMMA 5 338b-339a; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-
372a / Optics, BK in, 542a; 543a-544a
35 LOCK F- Human Understanding, IN IRQ, SECT
4-7 94a-95c; BK iv, CH in, SECT 18-20 317d-
319c; CH vii, sccr n 340a-342d; CH xii, SECT
1-8 358c-360c passim; SLCT 14-15 362d-363b;
CH xvn, SECT ii 378b
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 7-10
453c-455b passim, SECT vn, DIV 48 470d-471c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-342b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335d-336a
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 299b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, la-13d, 15c-16c; 17d-19a;
36d-37d; 60a-c; 109d-112d; 119a-b; 146a-
149d, 193d-194b; 211c-218d; 223a-d / Fund.
Prm Metaphysic of Morals, 2'53a-254d; 261c-
d; 264b-d/ Practical Reason, 291a-296d;310a-
b, 319c-321b; 329a-330c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a
43 MILL: Liberty, 283d-284d; 287c-288c
45 LAVOISIER- Elements of Chemistry, PREF, lc-2d
45 FOURIER. Theory of Heat, 172a-173b
45 FARADAY • Researches in Electricity, 659a; 774d-
775a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 31
19c-20a
50 MARX: Capital, lOa-lld
53 JAMES: Psychology, 175a-176a; 385a-b; 674a-
675b; 677b; 687a; 862a-865a; 869a-878a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 879c;
881b-c
6c. Art as the application of science: the pro-
ductive powers of knowledge
7 PLATO: Lysis, 16c-18b / Protagoras, 43b-d /
Euthydemus, 70a-c / Ion 142a-148a,c / Gor-
gias, 261a-262a / Republic, BK vn, 391b-397a
esp 392b, 394b, 394d / Statesman, 580d-582a /
Laws, BK iv, 684c-685a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 2 [i94B2i-bi3]
270c-271a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
78
THE GREAT IDEAS
fatola
(6. Art and science. 6c. Art as the application of
science: the productive powers o/ knowledge.)
982*1) 499b-500b; BK vii, CH 7 [1032*25-
1033*4] 555b-556a; CH 9 [1034*21-32] 557c;
BK ix, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5 573a-c; CH 7
[1049*5-12] 574c-d; BK xr, CH 7 [1064*10-14]
592b-c
9 ARISTOTLE; Ethics, BK i, CH i 339a-b; CH 7
[1098*28-32] 343d; BK ii, CH 4 [1105*17^4]
350d-351a; BK vi, CH 4 388d-389a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine la-9a,c csp
par 1-4 la-2c, par 14 5a-c, par 20-22 7b-8d /
Epidemics, BK HI, SECT in, par 16 59b-c /
Surgery, par i 70b / Articulations, par 58,
112d/ The Law 144a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 9, 195c-
197b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812d-813a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 17, 158d-
159b
13 VIRGIL: Georgics 37a-99a passim, csp n [475-
5i5]65a-66a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 252a-255a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510b
18 AUGUSTINE: Ctty of God, BK xxii, CH 24,
610a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 8 82c-83b; Q 17, A i, ANS lOOd-lOld; Q 19,
A 4, REP 4 lllC-112c; PART I-II, Q 14, A 4, ANS
679b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 3, REP 3 37b-38a; A 4 38a-39a; Q 95, A 2,
ANS 227c-228c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-b; 73b; PART
n, 158c-d; PART iv, 267a-b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 450d-451a; 523c-524b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, lOOc-lOlc
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 289d-292a csp
289d, 291d-292a / Circulation of the Blood,
305a-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 145c-d;
PART n, 251b-252a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42a-c; 48d-
49b; 50c-51d; 53a-b; 56b-58c / Novum Orga-
num 105a-195d csp BK i, APH 1-3 107a-b,
APH ii 107d, APH 19-21 108b-c, APH 81-82
120b-121b, APH 85 121d-122d, APH 92 125b-d,
APH 103-105 127d-128c, APH 124 133c-d, APH
129-130 134d-136a,c, BK n, APH 1-9 137a-140c,
APH 44-52 175d-195d / New Atlantis, 210d-
214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-c; 66d-
67a,c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xu,
SECT 11-12 361c-362c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5
452d-453b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 103b-115b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 5b-6a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 633c; 661c-663c
42 KANT: Intro, Metaphysic of Morals, 388d /
Judgement, 523d-524a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 369a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 170a; 184a; 213a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 218d
219a; 251a-b; PART iv, 347b-348a
50 MARX: Capital, 170b-c; 177a; 183b-189a:
239c-241a; 299b-d
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, 123a-125a /
General Introduction, 484a / Civilization ana
Its Discontents, 777a-c; 778b-779a esp 778d
7. The enjoyment of the fine arts
la. Art as a source of pleasure or delight
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 260a-262a / Republic, BK x,
433a-434c / Timaeus, 455 b-c / Statesman,
596c-d / Philebus, 628d-630c / Laws, BK ii,
654b-d; 658d-660d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i (98ibi3-
19] SOOa
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vii, CH ii [ii52bi8-i9
403d; CH 12 [1153*24-27] 404c; BK ix, CH 7
[ii67b34-n68ai8] 421b-c / Politics, BK vin,
CH 3 [I337l>27-I338a29] 543a-c; CH 5 544c
546a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH ii [i37ib4-n] 615a
BK HI, CH i [i403bi5]-cH 12 [1414*13] 653b,d
667a esp CH i 653b,d-654c / Poetics, CH 4
[1448^-23] 682c-d; CH 14 688b-689a
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK v [1379-
1411] 79a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [440-493] 115a-116b
BK vni [608-731] 275a-278b
16 COPERNICUS : Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 20-27 ^a
7d; BK in, par 2-4 13c-14b; BK x, par 49-53
83c-85a / City of God, BK i, CH 31-33 147d
149a; BK xxii, CH 24, 610a-c / Christian Doc
trine, BK nf CH 6 638a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 9,
REP i 8d-9c; PART i-n, Q 32, A 8, ANS 764c-
765b; Q 34, A i, REP 3 768c-769d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, ii [106-
133] 55c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
lb,d-3a,c; BK in, 129d-130c; 190d-191a; BK
iv, 232a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 104d-105c; 191c-192d
399d-401a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT HI,
sc i [10-12] 21 2d/ Merchant of Venice, ACT v,
sc i [66-88] 431b-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 184a-185b
PART n, 251b-c
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes, 337a-338a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, la-2a; 35a-d; 49a-50c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 502c-503a
42 KANT: Judgement, 471d-473a; 476a-483d
516d-518d; 527b-528c; 532a-d; 534c-539d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 446d-447a; 451c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 254c-d
Ibto 8
CHAPTER 4: ART
79
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185c-
186a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE 2a-6a esp [89-132]
3a-4a; PART n [9863-9869] 239b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 569a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 37a-d; BK n,
64d-65d; BK iv, 190d-192b; BK vi, 257c-
259a; 268b; BK vn, 288c-290b; 295c-296a;
BK vm, 318a-321d; 324b-325a; BK xiv, 601c-
602d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
284b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 157a; 727b; 755a-758a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 601a-b / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 643c / War and Death,
756b-c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 773d-
774c; 775b
lb. The judgment of excellence in art
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [518-562] 494d-495c /
Peace [732-774] 534c-535a / Frogs [758-1533]
573a-582a,c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 130c-141a,c / Ion 142a-
148a,c / Republic, BK ii-m, 320c-334b / Cnt-
tas, 478c-d / Theaetetus, 513c-d; 531c-532a /
Statesman, 594a-595a / Laws, BK n, 653c-656b
esp 656a-b; 660a-662a; BK in, 675c-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [1097^3-
1098*18] 343a-c; BK n, CH 6 [no6a2o-bi5]
351d-352a; BK vi, CH 5 [ii4Ob2o-25] 389c, CH
7 [114^9-12] 390a; BK x, CH 9 [n8iai3-bi3]
436a,c / Politics, BK i, CH 9 [i257b25-i258ai8]
451d-452b; BK in, CH 11 [i28ib39~i282a2}j
479d-480a; CH 12 [i282b32-i283ai3] 480d-
481a; CH 13 [i284b3~i2] 482c-d; BK VIH, CH 5
[i339a4i-b4] 544d-545a; CH 6 [i34ob20~25]
546b; [i340b35~4o] 546b-c / Rhetoric, BK in,
CH 1-12 653b,d-667b / Poetics, CH 26 698c-
699a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES- Fractures, par 30 86a-d / Artic-
ulations, par 78, 119d
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121c-122a; 128a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-
23a / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 11, 275c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 14 16d-
17a; BK iv, par 20 24b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A 2, ANS 125c-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A A 3-4 37b-39a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [79-
120] 69c-70a; xxvi [91-126] 93d-94b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 105a; 453d-454a; 455a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT v, sc i
[89-no]431d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT H, sc n [454-471]
45a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 184a-187c;
189d-193a; PART n, 212a-215b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 44c-d
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK ix [1-47] 247a-248a
/ Samson Agonistes, 337a-338a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 28-33 176a-b; 114 194b; 381
238b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, la-2a; 19a-20a; 35a-d;
49b-50c; 73b-d; 121b,d-123a; 152a-155b;
189a-191c; 204b,d-205c; 223a-225a; 246a-
247a; 273a-274c; 296b,d-298a; 357a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 300a-b; 573a-
574a
42 KANT : Judgement, 461a-495a,c esp 492b-493b ;
513b-518d; 527b-528c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 47, 154a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 446d-447a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 115c; 196d-197a; 202b;
284a-b;373b-c;546d-547a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185c-d;
PART i, 219b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [95-103] 3b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 277a-b; 335b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 302a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 37a-d; BK iv,
186c-188a; 191d-192a; BK vi, 257c-259a; BK
vn, 288c-290b; 295c-296a; BK vm, 318a-
321d; 324b-325a; BK x, 444a-445d esp 445a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 157a; 288a; 689b-690a;
755a-758a; 886b
8. Art and emotion: expression, purgation,
sublimation
OLD TESTAMENT* Judges, 11:34 / I Samuel, 16:15-
23; 186-7— (D) / Kings, 16:15-23; 18:6-7 /
// Samuel, 6:14-15— (D) II Kings, 6:14-15 /
Psalms, 150-4 / Ecclesiastes, 3:4 / Jeremiah,
31:13— (D) Jeremias, 31-13
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK i [325-359] 186b-c; BK
vni [71-103] 222d-223a; [482-547] 227a-d
6 HERODOTUS • History, BK vi, 189c
7 PLATO: Ion, 145a-b / Republic, BK in, 325b-
326b; BK x, 431b-434a / Timaeus, 455b-c /
Philebus, 628d-630c / Laws, BK n, 654b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 7 [n67b34-
n68ai8] 421b-c / Politics, BK vm, CH 5 544c-
546a; CH 6 [1341*20-23] 546d; CH 7 [i34ib33~
I342bi8] 547c-548a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i
[1354*13-1355*3] 593b-594a; CH 2 [1356*1-25]
595b-d; CH n [i37ib4-n] 615a; BK n, CH i-ii
622b,d-636a; BK in, CH 7 659a-660a; CH 16
II4I7*37-b7] 671c-d; CH 19 [i4i9bio-27] 674c-d
/ Poetics, CH 6 [1449^3-28] 684a; CH 9
[1452*1-10] 686c-d; CH 11 [i452*37~b4] 687a;
CH 13-14 687c-689a; CH 15 [1454^-14] 689c;
CH 17 [1455*29-39] 690c; CH 18 [1456*19-23]
691c-d; CH 19 [1456*33^8] 691d-692a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1379-
14351 79a-d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, v-vi 16a-21a / Aencid, BK i
[440-493] 115a-116b; BK vm [608-731] 275a-
278b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 20-22 6a-c;
par 25-27 7a-d; BK in, par 2-4 13c-14b; BK x,
par 49-50 83c-84b
80
THE GREAT IDEAS
9to9a
(8. Art and emotion: expression, purgation, sub-
limation.)
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, v [73-142] 7d-
8b; PURGATORY, ii [76-133] 55b-d; xxiv [49-
6}]90a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 69c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
190a-191a; BK iv, 232a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 104d-105c; 191c-192d;
399d-401a; 410a-c; 507b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE* Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
in, sc ii [66-95] 245a-b / Richard II, ACT v,
sc v [41-66] 350a-b / Merchant of Venice, ACT
v, sc i [66-88] 431b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE' Hamlet, ACT ii, sc n [575-633]
46b-d / Measure for Measure, ACT iv, sc i
[1-15] 192c / Cymbehne, ACT n, sc in [1-35]
459b-c / Tempest, ACT i, sc n [375-397] 529d-
530a; ACT v, sc i [58-61] 545c / Henry VIII,
ACT in, sc i [1-14] 566a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 184a-185b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38c-39d;
78a-d, 87c-d
32 MILTON: V Allegro 17b-21a / UPenseroso 21a-
25a / Paradise Lost, BK i [549-559] 105b /
Samson Agomstes, 337a-338a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, n 173b-174a; 13-16 174a-b;
I35l96a
36 STERNE- Tristram Shandy, 306b-307a; 350b-
351a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 94a-b
42 KANT: Judgement, 509c-d; 532a-539d
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, 53c-d; 308b-c; 362b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153b;
PART iv, 323b-c
49 DARWIN Descent of Man, 570b-571b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 64d-65d, BK
iv, 190d-192b; BK vi, 267d-268c; BK vn, 288c-
290b, BK x, 444a-445d csp 445a-c; BK XH,
554c-d, BK xw, 601c-602d; BKXV, 638c-639c
53JAMFS: Psychology, 288a; 747b-748a; 751a-
753b esp 752b-753b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 239c-240a;
246b-248c / General Introduction, 483 b-c;
581d-582b; 600d-601b / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 643c / Group Psychology, 692c-693a
/ War and Death, 762c / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 773d-774c
9. The useful arts
9*. The use of nature by art: agriculture, medi-
cine, teaching
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:15; 3:17-19,23
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 38*1-15— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 38:1-15
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XVIH [541-589] 135d-136c
5 SOPHOCLES : Antigone [332-364] 134a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 117a-c
7 PLATO: Lysis, 21d / Phaedrus, 136c-d / Sym-
posium, 155d-156c/ Gorgias, 261a-262a; 289d-
290a / Republic, BK m, 334b-337a; BK vn,
391c-d / Timaeus, 475a-d / Statesman, 599a-b;
599d-600a / Laws, BK x, 760c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH i [i92b8~3i]
268b,d-269a; [193^2-17] 269d-270a; CH 2
[194*22-27] 270c; CH 8 [i99b26-3i] 277a /
Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 7 [io32b6-29] 555c-d;
CH 9 [1034*8-29] 557b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 8 [1256*1 5^25]
450a-c; CH n [i258b9~34] 452d-453b; BK vn,
CH 17 [i336b40-i337a2] 542a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES. Ancient Medicine, par 3 ld-2b;
par 20-21 7b-8a / Prognostics, par i 19a-b /
Injuries of the Head, par 17 68d-69a / Surgery,
par 15 73b-c / Fractures, par 1-3 74b,d-76a;
par 33 88a-b / Articulations, par 2-3 92a-c;
par 14 96d-97d; par 42 104b-c / Aphorisms,
SECT i, par i 131a; SECT n, par 4 132b / The
Law, par 2-3 144b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1361-
1378] 78d-79a
13 VIRGIL. Georgics 37a-99a esp i [50-159] 38b-
41b, n [8-46] 52a-53b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 31, 175a
18 AUGUSTINE* City of God, BK xxn, CH 24,
610a-d / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30 651c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q no,
A 2, REP 3 565d-566d, Q 117, A i 595d-597c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 51,
A i, ANS 12b-13c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HFIL, xi [91-111]
16a-b; PARADISE, vin [115-148] 118b-c
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
207c-d; BK iv, 303c-304a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 52c-d; 63d-66b; 93b-d;
368d-370c; 523c-524a; 527a-529b
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc iv [1-19]
272b-c / Winter's Tale, ACT iv, sc iv [79-103]
508c-d
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 438c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 48d-49b;
53a-d / Novum Organum, PRLF 105a-106d;
BK 1 107a-136a,c esp APH 1-9 107a-d, APH 129
134d-135d; BK ii, APH 4 137d-138b; APH 29
159b-c / New Atlantis, 211b-214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-c; 66d-
67a,c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 78a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 195b-196a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 34b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 336b-337a; 349a;
352a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 157a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-22b; 367d-
368a; 655d-656b passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 221c-222a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 61d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 331 b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 56
26b; PART in, par 196 67a; par 203 68a-c /
Philosophy of History, PART i, 244b-c; PART n,
267a-b
9b to 9c
CHAPTER 4: ART
81
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 18a-22c csp 18b-c,
20d-21a; 41c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 16d-17a; 85a-88d csp 86a-b;
250a,c; 298c-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 372a-373b;
BK x, 449b-c; EPILOGUE i, 654a-653c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 711b-712b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 2a / Civilization and Its Discontents,
777a-b; 778b; 779a
&. The production of wealth: the industrial
arts
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 35-39 / I Kings, 5-7—
(D) III Kings, 5-7 / / Chronicles, 22.15-16—
(D) I Parahpomenon, 22:15-16 / II Chronicles,
2:11-5:14— (D) II Parahpomenon, 2*11-5*14
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasttcus, 38:27-34— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 38:28-39
7 PLATO- Republic, BK 11, 316c-319a / Statesman,
591c-593d; 596a-597b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK I,CH i [98ibi3-i9]
500a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 4 447b-c; CH
8-1 1 449d-453d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1241-
1268] 77b-c; [1350-1360] 78c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30
651c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 2,
A i 615d-616c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 85 121d-
122d / New Atlantis, 210d-214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 78a-b; PART in,
106a-112a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxm,
191a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 349a; 352a-d; 365b-
366b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 6a-d; 27b-
28a; 52d-53b; BK n, 157a-b; BK iv, 288c-300d
csp 288c-291c, 294d-295a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 88d-89d; 368a;
655d-656b; 658a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 314c-315b
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45d-46a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 56
26b; ADDITIONS, 125 137a / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 243d-244c; PART n, 267a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf(, 79a-82a
50 MARX: Capital, 16d-17a; 31a^7c passim; 85a-
89b; 96a-97a; 100a-147b passim; 157a-188c
esp 158a-159a, 164a-166c, 180d-188c; 205a-
207c; 251b-255aesp254a-b; 279d-280a; 292d;
299b-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420d-
421a;421d-422c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 654a-
655c
9c. The arts of war
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 14 / Exodus, 17:8^-16 /
Numbers, 31 / Deuteronomy, 2-3; 20 /Joshua,
i -i 2 esp 6, 8— (D) Josue, 1-12 csp 6, 8 /
Judges csp 4, 7, 15 / / Samuel esp 17— (D)
/ Kings esp 17 / // Samuel— (D) II Kings
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 7:8-31— (D) OT, Judith,
7:8-25 / I Maccabees— (D) OT, / Machabees /
II Maccabees— (D) OT, // Machabees
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK iv [292-309] 26d-27a; BK
vn [433-463] 50b-c; BK vni [489-565] 56a-d;
" BK xin [125-154] 89c-d; BK xvin [509-540]
135b-d / Odyssey, BK vm [491-520] 227a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [632-730] 264a-d /
Trojan Women [1-14] 270a; [511-571] 274b-d /
Heracles Mad [188-205] 366d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 41c-42b; BK iv,
141b-c; 144d-148d; 158d-159b; BK vi, 206d-
208d; BK vn, 239a-241c; 247d-259a; BK vm
260a-287d passim; BK ix 288a-314a,c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 389d-
391b; BK vi, 514d-516a; BK vn 538a-563a,c
7 PLATO- Euthydemus, 75a-b / Republic, BK n,
319a-c; BK iv, 343b-d; BK v, 366a-c / Sophist,
552d-554c / Laws, BK vn, 716c-717c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 7 [i255b38~39]
449c; CH 8 [i256b2O-26] 450c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1281-
1349] 77d-78c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK n [13-198] 124b-129b; BK
vii [519-530] 250b; BK ix [25-76] 279b-281a;
[590-620] 295a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 90b-9Sb / Pericles,
131b-139a / PabiuS'Pericles, 154a-d / Aemihus
Paulus, 216a-223a / Marcellus, 252a-255a;
257c-260c / Anstidcs, 266b-272c / Philopoe-
men 293a-302a,c / Caius Marius, 338c-344c /
Sulla, 382c-d / Lucullus 400a-421a,c / Nicias
423a-438d/ 5fr/or/^457b,d-470d csp 464c-d
/ Agesilaus, 498a-d / Pompey, 528c-534d /
Alexander, 546b-550a; 555d-556b; 569b-d /
Caesar, 583a-596a / Antony, 770a-773c / Mar-
cus Brutus, 816d-824a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 26c-28c esp 26c-27a;
BK in, 63a-b; BK xm, 134a-136c / Histories,
BK i, 210b-d; BK in, 247a-c; BK iv, 275b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 4, REP 3 38a-39a; PART n-n, Q 40, A 3
580d-581b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH m-v 3c-8c; CH x
16a-d; CH xn-xiv 17d-22a; CH xvm, 25a-c;
CH xx-xxi 30a-33a; CH xxv 35a-36b; CH
xxvi, 37b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b; PART n,
103b-c;159a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
28a-29b; 31d-35a; 39c-44a; 50c-52d; 55b-57c;
BK n, 95a-d; BK m, 127d-128b; BK iv, 276a-
282d;304a-305a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, llb-13c; 21a-b; 133b-d;
136b-143c; 193a-194b; 327d-329d; 354b-358b
82
THE GREAT IDEAS
(9. The useful arts. 9c. The arts of war.)
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT n, sc i [50-
77] 9b-d; ACT iv, sc iv 23b-d / 1st Henry IV,
ACT iv, sc in [1-29] 459b-c / 2nd Henry IV,
ACT i, sc in 472d-474a / Henry V, ACT in, sc
n [59-152] 544d-545d / Julius Caesar, ACT iv,
sc in (196-225) 590c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [197-210] llOa-b / Othello, ACT i,
sc in [1-47] 208d-209b; [220-229] 211b /
Antony and Cleopatra, ACT HI, sc VH-X
331b-333a / Coriolanus, ACT i, sc n 354d-
355b
29 CERVANTES: Don Qmxote, PART i, 145c-
147d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a; 54a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 23a-25b; PART n,
77a-78a, PART iv, 150a-151b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 237b-238a; 448b-
453a; 505b-510b; 535a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 241a
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK ix-x 58b,d-
68d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 301a-309a,c
esp 303d-305c, 308c-309a,c
40 GIB BON: Decline and Fall, 4b-8a; 85a-86d;
281b-287d passim; 365b-375d; 377c-378d;
411d-412c; 563a-566c esp 564d; 633b-c; 638d-
639a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 3d-4c, 120a; 126d-
131d esp 127d-128a; 256a; 291d-292c; 311d-
312a; 321b-325a; 394d-395c; 499a-b; 509a-
510a,c; 542b-548d esp 542b-543a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 453d-454c / Judge-
ment, 502d-504b
43FtDERALisr: NUMBER 8, 44c-45a; 45d-46a;
NUMBER 25, 91a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 343d-
344a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 52c-53c; 54c-
55c; BK n, 88b-89b; 92c-93d; 96c-97c; BK HI,
135c-137c; 144d-146d; BK v, 208c-210b; BK
VH, 278a-287a; BK ix, 350d-354a; 358b-365c;
BK x, 389a-391c; 405a-b; 421c-426a; 430b-
432c; 440c-443b; 445d-448c; 449c; BK xi,
470d-475a; BK xm, 563a-571a; BK xm-xiv,
582a-590c; BK xiv, 609a-613d; BK xv, 618b-
621b
94. The arts of government
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18:13-26
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [147-222] 471d-472c /
Lysistrata [506-586] 589c-590d
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK i, 366d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43b-47c / Euthydemus,
75c-76b / Ion, 147d-148a,c / Meno, 188b-
190a,c / Gorgias, 285a-292b / Republic, BK
m-iv, 339b-347a; BK vi, 382a-c; BK VH,
390c-391b/ Critias, 479c / Thtaetetus, 531a-b /
Statesman 580a-608d esp 585c-586a, 598b-
608d / Laws, BK iv, 679a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; BK
vi, CH 7 [1141*20-33] 390a-b; CH 8 [ii4ib
23-28] 390d; BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c /
Politics, BK n, CH 12 470b-471d; BK HI,
CH n [1281*39-1282*41] 479b-480b; BK iv,
CH i 487a-488b; BK v, CH 8-9 509d-512d;
CH ii 5l5d-518c; BK vn, CH 2 528a-529a;
CH 4 [1325^4-1326*4] 530a; CH 13-14 536b-
538d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1136-
n6o]76a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c;
BK vi, SECT 30 276d-277a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [418-440] 114b-115a; BK
vi [847-853] 233b-234a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus-Theseus, 30c-d / Poph-
co/a,81b-c/ Pophcola-Solon,87b'd / Camillus,
102d / Pericles 121a-141a,c esp 137b-138b /
Fabius, 143b-d; 14Sd-146&/AIctl>iades 155b,d-
174d passim, esp 167c-168a / Cortolanus, 180d-
181b / Anstides 262b,d-276a,c esp 263d-
267a, 273d-275c/ Cr^«^-Ma^455b,d-457d
/ Agesilaus, 482a-c / Phocion, 604b,d-605d /
Cato the Younger, 625b-627b / Agis, 648b,d-
649b / Cams and Tiberius Gracchus- Agis and
Cleomenes 689b,d-691a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 63d-67a; 72a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 16
521d-522a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q
104, A 4, ANS 306d-307c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xni [91-
108] 126b-c
23 MACHIAVELLI : Prince la-37d
23HoBBEs: leviathan, INTRO 47a-d; PART i,
67d-68a; 80d-81a; 82b-d; PART n, 112d; 122b-
124b, 127a-130a; 148c-159c; 164a,c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
131b,d-133b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 3a-5a; 324c-326b esp
326a-b; 437b-c; 450d-451a; 451d-452d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT in, sc iv [29-
66] 340c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 217a-b;
331a-336a
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 4c-7c; 23a-
26a; 54a-b; 93c-95a
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK iz [430-456] 120b-
121a
33 PASCAL: Pensles, 82 186b-188b; 291-338 225a-
233a passim
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 9b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART H, 78a-b; PART in,
112a-115b; PART iv, 157a-158a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b-d;
BK H-V 4a-33a,c; BK vi, 40a-b; 43c-d; BK
vin, 51a-53c; BK xi, 69a-75a; BK xn, 93c-
96a,c; BK xix, 135a-141a; BK xxvi, 214b,d;
BK xxix 262a-269a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy 367a-385a,c esp
370c-d / Social Contract, BK n, 400c-406a;
BK HI, 409d-410a; 412c-414d
10 to
x CHAPTER 4: ART
83
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-32d passim;
48a; 61d-63b; 142c-144a; 153c-157c csp 155b,
157c; 240b-255d passim; 284a-c; 288b-289a;
338d-344a,c esp 338d-339a, 343a-c; 577a~578c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 102c~103a; 176c-
177c; 504c-505c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 35, 113b-c; NUMBER 37,
119c-120a, NUMBER 62, 190b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 322a-b / Representative Govern-
w<?/tf,327b,d-328d;331b-c, 338d-339a; 356b-
362c passim; 411d-412a; 442a-d / Utilitarian-
ism, 445c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 275d-
276a; PART iv, 360b-c; 361d-362a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
260a-262a; BK ix, 350d-354a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 201a
10. The moral and political significance of the
arts
lOa. The influence of the arts on character and
citizenship: the role of the arts in the
training of youth
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [626-658] 462b-d
/ Wasps [1009-1070] 519d-520c / Frogs [1008-
1098] 576b-577c; [1482-1533] 581d-582a,c
7 PLATO Protagoras, 46b-c / Phaedrus, 140a-d /
Symposnim, 156b-c / Gorgtas, 280d-282b /
Republic, BK ii-nr, 320c-339a; BK iv, 344b-d;
BK vii 388a~401d esp 389d-398c; BK x, 427c-
434c / Timaeus, 455a-c / Laws, BK n 653a-
663d; BK in, 675c-676b; BK v, 696b-d, BK
vn, 717b-728b
9 ARISTOTLL* Politics, BK vn, CH 17 [1336*30-
b24] 541b-d; BK vni 542a-548a,c
12 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK i, SECT 7, 253c
13 VIRGIL Acneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
vi [847-853] 233b-234a; BK vni [608-731]
275a-278b '
14 PLUTARCH Lycurgus, 33d-34a; 43b-d / Solon,
76a / Pericles, 121a-122b / Timoleon, 195a-b /
Demetrius, 726a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xiv, 146b-d
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-b
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR HI, CH 1-2 lOa-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 20-22 6a-c;
par 25-27 7a-d; BK in, par 2-4 13c-14b; BK x,
par 49-53 83c-85a / City of God, BK i, CH 31-
33 147d-149a; BK H, CH 8-14 153d-157c; BK
iv, CH 26-27 202a-203c / Christian Doctrine,
BK n, CH 6 638a-d; CH 25 649b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxn
[55-93] 87a-c; PARADISE, i [1-36] 106a-b; n
[1-18] 107d; xvii [100-142] 133a-c
22 CHAUCER: Intro, to Man of Law's Prologue
[4465-4510] 234b-235b / Prologue to Mehbeus
400b-401a / U Envoi 550a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
26d-30c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-80b passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
HI, sc n [66-95] 245a-b / Richard H, ACT v, sc
v [41-63] 350a-b / Merchant of Venice, ACT v,
sc i [66-88] 431b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT iv,
sc i [1-15] 192c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, la-3b;
12b-16c; 184a-187c; 189d-193c; PART 11, 427c-
429d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 4c-6c; 38c-
39a; 78a-d; 79c-80a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43a-b
32 MILTON • Paradise Lost, BK ix [1-47] 247a-248a
/ Areopagitica, 385a-386b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 11 173b-174a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV i
451a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, xviib-xviiia
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 250b-251a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 253d-254d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 17b-
18d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366b
39 SMITH Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337d-343d;
347c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 3a-b; 79a-b; 94a-b;
629a-b
41 GIBBON '.Decline and Fall, 40d-41a; 225a-226a
esp 225c; 300a-b; 573a-574b
42 K\NT: Judgement, 521b-523c; 586d-587a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 158a-b; 259b-c, 308b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 259b-c;
263d-265c; 267b-268b; 276a-d; PART iv,
347b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d; BK
n, 64d-65d; BK iv, 172d-173d; BK vni, 316b-
321d;324b-325d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 582a-b / War
and Death, 762c
0£. The political regulation of the arts for the
common good: the problem of censor-
ship
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [366-382] 459c-d;
[480-508] 460d-461a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-IH, 320c-339a; BK iv,
344b-d; BK x, 427c-434c esp 432d-434c /
Statesman, 601c-602c / Laws, BK n 653a-663d;
BK HI, 675c-676b; BK vn, 717b-730c; BK vni,
731d-732c; BK xi, 782d<783b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d / Poli-
tics, BK vn, CH 17 [i336bi2-23] 541c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 76a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 56d-57b; BK iv,
67b-c; 72b-73a; BK xiv, 152d-153c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, CH 31-33
147d-149a; BK n, CH 9-14 154a-157c; BK vni,
CH 13 273b-d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxi, 32d-33a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 102d-103a; 150c-
151a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 79d-80b; 191d-192b
84
THE GREAT IDEAS'
il to 12
(10. Tb* moral awl political significance of the
arts. \Qb. The political regulation of the
arts for the common good: the problem of
censorship.)
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 13b-16c;
117d-119d; 184a-187c
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 214a-b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b csp 384b-
389a, 398a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 253d-254d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 17b-
18d; BK xn, 90b-c
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 347c-d
40 GIBBON- Decline and Pall, 148a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 220b-221b; 223a-c /
Science of Right, 425c-426a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 8
[214-217] 13b; AMENDMENTS, i 17a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 139d-140a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 368d-369b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 259b-c; 300c-301a csp
301a-d [fn i]
11. Myths and theories concerning the origin
of the arts
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:20-22; 10:8-9 /
/ Chronicles, 4:14— (/)) / Paralipomenon, 4-14
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound 40a-51d
csp [109-113] 41 b, [248-256] 42d, [459-461]
44d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Phaedrus, 138c-
139a / Symposium, 160c-d / Republic, BK H,
316c-319c / Statesman, 589a-c / Philebus,
610d-613a esp 611d-613a / Laws, BK n, 653a-
c; 662c-663b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vm, CH 6 [134^2-8]
547a / Rhetoric, BK in, CH i [i403bi5~i404a39J
653b,d-654c / Poetics, CH 3 [1448*25]-^ 5
[I449bi9] 682b-684a
10 HIPPOCRATES* Ancient Medicine, par 3 ld-2b;
par 7 3a; par 12 4b-c; par 14, 5a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1028-
1104] 74c-75c; [1241-1457] 77b-80a,c
13 VIRGIL: Georgia, i [121-146] 40b-41a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
299a-300b
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 38d-39a /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 109 128d-129c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 655d-656a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 239a-b;
252a-c; PART n, 261 b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 278a-279c; 298a-
301cj 329c; 348d-349d; 567c-571a esp 569d-
570a, 570d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
284b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 727b-728a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 512d-513a /
Group Psychology, 670a-b; 692a-693a /
Cwilization and Its Discontents, 778b,d [fn 2]
/ New Introductory Lectures, 862d
12. The history of the arts: progress in art as
measuring stages of civilization
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK iv [104-111] 25a; BK ix
[185-189] 59a; BK xi [15-46] 72b-c; BK xvm
[368-617] 133d-136d/ Odyssey,vKix [105-115]
230b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 5b; 5d-6a; BK n,
49d-50a; 75b-76a; BK in, 102c; BK vn, 220d-
221b
6 TwjcvniDES.Peloponnesian War, BK i,350b-d
7 PLATO: Crttias, 479d / Statesman, 602b-c /
Laws, BK n, 654c-655b; BK in, 675c-676b
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 34
[i83bi6-i84b8] 253a-d / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH i [98ibi3-24] SOOa; BK xn, CH 8 [i074bii]
605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [1098*21-25]
343c-d / Politics, BK n, CH 8 [1268^3-1269*29]
464d-465b / Rhetoric, BK in, CH i [1403^5-
1404^9] 653b,d-654c / Poetics, CH 4-5 682c-
684a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 1-4 la-
2c; par 12 4b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [324-337]
65b-c; [925-1160] 73b-76b; [1241-1457] 77b-
80a,c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, i [121-146] 40b-41a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 127a-129b / Marcellus,
252a-255a / Aratus, 830b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xv, 167c-168a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 10,
348b-c; BK xvm, CH 13-14 478d-479d; BK
xxn, CH 24, 610a-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 46,
A 2, REP 4 253a-255a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [79-
120] 69c-70a; xxiv [49-63] 90a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 85c; PART iv,
267c-269b passim
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81d-82c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning la-lOld esp
la-15a, 18b, 20b-25c, 29a-32c, 33d-34a, 35b-
36c, 38d-39a, 51d-54b / Novum Organum,
BK i, APH 85 121d-122d; APH 129 134d-135d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 103b-115b esp
106a-107a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338d-340a; 346d-347a;
352a-d; 365b-366b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 6a-d; BK in,
173d-175b; BK iv, 191a; BK v, 308c-309a,c;
337d-338c
40 GIB BON: Decline and Pall, 18b-24a,c; 88d-
89d; 157d-159a; 171c; 237c-239a; 502d-503a;
633b-634a,c; 641b-642b; 655d-658b; 661c-
664d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 195d-197a; 225a«c;
291d-292c; 298a-300b; 327a-328a,c; 355a-d;
451c-452d; 509d-510a,c; 522b-528a,c esp
528a,c; 573a-574a; 590a-598a passim, esp
596d-598a
12
CHAPTER 4: ART "
85
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 8
[214-217] 13b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 139d-140a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 367b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 70d-71b; 307c-d; 380d-
381a; 406c, 408d-409a; 446d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 69,
30b; PART in, par 356 113a-b / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 153a-b, 182b-c, 185a-186a;
PARF i, 219b-c; 229b-d, 243d-244c; 247c-
248d, 251a-b; 253b-c; PART n, 259a-282d esp
261b, 267b-268b, 276a-d, 277d-278a; PART
in, 312c-d; PART iv, 323c-d; 335a-d; 346c-
348a
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 13c; 19c-d / De-
scent of Man, 278a-279a; 320a-321a; 329a-
330a,c; 349b-d; 569d
50 MARX: Capital, 86b-c csp 86d [fn 4]; 181d
[fn 3l
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420d-
421a; 421d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 727b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 776c-
780b esp 779a-b / New Introductory Lectures,
882d883b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For- The conception of art as a habit of mind or an intellectual virtue, see HABIT 53, 5d; VIRTUE
AND VICE 23(2).
The applications of science in the useful arts, see KNOWLEDGE 8a; PHYSICS 5; SCIENCE ib(i),
3b; and for the dependence of science on art, see PHYSICS 43; SCIENCE ^b, 6a.
The distinction between art and prudence and the spheres of making and doing, sec
PRUDENCE 2b.
Other discussions of art and nature, see NATURE 2a; and for the comparison of artistic pro-
duction, natural generation, and divine creation, see FORM id(i)-id(2); WORLD 4e(i).
Experience as a source of art, see EXPERIENCE 3; for the distinction between artist and
empiric, see EXPERIENCE 33; and for the opposition between art and chance, see CHANCE 5.
The enjoyment of beauty in nature and in art, see BEAUTY 2; PLEASURE AND PAIN 4c(i) ; and
for discussions of the aesthetic judgment or the judgment of taste, see BEAUTY 5.
Other considerations of the educational influence of the arts, see EDUCATION 4d; POETRY 93;
VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(4); and for the problem of political regulation or censorship of art,
see EMOTION 5e; POETRY 9b.
More extended treatments of the liberal arts, see LANGUAGE 4-8; LOGIC; MATHEMATICS;
RHETORIC; and for an analysis of one of the fine arts, see POETRY.
Discussions of the useful and industrial arts, see EDUCATION 5a~5b; LABOR 2b; MEDICINE;
PROGRESS 3C, 43, 6a; STATE 8d-8d(3); WAR AND PEACE lo-iof; WEALTH 3C~3d.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet)
HUME. Of the Rise and Progress of the Arts and Sciences
ROUSSEAU. Discourse on the Arts and Sciences
A. SMITH. "Of the Affinity Between Music, Danc-
ing and Poetry," in Essays Philosophical and
Literary
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, vn (B)
. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT m, SUB-SECT A
. The Philosophy of Fine Art
GOETHE. Poetry and Truth
. Travels in Italy
. Conversations with Ec^ermann
. Maxims and Reflections
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK vi, CH n
86
THE GREAT IDEAS
TOLSTOY. What Is Art?
FREUD. Leonardo da Vinci
. The Theme of the Three Caskfts
. The Moses of Michelangelo
. A Childhood Memory from "Dichtung und
Wahrheit"
II.
EPICURUS. Letter to Herodotus
HORACE. The Art of Poetry
VITRUVIUS. On Architecture
QUINTILIAN. InstitutioOratona (Institutes of Oratory),
BK XII
BONA VENTURA. On the Reduction of the Arts to The-
ology
LEONARDO DA VINCI. Notebooks
. A Treatise on Painting
CELLINI. Aut6biography
SuAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XLIV (13)
CORNEILLE. Trois discours sur Van dramatique
. Examens
J. HARRIS, Three Treatises. The First Concerning An.
The Second Concerning Music, Painting, and Poetry.
The Third Concerning Happiness
BURKE. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of
Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful
VOLTAIRE. "Fine Arts," in A Philosophical Diction-
ary
LESSING. Laocoon
BEATTIE. An Essay on Poetry and Music
HERDER. Plasti^
JOSHUA REYNOLDS. Discourses on Art
SCHILLER. Letters upon the Esthetic Education of Man
SCHELLINO. Philosophic der Kunst
COLERIDGE. Biographia Literaria, CH 4
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL i,
BK in; VOL in, SUP, CH 34-36
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL II, BK XI, CH 8
EMERSON. "Art," in Essays, i
E. DELACROIX. Journal
BAUDELAIRE. Curiosity's esthetiques
COMTE. System of Positive Polity, VOL i, General View
of Positivism, CH 5
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK vin, CH 3
BURCKHARDT. The Civilization of the Renaissance in
Italy
RUSKIN. Modern Painters
. The Stones of Venice
. Sesame and Lilies
TAINE. The Philosophy of Art
E. HARTMAN, Philosophy of the Unconscious, (B) v
ARNOLD. Essays in Criticism
VAN GOGH. Letters
MORRIS. Hopes and Fears for Art
. Art and Socialism
. The Aims of Art
GUYAU. V art au point de vue sociologique
NIETZSCHE. The Will to Power, BK in (4)
BRUNETIERE. An Apology for Rhetoric
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART i, CH 17
GROSSE. The Beginnings of Art
SHAW. The Sanity of Art
HIRN. The Origins of Art
MANN. Tonio Kroger
SANTAYANA. Reason in Art
CROCE. Aesthetic as Science of Expression
. The Essence of Esthetics
HARRISON. Ancient Art and Ritual
BOSANQUET. Three Lectures on Aesthetic, 11
T. VEBLEN. The Instinct of Workmanship, and the
State of the Industrial Arts, CH 2-4, 6-7
. The Vested Interests and the State of the Indus-
trial Arts, CH 3
ALAIN. Systtme des beaux-arts
MARITAIN. Art and Scholasticism
. An Introduction to Philosophy, PART n (9)
ABERCROMBIE. An Essay Towards a Theory of Art
LALO. Van et la morale
ORTEGA Y GASSET. The Dehumanization of Art
RANK Art and Artist
H. DELACROIX. Psychologte de I' art
GILL, Art-Nonsense
COOMARASWAMY. The Transformation of Nature in
Art
DEWEY. Art as Experience
MUMFORD. Technics and Civilization
ADLER. Art and Prudence
Chapter 5: ASTRONOMY
INTRODUCTION
ASTRONOMY could take its place in this
1\ catalog of ideas on the ground that several
of the great books are monuments of astronom-
ical science, exemplifying the imaginative and
analytical powers which have made it one of the
most remarkable triumphs of the human mind.
Its claim might further be supported by the
fact that other great books — of mathematics,
physics, theology, and poetry — have a context
of astronomical imagery and theory. But the in-
clusion of astronomy can be justified by what is
perhaps an even more significant fact, namely,
that astronomical speculation raises problems
and suggests conclusions which have critical rel-
evance for the whole range of the great ideas.
Man has used astronomy to measure, not only
the passage of time or the course of a voyage,
but also his position in the world, his power of
knowing, his relation to God. When man first
turns from himself and his immediate earthly
surroundings to the larger universe of which he
is a part, the object which presses on his vision
is the overhanging firmament with its luminous
bodies, moving with great basic regularity and,
upon closer observation, with certain perplex-
ing irregularities. Always abiding and always
changing, the firmament, which provides man
with the visible boundary of his universe, also
becomes for him a basic, in fact an inescapable,
object of contemplation.
Careful and precise astronomical observa-
tions antedate the birth of astronomy as a
science. The early interest in the heavenly bod-
ies and their motions is often attributed to the
usefulness of the predictions which can be made
from a knowledge of celestial phenomena.
Whether their motive was entirely utilitar-
ian, or partly religious and speculative, the
Egyptians and Babylonians, we learn from
Herodotus, undertook patient study of the
heavens. They observed and recorded with
immense persistence. They calculated and pre-
dicted. They turned their predictions to use
through the priestly office of prophecy to fore-
tell eclipses, tides, and floods, and they em-
ployed their calculations in the mundane arts of
navigation and surveying to guide travel and
fix boundaries. But they did not, like the Greeks,
develop elaborate theories which sought to or-
ganize all the observed facts systematically.
With the Greeks, the down-to-earth, every-
day utility of astronomy seems to count for
less than its speculative grandeur. The dignity
which they confer upon astronomy among the
disciplines reflects the scope and majesty of its
subject matter. The Greek astronomer, con-
cerned as he is with figuring motions that range
through the whole of space and are as old as
time or as interminable, takes for his object the
structure of the cosmos.
Aristotle and Plato pay eloquent tribute to
the special worth of astronomy. In the opening
chapters of his Metaphysics^ Aristotle associates
astronomical inquiry with the birth of philos-
ophy. "Apart from usefulness," he says, "men
delight ... in the sense of sight" and, he adds,
"it is owing to their wonder that men both now
begin and at first began to philosophise." They
wondered first about "the obvious difficulties,"
but little by little they advanced to "greater
matters," and "stated difficulties . . . about the
phenomena of the moon and sun and stars, and
about the genesis of the universe." In his own
philosophical thought, Aristotle's treatise On
the Heavens is not only one of the basic natural
sciences, but certain of its principles have gen-
eral significance for all the other parts of his
physical science.
A wider view of the importance of astronomy
is taken by Plato. In the Timaeus, he dwells on
"the higher use and purpose for which God has
given eyes to us. ... Had we never seen the
87
88
THE GREAT IDEAS
stars, and the sun, and the heaven," Timaeus
says, "none of the words which we have spoken
about the universe would ever have been ut-
tered. . . . God invented and gave us sight," he
continues, "to the end that we might behold
the courses of intelligence in the heaven, and
apply them to the courses of our own intelli-
gence which are akin to them, the unperturbed
to the perturbed; and that we, learning them
and partaking of the natural truth of reason,
might imitate the absolutely unerring courses
of God and regulate our own vagaries."
For Plato, then, man's intellectual relation to
the heavens does more than initiate philosophy.
Man's self-rule, his purity and peace of soul, is
at stake in that relation. That is one reason why,
in both the Republic and. the Laws, Plato makes
astronomy a required part of the curriculum
for the education of rulers. "He who has not
contemplated the mind of nature which is said
to exist in the stars . . . and seen the connection
of music with these things, and harmonized
them all with laws and institutions, is not able,"
the Athenian Stranger says in the Laws, "to
give a reason for such things as have a reason."
Plato considers the opposition to astronomy
on religious grounds by those who think that
men who approach celestial phenomena by the
methods of astronomy "may become godless
because they see ... things happening by ne-
cessity, and not by an intelligent will accom-
plishing good." His answer points out that one
of the "two things which lead men to believe in
the gods ... is the argument fiom the order of
the motion of the stars and of all things under
the dominion of the mind which ordered the
universe." It was a false understanding of these
matters which "gave rise to much atheism and
perplexity."
THE ISSUES RAISED by Plato concerning the im-
portance of astronomy for purification and pi-
ety, for education and politics, run through the
tradition of western thought. Though they are
somewhat transformed in the context of Jewish
and Christian beliefs, and altered by later de-
velopments in the science of astronomy itself,
they remain as matters on which an author's
strong assent or dissent forcefully reflects his
whole intellectual position.
On the one hand, astronomers like Ptolemy,
Copernicus, and Kepler, for all their differences
on points of scientific theory, seem to concur in
reaffirming Plato's conception of the bearing of
their science on religion and morals. Lucretius
and Augustine, on the other hand, while not
agreeing with each other, seem to disagree with
Plato. In the tradition of western thought, they
represent different types of opposition to the
Platonic view.
Where Plato and his followers, including re-
ligious Christians like Copernicus and Kep-
ler, hold that true piety profits from astronom-
ical study, Lucretius hopes that astronomy may
help to free men from religious superstitions. If
when they * 'gaze on the heavenly quarters of the
great upper world" and direct their thoughts
"to the courses of the sun and moon," they do
so with "a mind at peace" because they see only
the workings of natural law and no evidences of
a controlling power in the will of the gods, then
men achieve the natural piety of the scientist
— different m the opinion of Lucretius from the
false worship which is based on fear.
From his own experiences in dealing with the
astronomy of the Mamchean sect in relation to
their religious doctrine, Augustine insists that
the teachings of religion in no way depend upon
astronomy. He denies that such knowledge is in
any way essential to true piety. Though a man
does not know "even the circles of the Great
Bear, yet is it folly to doubt," he writes, "that
he is in a better state than one who can measure
the heavens and number the stars, and poise the
elements, yet neglecteth Thee 'Who hast made
all things m number, weight, and measure.' "
When Faustus, the leader of the Mamcheans,
"was found out to have taught falsely of the
heaven and stars, and of the motions of the sun
and moon (although these dungs pertain not to
the doctrine of religion)," his religious teach-
ings, according to Augustine, inevitably suffered
ridicule because of his pretension that they de-
rived support from a science of the heavenly
bodies. Augustine would disengage theology
from astronomy. His position anticipates that
later taken by Cardinal Barbenni who, during
the controversy over the Copernican hypothe-
sis, is reported to have told Galileo that as-
tronomy and religion have quite separate tasks,
the one teaching how the heavens go, the other
how to go to heaven.
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
89
Still another point of view on the importance
of astronomy is represented in the skeptical and
humanist attitude of Montaigne. "I am very
well pleased with the Milesian girl," he remarks,
"who . . . advised the philosopher Thales rather
to look to himself than to gaze at heaven." In
saying this, or in quoting with approval the
question asked of Pythagoras by Anaximenes—
"To what purpose should I trouble myself in
searching out the secrets of the stars, having
death or slavery continually before my eyes?"
—Montaigne intends more than a preference
for the moral over the natural sciences. He re-
gards astronomical inquiry as a prime example
of man's "natural and original disease— pre-
sumption." It is presumptuous to suppose that
our minds can grasp and plot the course of the
heavens when we fail to comprehend things
much nearer at hand. Hence Montaigne ad-
vises everyone to say, in the spirit of Anaxi-
menes: "Being assaulted as I am by ambition,
avarice, temerity, superstition, and having so
many other enemies of life, shall I go cudgel
my brains about the world's revolutions?"
Kant can be as critical as Montaigne of the
frailty of human knowledge. "The investiga-
tions and calculations of the astronomers," he
writes, have shown us "the abyss of our igno-
rance in relation to the universe." But Kant — an
astronomer himself as well as a moralist — does
not, therefore, advise us to forsake the study of
the heavens. On the contrary, he recommends
it not only for its scientific value, but for its
moral significance.
"Two things," Kant declares in a passage
which has become famous, "fill the mind with
ever new and increasing admiration and awe,
the oftener and more steadily we reflect on
them: the starry heavens above and the moral
law within." The two fit together to produce a
single effect. Astronomy with its view "of a
countless multitude of worlds annihilates, as it
were, my importance as an animal creature."
Morality "elevates my worth as an intelligence
by my personality, in which the moral law re-
veals to me a life independent of animality and
even of the whole sensible world."
Kant's association of the starry heavens with
the moral life is not so much an echo of, as a
variant upon, Plato's precept that we apply
"the courses of intelligence in heaven ... to the
courses of our own intelligence." But in one
passage of Freud we find an almost complete re-
turn to the Platonic insight. "Order has been
imitated from nature," he writes; "man's ob-
servations of the great astronomical periodici-
ties not only furnished him with a model, but
formed the ground plan of his first attempts to
introduce order into his own life."
ASTRONOMY HAS connections with biology and
psychology, as well as with mathematics and
physics. The obvious fact that the sun supports
terrestrial life— operating here as a unique and
indispensable cause— occasions the inference by
Aquinas that it may also operate as a cause in
the production of new species by spontaneous
generation from putrefying matter. This no-
tion bears some resemblance to the theory in
contemporary genetics of the effect of cosmic
radiations upon gene mutations.
Unlike these notions in biology, speculations
concerning celestial influences upon psycho-
logical phenomena seem to cross the line be-
tween astronomy and astrology. Sometimes the
influence upon man and his actions is found in
the constellations attending a nativity; some-
times it is a particular influence of the sort still
signified by the meaning of the word "lunacy";
and sometimes omens and auguries are read in
the aspect of the heavens.
The chapters on PROPHECY and SIGN AND
SYMBOL deal with the issues raised by astrol-
ogy. Problems more closely associated with
astronomical science and speculation are treat-
ed in other chapters. The cosmological prob-
lem of the origin of the material universe
is discussed in the chapters on ETERNITY,
TIME, and WORLD; the question of its size in the
chapter on SPACE; the question of whether the
celestial spheres are themselves alive or are
moved by intelligences or spirits in the chapters
on ANGEL and SOUL; and the question of the
nature of the heavenly bodies in the chapter on
MATTER.
This last problem is of crucial significance in
the history of astronomy itself. Opposed the-
ories of the motions of the heavenly bodies be-
come correlated with opposed theories con-
cerning their matter — whether that is different
in kind from terrestrial matter or the same. It
is with reference to these related issues that what
90
THE GREAT IDEAS
has come to be called "the Copernican revo-
lution" represents one of the great crises, cer-
tainly one of the most dramatic turning points,
in the development of astronomy, and of phys-
ics and natural science generally.
The Copernican revolution did not take place
by the improvement and enlargement of astro-
nomical observations alone, nor even by the ef-
fect of these on alternative mathematical for-
mulations. If it had not been accompanied by
the radical shift from ancient to modern physics
— especially with regard to the diversity or uni-
formity of the world's matter— the Copernican
hypothesis concerning the celestial motions
would have been no more than a mathematical
alternative to the Ptolemaic hypothesis. Coper-
nicus seems to advance it only as such, but in the
hands of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton it be-
comes much more than that. They, rather than
Copernicus, seem to accomplish the revolution
connected with his name.
When their contribution is neglected or in-
adequately grasped, the Copernican revolution
appears to be, as is often popularly supposed,
merely a shift in astronomical theory. The prob-
lem being to organize mathematically the ap-
parent motions of the heavens, Copernicus of-
fers an alternative solution to that of Ptolemy.
Instead of treating the earth as stationary and
central in the cosmic system, Copernicus at-
tributes three motions to the earth by treating
it as a planet which revolves around the sun,
spins on its axis, and varies the inclination of its
axis with reference to the sun.
What is usually supposed to be revolutionary
about this hypothesis is its effect on man's esti-
mate of himself and his place or rank in the
universe. On either of the rival hypotheses, the
apparent motions of the heavens remain unal-
tered, but not man's conception of himself, of
his earth, or of the universe in which the earth's
orbit cuts so small a figure. As Kant suggests,
man's stature seems to shrink. He becomes "a
mere speck in the universe" which has been en-
larged to infinity, or at least to an unimaginable
immensity. He is displaced from its center to
become a wanderer with his planet. Humanity's
self-esteem, according to Freud, was thus for
the first time deeply wounded; he refers to the
theory that "is associated in our minds with the
name of Copernicus" as the ' 'first great outrage"
which humanity "had to endure from the
hands of science."
It has been questioned whether this interpre-
tation of the Copernican revolution fits all the
documents in the case. Freud may be accurately
reporting a popular feeling which, since the 1 8th
century, has become a widespread consequence
of Copernican and post-Copermcan astronomy.
But in earlier centuries when the Ptolemaic
system prevailed, or even after Copernicus, the
appraisal of man's rank seems to depend more
upon the position he occupies in the hierarchy
of God's creatures— below the angels and above
the brutes — than upon the place or motion of
the earth, or the size of the world.
Boethius, for example, finds the Ptolemaic
universe large enough to remind man of the
infinitesimal space he occupies. Dante, too,
comments on the smallness of the earth in the
scheme of things. When in his visionary travel
Dante reaches the Empyrean, he looks down
upon the earth and "with my sight," he tells us,
"I returned through all and each of the seven
spheres, and saw this globe, such that I smiled at
its mean semblance; and that counsel I approve
as best which holds it of least account."
Kepler, a passionate Copernican deeply con-
cerned with the human significance of astron-
omy, can be found arguing that the new hy-
pothesis involves something more fitting for
man than the old. In his last argument in de-
fense of the Copernican view against that of
Tycho Brahe as well as that of Ptolemy, he de-
clares, "it was not fitting that man, who was
going to be the dweller in this world and its
contemplator, should reside in one place as in a
closed cubicle. ... It was his office to move
around in this very spacious edifice by means of
the transportation of the Earth his home." In
order properly to view and measure the parts
of his world, the astronomer "needed to have
the Earth a ship and its annual voyage around
the sun."
Yet the very fact that Kepler argues in this
manner may be interpreted as indicating his
sense of the drastic implications for man of the
altered structure of the universe. Kepler may
even be thought to announce the problem of the
so-called "Copernican revolution" when, in de-
nying that the earth can any longer "be reck-
oned among the primary parts of the great
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
91
world," since it is only a part of a part, i.e., the
planetary region, he deliberately adds the quali-
fication: "But I am speaking now of the Earth
in so far as it is a part of the edifice of the world,
and not of the dignity of the governing crea-
tures which inhabit it."
Whether or not it was the traumatic blow to
the human ego which Freud conjectures, there
can be little doubt that the shift from Ptolemy
to Copernicus involved a real shock to the imag-
ination. The Ptolemaic system conforms to the
look of the world, which is indeed the reason
why it is still the one used in practical courses in
navigation. Here again Kepler defends Coperni-
cus by explaining why "our uncultivated eye-
sight" cannot be other than deceived and why
it "should learn from reason" to understand
that things are really different from the way they
appear.
A certain disillusionment may result from
this affirmation — repeated by every schoolboy
who is taught the Copernican system — that, de-
spite what we see, the sun does not move around
the earth, and the earth both rotates and re-
volves. It undermines the trust men placed in
their senses and the belief that science would
describe the world as they saw it. In order to
"save the appearances," that is, to account for
the phenomena, science might henceforward be
expected to destroy any naive acceptance of
them as the reality.
Furthermore, though the Ptolemaic world
was very large, the Copernican universe was
much larger. Whereas in the former the radius
of the earth was deemed negligible in relation to
the radius of the sphere of the fixed stars, in the
new universe the radius of the earth's orbit
around the sun was negligible in relation to the
same radius of the sphere of the fixed stars. It
can hardly be doubted that this intensified some
men's sense of almost being lost in an abyss of
infinity. "I see those frightful spaces of the uni-
verse which surround me," Pascal writes, "and
I find myself tied to one corner of this vast ex-
panse, without knowing why I am put in this
place rather than in another." When he regards
the world's immensity as "the greatest sensible
mark of the almighty power of God," Pascal ex-
periences an awe which for him is qualified by
reverence. Other men may experience the same
feeling, but less with reverence than with a
gnawing loneliness, born of the doubt that so
vast a cosmos—if cosmos it is rather than chaos
—can have been beneficently designed as man's
habitation.
WHATEVER THE TRUTH about the effect of the
Copernican theory in the order of opinion, im-
agination, and feeling, it did produce a direct
result on the intellectual plane. It, more than
any other single factor, led to the overthrow of
certain crucial doctrines which had been linked
together in the physics and astronomy of Aris-
totle; it thus radically changed the fundamen-
tal principles in terms of which man had under-
stood the order and unity of nature. That scien-
tific event deserves not only the name but the
fame of the "Copernican revolution."
The revolution in the realm of theory goes
much deeper than the substitution of one math-
ematical construction for another to describe
the motions of the world's great bodies. As
Freud points out, the heliocentric hypothesis
associated with the name of Copernicus was
known to the Alexandrian astronomers of anti-
quity. It is, for example, attributed to Aris-
tarchus by Archimedes in the Sand-Reckoner.
As far as the earth's rotation is concerned,
Ptolemy admits it is quite "plausible" to sup-
pose "the heavens immobile and the earth turn-
ing on the same axis from west to east very
nearly one revolution a day. ... As far as the
appearances of the stars are concerned," he goes
on, "nothing would perhaps keep things from
being in accordance with this simpler con-
jecture."
Why, then, does Ptolemy reject a supposi-
tion which is not only plausible but also, in
accounting for the appearances, simpler^ In part
the answer may be that he does so because the
contrary supposition conforms to our ordinary
sense-experience of the earth's immobility and
the motions of the heavens from east to west.
But that is far from being the most important
part of the answer. Ptolemy indicates the cru-
cial part when he tells us that the otherwise
plausible supposition of a rotating earth be-
comes "altogether absurd" when we consider
the speed and direction of the motions of bodies
within the earth's own atmosphere. His strong-
est count against the supposition is that it does
not conform to the Aristotelian physics which
92
THE GREAT IDEAS
distinguishes between natural and violent mo-
tions, assigns certain fixed directions to the nat-
ural motions of each of the four elements of
matter, and denies that these elementary kinds
of terrestrial matter enter into the composition
of the heavenly bodies.
That Aristotle's physics and cosmology lie at
the very heart of the issue is confirmed by the
way in which Kepler later argues for the Coper-
nican theory against Ptolemy. He does not de-
fend its truth on the ground that it accounts for
observable facts which the Ptolemaic hypoth-
esis cannot handle. Nor does he prefer it merely
because it is mathematically the simpler hy-
pothesis. On the contrary, he specifically notes
that anything which can be claimed on math-
ematical grounds for Copernicus over Ptolemy
can be equally claimed for Tycho Brahe over
Ptolemy. (Brahe's theory was that while the
other planets revolve around the sun, the sun,
with its planets, revolves around a stationary
earth.) According to Kepler, the truth of these
competing theories must finally be judged phys-
ically, not mathematically j and when the ques-
tion is put that way, as it is not by Copernicus
himself, Copernicans like Kepler, Galileo, and
Newton take issue with what had been asso-
ciated with the Ptolemaic theory— the physics
of Aristotle.
IN ORDER TO EXAMINE this issue, it is necessary
to state briefly here certain features of Aris-
totle's physics which are more fully discussed
in the chapters on CHANGE, ELEMENT, ME-
CHANICS, and PHYSICS.
Just as Ptolemy's astronomy conforms to
what we see as we look at the heavens, so Aris-
totle's physics represents a too simple conform-
ity with everyday sense-experience. We observe
fire rising and stones falling. Mix earth, air, and
water in a closed container, and air bubbles will
rise to the top, while the particles of earth will
sink to the bottom. To cover a multitude of
similar observations, Aristotle develops the
theory of the natural motions and places of the
four terrestrial elements— earth, air, fire, and
water. Since bodies move naturally only to at-
tain their proper places, the great body which
is the earth, already at the bottom of all things,
need not move at all. Being in its proper place,
it is by nature stationary.
Two other observations exercise a decisive
influence on Aristotle's theory. The naked eye
sees no type of change in the heavenly bodies
other than local motion or change of place. Un-
like terrestrial bodies, they do not appear to
come into being or perish; they do not change
in size or quality. Furthermore, whereas the
natural local motion of sub-lunary bodies ap-
pears to approximate the path of a straight line,
the local motion of the celestial bodies appears
to be circular rather than rectilinear.
To cover these observations, Aristotle's the-
ory posits a different kind of matter for celestial
and terrestrial bodies. An incorruptible matter
must constitute the great orbs which are sub-
ject to local motion alone and have the most
perfect kind of local motion— that of a circle.
Since they are subject to generation and cor-
ruption, to change of quality and quantity, and
are in local motion along straight lines, terres-
trial bodies are of a corruptible matter.
The interconnection of all these points is
marked by Aquinas when he summarizes Aris-
totle's doctrine. "Plato and all who preceded
Aristotle," he writes, "held that all bodies are
of the nature of the four elements" and con-
sequently "that the matter of all bodies is the
same. But the fact of the incorruptibility of
some bodies was ascribed by Plato, not to the
condition of matter, but to the will of the
artificer, God. . , . This theory," Aquinas con-
tinues, "Aristotle disproves by the natural
movements of bodies. For since he says that
the heavenly bodies have a natural movement,
different from that of the elements, it follows
that they have a different nature from them.
For movement in a circle, which is proper to
the heavenly bodies, is not by contraries, where-
as the movements of the elements are mutually
opposite, one tending upwards, another down-
wards. . . . And as generation and corruption
are from contraries, it follows that, whereas the
elements are corruptible, the heavenly bodies
are incorruptible."
The same points which Aquinas relates in his
defense of the Aristotelian theory, Kepler also
puts together when he expounds that theory in
order to attack it and the Ptolemaic astronomy
which tries to conform to it. "By what argu-
ments did the ancients establish their opinion
which is the opposite of yours?" he asks. "By
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
93
four arguments in especial: (i) From the na-
ture of moveable bodies. (2) From the nature
of the motor virtue. (3) From the nature of the
place in which the movement occurs. (4) From
the perfection of the circle." He then states each
of these arguments, and answers each in turn.
WHAT is EXTRAORDINARY about Kepler's attack
upon the Ptolemaic astronomy cannot be un-
derstood without examining Ptolemy's defense
of his theory, a defense which Copernicus meets
in Ptolemy's own terms rather than, as Kepler
does, by going outside them.
Though his expressed intention was to con-
struct a mathematical theory of the celestial
motions which would also conform to Aris-
totle's physics, Ptolemy, when he finished,
recognized that the complications he had been
compelled to add in order "to save the appear-
ances" left him with a theory that did not con-
form to Aristotle's doctrine of the perfect cir-
cular motion of the heavenly spheres. Instead
of abandoning Aristotle's physics, he defended
his theory on the ground that astronomy, being
mathematical rather than physical, could ad-
mit such "unrealistic" complications if they
served the purposes of calculation and of "sav-
ing the appearances."
In the thirteenth and last book of the Alma-
gest> when he faces the fact that his mathemat-
ical devices have become exceedingly difficult
— and strained from the point of view of the
Aristotelian reality — Ptolemy writes: "Let no
one, seeing the difficulty of our devices, find
troublesome such hypotheses. ... It is proper
to try and fit as far as possible the simpler
hypotheses to the movements of the heavens;
and if this does not succeed, then any hypoth-
eses possible. Once all the appearances are
saved by the consequences of the hypotheses,
why should it seem strange that such compli-
cations can come about in the movements of
heavenly things?" We ought not to judge the
simplicity of heavenly things by comparison
with what seems to be simple in the explanation
of earthly phenomena. "We should instead
judge their simplicity from the unchangeable-
ness of the natures in the heavens and their
movements. For thus they would all appear
simple, more than those things which seem so
here with us."
Ignoring the supposition that simplicity must
be judged differently in different spheres, Co-
pernicus challenges Ptolemy on his own grounds
when he proposes "simpler hypotheses" to fit
"the movements of the heavens." But in doing
so, he seems to adopt the traditional view of the
mathematical character of astronomical hy-
potheses. Yet, as will appear, he does not adopt
this view in the unqualified form in which
Osiander states it in his Preface to the Revolu-
tions of the Heavenly Spheres.
"It is the job of the astronomer," Osiander
writes, "to use painstaking and skilled observa-
tion in gathering together the history of the
celestial movements, and then — since he cannot
by any line of reasoning reach the true causes
of these movements — to think or construct
whatever causes or hypotheses he pleases, such
that, by the assumption of these causes, these
same movements can be calculated from the
principles of geometry, for the past and for the
future too.
"It is not necessary," he adds, "that these
hypotheses should be true, or even probable;
it is enough if they provide a calculus which
fits the observations. When for one and the
same movement varying hypotheses arc pro-
posed, as eccentricity or epicycle for the move-
ment of the sun, the astronomer much prefers
to take the one which is easiest to grasp."
What distinguishes Kepler from both Ptol-
emy and Osiander is the way in which he is
concerned with the truth of alternative hypoth-
eses in astronomy. He looks upon the truth of
an hypothesis as something to be judged not
merely in mathematical terms according to the
adequacy and simplicity of a calculating de-
vice, but to be measured by its conformity to
all the physical realities. At the very beginning
of his Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, he
flatly declares that "astronomy is part of phys-
ics." And in the opening pages of the fourth
book, he insists that astronomy has not one,
but "two ends: to save the appearances and to
contemplate the true form of the edifice of the
World." He follows this immediately by ob-
serving that, if astronomy had only the first
end, Tycho Brahe's theory would be as satis-
factory as that of Copernicus.
Early in his scientific career, before writing
the Epitome, Kepler asserts that "one cannot
94
THE GREAT IDEAS
leave to the astronomer absolute license to feign
no matter what hypotheses." He complains that
astronomers "too often . . . constrain their
thought from exceeding the lirmtsof geometry."
It is necessary to go beyond geometry into
physics to test the consequences of competing
hypotheses which are equally good mathemat-
ically. "You must seek the foundations of your
astronomy," he tells his fellow scientists, "in
a more elevated science, I mean in physics or
metaphysics."
Because Kepler thus conceives the task and
truth of astronomy, Duhem in his great history
of astronomy calls him a "realistic Copernican."
Galileo also, Duhem thinks, was a realistic
Copernican. "To confirm by physics the Co-
pernican hypotheses," he writes, "is the center
towards which converge Galileo's observations
as an astronomer and his terrestrial mechanics."
Newton was the third member of this trium-
virate, For him there remained the solution of
the problem of deducing Kepler's formulation
of the planetary orbits in a manner consistent
with Galileo's laws of motion in the dynamics
of bodies falling on the earth's surface. But the
very posing of this problem itself depended on
the insight that terrestrial and celestial me-
chanics can proceed according to the same prin-
ciples and laws. That insight entailed the com-
plete overthrow of the ancient physics, with its
division of the universe into two distinct parts,
having different kinds of matter and different
laws of motion.
COPERNICUS, WHO, despite Osiander's apolo-
getics, believed his theory to be true, did not
himself face the great point at issue in the
Copernican revolution— the material uniform-
ity of the physical universe. We shall subse-
quently consider the question of the truth of
astronomical hypotheses, but whether or not
Copernicus and the Copernicans had in their
own day a right to believe their theory true,
it was the acceptance of the Copernican hy-
pothesis as true which led Kepler and Galileo
to deny the truth of Aristotelian physics.
If the earth is not at the center and station-
ary, then the basic doctrine of a natural direc-
tion in motion and a natural place of rest for
the various elements is completely upset. If the
earth is one of the planets, then anything true
on the earth—or of the earth, such as Gilbert's
theory of the magnetic fields generated by the
earth's axial rotation— could be equally true oi
all the other planets.
"Read the philosophy of magnetism of the
Englishman William Gilbert," writes Kepler;
"for in that book, although the author did not
believe that the Earth moved . . . nevertheless
he attributes a magnetic nature to it by very
many arguments. Therefore, it is by no means
absurd or incredible that any one of the pri-
mary planets should be, what one of the pri-
mary planets, namely, the Earth, is." Such a
statement plainly shows that when the earth
becomes a planet, as it does in Copernican
theory, no obstacle remains to the assertion oi
a homogeneity between the earth and the othei
planets both in matter and motion. The old
physical dualism of a supralunar and a sublunar
world is abandoned.
"Not the movement of the earth," White-
head remarks, "but the glory of the heavens
was the point at issue," for to assert the heavens
to be of the same stuff and subject to the same
laws as the rest of nature brings them down tc
the plane of earthly physics. That is precisely
what Newton finally does when, in the enun-
ciation of his Third Rule of reasoning in natural
philosophy, he dryly but explicitly completes
the Copernican Revolution. Those "qualities
of bodies . . . which are found to belong to all
bodies within the reach of our experiments,
are," Newton maintains, "to be esteemed the
universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever,"
In the bifurcated world of ancient theory,
astronomy had a very special place among the
natural sciences, proportionate to the "glory
of the heavens." But with Newton it could be
completely merged into a general mechanics
whose laws of motion have universal applica-
ti©n. That merger, begun by Newton, has been
perfected since his day. The last obstacle to the
generalization lay in the apparent discrepancies
between electrical phenomena on the subatomic
scale and gravitational phenomena on the astro-
nomic scale. But in our own time the unified field
equations of Einstein's theory of relativity em-
brace the very large and the very small motions
of matter within a single conceptual scheme,
with radical consequences for the revision oi
the Newtonian or classical mechanics.
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
95
But the unification of nature which Kepler
began and Newton completed, when set against
Aristotle's physics, may be even more radical.
Newton's theory, because of the amazing way
in which it covered the widest variety of phe-
nomena by the simplest, most universal for-
mula, is considered by Kant to have * 'estab-
lished the truth of that which Copernicus at
first assumed only as an hypothesis." But the
larger contribution, in Whitehead's opinion, is
"the idea of the neutrality of situation and the
universality of physical laws . . . holding indif-
ferently in every part."
Whatever position we take today concerning
the kind of truth which is possessed by hypoth-
eses in mathematical physics, we now demand,
in the spirit of the three Copernicans — Kepler,
Galileo, and, above all, Newton— that physical
hypotheses account at once for all the phenom-
ena of the inanimate universe. Whatever the
truth of modern as opposed to ancient physics,
the Newtonian universe is so thoroughly estab-
lished in our minds and feelings that, when we
are reminded of the other universe in which
men lived before the Copermcan revolution,
we tend to think it quaint, incredible, prepos-
terous, superstitious, none of which it was.
Finally, from the point of view of our under-
standing of natural science itself, the astro-
nomical controversy we have been considering
is almost an archetypical model. It is necessary,
of course, to appreciate the real achievement of
Ptolemy as well as of Copernicus and Kepler in
order to realize how genuine and difficult the
issues were. Facts unknown to all of them may
now have closed the dispute decisively, but
issues in other spheres of modern science, almost
identical in pattern with that great astronom-
ical one, are not yet closed; and to the degree
that we are able to re-enact in our minds the
motion of thought on both sides of the Coper-
nican controversy, we can confront comparable
scientific issues — still open — with open minds.
Darwin, for example, finds in the astronomi-
cal controversy a precedent to which he can
appeal in the defense of natural selection against
its adversaries. "The belief in the revolution of
the earth on its own axis," he writes, "was until
lately not supported by any direct evidence."
But the absence of direct evidence does not
leave a scientific theory without foundation,
Darwin argues, if it has the power to explain
several large classes of facts, which "it can
hardly be supposed that a false theory would
explain" in so satisfactory a manner. Darwin
defends the theory of natural selection as having
such power. To those who object that "this is
an unsafe method of arguing," he replies —
citing an example from astronomy — that "it
has often been used by the greatest natural
philosophers."
THE GREAT BOOKS of astronomy most lucidly
exhibit the essential pattern of that kind of nat-
ural science which has, in modern times, come
to be called "mathematical physics." Though
that phrase may be modern, the ancients recog-
nized the special character of the sciences which
apply mathematics to nature and which consult
experience to choose among hypotheses arising
from different mathematical formulations.
Outlining a curriculum for liberal education,
Plato, in the Republic, groups music and astron-
omy along with arithmetic and geometry as
mathematical arts or sciences. In that context
he treats them as pure mathematics. Astronomy
is no more concerned with the visible heavens
than music is with audible tones. Music is
rather the arithmetic of harmonies, astronomy
the geometry of motions. But in the Timaeus
Plato turns mathematical formulae and calcula-
tions to use in telling what he calls "a likely
story" concerning the formation and structure
of the sensible world of becoming. Here rather
than in the Republic we have, according to
Whitehead, the initial conception of mathe-
matical physics as well as deep insight into its
nature and pattern.
Aristotle criticizes the notion of astronomy
as a purely mathematical science. Just as "the
things of which optics and mathematical har-
monies treat" cannot be divorced from the
sensible, so the objects of astronomy are also
the visible heavens. "Astronomical experience,"
Aristotle writes, "supplies the principles of
astronomical science." Yet, though its subject
matter is physical and its method is in part em-
pirical, astronomy like optics and harmonics
takes the form of mathematical demonstration;
and it is for this reason that Aquinas later calls
such disciplines "mixed and intermediate
sciences."
96
THE GREAT IDEAS
The development of astronomy from Plato
and Aristotle through Ptolemy, Copernicus,
and Kepler to Galileo and Newton thus con-
stitutes an extraordinary set of "case histories"
for the study of what J. B. Conant calls the
"tactics and strategy "of science, and especially
mathematical physics. But astronomy has one
peculiar feature which distinguishes it from
other branches of mathematical physics. It is
empirical rather than experimental. The astron-
omer does not control the phenomena he ob-
serves. He does not, like the physicist, chemist,
or physiologist, produce an isolated system of
events by means of the laboratory arts.
Harvey comments on this aspect of astron-
omy when he proposes an experiment that will
enable the physiologist to do what the astron-
omer cannot do, namely, deliberately prepare
phenomena for examination by the senses. The
astronomer must be content with the appear-
ances as they are given. Defending psycho-
analysis against attack "on the ground that it
admits of no experimental proof," Freud points
out that his critics "might have raised the same
objection against astronomy; experimentation
with the heavenly bodies is, after all, exceedingly
difficult. There one has to rely on observation."
Since the invention of the telescope, the
astronomer has had instruments of all sorts to
increase the range and accuracy of his observa-
tions; but the fact that the place where he uses
such apparatus is called an observatory rather
than a laboratory indicates that these instru-
ments do not make astronomy an experimental
science. Nevertheless, as Bacon points out, the
telescope enabled Galileo to do more than im-
prove upon the accuracy of prior observations.
It brought within the range of observation
certain celestial phenomena, hitherto imper-
ceptible to the naked eye, such as the phases of
Venus, the satellites of Jupiter, and the con-
stitution of the Milky Way.
Concerning the last of these, Pascal later re-
marks that the ancients can be excused for the
idea they had of the cause of its color. "The
weakness of their eyes not yet having been
artificially helped, they attributed this color to
the great solidity of this part of the sky"; but it
would be inexcusable for us, he adds, "to retain
the same thought now that, aided by the ad-
vantages of the telescope, we have discovered
in the Milky Way an infinity of small stars whose
more abundant splendor has made us recognize
the real cause of this whiteness."
BECAUSE IT is a mixed science, both empirical
and mathematical, astronomy advances not
only with the improvement and enlargement
of observation, but also with new insights or
developments in mathematics. Kant gives us
striking examples of how the work of the pure
mathematicians contributes to the advance of
physics and astronomy. Their discoveries are
often made without any knowledge of their ap-
plication to natural phenomena. "They inves-
tigated the properties of the parabola," he
writes, "in ignorance of the law of terrestrial
gravitation which would have shown them its
application to the trajectory of heavy bodies.
. . . So again they investigated the properties of
the ellipse without a suspicion that a gravitation
was also discoverable in the celestial bodies, and
without knowing the law that governs it as the
distance from the point of attraction varies, and
that makes the bodies describe this curve in free
motion."
So amazing are such mathematical anticipa-
tions that Kant thinks Plato may be pardoned
for supposing that pure mathematics "could
dispense with all experience" in discovering the
constitution of things. Whether or not Plato
goes to this extreme, he does, in the Republic,
seem to suggest the reverse of Kant's concep-
tion of the relationship between mathematics
and astronomy. "The spangled heavens should
be used as a pattern," he writes, "and with a
view to that higher knowledge"— mathemat-
ics. Astronomy should be used to instigate dis-
coveries in pure mathematics by suggesting good
problems and by requiring formulations which
transcend an interest in the truth about the
heavens.
This twofold relation between mathematical
discovery and empirical observation is pres-
ent in the development of astronomy itself, and
of all branches of mathematical physics. But
there is another aspect of the relationship which
must be taken in to account if we are to consider
the problem of truth in such sciences. The way
in which mathematical formulations fit the
phenomena measures the truth of rival hypoth-
eses with respect to the same reality.
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
97
The logic of such verification has already
been suggested in the discussion of the geo-
centric and heliocentric hypotheses. It is fur-
ther considered in the chapter on HYPOTHESIS.
To be satisfactory, an hypothesis must— in the
language used ever since Simplicius — "save the
appearances," that is, account for the relevant
phenomena. But two hypotheses (as for exam-
pie the geocentric and heliocentric) may, at a
certain time, do an equally good job of saving
the appearances. Then the choice between them
becomes a matter of the greater mathematical
elegance of one than the other.
That, however, does not give the mathe-
matically superior theory a greater claim to
truth. So far as reality is concerned, it is only,
in Plato's words, "a likely story"; or as Aquinas
points out with reference to the geocentric
hypothesis, "the theory of eccentrics and epi-
cycles is considered as established because there-
by the sensible appearances of the heavenly
movements can be explained; not however, as
if this reason were sufficient, since some other
theory might explain them."
Two hypotheses may be equally satisfactory
for the range of phenomena they were both de-
vised to fit. But only one of them may have the
quite amazing virtue of fitting other sets of
observations not originally thought to be re-
lated to the phenomena for which the hypoth-
esis was devised. The word "consilience" has
been used to name the property of an hypoth-
esis which, in addition to saving a limited field
of appearances, succeeds in fitting many other
phenomena which seem to have become related
—to have jumped together under its covering ex-
planation. The heliocentric hypothesis, as de-
veloped by Newton's laws of motion and theory
of gravitation, certainly has this property of
consilience to a high degree, for it covers both
celestial and terrestrial phenomena, and a wide
variety of the latter.
Is the heliocentric hypothesis true then? If
the truth of an hypothesis depends on the range
of the phenomena it fits or saves, it might seem
to be so, for by its consilience it accounts for
phenomena that the Ptolemaic theory cannot
handle. But though this may cause us to reject
the unsuccessful hypothesis, docs it establish
beyond doubt the truth of the successful one ?
Or, to put the question another way, is not our
judgment here a comparative one rather than
absolute? Are we saying more than that one
hypothesis is more successful than another in
doing what an hypothesis should do? Are we
logically entitled to regard that success as the
sign of its exclusive truth, or must we restrict
ourselves to the more modest statement that,
as the better hypothesis, it simply tells a more
likely story about reality?
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The end, dignity, and utility of astronomy
2. The method of astronomy
2a. Observation and measurement: instruments and tables
2b. The use of hypotheses: the heliocentric and geocentric theories
2C. The relation of astronomy to mathematics: the use of mathematics by astronomy
3. Causes in astronomy
30. Formal archetypal causes: the number and the music of the spheres
3#. Physical efficient causes: gravitation and action-at-a-distance
4. The relation of astronomy to the other liberal arts and sciences: the place of astronomy
in the educational curriculum
5. Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the world or universe as reflecting astronomi-
cal conceptions
PACB
99
100
101
98 THE GREAT IDEAS
PAGE
6. Astronomy and theology: astronomy as affecting views of God, creation, the divine
plan, and the moral hierarchy 102
7. Astronomy and the measurement of time: calendars and clocks; days and seasons
8. The heavenly bodies in general 103
Sa. The special character of matter in the supra-lunar spheres
8£. Soul and intellect in the heavenly bodies
Sc. Celestial motion: periodicity and the great year 104
(r) The eternity of celestial motion
(2) The form of celestial motion: circles, the equant, ellipses
(3) The laws of celestial motion: celestial mechanics 105
8d. The creation of the heavens
9. The particular heavenly bodies
ga. The sun: its position, distance, size, and mass
gb. The moon: its irregularities 106
gc. The planets: their eccentricities, retrogradations, and stations
gd. The earth: its origin, position, shape, and motions
ge. The fixed stars: the precession of the equinoxes 107
o/. The comets and meteors
10. The influence of the heavenly bodies upon terrestrial phenomena
100. The influence of the heavenly bodies on living matter: generation and corrup-
tion 108
io£. The influence of the heavenly bodies on the tides
11. The influence of the stars and planets upon the character and actions of men
12. The worship of the earth, sun, moon, and stars 109
13. The history of astronomy
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
99
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, m4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS . When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, m 7 PLATO. Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7 45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS- The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The end, dignity, and utility of astronomy
OLD TESTAMENT:^, 38:4-38
7 PLATO: Symposium, 156d / Gorgias, 254c /
Republic, BK vn, 394d-396b/ Timaeus, 447a-
452b; 455b-c / Laws, BK vn, 728b-c; 729d-
730d; BK xn, 797c-798b
8 ARISTOILE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982bn-
17] SOOd; BK xi, CH 6 [1063*10-17] 591b, BK
xu, CH 8 [107^1-7] 603d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[644b2i-645a5] 168c-d
10 HIPPOCRATFS- Airs, Waters, Places, par 2
9b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812b-813a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [509-771]
67d-71a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 27 306b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [847-853] 233b-234a
14 PLUTARCH: Ntcias, 435b-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6b; BK in, 83a;
BK iv, 135b; BK ix, 270b-273a; BK xin,429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a; 509a-b; BK i, 510a-511a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 846a-851a; 852a-
853a; 888b-890a; 929a-b; BK v, 961a-965a /
Harmonies of the World, 1080a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 29 650d-651c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedv, PARADISE, n [46-148]
108b-109b; x [i -27] 120b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-70c; 213d-215a;
257d-259d
31 DESCARTES* Meditations, i, 76c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vni [1-202] 232a-
236b
33 PASCAL Pensees, 72 181a-184b; 242 217b-218a
34 NEWTON- Principles, la-2a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 94b-103a passim
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229a
41 GIBBON? Decline and Fall, 299b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 175b [fn i] / Practical
Reason, 360d-361c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 120,
136c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 365b-367a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562c / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 779c / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 832a; 876b-d
2. The method of astronomy
2a. Observation and measurement:
ments and tables
instru-
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VH, 394d-396b/ Timaeus,
100
THE GREAT IDEAS
2bto2c
(2. The method of astronomy . 2a, Observation and
measurement: instruments and tables)
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30
(46*18-27] 64a / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
(78b3 1-79*7] 108b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 3
[270^1-24] 361c-362a; BK 11, CH 4 [287a3i-bi4J
379a; CH n 383b; CH 12 [292*2-9] 383c /
Metaphysics, BK XH, CH 8 [io73bi7-ic>74ai7]
604a*c
9 ARISTOTLE: Pans of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639*7-12] 161c-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 24b-26a; BK i-m,
29a-86b; BK in-iv, 93a-119b; BK iv-vm,
123a-269a; BK ix, 273a-290b; BK ix-xin,
296a-465b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK ii-iu, 557b-626a; BK HI, 631b-
652b; 657b-674b; BK iv-v, 680a-739b; BK v,
744b-812a; BK vi, 818a-838a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 907b-908b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 29, 651b-c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-105]
108b-d
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,582-605] 360b
23 HOB BBS; Leviathan, PART iv, 267a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua andPantagruel, BK i,29c
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 320b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 109,
129b; BK n, APH 39, 170b-c; APH 45, 176a;
APH 46, 178a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [284-291] 99 b;
BK in [588-590] 148a; BK v [261-263] 181a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, PHENOMENA 272a-
275a; PROP 41-42 342e-368b / Optics, BK i,
412a-423b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 58-59
424a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 102a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 299b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 365b-367a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 81 5a
2b. The use of hypotheses: the heliocentric and
geocentric theories
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241c-242b; 247c / Republic,
BK vi, 386d-387d; BK vn, 395c-396b; BK x,
438c-439a/ Timaeus, 447b-d; 452a-b / Laws,
BK xn, 797d-798a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270bi-24)
361c-362a; BK n, CH i 375b,d-376a; CH 8
381a-382a; CH n [29ibio]-CH 13 [293b33]
383b-385b; CH 14 [296*24-297*9] 387d>388c /
Meteorology, BK i, CH 7 [344*5-9] 450b /
Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 8 [1073*17-1074*17]
604a<c
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 3 234a-c
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [526-533]
67d-68a; [720-730] 70c
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompihus, 55a-b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 7a-8b; 9a-12b; BK
in, 83a; 86b-93a; BK iv, 120a-122b; BK ix,
270b-273a; 291a-296a; BK xm, 429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a; 507a-508b; BK i, 513b-
515b; 517b-521a; BK in, 628b-629a; 653b-
656b; BK iv, 675b-678a; BK v, 740a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 852a-853a; 857b-
860b; 887a-890a; 907b-916a; BK v, 964b;
966a-967a / Harmonies of the World, 1014b-
1016a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 257d-261c; 276c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 107c-116a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 5, 139a;
APH 36, 165c-166b; APH 46, 178b-c; APH 48,
186b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [552-587] 147b-
148a; BK iv [589-597] 165a-b; BK vm [66-178]
233b-236a esp [122-158] 234b-235b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 165a / Vacuum,
368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, PHENOMENON in
273d-274a; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 226b-227a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
43 MILL: Liberty, 284a-b
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 239c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 563a-b;
EPILOGUE n, 694d-696d
2c. The relation of astronomy to mathematics:
the use of mathematics by astronomy
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vn, 394d-396b /
Tmaeus, 451b-c;455b
8 ARISTOTLE' Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[78^1-79*16] 108b-c / Physics, BK n, CH 2
1*93 25-194*11] 270a-c / Heavens, BK n, CH 14
[297*3-9] 388c / Metaphysics, BK HI, CH 2
[997bi3-998ai9] 516b-d; BK xn, CH 8 [io73bi-
17] 603d-604a; BK xm, CH 3 [1078*9-14] 609c
9 ARISTOTLE: Pans of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639b6-i2] 161c-d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 813d-814a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; 14a-24b;
26a-28b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 507a-508a; BK i, 510a-b; 532b-
556b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK v, 964b-965a; 968a-
986b passim
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions^ BK v, par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 29, 651b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a; PART I-H, Q 35, A 8,
ANS 779c-780c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART IX-H* Q 9,
A 2, REP 3 424b-425a
3 to 5
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
101
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 37 b; 46b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, i, 76c
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-2a; BK in 269a~372a
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART in, 94b-103a passim
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 361c / Judgement,
551a-552a
3. Causes in astronomy
3<*. Formal archetypal causes: the number and
the music of the spheres
7 PLATO. Phaedo, 241b-242b / Republic, BK VH,
395d-396b; BK x, 438c-439a / Ttmaeus, 447a-
452b
8 ARISTOTLE' Heavens, BK i, CH 2-5 359d-364a;
BK n, CH 1-12 375b,d-384c / Metaphysics, BK
i, CH 5 [985b22-986B2i] 503d-504b; en 8
[989b29-99oai2] 508a-b, BK xii, CH 8 603b-
605a
11 NICOMACHUS- Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-814b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 8a; BK ix, 270b
16 COPFRNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
SpJieres, BK i, 511b
16 KhPLFR: Epitome, BK iv, 846a-847b, 857b-
860b, 863b-887a passim, 913a-b, 915b-916a;
925b-928a; 932a-933a / Harmonies of the
World, 1016b-1018a; 1023b-1085b esp 1049b-
1050b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-28c
21 D\NTE Divine Comedy, P\RADISE, i [76-126]
107a-c, xxvin [1-78] 148d-149c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48,
185c-d
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371d-372a
32 MILTON. Chnsts Nativity [117-140] 4b-5a / At
a Solemn Musu^ 13a-b / Arcades [54-83] 26b-
27a / Comus [238-243] 38b / Paradise Lost,
BK iv [660-688] 166b-167b; BK v [153-184]
178b-179a; [616-627] 188b-189a, BK vin [15-
168] 232b-235b
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9,
454c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 96b-97a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-246] 7a
3b. Physical efficient causes: gravitation and
action- a t-a-di stance
8 ARISTOTLE- Heavens, BK 11, CH 8 381a 382a;
CH 12 [292b26-293*i2] 384b-c / Meteorology,
BK i, CH 4-8 447d-452d / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 8 603b-605a csp [io73bi7-io74*i7] 604a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [509-533]
67d-68a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 895b-905a; 922a-b;
935a-952a passim; 959a-960a; BK v, 965a-967a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi 106a 121a,c
30 BACON: Novum Oiganum, BK n, APH 35-37
162a-169c; APH 45 176a-177c; APH 48, 183b~c
31 DESCARTES : Rules, ix, 15c / Discourse, PART v,
55b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [573-587] 148a;
BK vin [122-158] 234b-235b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, PROP 1-9 276a-
284a esp PROP 7 281b-282b; PROP 35, SCHOL
320b-324a; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a /
Optics, BK in, 531b; 540a-541b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 102-108
432d 434a passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9,
454c-d
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART in, 94b-103a; 118b-
119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
45 FARADAY Researches in Electricity, 670a-673d;
817a-b; 824a-b, 832b [fn i]
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 694c-
695c
4. The relation of astronomy to the other liberal
arts and sciences: the place of astronomy
in the educational curriculum
7 PLATO- Gorgias, 254b-c / Republic, BK vn,
391b-398c csp 394d-396b / Laws, BK vn,
728b-730d; BK xn, 797b-798b
8 ARISTOTLE. Physus, BK n, CH 2 [i93b25~
194*11] 270a-c / Metaphysics, BK xi, CH 6
[io63aio-i7] 591b; BK xn, CH 8 [io73bi-7]
603d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812b-813d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [847-853] 233b-234a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 29,
651b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q 9,
A 2, REP 3 424b-425a
23 HOBBES- leviathan, PART i, 72a-d
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
29c, BK 11, 82c-d
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 69d-70c; 257d-259d
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK i, APH 80 120a-b
31 DESCARIES Meditations, i, 76c
5. Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the
world or universe as reflecting astro-
nomical conceptions
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 447a-452b; 455a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 5 [2i2b7~2i]
291d-292a / Heavens 359a-405a,c / Meteor-
ology, BK i, CH 1-3 445a-447d / Metaphysics,
BK xii, CH 8 603b-605a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand- Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [951-1113]
12d<14d; BK n [1048-1104] 28b-29a; BK vi
[647-652] 89a
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 55a-b
16 PTOLEMY. Almagest, BK i, lOb
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, Sllb; 516a-529a esp 5l6a-517b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 853b-857b; 882a-
886b
102
THE GREAT IDEAS
6/0 7
(5. Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the
world or universe as reflecting astronomical
conceptions.)
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i 35a-39d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [7-21]
120b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213d<215a
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART v, 54d 56a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [890-920] 130b-
13U; (1010-1055) 133a-134a; BK in [418-429]
144b; [501-539! 146b-147a; [552-587] 147b-
148a; BK vn [261-273] 222b-223a; [551-557]
229a; [617-625] 230b; BK vm [66-178] 233b-
236a; BK x [282-329] 280b-281b
33 PASCAL: Pensets, 72 181a-184b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK HI, HYPOTHESIS i-
PROP 12 285a-286a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 360d-361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE 11,
695c-d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562c
6. Astronomy and theology: astronomy as
affecting views of God, creation, the
divine plan, and the moral hierarchy
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, i .1-19 / Joshua, 10.12-
i$—(D)]osuc, 10:12-13 /Job, 9:6-9; 38:1-38
/ Psalms, 19:1-6; 147:4— (D) Psalms, 18:1-7;
146:4 /Jeremiah, 33:22; 51:15— (D) Jeremias,
33:22; 51.15
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43— (D) OT, Ecclesi-
asticus, 43 / Song of Three Children, 34-51 —
(D) OT, Daniel, r56-n
NEW TESTAMENT* / Corinthians, 15:40-41
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vn, 396a / Timaeus,
455b-c / Statesman, 586c-589c / Laws, BK vu,
729d-730d; BK XH, 797d-798b
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK H, CH 4 [i96m25~b4]
272d-273a; BK vin 334a-355d esp CH 4-6
338d-346b, CH 10 353b-355d / Heavens, BK
n, CH i 375b,d-376a / Metaphysics, BK XH,
CH 6-8 601b-605a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-814b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [55-771]
61d-71a esp [55-234] 61d-64a; [1161-1217]
76b-77a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 27 306b
14 PLUTARCH: Nicias, 435b-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 295c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6b passim
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-511a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 853b-854a; 915b-
916a; 933a / Harmonies of the World, 1017b-
1018a; 1025a-b; 1048a; 1061a; 1071b; 1080b-
1085b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR n, CH i 40a-
41a; TR ix, CH 8-9 70a-72a / Fourth Ennead,
TR HI, CH 17 150d-151b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-
28c; BK xiii, par 6-48 112a-124a / Christian
Doctrine, BK H, CH 16, 644d-645a; CH 29
650d-651c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23,
A 7, ANS and REP 2 138d-140a; Q 50, A 3, ANS
and REP 3 272a-273b; Q 58, A i 300c-301a;
Q 63, A i, REP 2 325c-326c; A 7, ANS 331c-332b;
QQ 66-68 343d-359b; Q 70 362c-367a; Q 102,
A 2, REP i 525a-526a; Q no, A i, REP 2-3
564c-565d; Q 115, AA 3-6 588c-592d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 5,
A 2 736d-737c; PART in SUPPL, Q 77, AA 1-3
943a-947a; Q 91, AA 2-3 1017c-1022c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [67-96]
lOb-c; xxxiv [100-139] 52b-d; PARADISE, i
[94-142] 107b-d; ii [46-148] 108b-109b; iv
[22-63] HOd-lllb; vm [16-39] 116d-117a;
[91-148] 117d-118c; x [1-45] 120b-d; xm [52-
84] 126a-b; xxn [124-154] 140d-141b; xxvn
[97-120] 148b-c; xxvni 148d-150b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213d-215a
27 SHAKESPEARE- Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [85-101] 109a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 89 124a-d
31 DESCARTES. Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK in [694-732] 150b-
151b; BK v [153-184] 178b-179a; BK vin
[66-178] 233b-236a esp [66-84] 233b-234a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72 181a-184b; 194, 207b,
242 217b-218a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-371a / Optics, BK in, 542a-543a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 226a-b; 227b-c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 360d-361a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-266] 7a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239c-d
51 TOLSTOY* War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 695d-
696d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562c / New In-
troductory Lectures, 832a, 876b-d
7. Astronomy and the measurement of time:
calendars and clocks; days and seasons
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1.4-5,14-18 / Isaiah,
38:7-8; 60:19-21— (D) Isaias, 38:7-8; 60:19-
21 /Jeremiah, 33:20,25— (D) Jeremias, 33:20,
25
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43:6-8— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43:6-8
NEW TESTAMENT: Revelation, 21:23-24; 22:5—
(D) Apocalypse, 21:23-24; 22:5
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [454-461]
44c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [607-626] 496a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 49d-50a; 79c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK v, 487d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vn,394d-396b/ Timaeus,
451a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 14 [223bi2-
224*1] 303c-d / Metaphysics, BK x, CH i
2] 579b-c
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
103
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK iv, CH
10 [777bi6~778a9] 319d-320a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [614-750]
69a-70d
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 58d-59c / Solon,
74a / Caesar, 599d-600a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK n, 34b-38a; BK HI,
77a-86b; 104b-107a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, SlOb; BK n, 568a-576a; BK in,
646a-652b; 672a-674b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR VH, CH 7-8 122d-
124c; CH 11-13 126a-129a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 29-30
95d-96c / City of God, BK xi, CH 6 325c-d;
BK xn, CH 15 351b-352d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 6, ANS 45c-46d; Q 67, A 4, ANS and REP 2-3
352a-354a; Q 70, A 2, ANS and REP 3,5 364b-
365a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b; Q 91, A 2, REP 1-3,
5,8 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i [37-45] Ib-c;
PURGATORY, i [13-21] 53a-b; n [1-9] 54c; iv
[55-84] 58a-b; ix [1-12] 65d-66a; xv [1-15]
75b-c; xxv [1-9] 91b-c; xxvn [1-6] 94c; PARA-
DISE, i [38-48] 106c; x [28-33] 120c; xxv«
[97-120] 148b-c
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART iv, 267b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK 11,
69b,d-70a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 497b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 46,
177c-178b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [40-44] 136b;
[555-623] 147b-149a; [726-732] 151a; BK v
[166-179] 179a; BK vni [66-84] 233b-234a;
BK x [651-679] 288b-289a
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 9b-
lOa; BK in, PROP 20 291b-294b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 17-31 158a-162a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 169a
36 STERNE: Tnstram Shandy, 229a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 376a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 219a-b;
251a-b
8. The heavenly bodies in general
8a. The special character of matter in the
supra-lunar spheres
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 15:40-41
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 247b-248c / Timaeus, 448a-
449c; 451d-452a / Laws, BK XH, 797d-798a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [27oai2-b26]
361b-362a; BK i, CH 9 [279*i2]-BK 11, CH i
[284b6) 370b-376a; BK n, CH 7 380c-d / Meta-
physics, BK vni, CH 4 [i<>44b2-8] 569a-b; BK ix,
CH 8 [i<>50b6-27] 576b-d; BK XI,CH 6 [io63*io-
17] 591b; BK xn, CH a [1069^4*27] 598d-599a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[644b2i-645a5] 168c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [418-448]
6b-c; [1052-1094] 14a-c; BK v [534-563]
68a-b
16 PTOLEMY- Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; 8b; lOb-llb;
BK xin, 429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517b-518a; 519b-520a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 853b-857b; 888b-
890b; 894a-b; 904b-905a; 919b; 929b-930b;
931b-932a;934b-935b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i 35a-39d /
Third Ennead, TR v, CH 6 103b-104a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 5, ANS 44b-45c; A 6, REP 2 45c-46d; Q 46,
A i, REP 2-3,5 250a-252d; Q 55, A 2, ANS
289d-290d; Q 58, A i, ANS 300c-301a; A 3,
ANS 301d-302d; Q 63, A i, REP 2 325c-326c;
Q 66, A 2 345d-347b; Q 68, A i, ANS 354a-355c;
Q 70, A 3, ANS and REP 2 365b-367a; Q 75, A 6,
ANS 383c-384c; Q 84, A 3, REP i 443d-444d;
Q 97, A i, ANS 513c-514c; Q 104, A i, REP 1,3
534c-536c; Q 115, A 3, ANS 588c-589c; Q 119,
Ai,ANs604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; PART in, Q 5, A 2, ANS and REP
3 736d-737c; PART in SUPPL, Q 91, A 3, REP 3
1020d-1022c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [28-
30] 56a; PARADISE, n [19-45] 108a; [112-148]
109a-b; xxvin [1-78] 148d-149c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213d-215a; 257d-258b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, HOb-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 13, 146c-
147a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE in 270b-
271a; PROP 1-7 276a-282b esp PROP 7 281b-
282b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226b
8b» Soul and intellect in the heavenly bodies
7 PLATO Phaedrus, 124c-d/^/>o/o^,204d-205a
/ Timaeus, 449b-450c; 451d-452b / Philebus,
618b-619c / Laws, BK x, 762b-765c csp 764a-
765c; BK xn, 797c-798b
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK n, CH 1-2 375b,d-
377c; CH 12 383b-384c / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 8 603b-605a / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [406^6-
407bi3] 636b-637b
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK v [76-90)
62a-b; [110-145] 62c-63a
13 VIRGIL: Aenetd, BK vi [724-738] 230b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 854b-856a; 890a-
895b; 896a-897a; 914a-b; 930 b; 932a-933a;
959a-960a / Harmonies of the World, 1080b-
1085b esp 1083b-1085b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR H-III 40a-50a /
Third Ennead, TR n, CH 3, 84b; TR iv, CH 6,
99d; TR v, CH 6 103b-104a / Fourth Ennead,
TR ivr CH 6-8 161b-162d; CH 22-27 168d-172a;
104
THE GREAT IDEAS
(8. The heavenly bodies in general. 8b. Soul and
intellect in the heavenly bodies.)
CH 30 174b-c; en 35, 177c; CH 42 180d-181b;
TR VIII, CH 2, 202a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vn, CH 6 248a-b
19 AQUINAS: Sumtna Theologica, PART r, Q 18,
A i, REP 1 104c-105c, Q 47, A i, ANS 256a-257b;
Q 50, A 3 272a-273b; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-
278c; Q 52, A 2 279b-280a; Q 66, A 2, ANS
345d-347b; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q no, A i,
REP 2-3 564c-565d; A 3, ANS 566d-567b; Q
115, A 4, REP i 589d-590c; Q 117, A 4, REP i
599b-d; PART i-n, Q 6, A 5, REP 2 648b-649a
20 AQUINAS- Sumtna Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 79, A i, ANS 951b-953b; Q 91, A 2, REP 10
1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [67-96]
lOb-c; PARADISE, i [103-126] 107b-c, n [112-
138] 109a; vni [16-39] 116d-117a, [97-114]
118a, xin [52-72] 126a, XXVIH 148d-150b,
xxix [37-45] 150c
25 MONIAIGNE. Essays, 213d-215a
28 GILBERT' Loadstone, BK n, 38b; BK v, 104b-
105d
33 PASCAL: Pens^es, 482 258a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-270] 7a-b
Sc. Celestial motion: periodicity and the great
year
7 PLATO Republic, BK x, 438c-439a / Ttmaetts,
451a-452b / Statesman, 586c-587b / Laws, BK
vn, 730a-c
SARisroiLh- Heavens, BK i-n 359a-389d /
Metaphysics, BK XH, CH 8 603b-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motwn of Animals, CH 3 [699*11]-
CH 4 [700*5] 234a-235a
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK v [509-533]
67d-68a, [614-6 19] 69a-c
12 AURELIUS* Meditations, BK vi, SFCT 13 271b;
BK xi, SECT 27 306b
16 PTOLFMY: Almagest, BK i, 7a-8b; 12b-14a; BK
iv, 109a-112b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 513b-514b
16 KEPLER Epitome, BK iv, 928a-933a
17 PLOTINUS- Second Ennead, TR n, CH i 40a-41a
/ Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 8, 162 b-d
18 AUGUSTINF • Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 29, 65lb-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a; Q 115, A 3, ANS 588c-
589c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 392d-393c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
148] 109a-b; xxvn [97-120] 148b-c; xxvm
[1-78] 148d-149c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, HOb-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 46, 177d;
APH 48, 185c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [726-732] 151a;
BK vn [339-386] 224b-225b
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK 11, PROP 53, SCHOL
266a-267a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 19-22 158b-159d passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 779c
8c(l) The eternity of celestial motion
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447b-c; 450b-451a; 460c-d
8 ARisroTLE'P^/a,BKVin,cH i-2 334a-337b;
CH 8-9 348b-353b / Heavens, BK i, CH 2
[269b2-io] 360c-d; CH 3 [27obi7~26] 361d-
362a; CH 9 [279*i2-b4] 370b-d; BK n, CH i
375b,d-376a; CH 6 379c-380c / Metaphysics,
BK ix, CH 8 [io5ob20-27] 576c-d, BK xu, CH 7
[1073*3-10] 603a-b; CH 8 [1073*26-38] 603c
12 LUCRETIUS* Nature of Things, BK v [55-70]
61d-62a; [110-125] 62c-d; [235-246] 64a-b,
[351-379] 65c-66a; [1209-1217] 76d-77a; BK
vi [601-607] 88b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ix, SECT 28 293d-
294a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK xm, 429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 846a-848b; 888b-
891a
17 PLOIINUS Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 3-5, 67b-
68b; CH 7-8 69c-70d / Third Ennead, TR vn,
CH 7-8 122d-124c; CH 11-13 126a-129a /
Fourth Ennead, TR iv, en 7-8 161d-162d
19 AQUIN\S Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 2, RIP 2 41d-42c; A 4, ANS 43b-44b; A 5,
ANS 44b-45c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b, Q 91, A 2 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [73-81]
107a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 35,
163a-b
34 NhwioN: Principles, BK HI, PROP 10 284a-
285a / Optics, BK in, 540a-541b
36 SWIPT: Gulliver, PART HI, 98a-b
8c(2) The form of celestial motion: circles, the
equant, ellipses
7 PLATO Republic, BK vn, 394d-396b; BK x,
438c-439a / Timaeus, 451a-452b / Laws, BK
vn, 730a-d
8 ARISTOTLE : Physics, BK vm, CH 8-9 348b-353b
/ Heavens, BK i, CH 2-5 359d-364a; BK n, CH 4
[287*2-31] 378c-379a; CH 5 379b-c; CH 8 381a-
382a; CH 12 [293*4-14] 384c/ Metaphysics, BK
xu, CH 6 [io7i^32]-CH 7 [1072*22] 601d-602b;
CH 8 [1073^*17-1074*14] 604a-c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 7a-8b; BK in, 83a;
86b; BK v, 148b-157a; BK ix, 270b; 291a-296a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 507a-508a; BK i, 513b-514b; BK in,
628b-629a; BK iv, 675b-678a esp 677b~678a;
BK v, 740a-b; 784b-785b
8<r(3) to 9a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b-893b; 929a-
933a; BK v, 968a-979b esp 975a-977b; 984b-
985b / Harmonies of the World, 1018a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 8 39c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 66,
A 2, ANS 345d-347b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, HOb-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48,
186b-d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK v [616-627] 188b-
189 a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72, 181a
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK i, PROP n 42b-43b;
PROP 17 48b-50a
8c(3) The laws of celestial motion: celestial
mechanics
16 KEPLER- Epitome, BK iv, 888a-895b passim,
897a-907a passim, esp 897a, 904b-905a; 933a-
952a passim; BK v, 975a-979b / Harmonies of
the World, 1018a-b; 1019b-1020b
34 NEWTON- Principles, BK i, PROP 1-3 and SCHOL
32b-35b; PROP 4, COROL vi 36a; PROP 11-13
42b-46a esp PROP n 42b-43b; PROP 15 46b-
47a; PROP 17 48b-50a; BK n, PROP 51-53 and
SCHOL 259a-267a, BK in 269a-372a passim, esp
RULE i-in 270a-271a, PHENOMENON I-PROP 7
272a-282b, PROP 13 286a-b, PROP 35, SCHOL
320b-324a, PROP 40 337b-338a, GENERAL
SCHOL, 369a, 371b-372a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9,
454c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xni, 563b;
EPILOGUE ii, 694d-695c
8d. The creation of the heavens
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:1-8,14-19; 2-1-4 /
Nehemiah, 9:6— (D) // Esdras, 9:6 /Job, 26*7;
37:18; 38 / Psalms, 8:3-4; r9:i» 89:11; 102:25;
136:5-9; 148:1-6— (D) Psalms, 8:4-5; 18-2;
88:121101:26; 135:5-9; i $\i-6/ Proverbs, y 19',
8:27 / Jeremtah, 31:35; 51:15— (D) Jeremtas,
31:35; 51:15 / Amos, 5:8
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 14:15; 17:24— (D) Acts,
14:14; 17:24 / Hebrews, 1:10 / // Peter, 3:5 /
Revelation, 14:7— -(D) Apocalypse, 14:7
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 450c-452b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vin, CH i [25ibi3-i9J
335b / Heavens, BK i, CH 10-12 370d-375d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[64^13-29] 164c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [416-508]
66c-67c; [1204-1213] 76d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 4-11
90a-92b; BK xn, par 2-9 99c-101c; par 14-40
102b-110a*, BK XIH, par 6-48 112a-124a / City
of God, BK xi, CH 7 326a-c; CH 9 326d-327d;
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
105
CH 19-21 332b-333d; CH 23 334c-335c; BK
xn, CH 15 351b-352d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 46,
A i, REP 2-3,5 250a-252d; A 3, ANS and REP i
255a-d; Q 66, A i, ANS and REP to CONTRARY
343d-345c; A 3 347b-348d; A 4, ANS and REP 5
348d-349d; Q 67, A 4 352a-354a; Q 68, A i
354a-355c; Q 70, A A 1-2 362c-365a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [73-81] lOb;
PARADISE, vii [121-148] 116b-c; x [1-6] 120b;
xxix [13-45] 150b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 214d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54b-56a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [708-735] 150b-
151b; BK vn [192-386] 221b-225b; BK vm
[15-178] 232b-236a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 542a-543a
9. The particular heavenly bodies
9a. The sun: its position, distance, size, and mass
OLD TESTAMENT- Joshua, 10:12-14— (D) Josuc,
10:12-14 / Psalms, 136:7-8— (D) Psalms,
135:7-8 / Isaiah, 13:9-11; 30:26; 60:19-20 —
(D) Isaias, 13:9-11; 30:26; 60:19-20 / Joel,
2:10,31; 3-15 / Amos, 8:9
APOCRYPHA- Ecclesiasticus, 43:1-5— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43:1-5
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:29-30 / MarJ^
13:24-25/1^,23:44-45
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 53d-54b; 79c;
BK iv, 130d-l3la
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 394c
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 98a / Apology, 204d-205a /
Republic, BK vi, 385c-386c / Timaeus, 451b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK n, CH 7 [289*26-35]
380d; CH 12 [29ib29~292b27]383c-384b; CH 13
[293^4-294*12] 385c / Meteorology, BK i, CH 8
[345bi-9] 451c-d
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [564-574]
68b-c; [592-704] 68d-70b; [751-771] 70d-71a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 138d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK in 77a-107a; BK v,
171b-182b; BK vi, 215a-222b
16 COPERNICUS : Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 520b-529a; BK in, 646a-674b;
BK iv, 710b-714a; 716a-731a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 854b-856a; 857b-
860b; 873a-876a; 882a-883b; 885b-886b;
895b-905a; 907b-916a passim / Harmonies of
the World, 1014b-1016a; 1080b-1085b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK in, CH 15, 176d-
177a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 70, A i,
REP 5 362c-364b; Q 119, A r, ANS 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SXTPPL,
Q 91, A i, REP i 1016b-1017c; A 2 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, iv [55-
84] 58a-b; PARADISE, i {38-63] 106c-d; x
[1-48] 120b*d
106
THE GREAT IDEAS
to 9d
(9. The particular heavenly bodies. 9a. The sun:
it$ position, distance, size, and mass.)
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 257d-258b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 112d-113a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36,
165c-166b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a pas-
sim / Objections and Replies, 231a; 233c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [555-623] 147b-
149a; BK iv [539-543] 164a; BK vn [354-373]
224b 225a; BK vm [66-168] 233b-235b
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 72, 181a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 66 118a-128b;
BK in, PHENOMENON in 273d-274a; PROP 2
276a-b; HYPOTHESIS I-PROP 12 285a-286a;
PROP 25 299b-300b; PROP 36 324a-b; PROP 40
337b-338a / Optics, BK in, 518a-b
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART HI, 98a-b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 819d
9b, The moon: its irregularities
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:14-18 / Psalms,
1367-9— (D) Psalms, 1357-9 / Isaiah, iv9-
n; 30:26; 60:19-20— (D) Isaias, 13-9-11;
30-26; 60: 1 9-20 /Joel, 2-10,31; 3:15
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43.6-8— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43*6-9
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:29-30 / Mar\,
13.24-25
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 98a-b/ Apology, 204d-205a
/ Timaeus, 451b-d
8 ARISIOFLE: Heavens, BK n, CH n [29ibi8-23]
383b; en 12 [29ib29~292b27] 383c-384b; CH 14
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK v [471-479]
67b; [575-584] 68c; [629-649] 69b-c; [705-
771] 70b-71a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74a / Aemilius Paulus,
220d-221b / Ntctas, 435b-d / Dion, 789b-
790a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK iv-vi 108a-222b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK iv 675a-731a
16 KEPLLR: Epitome, BK iv, 876a-878a; 918a-
928a; 952a-960a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR in, CH 5, 43d-
44a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 70,
A i, REP 5 362c-364b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-148]
108b-109b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
188c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT n, sc n
[107-110] 295b / Midsummer-Night's Dream,
ACT ii, sc i [103-114] 357a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36,
167a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n (662-666] 125b;
BK in [708-735] 150b-151b; BK v [257-266]
180b-181a; BK vn [346-386] 224b-225b; BK
VHI [122-158] 234b-235b / Samson Agonistes
[86-89] 341b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 164a / Pensees, 18
174b-175a; 817, 330b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 43-45 92b-
lOla; PROP 66 118a-128b; BK HI, PHENOMENON
vi 275a, PROP 3-4 and SCHOL 276b-278b;
PROP 22-38 294b-329a
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 554b-555a
9c. The planets: their eccentricities, retrogra-
dations, and stations
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 438c-439a / Timaeus,
451a-d
8 ARISTOTLE- Heavens, BK 11, CH 2 [285^8-33]
377b-c; CH 7-12 380c-384c / Metaphysics, BK
xii, CH 8 603b-605a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK ix-xin 270a-465b
16 COPERNICUS- Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 521b-529a; BK v-vi 732a-838a
16 KFPLLR: Epitome, BK iv, 860b 872b, 878b-
88 2a; 888b-905a; 907b-910a; 928a-952a pas-
sim; BK v 961a-1004a / Harmonies of the
World, 1015b-1080b
17 PLOHNUS: Second Ennead, TR HI, CH 5, 44a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-148]
108b-109b; x [1-27] 120b-c; xxn [124-154]
140d-141b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
29c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36,
165c-166b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a pas-
sim
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [481-483] 146a;
[573-587] 148a; BK v [166-170] 179a; [618-627]
188b-189a; BK vn [557-564] 229a-b; BK vm
[122-152] 234b-235b; BK ix [48-51] 248b; BK
x [657-661] 288b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 1-3 and
SCHOL 32b-35b; PROP 4, COROL vi 36a; PROP
ii 42b-43b; PROP 15 46b-47a; PROP 17 48b-
50a; PROP 57-63 lllb 115a; PROP 65-69
116b-130b; BK HI, PHENOMENON i-v 272a-
275a; PROP 1-2 276a-b; PROP 5-6 278b-
281 b; PROP 8-10 282b-285a; PROP 13-19 286a-
291b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 556a-557b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 102a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 227a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 171b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 632b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peacc> BK xin, 563b
9</. The earth: its origin, position, shape, and
motions
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:1-10 I Job, 38:4-7 /
Psalms, 90:2; 102:25; 119:90— (D) Psalms,
89:2; 101 :26; 118:90 / Proverbs, 3:19; 8:23-29 /
9<r to 10
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
107
Isaiah, 45:12; 48:13— (D) Isaias, 45:12; 48:13
/ Jeremiah, 51 .-15— (D) Jcremtas, 51:15
NEW TESTAMENT: Hebrews, i .10
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241b-242b; 247b-c/ Timaeus,
452a-b
8 ARISTOTLE' Heavens, BK 11, CH 13-14 384d-
389d
9 ARISTOTLE : Motion of 'Animals, CH 3 [699*27]-
CH 4 [699^9] 234b-23Sa
11 ARCHIMEDES Sand-Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK v [416-508]
66c-67c; [534-563] 68a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompihus, 55a-b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 8b-12b; BK n, 40a-
44b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 511b-513a, 514b-521a; 529a-
532a
16 KEPLER- Epitome, BK iv, 854a-b; 873a-876a;
911b-928a
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 26-27
171b-172a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 23b-25d; BK vi
106a-121a,c
30 BACON Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36,
165c-166b
31 DESCARILS: Discourse, P\RT v, 54d-56a pas-
sim
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [702 -734] 150b-
151b; BK iv [996-1004] 174a, BK v [577-579]
187b-188a; BK vn [216-337] 221b-224b; BK
vin [15-38] 232b-233a, [66-168] 233b-235b;
BKIX [99-118] 249b-250a; BK x [668-678] 289a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 165a/ Pensees, 72,
181a / Vacuum, 368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 66, COROL
xxn 127b-128b, BK in, PROP 18-21 288b-294b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 58
424a-b
36 SWIFT Gulliver, PARI in, 98a-b
45 FARAD \Y* Researches in Electricity, 819d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 563b;
EPILOGUE n, 695d-696d
9e. The fixed stars: the precession of the equi-
noxes
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1*14-18 / Psalms,
1367-9— (D) Psalms, 135:7-9
APOCRYPHA. Ecclesiasticus, 43:9-10— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43:9-11
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 451d-452a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK 11, CH 7-12 380c-
384c / Meteorology, BK i, CH 8 [345bi~9] 451c-d
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner, 520a b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [509-533]
67d-68a; [585-591] 68d
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 358d-359c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 7a-8b; BK in, 77a-
b; BK vn-viii 223a-269a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517b-520b; BK n, 585b-621b;
BK in, 622a-652b esp 622a-646a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 882a-887a; 88 7 b-
888a; 918a
19AguiN\s: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 70,
A i, REP 5 362c-364b
21 DAN i E* Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-148)
108b-109b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagrud, BK I,
29c, BK n, 69d-70a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone^ BK vi, 107c-116a; 117c-
121a,c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36, 165c-
166b; APH 48, 185c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [481-483] 146a;
BK iv [641-676] 166b-167a; BK vn [346-352]
224b; BK vin [15-38] 232b-233a; BK x [651-
667] 288b-289a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 66, COROL
xx-xxi 126b-127b; BK in, PROP 21 294b;
LEMMA I-PROP 39 329a-333a / Optics, BK i,
419a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 102a
9/. The comets and meteors
8 ARISTOTLE: Meteorology, BK i, CH 4 447d-
448d, CH 6-8 449b-452d
14 PLUTARCH* Lytander, 358d-359c
16 KEPLFR: Epitome, BK iv, 856b
21 D AN rt. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xv [13-24]
128c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 30
159c-d, APH 35, 163a-b; APH 36, 166a-b
32 MILTON* Paradise Lost, BK i [535-537] 105a;
[742-746] 109b; BK ii [706-711] 126b; BK iv
[555-560] 164b; BK xii [632-644] 333a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, LEMMA 4-pRop 42
333a-368b; GENERAL SCHOL, 369a
36 SWIFT* Gulliver, PART in, 98a-b; 102b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 68c-69a; 615a-b
[n 74-81]
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK vin, 340d-
341a,c
10. The influence of the heavenly bodies upon
terrestrial phenomena
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 79c
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 518b / Statesman, 586c-
589c
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 9 [279*22-30)
370c; BK n, CH 3 377c-378a / Meteorology \
BK i, CH 2 445b-d / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 6
[1072*9-18] 602a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 1-7
9a-12a passim, par 10-11 13b-14b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART r, Q 18,
A i, REP 1 104c-105c; Q 19, A 6, ANS 113c-114d;
Q 65, A 4, REP 3 342b-343c; Q 67, A 3 351b-
352a; Q 82, A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 86, A 4,
REP 2-3 463d-464d; Q 103, A 5, REP i 531b-
532b; Q no, A i, REP 2-3 564c-565d; Q 115,
AA 3-6 588c-592d; Q 116, A i, ANS 592d-
593d
108
THE GREAT IDEAS
100/011
(10. The influence of the heavenly bodies upon
terrestrial phenomena,)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 76, A i, REP 2 939d-941a; Q 77, A i, ANS
943a-944d; Q 86, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 993c-
994d; Q 91, A i, REP i 1016b-1017c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
148] 109a-b; vn [121-141] 116b-c; vm [97-114]
118a; x [1-27] 120b-c; xm [52-78] 126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Talc [3187-3212] 212b-
213a; [35'3-3533l 218a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
72c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [85-101] 109a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 14a
32 MILTON: Arcades [61-73] 26b / Paradise Lost,
BK in [606-612] 148b; BK iv [660-688] 166b-
167b; BK vin [85-106] 234a-b; BK x [641-719]
288b290a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 18 174b-175a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 98a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226b
lOa. The influence of the heavenly bodies on
living matter: generation and corruption
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 98a / Theaetetus, 518b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 2 [i94bi3] 271a
/ Heavens, BK i, CH 9 [279*22-30] 370c; BK n,
CH 3 377c-378a / Generation and Corruption,
BK n, CH 10 437d-439c / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 5 [i07i»i2-i7] 600c; CH 6 [1072*9-18] 602a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 5
[680*30-35] 210d / Generation of Animals, BK
I, CH 2 [716*15-20] 256b; BK n, CH 3 [736^0-
737*5] 277c-d; CH 4 [738*9-25] 278d-279a; BK
iv, CH 2 [767*2-9] 308b; CH 10 [777b 15-778*10]
319d-320a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [76-81]
62a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 25,
A 2, REP 2 144c-145b; Q 70, A i, REP 4 362c-
364b; A 3, REP 3 365b-367a; Q 71, A i, REP i
367a-368b; Q 82, A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 86,
A 4, REP 2-3 463d-464d; Q 91, A 2, REP 2
485b-486b; Q 92, A i, ANS 488d-489d; Q 105,
A i, REP 1 538d-539c; Q 115, A 3 588c-589c; A 5,
REP i 590d-591c; Q 118, A i, REP 3 600a-601c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A i, ANS 49d-50c; PART in SUPPL, Q 76, A i,
REP 2 939d-941a; Q 84, A 2, REP 3 984c-985d;
Q 86, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 993c-994d; Q 91,
A i, REP i 1016b-1017c; A 2, ANS and REP 1,4
1017c-1020c; A 3, REP 2 1020d-1022c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [121-
141] 116b-c; x [7-21] 120b-c; xm [52-78]
126a-b
22 CHAUCER: franklin's Tale [11,343-347] 356b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, 105a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 416a; 427b-
d; 428c-429a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 340b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH n,
140d-141a; APH 12, 141d; APH 35, 162b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [634-688] 166a-
167b; BK vin [66-178] 233b-236a esp [90-97]
234a; BK ix [99-113] 249b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 18 174b-175a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 256c
10£. The influence of the heavenly bodies on
the tides
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 53d-54b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 919b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 105,
A 6, REP i 543b-544a; Q no, A 3, REP i 566d-
567b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 392d-393c
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,355-388] 356b-
357a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 47a-b; BK vi,
113a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36,
164b-165c; APH 45, 176b; APH 46, 178c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 817, 330b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 66, COROL
xvin-xix 126a-b; BK HI, PROP 24 296a-299b;
PROP 36-37 324a-328b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 104
433a-b
11. The influence of the stars and planets upon
the character and actions of men
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 47:13— (D) 7/0/^,47:13
/Jeremiah, io.2—(D)Jeremias, 10:2
APOCRYPHA: Baruch, 6:60-69— (D) OT, Baruch,
6:60-68
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 65b; BK vn,
223b-c; BK ix, 289d-290a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vn,
552a-c
14 PLUTARCH- Romulus, 20b-c / Nicias, 435b-d /
Dion, 789b-790a
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK i, 9a-b; 9d; BK iv, 79b;
BK vi, 91a-d / Histories, BK i, 195b-c; BK v,
295c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR in 42a-50a /
Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2 78d-79b; CH 5-6
80a-81b; TR n, CH 10 88a-b / Fourth Ennead,
TR iv, CH 30-45 174b-183a
18 AUGUSTINE : Confessions, BK iv, par 4-6 20a-d;
BK vii, par 8-ro 45d-47a / City of God, BK in,
CH 15, 176d-177a; BK v, CH 1-7 207d-212c /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 21-23 647a-648d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 70,
A 2, REP i 364b-365a; Q 86, A 4, REP 2-3 463d-
464d; Q 96, A 3, ANS 512a-c; Q 115, A 4 589d-
590c; A 5, REP i 590d-591c; Q 116, A i, ANS
592d-593d; PART i-n, Q 9, A 5 660d-662a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vir (67-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, xvi [52-84] 77b-d; PARA-
12 to 13
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
109
DISE, iv [49-63] lllb; vin [1-12] 116d; [91-
148] 117d-118c; xin [52-78] 126a-b; xxn [112-
123] 140d
22 CHAUCER- Knight's Tak [2438-2482] 200a-b
/ Tale of Man of Law [4610-4623] 237b;
[4715-4735] 239b-240a / Wife of Bath's Pro-
logue [6187-6202] 266a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
66b-67d; BK n, 69b,d-70d; BK in, 136c-137c;
176a>b; BK iv, 267c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 18d-20d; 213d-215a;
246d-247c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n
[139-141] 570d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc i [113-125]
30d-31a / Othello, ACT v, sc n [105-111] 240b
/ King Lear, ACT i, sc n [112-166] 249a-c;
ACT iv, sc in [34-37] 272a
28 GILBLRT- Loadstone, BK in, 73a
29 CERVANIES: Don Quixote, PART i, 94c; PART
n, 222c
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 14b-c; 54c-
55a
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity [125-140] 4b-5a /
Arcades [61-73] 26b / Comus [93-144] 35b-36b
/ Paradise Lost, BK i [594-599] 106b, BK vin
[511-514] 243b, BK x [657-661] 288b
33 PASCAL Pensees, 173 203b-204a
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART in, 98a-b
36 Si ERNE. Tristram Shandy, 194b-195a; 332a-
334b;407b-408b
47 GOETHE Faust, PART n [4947-4976] 122b-
123a, [6667-6670] 163b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vin, 340d-
341a,c
12. The worship of the earth, sun, moon, and
stars
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 37*9-10 / Deuteron-
omy, 4 19; 17:3 / II Kings, 2 3 '4-5, 1 1— (D)
IV Kings, 23-4-5,11 / Jeremiah, 8-1-2; 10-2—
(D) Jeremias, 8-1-2; 10:2 / Ezefyel, 8 16— (D)
Ezechiel, 8.16 / Zephaniah, 1:4-5— (D) Soph-
onias, 1-4-5
APOCRYPHA Wisdom of Solomon, 13*1-9— (D)
OT, Bool( of Wisdom, 13.1-9 / Baruch, 6:60-
69- (D) OT, Baruch, 6-60-68
5 SOPHOCLES- Antigone [332-340] 134a
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [1625-1693] 410b-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [563-626] 495c-496b
/ Peace [406-416] 530d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31a-b; 48c; BK
vii, 226c
7 PLATO: Apology, 204d-205a / Laws, BK vn,
728b-730d; BK xn, 797b-798b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK XH, CH 8 [io74bi-
14] 604d-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 2
[716*15-20] 256b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [581-660]
22b-23b; BK v [396-411] 66b; [821-836] 71d-
72a
14 PLUTARCH: Aemilius Paulus, 220d-221b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xv, 176a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1080b-
1085b
l7PLoiiNus: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 24-26
170b-171d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q n,
A 3, REP i 49a-c; Q 67, A 4, ANS 352a-354a;
0 115, A 3, REP i 588c-589c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISP, iv [49-63]
lllb; vin [1-12] 116d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2209-2482] 196b-
200b / Franklin's Tale [11,339-393] 356b-357a
25 MONTAIGNL- Essays, 246d-247c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Antony and Cleopatra, ACT iv,
sc ix [5-18] 340c-d
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, SECT 94
431b-c
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 59c-60a, 81d; 93b-
d; 346d-347a
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 226a-b; 227c
46 HFGEL- Philosophy of History, PART i, 238d-
239a; 252a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [7900-7950] 192b-
193b; [8034-8043] 195b; [8078-8081] 196b;
[8285-8302] 202a
13. The history of astronomy
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-461]
44c-d
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK n, 49d-50a; 65b; 79c
7 PLATO- Phaedrus, 138c-d / /fyo%>',204d-205a
/ Statesman, 586c-589c / Laws, BK vii, 728b-
730d; BK xn, 797b-798b
8 ARISTOTLE- Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270^2-26]
361d-362a, en 10 370d-371d, BK n, CH 1-2
375b,d-377c; en 12 [292*6-9] 383c; CH 13
384d-387d / Meteorology, BK i, CH 6 449b-
450b; CH 8 451b-452d, BK n, CH i [354*27-32]
460b / Metaphysics, BK i, en 2 (982bii-i7J
500d; BK xn, CH 8 603b-605a
11 ARCIIIMLDES- Sand-Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [720-730]
70c
14 PLUTARCH- Romulus, 20b-c / Numa Pompi-
lius, 55a-b / Solon, 74a / Pericles, 138d
/ Aemilius Paulus, 220d-221b / Lysander,
358d-359c / Nicias, 435b-d
16 PTOLEMY- Almagest, BK HI, 77a-83a; BK iv,
109a-110b; BK vii, 223a*232b passim; BK ix,
272a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 508a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 861b-863a; 888b-
891b; 907b-910a; 929a-933a passim; 955a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-
28c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32,
A i, REP 2 175d-178a
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Tale [3187-3212] 212b-213a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
69d-70a
110
THE GREAT IDEAS
13
13. The history of astronomy.)
25 MONTAIGNE '.Essays, 237 d-25Sb
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 107c-d; 117c-d;
118d-119c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 24d / JVb-
vum Organum, BK i, APH 80 120a-b; APH 89
124a-d; BK n, APH 36, 165c-167b
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK i [284-291] 99b;
BK v (261-263] 181a; BK vui [66-168] 233b-
235b / Areopagitica, 400a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 165a / Vacuum,
358a;368b-369a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 58
424a-b; SECT 104 433a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9,
454c-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 227a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 68c-69a; 226b;
299b-c; 664d (n 55-56]
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d (fn 2]; 175b [fn i] /
Practical Reason, 361b-c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, PART i, 219a-b,
251a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vui, 340d-
341a,c; BK xm, 563b; EPILOGUE n, 694d~696d
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The discussion of related disciplines, see MATHEMATICS; MECHANICS; PHYSICS.
The consideration of mathematical physics, see MATHEMATICS 50; MECHANICS 3; PHYSICS
ib, 3; SCIENCE 5c.
Other treatments of observation and measurement in natural science, see EXPERIENCE 5-50;
MECHANICS 2a; PHYSICS 3, 43, 4d; QUANTITY 6-6c; SCIENCE 5a~5b; SENSE 5.
The logic of hypotheses and their verification in scientific method, see HYPOTHESIS 40-^;
PHYSICS 4b; PRINCIPLE 30(2); SCIENCE 56.
The general consideration of scientific method, see LOGIC 4b; REASONING 6c; SCIENCE
5-5*-
The distinction between formal and efficient causes, see CAUSE la; and for the role of causes
and causal explanation in natural science, see CAUSE 5b; NATURE 3c; PHYSICS 2b;
SCIENCE 4C.
The consideration of certain mathematical forms used in astronomy, see QUANTITY 3b(i)-
3b(2),3c(2).
Other discussions of celestial and terrestrial mechanics, see MECHANICS 4a, 5f-5f(2), 6c.
The theory of gravitation and the problem of action-at-a-distance, see MECHANICS 6d(i)-
6d(z); SPACE 2C.
The issues concerning matter and soul or intellect in relation to the heavenly bodies, see
ANGEL 2a; MATTER ib; SOUL la; WORLD 6a.
Other discussions of the measurement of time, see QUANTITY 5b; TIME 4.
The interpretation of celestial phenomena in divination and augury, see LANGUAGE 10;
PROPHECY 3b; SIGN AND SYMBOL 50.
Criticisms of astrology, see RELIGION 6a.
The cosmological and theological implications of astronomy, see ANGEL 2a; CHANGE 13*14;
ETERNITY 2; INFINITY 3d-3e; SPACE 33; TIME 2b; WORLD 43, 4e, 5, 7.
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
111
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas,
I.
PTOLEMY. Tetrabiblos
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK in, CH 84-87
. On the Trinity ofBoethius, Q 5
DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE,
CH 3-4
CHAUCER. A Treatise on the Astrolabe
COPERNICUS. Commentariolus
. Letter Against Werner
KEPLER. Mysterium Cosmographicum
. De Motibus Stellae Mortis
. Harmonices Mundi, BK i-iv
GALILEO. The Sidereal Messenger
. Dialogo dei massimi sistemi
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART in,
5-47, 103-120, 126-157
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART iv, CH 26
KANT. Cosmogony
A. SMITH. The History of Astronomy
II.
ARISTARCHUS. On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun
and Moon
EPICURUS. Letter to Pythocles
. Letter to Herodotus
IBN EZRA. The Beginning of Wisdom
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART n,
CH 8-12, 24
R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART iv
RHETICUS. Narratio Prima
SuXREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xni (10-13),
xv (3)
FONTENELLE. Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds
VOLTAIRE. "Astrology," "Astronomy," in A Philo-
sophical Dictionary
LAGRANGE. MScanique analytique
LAPLACE. The System of the World
. MScanique ctlcste (Celestial Mechanics)
GAUSS. Inaugural Lecture on Astronomy
WHEWELL. Astronomy and General Physics Considered
with Reference to Natural Theology
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, BK n
A. HUMBOLDT. Cosmos
HERSCHEL. Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, 11
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART iv, BK in, CH 7-9;
PART v, NOTE (Pliadcs in Primitive Calendars)
G. H. DARWIN. The Evolution of the Satellites
. The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar
System
SANTA VAN A. Reason in Society, CH 4
DREYER. History of the Planetary Systems
POINCARE". The Value of Science, PART n, CH 6
. Science and Method, BK in, CH 3; BK iv
KAPTEYN. Recent Researches in the Structure of the
Universe
DUHEM. Le systeme du monde
ARRHENIUS. The Destinies of the Stars
T. CHAMBERLIN. The Origin of the Earth
E. HUNTINGTON. Earth and Sun
DINGLE. Modern Astrophysics
SHAPLEY. Starlight
EDDINGTON. The Internal Constitution of the Stars
. Stars and Atoms
JEANS. Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics
. Astronomy and Cosmogony
TOLMAN. Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology
H. N. RUSSELL. The Solar System and Its Origin
ABETTI. The Sun: Its Phenomena and Physical
Features
HUBBLE. The Realm of the Nebulae
GAMOW. The Birth and Death of the Sun
B. RUSSELL, Human Knowledge, Its Scope and
Limits, PART i, CH 2
Chapter 6: BEAUTY
INTRODUCTION
r"prRUTH, goodness, and beauty form a triad
JL of terms which have been discussed to-
gether throughout the tradition of western
thought.
They have been called "transcendental" on
the ground that everything which is is in some
measure or manner subject to denomination
as true or false, good or evil, beautiful or ugly.
But they have also been assigned to special
spheres of being or subject matter— the true
to thought and logic, the good to action and
morals, the beautiful to enjoyment and aes-
thetics.
They have been called "the three fundamen-
tal values" with the implication that the worth
of anything can be exhaustively judged by
reference to these three standards— and no
others. But other terms, such as pleasure or
utility, have been proposed, either as additional
values or as significant variants of the so-called
fundamental three; or even sometimes as more
fundamental. Pleasure or utility, for example,
has been held by men like Spinoza or Mill to be
the ultimate criterion of beauty or goodness.
Truth, goodness, and beauty, singly and to-
gether, have been the focus of the age-old con-
troversy concerning the absolute and the rela-
tive, the objective and the subjective, the uni-
versal and the individual. At certain times it has
been thought that the distinction of true from
false, good from evil, beautiful from ugly, has
its basis and warranty in the very nature of
things, and that a man's judgment of these mat-
ters is measured for its soundness or accuracy by
its conformity to fact. At other times the oppo-
site position has been dominant. One meaning
of the ancient saying that man is the measure of
all things applies particularly to the true, good,
and beautiful. Man measures truth, goodness,
and beauty by the effect things have upon him,
according to what they seem to him to be. What
seems good to one man may seem evil to anoth-
er. What seems ugly or false may also seem
beautiful or true to different men or to the
same man at different times.
Yet it is not altogether true that these three
terms have always suffered the same fortunes.
For Spinoza goodness and beauty are subjec-
tive, but not truth. Because he "has persuaded
himself that all things which exist are made for
him," man, Spinoza says, judges that to be "of
the greatest importance which is most useful to
him, and he must esteem that to be of surpass-
ing worth by which he is most beneficially
affected." The notions of good and evil, beauty
and ugliness, do not conform to anything in the
nature of things. "The ignorant," says Spinoza,
nevertheless, "call the nature of a thing good,
evil, sound, putrid, or corrupt just as they are
affected by it. For example, if the motion by
which the nerves are affected by means of ob-
jects represented to the eye conduces to well-
being, the objects by which it is caused are
called beautiful', while those exciting a con-
trary motion are called deformed"
BEAUTY HAS BEEN most frequently regarded as
subjective, or relative to the individual judg-
ment. The familiar maxim, de gustibus non dis-
putandum, has its original application in the
sphere of beauty rather than truth and good-
ness. "Truth is disputable," Hume writes, "not
taste . . . No man reasons concerning another's
beauty; but frequently concerning the justice
or injustice of his actions." Thus even when it
was supposed that judgments of the true and
the good could have a certain absoluteness or
universality — or at least be considered as some-
thing about which men might reach agreement
through argument — opinions about beauty
were set apart as useless to dispute. Beauty
being simply a matter of individual taste, it
112
CHAPTER 6; BEAUTY
113
could afford no basis for argument or reasoning
— no objective ground for settling differences
of opinion.
From the ancient skeptics down to our own
day, men have noted the great variety of traits,
often sharply opposed, which have been con-
sidered beautiful at different times and places.
"We fancy its forms," Montaigne says of beau-
ty, "according to our appetite and liking . . .
Indians paint it black and tawny, with great
swollen lips, big flat noses, and load the carti-
lage betwixt the nostrils with great rings of gold ,
to make it hang down to the mouth ... In
Peru, the greatest ears are the most beautiful,
and they stretch them out as far as they can by
art ... There are, elsewhere, nations that take
great care to blacken their teeth, and hate to
see them white; elsewhere, people that paint j
them red . . . The Italians fashion beauty gross |
and massive; the Spaniards, gaunt and slender;
among us one makes it white, another brown;
one soft and delicate, another strong and vig- ,
orous .... Just as the preference in beauty is 1
given by Plato to the spherical figure, the
Epicureans give it to the pyramidal or the
square, and cannot swallow a god in the form
of a ball."
Like Montaigne, Darwin gives an extensive
account of the things men have found beauti-
ful, many of them so various and contradictory
that it would seem there could be no objective
basis for judgments of beauty. If any consensus
is found among individuals about what is beau-
tiful or ugly, the skeptics or relativists usually
explain it by reference to the prevalence of
certain prejudices, or customary standards,
which in turn vary with different tribes and
cultures, and at different times and places.
Beginning in the sphere of beauty, subjec-
tivism or relativism spreads first to judgments
of good and evil, and then to statements about
truth, never in the opposite direction. It be-
comes complete when, as so frequently happens
in our own time, what is good or true is held
to be just as much a matter of private taste or
customary opinion as what is beautiful. ,
The problem of the objectivity or subjec-
tivity of beauty can, of course, be separated
from similar problems with regard to truth and
goodness, but any attempt to solve it will neces-
sarily both draw on and bear on the discussion
of these related problems. The degree to which
the three problems must be considered inter-
dependently is determined by the extent to
which each of the three terms requires the con-
text of the other two for its definition and anal-
ysis*
BEAUTY is, PERHAPS, not definable in any strict
sense of definition. But there have been, never-
theless, many attempts to state, with the brevi-
ty of definition, what beauty is. Usually notions
of goodness, or correlative notions of desire and
love, enter into the statement.
Aquinas, for example, declares that "the
beautiful is the same as the good, and they
differ in aspect only. . . . The notion of good is
that which calms the desire, while the notion
of the beautiful is that which calms the desire,
by being seen or known." This, according to
Aquinas, implies that "beauty adds to goodness
a relation to the cognitive faculty; so that good
means that which simply pleases the appetite,
while the beautiful is something pleasant to
apprehend."
Because of its relation to the cognitive pow-
er, Aquinas defines the beautiful as "that which
pleases upon being seen" (id quod visum placet).
Hence, he continues, "beauty consists in due
proportion, for the senses delight in things duly
proportioned . . . because the sense too is a
sort of reason, as is every cognitive power/'
The pleasure or delight involved in the per-
ception of beauty belongs to the order of know-
ing rather than to desire or action. The know-
ing, furthermore, seems to be different from
that which is proper to science, for it is con-
cerned with the individual thing rather than
with universal natures, and it occurs intuitively
or contemplatively, rather than by judgment
and reasoning. There is a mode of truth pe-
culiar to the beautiful, as well as a special kind
of goodness.
Fully to understand what Aquinas is saying
about beauty we are required to understand
his theory of goodness and truth. But enough
is immediately clear to give meaning to Eric
Gill's advice to those who are concerned with
making things beautiful: "Lookafter ^gpoclness
and truthi" he says, "and beauty will take care
of herself." _ "
ne beauty in terms of pleasure would
114
THE GREAT IDEAS
seem to make it relative to the individual, for
what gives pleasure— even contemplative pleas-
ure— to one man, may not to another. It should
be noted, however, that the pleasure in ques-
tion is attributed to the object as its cause. It
may be asked, therefore, what in the object is
the cause of the peculiar satisfaction which con-
stitutes the experience of beauty? Can the same
object just as readily arouse displeasure in
another individual, and a consequent judgment
of ugliness? Are these opposite reactions en-
tirely the result of the way an individual feels?
Aquinas appears to meet this difficulty by
specifying certain objective elements of beau-
ty, or "conditions," as he calls them. "Beauty
includes three conditions," he writes: "integ-
rity or perfection, since those things which are
impaired are by that very fact ugly; due pro-
portion or harmony \ and lastly, brightness or
clarity, whence things are called beautiful which
have a bright color." Quite apart from indi-
vidual reactions, objects may differ in the de-
gree to which they possess such properties-
traits which are capable of pleasing or displeas-
ing their beholder.
This does not mean that the individual re-
action is invariably in accordance with the ob-
jective characteristics of the thing beheld. Men
differ in the degree to which they possess good
perception — and sound critical judgment —
rven as objects differ in the degree to which
they possess the elements of beauty. Once
igam in the controversy concerning the objec-
tivity or subjectivity of beauty, there seems to
be a middle ground between the two extreme
positions, which insists upon a beauty intrinsic
to the object but does not deny the relevance
}f differences in individual sensibility.
William James would seem to be indicating
juch a position when, in his discussion of aes-
rhetic principles, he declares: "We are once and
or all so made that when certain impressions
:ome before our mind, one of them will seem to
:all for or repel the others as its companions."
\s an example, he cites the fact that "a note
tounds good with its third and fifth." Such an
icsthetic judgment certainly depends upon in-
Jividual sensibility, and, James adds, "to a cer-
ain extent the principle of habit will explain
it]." But he also points out that "to explain all
testhetic judgements in this way would be ab-
surd; for it is notorious how seldom natural ex-
periences come up to our aesthetic demands."
To the extent that aesthetic judgments "ex-
press inner harmonies and discords between
objects of thought," the beautiful, according
to James, has a certain objectivity; and good
taste can be conceived as the capacity to be
pleased by objects which should elicit that re-
action.
KANT'S THEORY OF the beautiful, to take
another conception, must also be understood in
the general context of his theory of knowledge,
and his analysis of such terms as good, pleasure,
and desire. His definition, like that of Aquinas,
calls an object beautiful if it satisfies the ob-
server in a very special way — not merely pleas-
ing his senses, or satisfying his desires, in the
ways in which things good as means or ends fit
a man's interests or purposes. The beautiful,
according to Kant, "pleases immediately . . .
apart from all interest" The pleasure that re-
sults from its contemplation "may be said to be
the one and only disinterested and free delight;
for, with it, no interest, whether of sense or
reason, extorts approval."
The aesthetic experience is for Kant also
unique in that its judgment "is represented as
universal, i.e. valid for every man," yet at the
same time it is "incognizable by means of any
universal concept." In other words, "all judge-
ments of taste are singular judgements"; they
are without concept in the sense that they,do
not apply to a class of objects. Nevertheless,
they have a certain universality and are not
merely the formulation of a private judgment.
When "we call the object beautiful," Kant
says, "we believe ourselves to be speaking with
a universal voice, and lay claim to the concur-
rence of every one, whereas no private sensa-
tion would be decisive except for the observer
alone and his liking."
In saying that aesthetic judgments have sub-
jective, not objective, universality, and in hold-
ing that the beautiful is the object of a neces-
sary satisfaction, Kant also seems to take the
middle position which recognizes the subjec-
tivity of the aesthetic judgment without deny-
ing that beauty is somehow an intrinsic prop-
erty of objects. With regard to its subjective
character, Kant cites Hume to the effect that
CHAFFER 6: BEAUTY
115
"although critics arc able to reason more plau-
sibly than cooks, they must still share the same
fate." The universal character of the aesthetic
judgment, however, keeps it from being com-
pletely subjective and Kant goes to some length
to refute the notion that in matters of the beau-
tiful one can seek refuge in the adage that/
"every one has his own taste.*' I
The fact that the aesthetic judgment re-
quires universal assent, even though the uni-
versal rule on which it is based cannot be
formulated, does not, of course, preclude the
failure of the object to win such assent from
many individuals. Not all men have good taste
or, having it, have it to the same degree.
THE FOREGOING CONSIDERATIONS— selective
rather than exhaustive— -show the connection
between definitions of beauty and the problem
of aesthetic training. In the traditional discus-
sion of the ends of education, there is the prob-
lem of how to cultivate good taste— the ability
to discriminate critically between the beautiful
and the ugly.
If beauty is entirely subjective, entirely a
matter of individual feeling, then, except for
conformity to standards set by the customs of
the time and place, no criteria would seem to
be available for measuring the taste of individ-
uals. If beauty is simply objective— something
immediately apparent to observation as are the
simple sensible qualities— no special training
would seem to be needed for sharpening our
perception of it.
The genuineness of the educational problem
in the sphere of beauty seems, therefore, to
depend upon a theory of the beautiful which
avoids both extremes, and which permits the
educator to aim at a development of individual
sensibilities in accordance with objective cri-
teria of taste.
THE FOREGOING CONSIDERATIONS also provide
background for the problem of beauty in na-
ture and in art. As indicated in the chapter on
ART, the consideration of art in recent times
tends to become restricted to the theory of the
fine arts. So too the consideration of beauty has
become more and more an analysis of excellence
in poetry, music, painting, and sculpture. In
consequence, the meaning of the word "aes-
thetic" has progressively narrowed, until now
it refers almost exclusively to the appreciation
of works of fine art, where before it connoted
any experience of the beautiful, in the things
of nature as well as in the works of man.
The question is raised, then, whether natural
beauty, or the perception of beauty in nature,
involves the same elements and causes as beau-
ty in art. Is the beauty of a flower or of a flower
ing field determined by the same factors as the
beauty of a still life or a landscape painting?
The affirmative answer seems to be assumcc
in a large part of the tradition. In his discus
sion of the beautiful in the Poetics^ Aristotle
explicitly applies the same standard to botr
nature and art. "To be beautiful," he writes
"a living creature, and every whole made up
of parts, must not only present a certain ordei
in its arrangement of parts, but also be of a
certain magnitude." Aristotle's notion that art
imitates nature indicates a further relation be-
tween the beautiful in art and nature. Unity,
proportion, and clarity would then be elements
common to^ beauty in its every occurrence,
though these elements may be embodied dif-
ferently in things which have a difference in
their mode of being, as do natural and artificial
things.
With regard to the beauty of nature and of
art, Kant tends to take the opposite position.
He points out that "the mind cannot reflect on
the beauty of nature without at the same time
finding its interest engaged." Apart from any
question of use that might be involved, he
concludes that the "interest" aroused by the
beautiful in nature is "akin to the moral," par-
ticularly from the fact that "nature ... in her
beautiful products displays herself as art, not as
a mere matter of chance, but, as it were, design-
edly, according to a law-directed arrangement."
The fact that natural things and works of art
stand in a different relation to purpose or in-
terest is for Kant an immediate indication that
their beauty is different. Their susceptibility
to disinterested enjoyment is not the same. Yet
for Kant, as for his predecessors, nature pro-
vides the model or archetype which art fol-
lows, and he even speaks of art as an "imi-
tation" of nature.
The Kantian discussion of nature and art
moves into another dimension when it con-
116
THE GREAT IDEAS
siders the distinction between the beautiful
and the sublime. We must look for the sub-
lime, Kant says, "not ... in works of art ...
nor yet in things of nature, that in their very
concept import a definite end, e.g. animals of
a recognized natural order, but in rude nature
merely as involving magnitude." In company
with Longinus and Edmund Burke, Kant char-
acterizes the sublime by reference to the limi-
tations of human powers. Whereas the beauti-
ful "consists in limitation," the sublime "im-
mediately involves, or else by its presence pro-
vokes, a representation of hmitlessness," which
"may appear, indeed, in point of form to con-
travene the ends of our power of judgement,
to be ill-adapted to our faculty of presentation,
and to be, as it were, an outrage on the imagi-
nation."
Made aware of his own weakness, man is
dwarfed by nature's magnificence, but at that
very moment he is also elevated by realizing
his ability to appreciate that which is so much
greater than himself. This dual mood signal-
izes man's experience of the su^iine. Unlike
the enjoyment of beauty, it is neither disin-
terested nor devoid of moral tone.
TRUTH is USUALLY connected with perception
and thought, the good with desire and action.
Both have been related to love and, in different
ways, to pleasure and pain. All these terms nat-
urally occur in the traditional discussion of
beauty, partly by way of definition, but also
partly in the course of considering the faculties
engaged in the experience of beauty.
Basic here is the question whether beauty is
an object of love or desire. The meaning of
any answer will, of course, vary with different
conceptions of desire and love.
Desire is sometimes thought of as funda-
mentally acquisitive, directed toward the ap-
propriation of a good; whereas love, on the
contrary, aims at no personal aggrandizement
but rather, with complete generosity, wishes
only the well-being of the beloved. In this
context, beauty seems to be more closely asso-
ciated with a good that is loved than with a
good desired.
Love, moreover, is more akin to knowledge
tharf is desire. The act of contemplation is
sometimes understood as a union with the ob-
ject through both knowledge and love. Here
again the context of meaning favors the align-
ment of beauty with love, at least for theories
which make beauty primarily an object of con-
templation. In Plato and Plotinus, and on
another level in the theologians, the two con-
siderations—of love and beauty— fuse together
inseparably.
It is the "privilege of beauty," Plato thinks,
to offer man the readiest access to the world of
ideas. According to the myth in the Phaedrus,
the contemplation of beauty enables the soul
to "grow wings." This experience, ultimately
intellectual in its aim, is described by Plato as
identical with love.
The observer of beauty "is amazed when he
sees anyone having a godlike face or form,
which is the expression of divine beauty; and
at first a shudder runs through him, and again
the old awe steals over him; then looking upon
the face of his beloved as of a god, he reverences
him, and if he were not afraid of being thought
a downright madman, he would sacrifice to his
beloved as to the image of a god." When the
soul bathes herself "in the waters of beauty, her
constraint is loosened, and she is refreshed, and
has no more pangs and pains." This state of
the soul enraptured by beauty, Plato goes on
to say, "is by men called love."
Sharply opposed to Plato's intellectualiza-
tion of beauty is that conception which con-
nects it with sensual pleasure and sexual attrac-
tion. When Darwin, for instance, considers the
sense of beauty, he confines his attention almost
entirely to the colors and sounds used as "at-
tractions of the opposite sex." Freud, likewise,
while admitting that "psycho-analysis has less
to say about beauty than about most things,"
claims that "its derivation from the realms of
sexual sensation . . . seems certain."
Such considerations may not remove beauty
from the sphere of love, but, as the chapter on
LOVE makes clear, love has many meanings,
and is of many sorts. The beautiful which is
sexually attractive is the object of a love which
is almost identical with desire— sometimes with
lust — and certainly involves animal impulses
and bodily pleasures. "The taste for the beau-
tiful," writes Darwin, "at least as far as female
beauty is concerned, is not of a special nature in
the human mind."
CHAPTER 6: BEAUTY
117
On the other hand, Darwin attributes to
man alone an aesthetic faculty for the appre-
ciation of beauty apart from love or sex. No
other animal, he thinks, is "capable of admiring
such scenes as the heavens at night, a beautiful
landscape, or refined music; but such high
tastes are acquired through culture and depend
on complex associations; they are not enjoyed
by barbarians or by uneducated persons." For
Freud, however, the appreciation of such beau-
ties remains ultimately sexual in motivation,
no matter how sublimated in effect. "The love
of beauty," he says, "is the perfect example of
a feeling with an inhibited aim. 'Beauty* and
'attraction1 are first of all the attributes of a
sexual object."
The theme of beauty's relation to desire and
love is connected with another basic theme —
the relation of beauty to sense and intellect,
or to the realms of perception and thought.
The two discussions naturally run parallel.
The main question here concerns the exist-
ence of beauty in the order of purely intelli-
gible objects, and its relation to the sensible
beauty of material tilings. Plotinus, holding
that beauty of every kind comes from a "form"
or "reason," traces the "beauty which is in
bodies," as well as that "which is in the soul"
to its source in the "eternal intelligence." This)
"intelligible beauty" lies outside the range of]1
desire even as it is beyond the reach of sense-/1
perception. Only the admiration or the adora-'
tion of love is proper to it.
THESE DISTINCTIONS m types of beauty— nat- 5
ural and artificial, sensible and intelligible,
even, perhaps, material and spiritual— indicate
the scope of the discussion, though not all
writers on beauty deal with all its manifes-/
tations.
Primarily concerned with other subjects,
many of the great books make only an indirect
contribution to the theory of beauty : the moral
treatises which consider the spiritual beauty of
a noble man or of a virtuous character; the
cosmologies of the philosophers or scientists
which find beauty in the structure of the world
— the intelligible, not sensible, order of the
universe; the mathematical works which ex-
hibit, and sometimes enunciate, an awareness
of formal beauty in the necessary connection
of ideas; the great poems which crystallize
beauty in a scene, in a face, in a deed; and,
above all, the writings of the theologians which
do not try to do more than suggest the ineffable
splendor of God's infinite beauty, a beauty
fused with truth and goodness, all absolute in
the one absolute perfection of the divine be-
ing. "The Divine Goodness," observes Dante,
"which from Itself spurns all envy, burning in
Itself so sparkles that It displays the eternal ,
beauties."
Some of the great books consider the various
kinds of beauty, not so much with a view to
classifying their variety, as in order to set forth
the concordance of the grades of beauty with
the grades of being, and with the levels of love
and knowledge.
The ladder of love in Plato's Symposium de-
scribes an ascent from lower to higher forms of
beauty. "He who has been instructed thus far
in the things of love," Diotima tells Socrates,
"and who has learned to see beauty in due or-
der and succession, when he comes toward the
end will suddenly perceive a nature of won-
drous beauty . . . beauty absolute, separate,
simple, and everlasting, which without diminu-
tion and without increase, or any change, is
imparted to the ever-growing and perishing
beauties of all other things. He who from these,
ascending under the influence of true love, be-
gins to perceive that beauty, is not far from
the end."
The order of ascent, according to Diotima,
begins "with the beauties of earth and mounts
upwards for the sake of that other beauty," go-
ing from one fair form to "all fair forms, and
from fair forms to fair practises, and from fair
practises to fair notions, until from fair notions"
we come to "the notion of absolute beauty and
at last know what the essence of beauty is. This,
my dear Socrates," she concludes, "is the life
above all others which man should live, in thtf
contemplation of beauty absolute."
For Plotinus the degrees of beauty corre-
spond to degrees of emancipation from matter.
"The more it goes towards matter . . . the
feebler beauty becomes." A thing is ugly only
because, "not dominated by a form and reason,
the matter has not been completely informed
by the idea." If a thing could be completely
"without reason and form," it would be "abso-
118 THE GREAT IDEAS
lute ugliness." But whatever exists possesses the type of supernatural knowledge promised
form and reason to some extent and has some to the souls of the blessed— the beatific vision in
share of the effulgent beauty of the One, even which God is beheld intuitively, not known
as it has some share through emanation in its discursively, and in which knowledge united
overflowing being—the grades of beauty, as of with love is the principle of the soul's union
being, signifying the remotion of each thing with God.
from its ultimate source. An analogy is obviously implied. In this life
Even separated from a continuous scale of and on the natural level, every experience of
beauty, the extreme terms— the beauty of God beauty— in nature or art, in sensible things or
and the beauty of the least of finite things— in ideas— occasions something /% an act of
have similitude for a theologian like Aquinas, vision, a moment of contemplation, of enjoy-
Thc word visum in his definition of the beauti- ment detached from desire or action, and clear
fill (id quod visum placet^ "that which pleases without the articulations of analysis or the
upon being seen") is the word used to signify demonstrations of reason.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The general theory of the beautiful 1 19
la. The beautiful and the good: beauty as a kind of fitness or order
\b. Beauty and truth: the beautiful as an object of contemplation 120
ic. The elements of beauty: unity, proportion, clarity
id. The distinction between the beautiful and the sublime 121
2. Beauty in nature and in art
3. Beauty in relation to desire and love, as object or cause
4. Beauty and ugliness in relation to pleasure and pain 122
5. Judgments of beauty: the objective and the subjective in aesthetic judgments or
judgments of taste
6. The role of the beautiful in education
7. Intelligible beauty 123
ja. The beauty of God
7^. The beauty of the universe
yc. Beauty in the order of ideas
7</. Beauty in the moral order 124
CHAPTER 6: BEAUTY 119
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, m 53 JAMES : Psychology ', 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, m 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
Bi RLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse, When the King James
and Douay versions differ m title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 49,
1. The general theory of the beautiful A 2> REP , 2b-4a; PART II-H, Q 180, A 2, REP 3
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 81a-b / Cratylus, lOlc- 608c-609c
102a; 113c-d / Phaedrus, 126b-d / Symposium, 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, A ^ENDIX, 371b-372d
167a-d / Phaedo, 242c-243a / Gorgtas, 266d- 33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 32-33 17,,a-b
267a / Republic, BK v, 370d-373c; BK vi, 42 KANT '.Judgement, 46la-549ii esp 479c-d, 483d,
385c / Parmenides, 490b-c / Laws, BK n, 491c, 493b-495a,c; 550a; S60b-c; 564d-565b
654a-662a 44 Bos WELL : Johnson, 194b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH i [1013* 49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 95a-d
20-24] 533b; BK xn, CH 7 [io72*23~b4] 52 DOSTOEVSKI: Brothers Karam&zov,xKiu,S4&-b
602b-c 53 JAMES: Psychology, 865a-b; 88<5b-888a
9 ARISTOTLE: Poetics, CH 7 [i45ob23~i45iai5] 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 775a-
685b-c c; 779b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK iv, SECT 20 265a-b la- The. beautiful aOd the good: beauty as a
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR in, CH 2 lOd; TR kind of fitness or order
vi 21a-26a / Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 17 76b- 7 PLATO: Lysis, 21b-c / Symposium, 162d-163a;
77a / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 12, 234a-c; 164c-d / Gorgias, 266d-267a / Republic, BK
TR vin, CH I-TR ix, CH 2 239b-247b / Sixth in, 333b-334b; BK v, 357d-358a / Timaeus,
Ennead, TR n, CH 18, 278a; TR in, CH n, 474d-475a / Statesman, 594a-c / Philebus,
287b-c; TR VH, CH 22 332d-333b; CH 31-33 637d-638a / Laws, BK n, 654a-655b; 660a-
336d-338b 662a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 12 llc-d; 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK m, CH 3 [n8b20-24]
BK iv, par 20 24b-c; par 24-27 25b-26a; 165d / Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*io-bi9J 329c-
BK x, par 53 84d-85a 330a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [984b8-22]
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, 502d; BK vt CH i [ioi3E2o-24] 533b; BK xii,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 91, A 3, REP 3 486b-487d; CH 7 [1072*23-^4] 602b-c; [i072b30-ic>73*2]
PART I-H, Q 27, A i, REP 3 737b-d 603a; BK xm, CH 3 [io78*3i-b6] 609d-610a
120
THE GREAT IDEAS
(1. The general theory of the beautiful la. The
beautiful and the good: beauty as a kind of
fitness or order.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[645*4-^6] 168d-169a / Ethics, BK iv, CH 2
[1122*34-1123*33] 369a-370b passim / Politics,
BK vii, CH 4 [1326*30-35] 530c / Poetics, CH 7
[i45ob23-i45iai5J 685b-c
12EpiCTETUs: Discourses, BK in, CH i 175a-
177c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47a
16 KEPLER* Epitome, BK iv, 868b
17 PLOTINUS- First Ennead, TR vi 21a-26a / Fifth
Ennead, TR v, CH 12, 234a-c; TR vm 239b-246c
/ Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 22 332d-333b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 12 llc-d;
BK iv, par 20 24b-c; par 24-27 25b-26a; BK
vn, par 23 50b-c/ City of God, BK xxn, CH 24,
610c-611b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 91, A 3 486b-487d; Q 96,
A 3, REP 3 512a-c; PART i-n, Q 27, A i, REP 3
737b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
49, A 2, ANS and REP i 2b-4a; A 4, ANS
5a-6a; y 50, A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; Q 54, A i, ANS
22d 23d; PART n-n, Q 180, A 2, REP 3 608c-
609c
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 62a
42 KAN i : judgement, 476a-482b; 486d 489a;
521b 523c, 540d-542a; 544c-545b; 546d-548c;
550a; 557c-55fb
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 266a-
268b, 280b-281b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
153b-d
53 JAM*S Psychology, 755a; 865b
54 FREUD. Civilization and Its Discontents, 779b-d
I b. Beauty and truth: the beautiful as an object
of contemplation
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 113c-d / Phaedrus, 124c-129d
/ Symposium, 167a-d / Republic, BK v, 370d-
373c; BK vi, 383d-388a / Theaetetus, 525c-d /
Philebus, 630d-631d / Laws, BK n, 660a-661b
8 ARISTOTLE : Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [1072*23-
b4] 602b-c; BK xm, CH 3 [1078*32^6] 609d-
610a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 20
265ab
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi 21a-26a / Fifth Ennead, TR vm 239b-
246c / Sixth Ennead, TR vu, CH 31-33 336d-
338b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 23
50b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 39, A 8, ANS 210a-213a;
PART I-II, Q 27, A I, REP 3 737b-dj A 2, ANS
737d-738c
Ibto \c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q
1 80, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c, PART m SUPPL,
Q 94, A i, REP 2 1040d-1041b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, xiv 588b; LIV 594c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 184b-d
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5,
452d-453a
42 KANT: Judgement, 476a-479d esp 479a-d;
484d-485b; 496d; 501d-502a; 518a-d; 521b-
523c;525a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 266a-
267a; 278a c; PART iv, 346d-347a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
153b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 865b-866a; 886b-888a
54 FREUD. New Introductory Lectures, 880b
\c. The elements of beauty: unity, proportion,
clarity
7 PLATO. Republic, BK in, 333b-334b; BK iv,
342b-c / Ttmaeus, 448a-c; 474d-475a / Sophist,
561b-d / Statesman, 594a-c / Philebus, 630d-
631 d, 637c-638a / Laws, BK n, 660a-661b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [
329c-330a/ Metaphysics, BK i, en
502d; BK xin, CH 3 [io78a^9~b5] 610a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[645*4-26] 168d-169a / Ethics, BK n, CH 6
[no6b6-i4] 352a; BK iv, CH 2 [1122*34-
H23U33] 369a-370b passim; CH 3 [112^4-7]
370b / Politics, BK in, CH n [i28ibio-i5J
479b-c; CH 13 [i284b3-i2] 482c-d; BK v, CH 9
[i309b23-:$o] 512a; BK vn, CH 4 [1326^0-35]
530c / Poetics, CH 7 [i45ob23-i45ifti5] 685b-c
11 NICOMACIIUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 814a; 820a;
826d 827a; BK n, 839d-840b
16 KEPLI-R' Harmonies of the World, 1079b
17 PLOTINUS. First Ennead, IR vi, CH 1-2 21a-
22b / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 22, 333b; TR
ix, CH i 353d-354b
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK iv, par 20 24b-c
/ City of God, BK n, CH 21, 161b-c; BK xi, CH
22, 334b; BK XVH, CH 14, 464d, BK xxn, CH
19, 604d-605a; CH 24, 610c-611b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 39, A 8, ANS 210a-213a;
Q 91, A 3 486b-487d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 2, REP i 2b-4a; Q 54, A i, ANS 22d-23d;
PART II-II, Q l8o, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c
29 CERVANTES* Don Quixote, PART i, 184b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 44c-d
33 PASCAL: Pcnstcs, 28 176a
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK n, CH xn,
SECT 5, 148b
42 KANT: Judgement, 471b-473a; 485c-491c;
493c-495a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185c-d;
PART i, 219b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 277a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 301d-302a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 186b; 755a
Id to 3
CHAPTER 6: BEAUTY
121
Id. The distinction between the beautiful and
the sublime
42 KANT: judgement, 473a; 480a-482b; 488a-
489a; 495a-539d esp 495a-496d, 499b-c,
501d-502a, 502d-512a
2. Beauty in nature and in art
7 PLATO: Symposium, 167a-d / Republic, BK n-
iii, 320c-334b / Timaeus, 447a-448c / Sophist,
561b-d / Statesman, 594a-c / Philebus, 630d-
631d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246aio-bi9]
329c-330a / Metaphysics, BK xm, CH 3
[io78*3i-b6] 609d-610a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[645*4-26] 168d-169a / Politics, BK in, CH n
[i28ibio-i5] 479b-c; BK vm, CH 5 [1340*24-29]
545d / Poetics, CH 7 685b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK iv, SECT 20 265a*b
17 PLOTINUS : Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 1-3 239b-
241a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 39,
A 8, ANS 210a-213a; Q 91, A 3 486b-487d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 2, REP i 2b-4a; Q 50, A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; Q 54,
A i, ANS 22d-23d
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [11,94 1-972] 366b-
367a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 93b-d; 230b-231c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [291-297] 181b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 29 176a; 32 176a-b; 134 196a
42 KANT: Judgement, 473a-d; 488a-489a; 494c-
496c; 501d-502a; 521b-524besp 523c-d; 525a-
528c; 544c-546d esp 546a-c; 557a-558b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 219b-c;
254b-d; PART n, 264a-268b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [134-157] 4a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 276b-277b
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 94c-95c; 235c-d /
Descent of Man, 576b-577d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 186b
3. Beauty in relation to desire and love, as
object or cause
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:6; 6:1-2; 12:11-20;
26:7-11; 29:15-31; 39:6-20 / Deuteronomy,
21:10-13 / I Samuel, 16:7— (D) I Kings, 16:7 /
// Samuel, n; 13:1-19— (D) II Kings, n;
13:1-19 / Esther, 2:15-17 / Proverbs, 6:24-26 /
Song of Solomon— (D) Canticle of Canticles /
Isaiah, 53:2— (D) Isaias, 53:2
APOCRYPHA -.Judith, 11:20-23; 12:16-20; 16:7-9—
(D) OT, Judith, 11:18-21; 12:16-20; 16:8-11 /
Ecclesiasticus, 9:8; 25:21; 36:22— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 9:8-9; 25:28; 36:24 / Susanna—
(D) OT, Daniel, 13
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK in [121-160] 20b-c; BK xiv
(153-351] 99d-101d
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1-67] 298a-d; [229-305]
300b-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae [611-634] 622a-
b; [877-11 1 i]625b-628a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 2d-3d; BK v,
168d-169a; BK vi, 196d-197K
7 PLATO: Charmidcs, lb-2a / Phaedrus, 120a-c;
/ Republic, BK in, 333b-334b / Timaeus, 455a-c
/ Laws, BK v, 687b; BK vm, 735c-736c; 738a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7
[io72*23-b4] 602b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1141-
1170] 59a-b
12 EPICTETUS. Discourses, BK n, CH 22, 169b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [657-722] 121a-123a; BK
iv [1-30] 167a-b; BK vm [369-393] 269a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi 21a-26a / Third Ennead, TR v, CH i lOOc-
lOlc / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 12 234a-d; TR
vm, CH 9, 244b-c / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 22
332d-333b; CH 30-34 336b-338d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 15 23a-b;
par 20 24b-c; par 24-27 25b-26a; BK vn, par 23
50b-c; BK x, par 8-38 73b-81a; par 51-53
84b-85a / City of God, BK xn, CH 6, 346a-b;
BK xxn, CH 24, 610c-611b
19 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A 4,
REP i 25d-26c; PART i-n, Q 27, A i, REP 3
737b-d; A 2, ANS 737d-738c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q
180, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c; PART in, Q 6, A i,
REP 3 740b-741b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v [73-142] 7d-
8b; PURGATORY, xxvn 94c-96a; xxx-xxxi
99b-102b; PARADISE, xxvn [88-96] 148b;
xxx [1-33] 151d-152a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
48-50 27b-28a / Physician's Tale 366a-371a esp
[12,055-191] 368a-370b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 84b-85a; 230b-231c;
310d-312a; 398c-399d; 432d-434c; 513a-514a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT iv,
sc in [299-332] 271c-d / Romeo and Juliet,
ACT i, sc i [214-244] 287d-288a; sc v [43-55]
292b; ACT n, sc n [1-32] 294b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n [61-92] 114b-c / Antony and Cleopatra,
ACT n, sc ii [196-250] 320d-321b / Sonnets, xx
589b;xxiv 589d-590a; LIV 594c;cxxx 606a-b
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART n, 381d-382a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371d
32 MILTON: Comus [667-823] 48a-52a / Paradise
Lost, BK vm [500-560] 243a-244a / Samson
Agonistes [1003-1007] 361b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 15b-c; 17b-c; 50d-51a;
130b-c;331b-332a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346a; 347b-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 476a-483d
44 BOSWELLI Johnson, 485a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 220b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [6377-6565] 156a-
160a esp [6483-6500] 158b; [8516-8523] 207b;
[9192-9355] 223b-227a
122
THE GREAT IDEAS
4/o6
(3. Beauty in relation to desire and hvt, as object
or cause.)
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 95c / Descent of
Man, 301c; 366b-c; 481c<482b; 571b-576b
passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 4a; 5d-6b;
49a-b; BK n, 80d-81a; BK m, 113a-115a;
120c-123a; 141b-d; BK vi, 235a-238a; BK vm,
316d-317d; BK xi, 497d-498b; S30c-d; BK
xn, 541b-542b; EPILOGUE i, 659a; 660b-c
52 DOSFOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK HI,
53d-54b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 865b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 775b c
4, Beauty and ugliness in relation to pleasure
and pain
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 266d-267a / Philebus, 630d-
631d / Laws, BK n, 654a-656c; BK vir, 720c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 7 [146*21-32]
200a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[645*4-26] 168d-169a / Ethics, BK in, CH 10
[in8Ai-i6] 364c / Politics, BK vm, CH 3
[i}37b27-i3}8»29] 543a-c; CH 5 [1340*24-29]
545d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6 [i362b5~9] 603b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 1-7 21a-25a
passim / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 12, 234a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 51-53
84b-85a '
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 91, A 3, REP 3 486b-
487d; PART MI, Q n, A i, REP 2 666b,d-667a;
Q 27, A i, REP 3 737b-d; Q 32, A 8, ANS 764c-
765b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 184b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 32 176a-b
42 KANT. Judgement, 471d-473a; 476a-495a,c esp
488a-489a; 502d-503d; 516d-518d; 527b-528c
esp 527d-528a; 537a-539d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 220b-c;
PART ii, 267b-268b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [8697-8811] 211b-
214a; [11,288-303] 274b-275a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 95a-d / Descent of
Man, 301d-302a; 568d-571b passim; 577b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 190d-192b
53 TAMES: Psychology, 157a; 755a-757b esp
755a-b; 886b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 643c /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 775b
5. Judgments of beauty: the objective and the
subjective in aesthetic judgments or
judgments of taste
7 PLATO: Ion 142a-148a,c / Symposium, 167a-d
/ Gorgias, 261a-c / Republic, BK m, 333b-334b
/ Statesman, 593d~595a / Laws, BK n, 654a-
656b; 660a-662a; BK HI, 675c-676b; BK vn,
720c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH n [i28ia43-bi5]
479b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1141-
ii7o]59a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 1 175a-177c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK iv, SECT 20 265a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-
23a / Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH u, 287b-c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK iv, par 20 24b-c;
BK vn, par 23 50b-c / City of God, BK vin, CH
6, 269b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; PART i-n, Q 27, A i, REP 3
737b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART H-II, Q
180, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c; PART HI SUPPL, Q
94, A i, REP 2 1040d-1041b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [79-
120] 69c-70a; xxvi [91-126] 93d-94b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
273d-274a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 230b-231c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT v, sc
i [98-110] 431d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371b-372d
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 32-33 176a-b; 105 193a; 114
194b; 381 238b
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xn,
SECT 5 148a-b
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
42 KANT : Pure Reason, 23d [fn i] / Judgement,
471b-473a; 476a-495a,c; 513b-516b; 516d-
517c; 524d-525a; 540a-546d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 202 b; 362 b-c
46 HEGEL, Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185c-d;
PART ii, 264b-268c; 280b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 95a-d / Descent of
Man, 301c-302a; 462d-463a; 569c; 571c-577d
esp 575d, 577b-c; 595c>596a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 191b-192b;
BKvm,318a-320b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 755b-757b; 886b-888a
6. The role of the beautiful in education
7 PLATO: Symposium, 167a-d / Gorgias, 261a-c
/ Republic, BK H-III, 320c-334b esp BK in,
333b-334b; BK vm, 409d / Laws, BK ii 653a-
663d; BK in, 675c-676b; BK vn, 720c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vm, CH 3 542d-543d,
CH 5-7 544c-548a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH n, 242a-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi 21a-26a / Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 2
246d-247b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 23 50b-c
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 381 238b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24a
7to7c
CHAPTER 6; BEAUTY
123
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 300a-b
42 KANT: Judgement, 462b-d; 485b-491c; 493a-b;
513d-514b, 521b-523c; 528b-c; 548c-549d;
586d-587a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185c-d;
PARF ii, 267a-268b; PART iv, 346d-347a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 302a-b, 595c-
596a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 288a; 757a-b
7. Intelligible beauty
la. The beauty of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 27.4; 90 17; 93, 97 6—
(D) Psalms, 26:4, 89:17; 92, 96:6 / Isaiah,
28.5, J3:i5-i7-(0) Isaias, 28.5; 33:15-17 /
Zechariah, 9.17— (D) Zachanas, 9:17
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 13; 11-5— (D)
OT, Boo!( of Wisdom, 13:1-5
7 PLATO. Symposium, 167a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 602a-
603b; BK xiv, CH 4 [1091*29-1092*9] 624a-d
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR vi, CH 6-9 24a-26a
/ Fifth Ennead, TR vin, CH I-TR ix, CH 2
239b-247b / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 30-36
336b-339d
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK i, par 4 2a; BK
n, par 12 llc-d; BK in, par 10, 15b; BK iv,
par 29 26b; BK vn, par 23 50b-c; BK x, par
8-38 73b-81a; par 53 84d-85a; BK xi, par 6
90c-d/ City of God, BK vm, CH 6, 269b-c; BK
xi, en 4, 324b
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 39,
A 8, ANS 210a-213a; P*RT i-n, Q 3, AA 4-5
625a-627a, A 8 628d-629c; Q 4, A i esp REP 2
629d-630b
21 DAN i E. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-66]
115d, xxx-xxxin 151d-157d
31 DESCARTES. Meditations, HI, 88d-89a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [372-389] 143b-
144a
lb. The beauty of the universe
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 8; 19:1-6; 104; 136:1-9
— (D) Psalms, 8; 18:1-7; I035 J35:I~9
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 13:1-9— (D)
OT, BooJ^ of Wisdom, 13-1-9 / Ecclesiasticus,
16:26-27; 43 — (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 16:26-
27M3
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447a-448c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [984b8-22]
502d, BK xii, CH 7 [io72b3o-io73B2] 603a;
CH 10 [1075*12-24] 605d-606a; BK xiv, CH 4
[1091*29-1092*9] 624a-d
9 ARISTOTLE : Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[645*4-26] 168d-169a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 839d-840b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 2 259d-
260a; BK vi, SECT 36-38 277c-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 526a-529a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 853b-887a passim,
esp 863b-872b / Harmonies of the World,
1023b-1085b esp 1049b-1050a, 1071b, 1077b-
1080b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 17 76b-
77a / Third Ennead, TR n, CH 3 83d-84c; CH
10-14 88a-89d / Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 8-9
243c-244c; CH 12-13 245c-246c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 16-23
48c-50c; BK x, par 8-10 73b-74a / City of God,
BK v, CH ii 216c-d, BK vm, CH 6 268d<269c;
BK x, CH 14 307c-308a; BK xi, CH 4, 324a-b;
CH 18 331d-332a, CH 22-2} 333d-335c; BK xn,
CH 4-5 344b-345b; BK xxii, CH 24 609a-612a
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 4 625b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 9, REP 2 116d-117d; Q 23, A 8, REP 2 140a-
141a, Q 66, A i 343d-345c; Q 74, A 3, REP 3
375a-377a,c
20 AQUINAS . Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 91 1016a-1025b
21 D\NTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [1-36]
120b-c, xxvin 148d-150b
28 GILBFRT. Loadstone, BK v, 104b-10Sd
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 491d-492a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 36-APPENDIX
369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vii [548-568]
229a-b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a
35 BERKELEY • Human Knowledge, SECT 109
434b, SFCT 146 442a-b; SECT 151-154 443b-
444b
37 FIELDING Tom Jones, 186c-d
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 187c-188c / Judgement,
544c-546d
52 DOSTOIEVSKY : Brothers Karamazov^ BK vi,
153b-d
7c. Beauty in the order of ideas
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 7:24-29;
8:1-2— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 7:24-29;
8:1-2
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-d / Phaedrus, 126b-d /
Symposium, 167a-d / Gorgias, 266d / Repub-
lic, BK in, 333b-334b; BK v, 370d-373c; BK
vi, 383d-388a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xin, CH 3
[1078*3 i-b6] 609d-610a
17 PLOTINUS • First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d /
Fifth Ennead, TR vm 239b-246c; TR ix, CH 2,
246d; CH n 250c-251a / Sixth Ennead, TR vn,
CH 22 332d-333b, CH 30-33, 336d-338b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 12 llc-d /
City of God, BK xxii, CH 24, 61 la
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q
180, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxvn
94c-96a; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, xiv
[67-139] 127c-128b; xxx [1-33] 151d-152a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 381d-382a
124
THE GREAT IDEAS
(7. Intelligible beauty. 7c, Beauty in the order of
ideas.)
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 33 176b
42 KANT: Judgement, 508b-c; 553b-<!
53 JAMES: Psychology, 755a; 757a-758a
7d. Beauty in the moral order
7 PLATO: Charmides, lb-2a / Symposium, 164 b-
167b / Republic, BK n-ni, 320c-334b esp BK
HI, 333b-334b; BK v, 357d-358a / Theaetetus,
5l3a-b; 535c / Philebus, 637c-638a / Laws, BK
ii, 654a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ii, CH 6 351c-352d; BK
iv, CH 2 368d-370b; CH 3 [1123^-?] 370b /
Politics, BK HI, CH ii [i28ibio-i5] 479b-c; CH
13 [i284b3~i2] 482c-d; BK v, CH 9 [i309bi8-
1310*2] 511d-512b; BK vn, CH 4 [1326*30-35]
530c
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK in, CH i 175a-
177c; BK iv, CH ii, 242a-d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi 21a-26a passim / Second Ennead, TR ix,
CH 17, 76c / Pifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 2 246d-
247b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 12 llc-d /
City of God, BK n, CH 21, 161b-c; BK xvn, CH
14, 464d; BK xxn, CH 19, 605 b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 93,
A 8, REP 3 499b-500c; Q 96, A 3, REP 3 512a-c;
PART i-n, Q 27, A 2, ANS 737d-738c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A I, CONTRARY 307d-309dj PART II-II,
Q 180, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c; PART in SUPPL,
Q 82, A i, REP 5 968a-970c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxvn
94c-96a; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, xiv
[67-139] 127c-128b; xxvn [88-96] 148b; xxx
[1-33] 151d-152a
25 MoNTAiGNE:Zi.wfly.f, 84b-85a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT in, sc
n [73-107] 420d-421a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Twelfth Night, ACT i, sc n
[47-51] 2b / Hamlet, ACT in, sc i [103-116]
48a / Sonnets, LIV 594c; LXVI-LXX 596b-597a;
xcni-xcvi 600b-601a
29 CERVANTES. Don Quixote, PART ii, 381d-
382a
32 MILTON: Comus [417-475] 42b-44a
42 KANT: Judgement, 488b-489a; 508b-c; 521b-
523c;546d-548c
46 HFGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 266a-
267a, 276a-d, 278a-c; 280b-c; PART iv, 346d-
347a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 543b-544b;
EPILOGUE i, 670c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 755a; 757a
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the relation of beauty to goodness and truth, see GOOD AND EVIL ic;
TRUTH ic; and for the relation of grades of beauty to degrees of perfection in being, sec
BEING 33.
Unity, order, and proportion as elements of beauty, sec RELATION 50.
The consideration of beauty as an object of love or desire, see DESIRE 2b; LOVE id.
The theory of the aesthetic judgment or the judgment of taste, see SENSE 6; and for the
controversy over the objectivity and universality of such judgments, see CUSTOM 93;
RELATION 6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 70.
The problem of cultivating good taste and critical judgment in the field of the fine arts, see
ART 7b; POETRY 8a-8b.
The context of the comparison of beauty in nature and in art, sec ART 23-3; NATURE aa, 5d;
PLEASURE AND PAIN 40(1).
Consideration of the kind of knowledge which is involved in the apprehension of beauty, see
KNOWLEDGE 63(2), 6c(i).
Another discussion of sensible and intelligible beauty, sec SENSE 6; and for the intelligible
beauty of God and of the universe, see GOD 4h; WORLD 6d.
CHAPTER 6: BEAUTY
125
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups*
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
F. BACON. "Of Beauty," "Of Deformity," in Essays
HOBBES Concerning Body, PART 11, CH 10
BERKELEY. Alctfhron, in
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART
IV
HEGEL. The Philosophy of Fine Art
C. R. DARWIN. The Different Forms of Flowers on
Plants of the Same Species
II.
LONGINUS. On the Sublime
EBREO The Philosophy of Love, DIALOGUE in
SHAFTFSBURY. Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opin-
ions, Times
LEIBNITZ. Monadology, par 1-9
HUTCHESON. An Inquiry into the Original of Our
Ideas of Beauty and Virtue
BURKE. A Philosophical Enquity into the Origin of
Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, PART i-iv
VOLTAIRE. "Beautiful," "Taste," in A Philosophical
Dictionary
T. REID. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,
VIII
SCHILLER. Letters upon the Esthetic Education of
Man
JEAN PAUL. Vorschule der Asthetit^
D. STEWART. Philosophical Essays, PART n
COUSIN. Lectures on the True, the Beautiful and the
Good
HAZLIIT. On Taste
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL
in, SUP, CH 33
STENDHAL. On Love
CHALMERS. On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of
God
KIERKEGAARD. Either/Or, PART n
A. HUMBOLDT. Cosmos
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK vm, CH 3
EMERSON. "Love," in Essays, i
. "Beauty," in The Conduct of Life
RUSKIN. Sesame and Lilies
VERON. Aesthetics
LIPPS. Asthetit^
SANTA VAN A. The Sense of Beauty, PART i-iv
. Reason tn Art, CH 10
POINCARE. Science and Method, BK i, CH 3
CROCF. Aesthetic as Science of Expression
. The Essence of Esthetics
CARRITT. The Theory of Beauty
BOSANQUET. Science and Philosophy, 22-24
. Three Lectures on Aesthetic, i, in
WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality, PART in, CH 2(2),
3(3,5). 5(7-8)
BIRKHOFF. Aesthetic Measure
GILL. Beauty Lool(s After Herself
MAURON Aesthetics and Psychology
Chapter 7: BEING
INTRODUCTION
/fcT"THE words "is" and "(is) not" arc probably
JL the words most frequently used by anyone.
They are unavoidable, by implication at least,
in every statement. They have, in addition,
a greater range of meaning than any other
words.
Their manifold significance seems to be of a
very special kind, for whatever is said not to be
in one sense of being can always be said to be in
another of its senses. Children and practiced
liars know this. Playing on the meanings of be-
ing, or with "is" and "not," they move smooth-
ly from fact to fiction, imagination to reality,
or truth to falsehood.
Despite the obviousness and commonplace-
ness of the questions which arise with any con-
sideration of the meanings of "is," the study of
being is a highly technical inquiry which only
philosophers have pursued at length. Berkeley
gives one reason why they cannot avoid this
task. "Nothing seems of more importance," he
says, "towards erecting a firm system of sound
and real knowledge . . . than to lay the begin-
ning in a distinct explication of what is meant
by thing, reality ', existence; for in vain shall we
dispute concerning the real existence of things,
or pretend to any knowledge thereof, so long
as we have not fixed the meaning of those
words."
In the whole field of learning, philosophy is
distinguished from other disciplines — from his-
tory, the sciences, and mathematics — by its
concern with the problem of being. It alone
asks about the nature of existence, the modes
and properties of being, the difference between
being and becoming, appearance and reality,
the possible and the actual, being and non-
being. Not all philosophers ask these questions;
nor do all who ask such questions approach or
formulate them in the same way. Nevertheless,
the attempt to answer them is a task peculiar to
philosophy. Though it often leads to subtleties,
it also keeps the philosopher in deepest touch
with common sense and the speculative wonder
of all men.
As A TECHNICAL concept in philosophy, being
has been called both the richest and the empti-
est of all terms in the vocabulary of thought.
Both remarks testify to the same fact, namely,
that it is the highest abstraction, the most uni-
versal of predicates, and the most pervasive
subject of discussion.
William James is in that long line of philoso-
phers which began with the early Greeks when
he points out that "in the strict and ultimate
sense of the word 'existence,' everything which
can be thought of at all exists as some sort of
object, whether mythical object, individual
thinker's object, or object in outer space and
for intelligence at large." Even things which do
not really exist have being insofar as they are
objects of thought — things remembered which
once existed, things conceivable which have
the possibility of being, things imaginary which
have being at least in the mind that thinks
them. This leads to a paradox which the an-
cients delighted in pondering, that even noth-
ing is something, even non-being has being, for
before we can say "non-being is not" we must
be able to say "non-being is." Nothing is at least
an object of thought.
Any other word than "being" will tend to
classify things. The application of any other
name will divide the world into things of the
sort denominated as distinct from everything
else. "Chair," for example, divides the world
into things which are chairs and all other ob-
jects; but "being" divides something or any-
thing from nothing and, as we have seen, even
applies to nothing.
"All other names," Aquinas writes, "arc
126
CHAPTER 7: BEING
127
either less universal, or, if convertible with it,
add something above it at least in idea; hence
in a certain way they inform and determine
it." The concepts which such words express
have, therefore, a restricted universality. They
apply to all things of a certain fynd, but not to
all things^ things of every kind or type. With
the exception of a few terms inseparably associ-
ated with 'being' (or, as Aquinas says, converti-
ble with it), only being is common to all kinds
of things. When every other trait peculiar to a
thing is removed, its being remains — the fact
that it is in some sense.
If we start with a particular of any sort, clas-
sifying it progressively according to the char-
acteristics which it shares with more and more
things, we come at last to being. According to
this method of abstraction, which Hegel fol-
lows in his Science of Logic, 'being' is the empti-
est of terms precisely because it is the com-
monest. It signifies the very least that can be
thought of anything. On this view, if all we are
told of something is that it is—that it has being
—we learn as little as possible about the thing.
We have to be told that a thing is a material or
a spiritual being, a real or an imaginary being, a
living or a human being, in order to apprehend
a determinate nature. Abstracted from every-
thing else, 'being' has only the positive meaning
of excluding 'non-being.'
There is an opposite procedure by which the
term being has the maximal rather than the
minimal significance. Since whatever else a
thing is, it is a being, its being lies at the very
heart of its nature and underlies all its other
properties. Being is indeterminate only in the
sense that it takes on every sort of determina-
tion. Wherever being is found by thought, it
is understood as a determined mode of being.
To conceive being in this way, we do not re-
move every difference or determination, but on
the contrary, embrace all, since all are differ-
ences or determinations of being.
Aquinas, for example, conceives "being tak-
en simply as including all perfections of being";
and in the Judaeo-Christian tradition, 'being'
without qualification is taken as the most prop
er name for God. When Moses asked God His
name, he received as answer: "I AM THAT I
AM . . . Thus shalt thou say unto the children
of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you." Used
in this sense, 'being* becomes the richest of
terms— the one which has the greatest ampli-
tude of meaning.
BOTH WAYS OF thinking about being are rele-
vant to the problem of the relations among the
various meanings of 'being.' Both are also re-
lated to the problem of whether being is one or
many — the problem first raised by the Eleatics,
exhaustively explored in Plato's ParmcntdeSj
and recurrent in the thought of Plotinus, Spi-
noza, and Hegel.
The two problems are connected. If every-
thing that is exists only as a part of being as a
whole, or if the unity of being requires every-
thing to be the same in being, then whatever
diversities there are do not multiply the mean-
ings of being. Although he speaks of substance
rather than of being, Spinoza argues that
"there cannot be any substance excepting God,
and consequently none other can be con-
ceived." From this it follows that "whatever
is, is in God, and nothing can be or be con-
ceived without God."
Since "there cannot be two or more sub-
stances of the same nature or attribute," and
since God is defined as a "substance consisting
of infinite attributes, each one of which ex-
presses eternal and infinite essence," it is ab-
surd, in Spinoza's opinion, to think of any
other substance. "If there were any substance
besides God, it would have to be explained,"
he says, "by some attribute of God, and thus
two substances would exist possessing the same
attribute," which is impossible.
Spinoza's definition of substance, attribute,
and mode or affection, combined with his axi-
om that "everything which is, is either in itself
or in another," enables him to embrace what-
ever multiplicity or diversity he finds in the
world as aspects of one being. Everything
which is not substance, existing in and of itself,
exists in that one substance as an infinite attri-
bute or a finite mode. "The thing extended
(rem extensam) and the thinking thing (rem
cogitantem)" he writes, "are either attributes
of God or affections of the attributes of God."
If, on the contrary, there is no unitary whole
of being, but only a plurality of beings which
are alike in being and yet are diverse in being
from one another, then our conception of being
128
THE GREAT IDEAS
must involve a system of meanings, a stem of
many branches. Descartes, for example, dis-
tinguishes between an infinite being, whose
essence involves its existence, and finite beings,
which do not necessarily exist of themselves
but must be caused to exist. The infinite being
which is God causes, but does not contain with-
in itself, other finite substances; and among
finite things, Descartes holds, "two substances
are said to be really distinct, when each of them
can exist apart from the other."
In addition to God — "that substance which
we understand to be supremely perfect"— Des-
cartes defines two kinds of finite substance.
"That substance in which thought immediately
resides, I call Mind," he writes; and "that sub-
stance, which is the immediate subject of ex-
tension in space, and of the accidents that pre-
suppose extension, e.g., figure, situation, move-
ment in space, etc., is called Body." All these
substances, and even their accidents, have be-
ing, but not being of the same kind or to the
same degree. "There are," according to Des-
cartes, "diverse degrees of reality, or (the qual-
ity of being an) entity. For substance has more
reality than accident or mode; and infinite sub-
stance has more than finite substance." Its be-
ing is independent, theirs dependent.
The issue between Spinoza and Descartes — a
single substance or many— is only one of the
ways in which the problem of the unity or di-
versity of being presents itself. Both Plato and
Aristotle, for example, affirm a multiplicity of
separate existences, but though both are, in
this sense, plurahsts, being seems to have one
meaning for Plato, many for Aristotle.
According to Plato's distinction between be-
ing and becoming, only the immutable es-
sences, the eternal ideas, are beings, and though
they are many in number, they all belong to
one realm and possess the same type of being.
But for Aristotle, not only do perishable as well
as imperishable substances exist; not only is
there sensible and mutable as well as immaterial
and eternal being; but the being which sub-
stances possess is not the same as that of acci-
dents; essential is not the same as accidental
being; potential being is not the same as being
actual; and to be is not the same as to be con-
ceived, that is, to exist in reality is not the
same as to exist in mind.
Again and again Aristotle insists that "there
are many senses in which a thing is said to be
. . . Some things are said to be because they are
substances, others because they are affections
of substance, others because they are in process
towards substance, or destructions or priva-
tions or qualities of substance, or productive or
generative of substance, or of things which are
relative to substance, or negations of one of
these things or of substance itself. It is for this
reason," he continues, "that we say even of
non-being that it is non-being"; and, in another
place, he adds that "besides all these there is
that which 'is' potentially or actually."
All these senses of being, according to Aris-
totle, "refer to one starting point," namely,
substance, or that which has being in and of
itself. "That which is primarily, /.£., not m a
qualified sense," he writes, "must be a sub-
stance." But when he also says that "that
which 'is' primarily is the 'what' which indi-
cates the substance of a thing," he seems to be
using the words "substance" and "essence"
interchangeably. This, in turn, seems to be re-
lated to the fact that, although Aristotle dis-
tinguishes between actual and potential being,
and between necessary or incorruptible and
contingent or corruptible beings, he, like Plato
and unlike Aquinas, Descartes, or Spinoza,
does not consider whether the essence and exist-
ence of a being are identical or separate.
It may be held that this distinction is im-
plied, since a contingent being is one which is
able not to exist, whereas a necessary being
cannot not exist. A contingent being is, there-
fore, one whose essence can be divorced from
existence; a necessary being, one which must be
precisely because its essence is identical with
its existence. But the explicit recognition of a
real distinction between essence and existence
seems to be reserved for the later theologians
and philosophers who conceive of an infinite
being, as Aristotle does not.
The infinity of a being lies not only in its
possession of all perfections, but even more
fundamentally in its requiring no cause outside
itself for its own existence. "That thing," says
Aquinas, "whose being differs from its essence,
must have its being caused by another That
which has being, but is not being, is a being by
participation." Where Aristotle makes sub-
CHAPTER 7: BEING
stance the primary type of being, and the
"starting-point1* of all its other meanings,
Aquinas makes the infinite being of God,
whose very essence it is to be, the source of
all finite and participated beings, in which there
is a composition of existence and essence,
or "of that whereby they are and that which
they are"
Since "being itself is that whereby a thing
is," being belongs to God primarily and to all
other things according to modes of derivation
or participation. God and his creatures can be
called "beings" but, Aquinas points out, not in
the identically same sense, nor yet with utter
diversity of meaning. A similarity— a sameness-
m-diversity or analogy — obtains between the
unqualified being of God and the being of all
other things, which have being subject to vari-
ous qualifications or limitations.
All other questions about being are affected
by the solution of these basic problems con-
cerning the unity of being, the kinds of being,
and the order of the various kinds. If they are
solved in one way — in favor of unity — certain
questions are not even raised, for they are gen-
uine only on the basis of the other solution
which finds being diverse. The discussion, in the
chapters on SAME AND OTHER, and on SIGN
AND SYMBOL, of sameness, diversity, and anal-
ogy is, therefore, relevant to the problem of
how things are at once alike and unlike in being.
THE GREEKS, NOTABLY Plato and Aristotle,
began the inquiry about being. They realized
that after all other questions are answered,
there still remains the question, What does it
mean to say of anything that it tsor is not} After
we understand what it means for a thing to be
a man, or to be alive, or to be a body, we must
still consider what it means for that thing sim-
ply to be in any way at all; or to be in one sense,
and not to be in another.
The discussion of being, in itself and in rela-
tion to unity and truth, rest and motion, runs
through many dialogues of Plato. It is central
in the Sophist and Parmenides. The same terms
and problems appear in Aristotle's scientific
treatise which makes being its distinctive sub-
ject matter, and which he sometimes calls "first
philosophy" and sometimes "theology." It be-
longs to this science, he declares, "to consider
being qua being— both what it is and the prop-
erties which belong to it qua being."
As pointed out in the chapter on META-
PHYSICS, it is an historical accident that this
inquiry concerning being came to be called
"metaphysics," That is the name which, ac-
cording to legend, the ancient editors gave to a
collection of writings in which Aristotle pur-
sued this inquiry. Since they came after the
books on physics, they were called "meta-
physics" on the supposition that Aristotle in-
tended the discussion of being to follow his
treatise on change and motion.
If one were to invent a word to describe the
science of being, it would be "ontology," not
"metaphysics" or even "theology." Yet "meta-
physics" has remained the traditionally accept-
ed name for the inquiry or science which goes
beyond physics— or all of natural science— in
that it asks about the very existence of things,
and their modes of being. The traditional con-
nection of metaphysics with theology, discussed
in the chapters on THEOLOGY and META-
PHYSICS, seems to have its origin in the fact
that Aristotle's treatise on being passes from a
consideration of sensible and mutable substan-
ces to the problem of the existence of imma-
terial beings, and to the conception of a divine
being, purely actual, absolutely immutable.
In a science intended to treat "of that which
is primarily, and to which all the other cate-
gories of being are referred, namely, substance,"
Aristotle says, "we must first sketch the nature
of substance." Hence he begins with what he
calls "the generally recognized substances.
These are the sensible substances." He post-
pones until later his critical discussion of "the
Ideas and the objects of mathematics, for some
say these are substances in addition to the sen-
sible substances"; yet he directs his whole in-
quiry to the ultimate question "whether there
arc or are not any besides sensible substances,"
His attempt to answer this question in the
twelfth book makes it the theological part of
his Metaphysics.
THOUGH THEIR ORDER of discussion is different,
the metaphysicians of the lyth century, like
Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibnitz, deal with
many, if not all, major points in the analysis
of being which the Greek philosophers initi-
130
THE GREAT IDEAS
atcd and the mediaeval theologians developed.
Later philosophers, whose mam concern is with
the origin and validity of human knowledge,
come to the traditional metaphysical questions
through an analysis, not of substance or essence,
existence or power, but of our ideas of substance
and power.
This transformation of the ancient problem
of being is stated by Berkeley in almost epi-
grammatic form. Considering "what is meant
by the term exist" he argues from the experi-
ence of sensible things that "their esse \spercipi,
nor is it possible they should have any exist-
ence, out of the minds or thinking things which
perceive them." Locke, too, although he does
not identify being with perception, makes the
same shift on the ground that "the first step
towards satisfying several inquiries the mind of
man was apt to run into, was to make a survey
of our own understandings, examine our own
powers, and see to what things they were
adapted.'*
Once the problems of being are viewed first
in terms of the mind, the questions for the
philosopher become primarily those of the rela-
tion of our definitions to real and nominal es-
sences, the conditions of our knowledge of ex-
istence, and the identification of the real and
ideal with perceptible matters of fact and intel-
ligible relations between ideas.
For Kant the basic distinction is between
the sensible and supra-sensible, or the phenom-
enal and noumenal, realms of being. From an-
other point of view, Kant considers the being
of things in themselves apart from human ex-
perience and the being of natural things or,
what is the same for him, the things of experi-
ence. The former are unconditioned, the latter
conditioned, by the knowing mind which is
formative or constitutive of experience.
"The sole aim of pure reason," Kant writes,
"is the absolute totality of the synthesis on the
side of the conditions ... in order to preposit
the whole series of conditions, and thus present
them to the understanding a priori" Having
obtained these "conditions," we can ascend
through them "until we reach the uncondi-
tioned, that is, the principles." It is with these
ideas of pure reason that metaphysics, accord-
ing to Kant, properly deals. Instead of being, its
object consists in "three grand ideas: God,
Freedom, and Immortality, and it aims at
showing that the second conception, conjoined
with the first, must lead to the third as a neces-
sary conclusion."
Hegel, on the other hand, does not approach
the problem of being or reality through a cri-
tique of knowledge. For Hegel, as for Plotinus
before him, the heart of metaphysics lies in
understanding that "nothing is actual except
the Idea" or the Absolute, "and the great thing
is to apprehend in the show of the temporal
and the transient, the substance which is imma-
nent, and the eternal which is present." Plo-
tinus calls the absolute, not the Idea, but the
All-one, yet he tries to show that the One is the
principle, the light, and the life of all things,
just as Hegel reduces everything to a manifes-
tation of the underlying reality of the Absolute
Idea.
Despite all such changes in terminology, de-
spite radical differences in philosophical princi-
ple or conclusion, and regardless of the attitude
taken toward the possibility of metaphysics as a
science, the central question which is faced by
anyone who goes beyond physics, or natural
philosophy, is a question about being or exist-
ence. It may or may not be asked explicitly,
but it is always present by implication.
The question about God, for example, or
free will or immortality, is first of all a question
about whether such things exist, and how they
exist. Do they have reality or are they only
fictions of the mind ? Similarly, questions about
the infinite, the absolute, or the unconditioned
are questions about that primary reality apart
from whose existence nothing else could be or
be conceived, and which therefore has an exist-
ence different from the things dependent on it
for their being. Here again the first question is
whether such a reality exists.
Enough has been said to indicate why this
discussion cannot consider all topics which have
some connection with the theory of being. To
try to make this Introduction adequate even
for the topics outlined here, under which the
references to the great books are assembled,
would be to make it almost co-extensive in scope
with the sum of many other Introductions— all,
in fact, which open chapters dealing with meta-
physical concepts or problems.
It is to be expected, of course, that the special
CHAPTER 7: BEING
131
problems of the existence of God, of an immor-
tal soul, and of a free will should be treated in
the chapters on GOD, IMMORTALITY, and WILL.
But it may not be realized that such chapters
as CAUSE, ETERNITY, FORM, INFINITY, IDEA,
MATTER, ONE AND MANY, SAME AND OTHER,
RELATION, UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR— all
these and still others cited in the Cross-Refer-
ences below— include topics which would have
to be discussed here if we were to try to cover
all relevant considerations.
Reasons of economy and intelligibility dic-
tate the opposite course. Limiting the scope of
this Introduction to a few principal points in
the theory of being, we can also exhibit,
through the relation of this chapter to others,
the interconnection of the great ideas. The var-
ious modes of being (such as essence and exist-
ence, substance and accident, potentiality and
actuality, the real and the ideal) and the basic
correlatives of being (such as unity, goodness,
truth) are, therefore, left for fuller treatment
in other contexts. But two topics deserve fur-
ther attention here. One is the distinction be-
tween being and becoming, the other the rela-
tion of being to knowledge.
THE FACT OF CHANGE or motion — of coming to
be and passing away — is so evident to the senses
that it has never been denied, at least not as an
experienced phenomenon. But it has been re-
garded as irrational and unreal, an illusion per-
petrated by the senses. Galen, for instance,
charges the Sophists with "allowing that bread
in turning into blood becomes changed as re-
gards sight, taste, and touch," but denying
that "this change occurs in reality." They ex-
plain it away, he says, as "tricks and illusions of
our senses . . . which are affected now in one
way, now in another, whereas the underlying
substance does not admit of any of these
changes."
The familiar paradoxes of Zeno are reductio
ad absurdum arguments to show that motion is
unthinkable, full of self-contradiction. The way
of truth, according to Parmemdes, Zeno's mas-
ter in the Eleatic school, lies in the insight that
whatever is always was and will be, that noth-
ing comes into being out of non-being, or
passes out of being into nothingness.
The doctrine of Parmenides provoked many
criticisms. Yet his opponents tried to preserve
the reality of change, without having to accord
it the fullness of being. The Greek atomists, for
example, think that change cannot be explained
except in terms of permanent beings— in feet
eternal ones. Lucretius, who expounds their
views, remarks that in any change "something
unchangeable must remain over, that all things
be not utterly reduced to nothing; for when-
ever a thing changes and quits its proper limits,
at once this change of state is the death of that
which was before." The "something unchange-
able" is thought to be the atom, the absolutely
indivisible, and hence imperishable, unit of
matter. Change does not touch the being of the
atoms, "but only breaks up the union amongst
them, and then joins anew the different ele-
ments with others; and thus it comes to pass
that all things change"— that is, all things com-
posite, not the simple bodies of solid singleness
— "when the clashings, motions, arrangement,
position, and shapes of matter change about."
In a conversation with Cratylus, who favors
the Herachtean theory of a universal flux, Soc-
rates asks, "How can that be a real thing which
is never in the same state?" How "can we
reasonably say, Cratylus," he goes on, "that
there is any knowledge at all, if everything is in
a state of transition and there is nothing
abiding"?
When he getsGlaucon to admit in the Repub-
lic that "being is the sphere or subject matter of
knowledge, and knowing is to know the nature
of being," Socrates leads him to see the correla-
tion of being, not- being, and becoming with
knowledge, ignorance, and opinion. "If opinion
and knowledge are distinct faculties then the
sphere of knowledge and opinion cannot be the
same ... If being is the subject matter of
knowledge, something else must be the subject
matter of opinion." It cannot be not-being, for
"of not-being ignorance was assumed to be the
necessary correlative."
Since "opinion is not concerned either with
being or with not- being" because it is obviously
intermediate between knowledge and igno-
rance, Socrates concludes that "if anything ap-
peared to be of a sort which is and is not at the
same time, that sort of thing would appear also
to lie in the interval between pure being and
absolute not-being," and "the corresponding
132
THE GREAT IDEAS
faculty is neither knowledge nor ignorance, but
will be found in the interval between them.'*
This "intermediate flux" or sphere of becom-
ing, this "region of the many and the variable,"
can yield only opinion. Being, the realm of the
"absolute and eternal and immutable [Ideas],"
is the only object that one "may be said to
know."
Aristotle would seem to agree with Plato
that change "partakes equally of the nature of
being and not-being, and cannot rightly be
termed either, pure and simple." He points
out that his predecessors, particularly the Eleat-
ics, held change to be impossible, because they
believed that "what comes to be must do so
either from what is or from what is not, both of
which are impossible." It is impossible, so they
argued, since "what is cannot come to be (be-
cause it is already), and from what is not noth-
ing could have come to be." Aristotle concedes
the cogency of this argument on one condition,
namely, that the terms 'being' and 'not-being'
are taken "without qualification." But his
whole point is that they need not be taken with-
out qualification and should not be, if we wish
to explain change rather than make a mystery
of it.
The qualification Aristotle introduces rests
on the distinction between two modes of being
— the potentiality and actuality correlative
with matter and form. This makes it possible
for him to maintain that "a thing may come to
be from what is not ... in a qualified sense." He
illustrates his meaning by the example of the
bronze, which from a mere lump of metal comes
to be a statue under the hands of the artist. The
bronze, he says, was "potentially a statue," and
the change whereby it came to be actually a
statue is the process between potentiality and
actuality. While the change is going on, the
bronze is neither completely potential nor fully
actual in respect of being a statue.
Like Plato, Aristotle recognizes that there is
"something indefinite" about change. "The
reason," he explains, "is that it cannot be
classed simply as a potentiality or as an actuali-
ty—a thing that is merely capable of having a
certain size is not undergoing change, nor yet
a thing that is actually of a certain size." Change
is "a sort of actuality, but incomplete . . . hard
to grasp, but not incapable of existing.*'
If to exist is to be completely actual, then
changing things and change itself do not fully
exist. They exist only to the extent that they
have actuality. Yet potentiality, no less than
actuality, is a mode of being. That potentiality
—power or capacity— belongs to being seems
also to be affirmed by the Eleatic Stranger in
Plato's Sophist. "Anything which possesses any
sort of power to affect another, or to be affected
by another," he says, "if only for a single mo-
ment, however trifling the cause and however
slight the effect, has real existence ... I hold,"
he adds, "that the definition of being is simply
power."
The basic issue concerning being and becom-
ing, and the issue concerning eternal as opposed
to mutable existence, recur again and again in
the tradition of western thought. They are in-
volved in the distinction between corruptible
and incorruptible substances (which is in turn
connected with the division of substances into
corporeal and spiritual), and with the nature of
God as the only purely actual, or truly eternal,
being. They are implicit in Spinoza's distinc-
tion between natura naturans and natura natu-
rata, and in his distinction between God's
knowledge of things under the aspect of eter-
nity and man's temporal view of the world in
process. They are relevant to Hegel's Absolute
Idea which, while remaining fixed, progressively
reveals itself in the ever-changing face of nature
and history. In our own day these issues engage
Dewey, Santayana, and Whitehead in contro-
versy, as yesterday they engaged Bradley,
William James, and Bergson.
As ALREADY NOTED, Plato's division of reality
into the realms of being and becoming has a
bearing on his analysis of knowledge and opin-
ion. The division relates to the distinction be-
tween the intelligible and the sensible, and be-
tween the opposed qualities of certainty and
probability, or necessity and contingency, in
our judgments about things. The distinctions
between essence and existence and between
substance and accident separate aspects or
modes of being which function differently as
objects for the knowing mind.
Aristotle, for example, holds that "there can
be no scientific treatment of the accidental . . .
for the accidental is practically a mere name.
CHAPTER 7: BEING
133
And," he adds, "Plato was in a sense not wrong
in ranking sophistic as dealing with that which
is not. For the arguments of the sophists deal,
we may say, above all, with the accidental."
That the accidental is "akin to non-being,"
Aristotle thinks may be seen in the fact that
"things which are in another sense come into
being and pass out of being by a process, but
things which are accidentally do not." But
though he rejects the accidental as an object of
science, he does not, like Plato or Plotmus, ex-
clude the whole realm of sensible, changing
things from the sphere of scientific knowledge.
For him, both metaphysics and physics treat of
sensible substances, the one with regard to their
mutable being, the other with regard to their
being mutable— their becoming or changing.
For Plotmus, on the other hand, "the true
sciences have an intelligible object and contain
no notion of anything sensible." They are di-
rected, not "to variable things, suffering from
all sorts of changes, divided in space, to which
the name of becoming and not being belongs,"
but to the "eternal being which is not divided,
existing always in the same way, which is not
born and does not perish, and has neither space,
place, nor situation . . . but rests immovable in
itself."
According to another view, represented by
Locke, substance is as such unknowable, wheth-
er it be body or spirit. We use the word "sub-
stance" to name the "support of such qualities,
which are capable of producing simple ideas in
us; which qualities are commonly called acci-
dents." The sensible accidents are all that we
truly know and "we give the general name sub-
stance" to "the supposed, but unknown, sup-
port of those qualities we find existing." Some
of these sensible accidents are what Locke calls
"primary qualities" — the powers or potentiali-
ties by which things affect one another and also
our senses.
But to the extent that our senses fail to dis-
cover "the bulk, texture, and figure of the mi-
nute parts of bodies, on which their constitu-
tions and differences depend, we are fain to
make use of their secondary qualities, as the
characteristical notes and marks whereby to
frame ideas of them m our mind." Neverthe-
less, powers— which are qualities or accidents,
not substances— seem to be, for Locke, the
ultimate reality we can know. "The secondary
sensible qualities," he writes, "are nothing but
the powers" which corporeal substances have
"to produce several ideas in us by our sense,
which ideas" — unlike the primary qualities —
"are not in the things themselves, otherwise
than as anything is in its cause."
Hobbes exemplifies still another view. "A
man can have no thought," he says, "represent-
ing anything not subject to sense." Hobbes
does not object to calling bodies "substances,"
but thinks that when we speak of "an incorpo-
real body, or (which is all one) an incorporeal
substance," we talk nonsense; "for none of these
things ever have, or can be incident to sense;
but are absurd speeches, taken upon credit
(without any signification at all) from deceived
Philosophers, and deceived, or deceiving,
Schoolmen."
He enumerates other absurdities, such as "the
giving of names of bodies to accidents, or of
accidents to bodies," e.g., by those who say
that "extension is body." Criticism of the fallacy
of reification— the fallacy first pointed out by
Ockham and criticized so repeatedly in con-
temporary semantics— also appears in Hobbes*
warning against making substances out of ab-
stractions or univcrsals "by giving the names of
bodies to names or speeches."
WHENEVER A THEORY of knowledge is concerned
with how we know reality, as opposed to mere
appearances, it considers the manner in which
existing beings can be known— by perception,
intuition, or demonstration; and with respect
to demonstration, it attempts to formulate the
conditions of valid reasoning about matters of
fact or real existence. But it has seldom been
supposed that reality exhausts the objects of
our thought or knowledge. We can conceive
possibilities not realized in this world. We can
imagine things which do not exist in nature.
The meaning of reality — of real as opposed
to purely conceptual or ideal being— is derived
from the notion of thinghood, of having being
outside the mind, not merely in it. In tradition-
al controversies about the existence of ideas—
or of umversals, the objects of mathematics, or
relations— it is not the being of such things
which is questioned, but their reality, their
existence outside the mind. If, for example,
134
THE GREAT IDEAS
ideas exist apart from minds, the minds of men
and God, they have real, not ideal, existence.
If the objects of mathematics, such as numbers
and figures, have existence only as figments of
the mind, they are ideal beings.
The judgment of the reality of a thing, lames
thinks, involves "a state of consciousness sui
gcnerts" about which not much can be said
"in the way of internal analysis." The focus of
this problem in modern times is indicated by
James' phrasing of the question, "Under what
circumstances do we think things real?" And
James gives a typically modern answer to the
question.
He begins by saying that "any object which
remains uncontradicted is ipso facto believed
and posited as absolute reality." He admits
that "for most men . . . the 'things of sense' . . .
are the absolutely real world's nucleus. Other
things," James writes, "may be real for this
man or that— things of science, abstract moral
relations, things of the Christian theology, or
what not. But even for the special man,
these things are usually real with a less real
reality than that of the things of sense." But
his basic conviction is that "our own reality,
that sense of our own life which we at every
moment possess, is the ultimate of ultimates for
our belief. 'As sure as I exist!'— this is our utter-
most warrant for the being of all other things.
As Descartes made the indubitable reality of
the cogito go bail for the reality of all that the
cogtto involvedj so all of us, feeling our own
present reality with absolutely coercive force,
ascribe an all but equal degree of reality, first to
whatever things we lay hold on with a sense of
personal need, and second, to whatever farther
things continuously belong with these."
The self or ego is the ultimate criterion of
being or reality. "The world of living realities
as contrasted with unrealities," James writes,
"is thus anchored in the Ego. . . . That is the
hook from which the rest dangles, the absolute
support. And as from a painted hook it has
been said that one can only hang a painted
chain, so conversely from a real hook only a
real chain can properly be hung. Whatever things
have intimate and continuous connection with my
life are things of whose reality I cannot doubt.
Whatever things fail to establish this connection
are things which are practically no better for
me than if they existed not at all." James
would be the first to concede to any critic of his
position, that its truth and good sense depend
upon noting that word "practically," for it is
"the world of 'practical realities' " with which
he professes to be concerned.
WE CAN IN CONCLUSION observe one obvious
measure of the importance of being in philo-
sophical thought. The major isms by which the
historians of philosophy have tried to classify
its doctrines represent affirmations or denials
with respect to being or the modes of being.
They are such antitheses as realism and ideal-
ism; materialism and spiritualism; monism, du-
alism, and pluralism; even atheism and theism.
Undoubtedly, no great philosopher can be so
simply boxed. Yet the opposing isms do indi-
cate the great speculative issues which no mind
can avoid if it pursues the truth or seeks the
ultimate principles of good and evil.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PACE
1. Diverse conceptions of being and non-being: being as a term or concept; the meanings
of wand is not 136
2. Being and the one and the many 137
20. Infinite being and the plurality of finite beings
2^. The unity of a being
3. Being and good 138
30. The hierarchy of being: grades of reality, degrees of intelligibility
3^. Being as the object of love and desire 139
CHAPTER 7: BEING 135
PAOB
4. Being and truth 139
40. Being as the pervasive object of mind, and the formal object of the first philoso-
phy, metaphysics, or dialectic 140
4^. Being as the measure of truth in judgments of the mind: clarity and distinctness
as criteria of the reality of an idea
5. Being and becoming: the reality of change; the nature of mutable being
6. The cause of existence 141
7. The divisions or modes of being 142
fa. The distinction between essence and existence: existence as the act of being
7^. The distinction between substance and attribute, accident or modification:
independent and dependent being
(1) The conceptions of substance 143
(2) Corporeal and spiritual substances, composite and simple substances: the
kinds of substance in relation to matter and form
(3) Corruptible and incorruptible substances 144
(4) Extension and thought as dependent substances or as attributes of infinite
substance
(5) Substance as subject to change and to different kinds of change: the role of
accidents or modifications 145
(6) The nature and kinds of accidents or modifications
jc. The distinction between potentiality and actuality: possible and actual being 146
(1) The order of potentiality and actuality
(2) Types of potency and degrees of actuality
(3) Potentiality and actuality in relation to matter and form 147
yd. The distinction between real and ideal being, or between natural being and
being in mind
(1) The being of the possible 148
(2) The being of ideas, universals, rights
(3) The being of mathematical objects 149
(4) The being of relations
(5) The being of fictions and negations 150
je. The distinction between appearance and reality, between the sensible and supra-
sensible, between the phenomenal and noumenal orders
8. Being and knowledge
80. Being and becoming in relation to sense: perception and imagination
8£. Being and becoming in relation to intellect: abstraction and intuition 151
8r. Essence or substance as the object of definition: real and nominal essences
Sd. The role of essence in demonstration: the use of essence, property, and accident
in inference 152
8?. The accidental in relation to science and definition
8/! Judgments and demonstrations of existence: their sources and validity
136
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 16} and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SFCT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and I )ouay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows, eg., OLD TESTA-
MLNT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7.46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Diverse conceptions of being and non-being:
being as a term or concept; the meanings
of is and is not
7 PLATO. Republic, BK v, 370d-373c / Timaeus,
447b-d; 455c-458b / Parmemdc* 486a-511d /
Theaetetus, 517d518b; 520b; 521d-522a /
Sophist, 561d-563b esp 562a-563a; 565a-566b;
567a-569a; 571d-573b passim
SARisioiLE. Interpretation, CH 3 [r6bi9-26]
25d-26a, CH 13(23* 18-26] 3Sb-c/ Prior Analyt-
ics, BK i, CH 36 [48*4o-b9J 66d / Posterior
Analytics, BK n, CH 7 [92bi3) 126c / Topics, BK
iv, CH i [i2iai4-26] 169a-b; [i2ibi-8] 169c;
CH 6 [127*26-40] 176d-177a; BK vi, CH 7
[146*21-32] 200a-b / Sophistical Refutations,
CH 5 [i66b37-i67R7] 229d; CH 7 [169*22-24!
232d; CH 25 [180*32-38] 248c / Physics, BK i,
CH 2 [i85*20-b4] 260a-b; CH 3 [186*23-187*10]
261b-262a; CH 5 [188*18-23] 263c; BK HI, CH 6
[206*13-34] 284 b-d; BK v, CH i [225*20-29]
305b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 3
413c-416c passim / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3-10
SOlc-Slld passim; BK HI, CH 3 [998^4-28]
517b-c; BK iv, CH 2 [ioo3*^-bio] 522b; CH 5
[1009*22-38] 528d; BK v, CH 7 537c-538b; BK
VH, CH i 550b,d-551a; CH 4 [io}o*i7-bi4]
552d-553b; BK ix, CH 10 [io5i*34-b2] 577c;
BK xi, CH 2 [io6oa36-bio] 588c; CH 3 [io6ob3i]
1061*10] 589a-b; BK xn, CH 2 [io69bi5 -34-
598d-599a, CH 4 [1070^-8] 599d-600a / Soul,
BK n, CH i [4i2b6-9J 642c
17 PLOTINUS First Ennead, TR vm, en 3, 28a-b /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 6-7 109d-lllc; TR
vu, CH 6 122a-d / Fifth Ennead, IR i, CH 4
209d-210c; IR n, CH i 214c-215a; TR vi, CH 6
237b-d / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 7-8 272a-
273c
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK vu, par 1-2 43b-
44a/ City of God, BK vm, CH n, 272c, BK xn,
CH 2 343c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 32
633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 2-13
10c-75b passim, esp Q 3, A 4, REP i 16d-17c,
Q n, A i 46d-47d, Q 13, A 5, ANS and REP i
66b-67d, A 10, ANS 72c-73c; Q 14, A 9, ANS
83b-d; Q 16, A 3, REP 2 96b-d, Q 22, A 4, REP 3
131c-132b, Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-163b; QQ
44-45 238a-250a; Q 48, A 2, REP 2 260c-261b;
Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 104 534c-538c;
Q 105, A 5, ANS 542a-543b; PART I-H, Q 2, A 5
esp REP 2-3 618d-619c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A i, REP i 54d-55c
23 HOBBES: Lei'iathan, PART iv, 269d-270c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-294a
2 to 2b
CHAPTER 7: BEING
137
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b /
Meditations, iv, 89c~d / Objections and Replies,
139b-c;214d-215a
31 SPINOZA; Ethics, PART i, PROP n, DEMONST,
358d; SCHOL, 359a; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i
387b388a
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 432 b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH vn,
SECT i 283a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 2-3
413b-d; SECT 17 416a-b; SECT 45-46 421b-c;
SECT 48 422a; SECT 81 428c-d; SECT 88-91
430a-431a; SECT 139 440d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 43d-44a; 52a-b; 107b-
108a,c; 133c; 177b-187a esp 179c-182b, 185c-
187a; 197b-198a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics, 367d-368a / Judgement, 603b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; PART i, 224a-b; 233b-235a; 237d-238d;
251d-252d; PART iv, 322a~b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 636a-661b csp 639a-640a,
641a-b, 643a-645b, 871b-872a
2. Being and the one and the many
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 333b-d; BK v, 370a-
373c esp 372d-373c; BK vn, 392b-394b; BK x,
427c-429c/ Parmemdes 486a-511d / Theaetetus,
537a-c; 544d-547c esp 547a / Sophist, 564d-
574c / Statesman, 594d-595a / Philebus, 610d-
617d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 2-3 259b-262a /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 7 [988a34-b5J 506c; BK
in, CH i [996*4-8] 514c; CH 4 [iooifl4-b25l
519d-520c; BK vn, CH 16 [1040^16-27] 564d;
BK x, CH 2 580b-d; BK xi, CH 2 [1060*36-^9]
588c-d, BK xiv, CH 2 [io88b28-i09oa2] 621b-
622c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14, 120d~121a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 3 257a-b;
BK iv, SECT 29 266a; SECT 40 267a-b; BK v,
SECT 30 273a; BK vi, SECT 36-45 277c-278c;
BK vn, SECT 9 280b-c; SECT 19 281a; BK ix,
SECT 8-9 292b-d; BK x, SECT 6-7 297a-c; BK
xii, SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 4 79d-80a;
TR ii, CH 1-2 82c-83d; TR vui, en 8-10 132d-
136a; TR ix, CH 3 137b-138a,c / Fifth Ennead,
TR i, CH 4-9 209d-213c; TR n, CH i 214c-215a;
TR in, CH 11-12 222b-223c; CH 15-16 224c-
226a; TR iv 226d-228b; TR vi, CH 6 237b-d /
Sixth Ennead, TR n 268d-280d; TR iv, CH n
302c-d; TR v, CH i 305c-306a; CH 5-8 307a-
308c; TR vi, CH 5-6 312c-313d; CH 8-16 314a-
319d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 15-17
23a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 3, ANS 16a-d; Q n 46d-50b; Q 30, A 3 169b-
170c; Q 93, A 9, ANS 500c-501c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
123) 109a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 123c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 2 355a; DEP 6
355b; PROP 5-16 356b-362a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH HI,
SECT 19 259c-260a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 43d-44a; 49c-51d esp
51c-d; 99a-101b; 107b-c; 173b-177b; 193a-
200c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 218c;
224a-b; 232d; 237d-238a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xiv, 608a-b
2a. Infinite being and the plurality of finite
beings
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 8 [i9ia24-bi2J
267a-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5 [986bi8-
987*1 ]504d-505a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 29 266a;
SECT 40 267a-b; BK xn, SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 1-2 82c-
83d; TR vn, CH 6 122a-d; TR vui, CH 8-10
132d-136a / Fourth Ennead, TR ix, CH 2 205c-
206a; CH 5 206d-207a,c / Fifth Ennead, TR i,
CH 4-7 209d-212c; TR in, CH 11-12 222b-223c;
CH 15-16 224c-226a; TR iv 226d-228b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 20-21
49d-50a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 3,
ANS 16a-d; A 7, REP 2 19a-c; QQ 7-8 31a-38c; Q
n, AA 3-4 49a-50b; Q 13, A n 73c-74b; QQ
44-45 238a-250a; Q 47 256a-259a; Q 50, A i,
ANS and REP 3 269b-270a; Q 90, A i 480d-
481d; QQ 103-105 528a-545b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 84a-b; 86a-88d/
Objections and Replies, 121d-122c; 123c-d;
139b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i 355a-372d esp DEF 2
355a, DEF 6 355b, PROP 7-16 356c-362a, PROP
21-25 364a-365b, PROP 28 365c-366a, PROP 29,
SCHOL 366b-c, PROP 30 366c-d; PART n, PROP
45, SCHOL 390b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 121 195a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 130b-133c / Judgement,
550a-551a,c; 564c-565d esp 565c-d; 566c-d;
580c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 22 7d-
228a;234d-235a
2b. The unity of a being
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [ib3~9] 5c / Top-
ics, BK iv, CH i [121*14-19] 169a; [i2ib4-8]
169c; CH 6 [127*26-40] 176d-177a; BK vi, CH 4
[i4ia26-b2] 194c-d / Sophistical Refutations,
CH 7 [169*32-36] 233a / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH
2 (ioo3b23-34) S22d; BK v, CH 6 536a-S37c;
CH 9 [1018*3-9] S38d; BK VIII,CH 6 569d-570d;
BK x, CH 1-2 578b,d-580d; CH 3 [1054*33-35]
581a; BK xii, CH 10 [io75b34~37l 606d; BK
xni, CH 2 [1077*20-23] 608c / Soul, BK n, CH i
[4i2b6-9]642c
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK vn, DEFINITIONS, i
127a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 840a-b
138
THE GREAT IDEAS
3to3a
(2. Being and the one and the many. 2b. The
unity of a being.)
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR 11, CH i 139c-
140c / Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 11-16 315d-
319d, TR ix, CH 1-2 353d-355a
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 6,
A 3, REP i 29c-30b; Q n, AA 1-4 46d-50b
passim; Q 39, A 3, ANS 204c-205c; Q 76 385c-
399b passim; Q 103, A 3, ANS 530a-c; PART i-n,
Q 12, A 3, REP 2-3 670d-671b; Q 17, A 4, ANS
688d-689c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 2,
A i, ANS and REP 2 710a-711c; A 9 719d-
720c; Q 17 806d-809d; Q 19, A i, REP 4 816a-
818b; PART in SUPPL, Q 83, A 3, REP 4 978c-
980d
31 DESCARTES : Objections and Replies, 153b-154a ;
213d-214a; 224d-225d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 12-13 359b-d;
PART n, DEF 7373c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xni,
SECT 26 154b-c; CH xvi, SECT i 165c-d; CH
xxin, SECT 1-6 204a-205c; CH xxm, SECT
37-cH XKIV, SECT 3 213d-214d; CH xxvn
218d-228c; BK HI, CH vi, SLCT 2-5 268c-269d;
SECT 10 271b; SECT 49 282c
35 BKRKELW. Human Knowledge, SECTI 413a-b;
SECT 12 415b-c; SFCF 99 432b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 120c-129c csp 121a-124d,
126a-128b / Judgement, 566c-d
53JAMFS1 Psychology, 104a-107b esp 104a-b;
215b-216a;406b
3. Being and good
OLD TESTAMFNT: Genesis, i
NEW TESTAMENT: / 'Timothy, 4 4
7 PLATO- Phaedrus, 124c-125b / Republic, BK
vi-vn, 383d-398c / Timaeus, 447b-448b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 5 [143*9-12]
196c; CH 6 [i45tti9-27] 198d-199a; CH 8 [146^-
I47ftn] 200c-201a; CH 12 [i49b3i-39J 204b-c /
Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
[336b28-3o] 438d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6
[988*8-16! 506a-b; CH 7 [988b6-i6] 506c-d;
CH 9 [992*29-34! 510c; BK xn, CH 7 602a-
603b; CH 10 [1075*11-24] 605d-606a; BK xiv,
CH 4 [1091*29]-™ 5 [1092*17] 624a-625a
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK n, CH i
[731*26-29] 272a / Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [1096*23-
29]341c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b; TR
vn, CH i, 26c; TR vin, CH 3-12 28a-34a /
Fifth Ennead, TR HI, CH 15-16 224c-226a; TR
ix, CH 10, 250c / Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH i
305c-306a; TR vn, CH 24-26 333d-334d; CH 28
335b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10 15b-d;
par 12 16b; BK iv, par 24 25b-c; BK v, par 20
32d-33a; BK vn, par 3-7 44a-45d; par 16-23
48c-50c / City of God, BK XI,CH 22,333d-334a;
BK xti, OH 3 343d-344b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 2,
ANS 15c-16a; QQ 4-6 20c-30d; Q 13, A n, REP
2 73c-74b; Q 21, A i, REP 4 124b-125b; Q 22,
A i, ANS 127d-128d; Q 25, A 6, ANS 149a-150a;
Q 48, AA 1-3 259b-262a; Q 73, A i 370a-371a;
A 3, REP 3 371d-372c, Q 74, A 3, REP 3 375a-
377a,c; PART i-n, Q 2, A 5 618d-619c; Q 18,
AA 1-4 694a-696d esp A i, ANS and REP i
694a-d, A 2, ANS 694d-695c; Q 29, A 5, ANS
747c-748b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 54,
A 3, REP 2 24c-25b; Q 55, A 4, REP 1-2 28c-29d
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART n, DEF 6 373c; PART iv, OFF 1-2 424a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
278b-c / Practical Reason, 307b-c
30. The hierarchy of being: grades of reality,
degrees of intelligibility
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-126a / Symposium,
167a-d / Republic, BK v, 370c-373c; BK vi-vn,
383d-398c; BK ix, 422c-425b esp 423b-424d /
Timaeus, 447a-455c / Philebus, 637c-639a,c
SARISTOTLF- Interpretation, CH 13 [23*18-26]
35b-c / Topics, BK vi, CH 4 [141*26-142*22]
194c-195c / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 359d 360d;
BK n, CH 12 383b-384c, BK iv, CH 3 [310^2-
311*3] 402b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK
i, CH 3 413c-416c; BK n, CH 10 [^6b25-34]
438d / Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12 [389^3-
390*17] 493d-494b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6
505b-506b; CH 7 [988*34^5] 506c; CH 8
[989b2i-99o*8] 507d-508a; CH 9 508c-511c;
BK n, CH i [993bi9-3i] S12a-b; BK iv, CH 4
[ioo8b32-ioo9a5] 528b; BK ix, CH 9 [1051*4-
22] 577a-b; BK xn, CH 5 [1071*30-36] 601a;
CH 7 602a-603b; CH 10 605d-606d; BK xm,
CH 2 [io77*i4~bi4J 608b-609a, BK xiv, CH 4
* [i09i*29]-CH 5 [1092*17] 624a-625a / Soul,
BK in, CH 4 [429a29-b4] 661c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5
[644^0 -645*5] 168c-d / Generation of Animals,
BK n, CH i [73^24-33] 272a-b / Ethics, BK i,
en 6 [1096*17-23] 341b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [724-751] 230b-231a
17 PLOHNUS. First Ennead, TR vn, CH 1-2 26a-d;
TR vin, CH 3-10 28a-33a; CH 12 33d-34a /
Second Ennead, TR in, CH 11-12 46b-c; CH
16-18 48b-50a; TR ix, CH 3 67b-c / Third
Ennead, TR n, CH 1-2 82c 83d; TR viu, CH
8-10 132d-136a / Fourth Ennead, TR vin, CH
6 203d-204b / Fifth Ennead, TR n, CH i 214c-
215a; TR in, CH 11-12 222b-223c; TR iv 226d-
228b / Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 18 320c-321b,
TR vn, CH 28-29 335b-336b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin, CH n, 272c;
BK xi, CH 16 331a-c; CH 22, 334b-c; BK xn,
CH 2-5 343c-345b; BK xiv, CH 13, 387d /
Christian Doctrine* BK i, CH 8 626c~627a; CH 32
633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A i,
R*P 2 10d-lld; A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS
CHAFFER 7: BEING
139
14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a; A 7, REP 2 19a-c;
QQ 4-6 20c-30d passim; Q n, A 4 49d-50b;
Q 16, A 6, REP i 98b-d; Q 18, A 3 106b-107c;
Q 19, A 8 116a-d; Q 22, A 4, ANS 131c-132b; Q
23, A 5, REP 3 135d-137d; Q 25, A 6, ANS and
REP 1,3 149a-150a; Q 36, A 2, ANS 192a-194c;
Q 42, A i, REP 1-2 224b-225d; Q 44, A i, ANS
238b-239a; Q 47, A 2 257b-258c; Q 48, A 2,
ANS and REP 3 260c-261b; Q 50, A i, ANS and
REP i 269b-270a; A 2, REP i 270a-272a; A 3,
ANS 272a-273b; Q 57, A i, ANS 295a-d; Q 65,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 340b-341b; Q 70, A 3, REP 2
365b-367a; Q 75, A 7 384d-385c; Q 76, A 3,
ANS 391a-393a; A 4, REP 3 393a-394c; Q 77,
A 2 401b-d; A 4, REP i 403a-d; Q 79, A 9, REP 3
422b-423d; Q 82, A 3, ANS 433c-434c; Q 93,
A 3 493d-494c; Q 106, A 4, ANS 548b-549a;
Q 108, A 4 555b-d; Q 118, A 2, REP 2 601c-
603b; PART I-H, Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a; Q
2, A 5, REP 2 618d-619c; A 8, REP i 621c-622b;
Q 3, A 7, ANS 628a-d; Q 18, AA 1-4 694a-
696d passim
20 AQUINAS • Swnma Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; Q 71, A 3, REP i 107c-l08b;
Q 85, A 4 181b-d; PART ii-n, Q 23, A 3, REP 3
485a-d; PART in, Q 7, A 9, ANS 751d-752c;
PART III SUPPL, Q 74, A I, REP 3 925C-926C
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d; ii [112-148] 109a-b; vn [64-75] U5d-
116a; [121-148] 116b-c; xin [52-87] 126a-b;
xxvin [64-72] 149b-c; xxix [13-36] 150b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52d / Medi-
tations, m, 84a-b / Objections and Replies,
llld'112a; 121d-122c; AXIOM vi 132a; 139b-c;
211b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 372c-d;
PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a; PART v, PROP 40,
DEMONST462C
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [468-490] 185b-
186a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 2 178c; CH xxin, SECT 28 211b-d; SECT
36 213c-d; BK in, CH vi, SECT 11-12 271b-
272b; BK iv, CH xvi, SECT 12 370b-371a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 206d-207c / judgement,
556b-558b; 566d-567a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-d;
233b-235a; 237d-238d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 217c
53 IAMES: Psychology, 639a-645b csp 641b-644a
£. Being as the object of love and desire
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-126a / Symposium,
165b-167d / Republic, BK v-vi, 369c-375b;
BK vi, 376d; BK ix, 422c-425b csp 423b-424d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*16-24]
268b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [984b8]-cH 4
[985*28] 502d-503c; CH 7 [988*^-16] 506c-d;
BK xii, CH 7 602a-603b; CH 10 605d-606d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 7 [i 167^4-
1168*18] 421b-c; CH 9 [ii7oai4-bi9] 423d-
424b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 7 24c-25a /
Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 9, 244b-c; TR ix, CH i
246c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 5
625d-626a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5
23b-28b; Q 16, A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 97a-c;
Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c; Q 20, A 2, ANS and
REP 4 121b 122a; Q 48, A i, ANS and REP 4
259b-260c; PART i-ii, Q i, A 8 615a-c; Q 2,
A 5, ANS and REP 3 618d-619c; Q 8, A i, ANS
and REP 3 655b-656a; Q 22, A 2, ANS 72lc-
722c; Q 27, A 3 738c-739c; Q 29, A i, RBP i
745a-c; A 5 747c-748b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 73a-c
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART in, PROP 4-9 398d-
399c; PROP 12-13 400b-d; PART iv» PROP 19-22
429d-430c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-
225b; 233d-234b
4. Being and truth
7 PLATO Euthydemus, 71c-74a / Cratylus, 86a;
113b-114a,c / Phaedrus, 124c-126c / Republic,
BK vi,386b-388a; BK ix,423b-424a / Ttmaeus,
447a-d / Parmemdes, 508d / Theaetetus, 534d-
536a; 537a-c / Sophist, 561d-577b / Philebus,
634b-635b / Seventh Letter, 809c-810c
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 3 [i6bi9~26]
25d-26a / Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 36 [48*40-
bg] 66d / Metaphysics, BK n, CH i 511b,d-
512b; BK v, CH 7 [1017*31-34] 538a; CH 29
[io24bi6-26] 546c-d; BK vi, CH 4 550a,c; BK
ix, CH 10 577c-578a,c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vm, CH 8 132d-
133c / Fifth Ennead, TR in, CH 5, 218b; TR v,
CH 1-2 228b-229d; TR vi, CH 6 237b-d
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK in, par 10 15b-d;
BK v, par 5 28b-c; BK vn, par 16-23 48c-50c /
City of God, BK xi, CH 10, 328c-d/ Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 34 634b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologicai PART i, Q 3,
A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; Q 14, A 9, REP i 83b-d;
Q 16 94b-100d; Q 17, A i lOOd-lOld; A 4, REP
1-2 103c-104b; Q 18, A 4, REP 3 107d-108c;
Q 44, A i, ANS 238b-239a; Q 79, A 9, REP 3
422b-423d; Q 119, A i, ANS 604c<607b; PART
i-ii, Q 3, A 7, ANS 628a-d; Q 22, A 2, ANS 721c-
722c; Q 29, A 5, ANS 747c-748b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [124-
126] 112a; xxxin [49-54] 156d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b /
Objections and Replies, 124c-125b; AXIOM x
132b; 2^6d; 229e-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, AXIOM" 6 355d; PART
ii, PROP 10, SCHOL 376d-377a; PROP 20-21
382d-383a; PROP 32 385c; PROP 43 388c-389b;
PROP 44, COROL 2 and DBMONST 390a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv^ CH v,
- - SEcr8330d
140
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Being and truth.)
42 KANT' Pure Reason, 36a-37b; 91d-93b; 102c-
103a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 23
17d; PART in, par 280 94d-95a / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 156d-157b; PART i, 237d-238a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 141a<b; 636a; 852a
4a. Being as the pervasive object of mind, and
the formal object of the first philosophy,
metaphysics, or dialectic
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125a-b / Republic, BK v,
368c-373c; BK vi-vn, 383d-398c / Parmenides,
486a-491c csp 489a-c; 507c-509a / Theaetctus,
535b-536a / Sophist, 561d-574c csp 571a-c /
Philebus, 633a-635a esp 634b-635a / Seventh
Letter, 809c 810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 12 [i49b3~23]
203d-204a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 (992bi8-
993*10] 511a-c; BK n, CH i [99^19-31] 512a-b;
BK iv 522a-532d; BK vi, CH I-BK VH, CH i
547b,d-551a; BK xi, CH 3-6 589a-592b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b / Fifth
Ennead, TR i, CH 4 209d-210c; TR v, CH 1-2
228b-229d; TR ix, CH 11 250c~251a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i,
REP 1-2 3b-4a; Q 3, A 4, REP i 16d-17c; Q 5,
A 2 24b-25a; Q n, A 2, REP 4 47d-48d; Q 14,
A 9, REP i 83b-d; Q 16, AA 3-4 96b-97c; Q 79,
A 7, ANS 420d-421c; A 9, REP 3 422b-423d;
Q 82, A 4, REP i 434c-435c; Q 87, A 3, REP i
467b-468a; PART i-n, Q 3, A 7, ANS 628a-d;
Q 9, A i, ANS and REP 3 657d-658d; Q 10, A i,
REP 3 662d-663d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 269b-270c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 40a-48d csp
40a-41b, 43a-c, 43d-45a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 53b-d /
Objections and Replies, 261a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 44, COROL 2
and DEMONST 390a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vii,
SECT 7 132d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 119a-c; 120b
[fn i] / Judgement, 551a-552c; 603d«607c csp
606d-607c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREP, 6a-7a;
PART in, par 360 113d-114a,c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 156d-157b; PART i, 234b-c;
245d-246c
4b. Being as the measure of truth in judgments
of the mind: clarity and distinctness as
criteria of the reality of an idea
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 71c-74a csp 72b-c /
* Cntylus, 85a-89b / Parmenides, 507c-509a csp
508d-509a / Sophist, 558c-d; 575a-577b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [4»io-bia] 8b-9a;
CH 10 [i2b6-i5J I7d-18a; CH 12 [i
/ Interpretation, CH 3 [i6bi9~26] 25d-26a /
Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 2 (53bii-r26] 72d-73a
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 19 (8ibi7-24)
lllc-d / Physics, BK i, CH i 2S9a-b / Meta-
physics, BK iv, CH 3-8 524b-532d; BK v, CH 7
[1017*31-34] 538a; CH 29 [io24b22~39] 546c-
547a; BK vi, CH 4 550a,c; BK ix, CH 10 577c-
578a,c; BK xi, CH 4-6 589d-592b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; Q 14, A 8, REP 3 82c-83b;
Q 16, AA 1-2 94b-96b; Q 16, A 8-Q 17, A i
99d-101d; Q 21, A 2, ANS 125c-d; PART i-n,
Q 2, A 3, ANS 617b-618a
22 CHAUCER: TroilusandCressida, BK iv, STANZA
154 108b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b /
Meditations, i-iv, 75a-89b; iv-v, 92d-96a; vi,
98c-d / Objections and Replies, 108a-115a,c;
121b-122c; 124c-125b; 126b-127c; DEF m-iv
130b; POSTULATE iv-vn 131a-c; AXIOM vi
132a; AXIOM x 132b; PROP n-iii 132c-133a;
237c-238b; 257d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 4 373b; PROP ^2
385c; PROP 43 388c-389b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH m,
SECT 24-25 120a-d; BK n, CH vni, SECT 1-6
133b-134a; CH xin, SECT n 150d-151b; SECT
25-26 154a-c; CH xxm, SECT 5 205a-b; SECT
15 208c-d; SECT 32 212c-d; CH xxxn 243c-
248b passim, csp SECT 19 247a-b; BK in, CH
vi, SECT 46-47 281d-282b; BK iv, CH v, SECT
7-9 330b-331a; CH x, SECT 7 350d-351a; CH
x, SECT I9-CH xi, SECT i 354a-c; CH xi, SECT
I2357c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 36b-c; 85d-88a; 179c-
182 b / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
367d-368a / Judgement, 603d-604b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 141a-142a; 636a; 638a-
641a; 879b-882a esp 881a-b
5. Being and becoming: the reality of change;
the nature of mutable being
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 94c-d; 99b-104b; 113c-114a,c
/ Phaedrus, 124c-126c / Symposium, 165c-166b;
167a-d / Phaedo, 231b-232b; 247b-248c /
Republic, BK n, 322d-323a; BK v, 368c-373c;
BK VI-VH, 383d-398c; BK vm, 403a-b / Ti-
maeus 442a-477a,c esp 447a-d, 45Sc-458b /
Parmenides 486&-Snd / Theattetus, 517d-534b
/ Sophist, 561d-574c / Statesman, 587a-b /
Philebus, 610d-617d; 631d-635a esp 634b-635a
/ Laws, BK x» 760a-765c
8 ARISTOTLE : Physics, BK i 259a~268d esp CH 8
267a-d; BK n, CH i 268b,d-270a; BK HI, CH
1-3 278a-280c; CH 6 [ao6»i8-bi6] 284c-285a;
BK iv, CH ii [2i9b23~3i] 299c-d; BK vi, CH 6
319c-321a / Heavens, BK i, CH 3 360d-362a;
CH o |277b2£-278b9) 369ft- d; BK iv, CH 3
[3iob22-3ii*i2] 402b-c; CH 4 [3iib29-3^] 403c
/ Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 3, 413c-
416c; BK n, CH 9-11 436d-441a,e A Mcta-
) to 6
CHAPTER 7: BEING
141
physics, BK i, CH 3-10 Sole-Slid passim; BK
n, CH 2 512b-513b; BK in, CH i [996*2-4] 514c;
CH 2 [996ai8-b26] 514d-515b; CH 4 [1000*5-
iooia2] 518d-519d; BK iv, CH 5 528c-530c;
CH 7 [ioub23-ioi2*9] 531c-532a; CH 8 [ioi2b
22-33] 532d; BK v, CH 4 534d-535c; BK vu,
CH 7-9 555a-558a; BK ix, CH 3 [1047*10-29]
572b-c; CH 6 [io48bi8-34j 574a-c; CH 8
[i049b2Q/~io5o*3] 575c-d; CH 10 [io5ib26-3o]
578a, BK x, CH 10 586c-d; BK xi, CH 6 590d-
592b; CH 9 593d-594d; CH 11-12 596a-598a,c;
BK xn 598a>606d esp CH 2-3 598c-599d, CH
6-8 601b-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK v, CH i
[778a2o-b7] 320a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2 167b-
168c; CH 5 169b-c; BK 11, CH 3, 186d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811b-d
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK i [146-328]
2d-5a; BK n [294-307] 18d-19a; [749-754]
24c; [1002-1022] 27d-28a
12 AURELIUS* Meditations, BK n, SECT 17, 259c-
d; BK iv, SECT 36 266d; SECT 42-43 267b,
SECi*46267c; BK v, SECT 23 272b;BK vi, sucr
15 275a-b; BK vu, SECI 18 281a; SECT 49-50
282d-283a, BK vin, SECT 6 285d-286a; BK ix,
SECT 19 293b, SECT 35-36 294d-295a; UK \,
SECT 7 297b-c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, lOSlb
17 PLOIINUS Second Ennead, TR i, en 3-4 36b-
37b, TR iv, CH 6 51d-52a; TR v 57d-60c passim
/ Third Ennead, TR n, CH 1-2 82c-83d; j R vi,
CH 7-19 110d-119a / Fifth Ennead, TR vin, en
12-13 245c-246c / Sixth Ennead, IR i, en 17 -22
261c-264c; CH 25-30 265b-268c; TR in 281a-
297b esp CH 1-8 281a-285d, CH 21-27 293a-
297a; IR v, CH 2 306a-b
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK in, par 10 15b-d,
BK iv, par 15-19 23a-24b; BK vu, par 1-7
43b-45d; par 16-23 48c-50c, BK xi, par 6
90c-d, BK xn, par 3-6 99d-100c esp par 6,
lOOc; par 8, lOlb; par 15 102b-c; par 24-26
104c 105b; par 28 105c-d, BK xin, par 48 124a
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 9 627a; BK n, CH
38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS 12c-14a, Q 4, A i, REP i 20d-21b, Q 9, A i,
ANS 38c-39c; Q 10, A 4, REP 3 43b-44b; A 5,
ANS 44b-45c; Q 26, A i, REP 2 150b-c; o 29,
A i, REP 4 162a-163b; Q 65, A 4 342b-343c;
Q 86, A 3 463 b-d; PART i-n, Q ior A i, REP 2
662d-663d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
no, A 2, REP 3 349a-d; PART in, Q 62, A 4,
REP 2 861a-862a; PART in SUPPL, Q 91, A 3,
REP 2 1020d-1022c
22 CHAUCER: Knight'sTale [2987-3040] 209a-210a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292a-294b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52d / Objec-
tions and Replies, 212a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 2 355a; PART n,
PROP 31 385b*q
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH iv,
sECT8260d-261a
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SECT 89 430b-
c, SECT 102 432d-433a; SECT 141 441a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 27a-33d esp 27a,
28b-c, 31d-32a; 43a-b; 74b-76c; 82a-83b;
91d-93c; 95a-d; 138b<139b [thesis]; 141b,d-
145c; 200c-204c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-
179d; 186d-190b
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK xiv, 608a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 882a-884b passim
6. The cause of existence
OLD TESTAMENT* Genesis, 1-2; 7:1-5 / Nehemiah^
9-6— (D) II Esdras, 9:6 / Job, 26:7; 38 '1-42 -2
/ Psalms, 8 esp 8:3-6; 19.1; 89-11-12; 102:25;
136.5-9— (D) Psalms, 8 esp 8*4-6; 18:2;
88-12-13; 101:26; 135:5-9 /Jeremiah, 31:35—
(D) feremias, 31:35 / Amos, 5:8
APOCRYPHA* Ecclesiasticus, 18:1— (D) OT, Eccle-
siasticus, 18:1
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 14:15; 17.22-32 — (D)
Acts, 14 14; 17.22-32 / Romans, 11:36 /
Colossians, 1.16-17 / Hebrews, 1:10 / Revela-
tion, 4 *i i — (D) Apocalypse, 4.11
7 PLATO Timaeus, 447b-448a / Laws, BK x,
760a-765d esp 763d-764a
8 ARISTOTLE. Posterior Analytics, BK 11, CH 1-2
122b,d-123c; CH 7 [92bi8-25] 126d; CH 8-12
127a-131b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 7 [988b5~i6]
506c-d, CH 9 [99ibi~9] 509c-d; en 10 511c-d;
BK n, CH i [993b27~3i] 512a-b, BK v, CH 8
[ioi7bio-i7] 538b; BK vu, CH 17 565a-566a,c;
BK xii, CH 6-7 601b-603b / Soul, BK n, CH 4
[4i5bn-i4]645d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640*4-9] 162b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14, 120d-
121a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A 4, ANS 16d-17c; A 5,
REP 2 17c-18b; Q 5, A 2, REP 1-2 24b-25a; Q 8,
A i 34d-35c; A 2, ANS 35c-36b; A 3, ANS and
REP i 36b-37c; A 4, ANS 37c-38c; Q 9, A 2,
ANS 39c-40d; Q 14, A 8 82c-83b; QQ 44-46
238a-255d; Q 57, A 2, ANS and REP 2 295d-
297a; Q 61, A i 3l4d-315b; Q 65 339a-343c;
Q 75, A 6, REP 2 383c-384c; Q 104 534c-538c;
Q 105, A 3, ANS 540c-S41b; A 5, ANS 542a-
543b; PART i-n, Q 1 8, A 4, ANS 696b-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 443b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55d-56a /
Meditations^ in, 87c-d / Objections and Re-
plies, AXIOM ix 132b; 213b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF i 355a; PROP 17,
SCHOL 362c-363c; PROP 24-29 365a-366c;
PROP 33 367b-369a; PART n, PROP 6-7 374d-
375c; PROP to, SCHOL 3764-377a; PROP 45,
, SCHOL 390b
142
(6. The cause of existence.)
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-134] I37a-
138a; BK vn 217a-231a csp [162-169] 220b,
[601-640] 230a-231a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 12 165b-c; CH xxvi, SECT 1-2, 217a-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 2-4
413b-414a; SECT 25-33 417d-419a; SECT 36
419c-d; SECT 45-46 421b-c; SECT 48 422a;
SECT 88-91 430a-431a; SECT 146-150 442a-
443b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
74, 484a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 140b,d-145c; 177b-179b
/ Practical Reason, 334b-337a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 245d-
246c
7. The divisions or modes of being
la. The distinction between essence and exist-
ence: existence as the act of being
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 3-14
8 ARISTOTLE : Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 3 [1047 '30-
b2] 572c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 6 122a-d
/ Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 13, 234d-235a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 10, 328c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 3,
A 4 16d-17c; A 5, ANS and REP i 17c-18b; A 6,
ANS 18c-19a; A 7, ANS and REP i 19a-c; Q 4,
A i, REP 3 20d-21b; A 2, ANS and REP 3 21b-
22b; A 3, REP 3 22b-23b; Q 6, A 3 29c-30b;
Q 7, A i, ANS and REP 3 31a-d; A 2, ANS and
REP i 31d-32c; Q 8, A i, ANS 34d-35c; Q 9, A 2,
ANS 39c-40d; Q 10, A 2, ANS 41d-42c; Q n, A 4,
ANS 49d-50b; Q 12, A 2, ANS and REP 3
51c-52c; A 4, ANS and REP 3 53b-54c; Q 13,
A ii, ANS 73c-74b; Q 25, A i, REP 2 143d-144c;
Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-163b; Q 34, A i, REP 2
185b-187b; Q 39, A 2, REP 3 203b-204c; Q 44,
A i 238b-239a; Q 50, A 2, REP 3 270a-272a;
Q 54, A i, ANS and REP 2 285a-d; A 2, REP 2
285d-286c; A 3, ANS and REP 2 286c-287b;
Ql75» A 5, REP 4 382a-383b; Q 88, A 2, REP 4
471c-472c; PART i-n, Q 3, A 7, ANS 628a-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52d-53a /
Meditations, v 93a-96a / Objections and Re-
/>/*<?/, 110a-112a;112d-113b;126b-127c; POSTU-
LATE v 131b-c; AXIOM 1 131d; AXIOM X-PROP i
132b-c; 158b-162a passim; 217d-218a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 8 355c; AXIOM
7 3$5d; PROP 7 356c; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-
357d; PROP n 358b-359b; PROP 17, SCHOL,
363 b-c; PROP 20 363d-364a; PROP 24-25 365a-
b; PROP 34 369a; PART n, DBF 2 373b; AXIOM i
373c; PART HI, PROP 7 399a; PART iv, DBF 3
424a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH v,
SECT 1-6 263d-265a; BK iv, CH ix, SECT 1 349a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 179c-182b; 191<M92b
THE GREAT IDEAS 7 to Ib
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 280
94d-95a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165a-
b; 178c-d; PART i, 233d-234b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 640b [fn i]; 644b
Ib. The distinction between substance and
attribute, accident or modification: inde-
pendent and dependent being
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [i*20-b9] 5b-c;
CH 5 6a-9a; CH 7 [8*i2-b24] 13a-d / Topics,
BK v, CH 4 [i33bi5-i34*4] 184d-185b / Sophis-
tical Refutations, CH 7 [169*33-36] 233a; CH 22
[i78b37-i79ftio] 246c / Physics, BK i, CH 2
[i 85*2o]-cH 3 [i 87*10] 260a-262a / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 9 [990^22-991*2] 509a; [992^8-24]
511a; BK iv, CH 4 [ioo7*2o-bi8] 526c-527a;
BK v, CH 7 [1017*23-31] 537d-538a; CH n
[1019*1-14] 540a; BK vn, CH 3 [1029*7-26]
551c-d; CH 4-6 552b-555a; BK vin, CH 3
[io43bi8-24] 568a-b; CH 4 [1044^-20] 569b;
BK ix, CH i [1045^8-32] 570b; CH 7 [1049*19-
bi] 574d-575a; BK x, CH 2 580b-d; BK xn, CH
i [1069*18-25] 598a; CH 4-5 599d-601a; CH 7
[io72b4-i3] 602c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 2
[648b35]-cH 3 [649^2] 173b-174b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xn, SECT 30,
310a
17 PLOTINUS • Fourth Ennead, TR vin, CH 6 203d-
204b / Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 3 253a-b; CH 5,
254c-d; CH 15 260c-d; CH 25 265b-d; TR n,
CH 14-15 276c-277b; TR in, CH 3 282a-c; CH 6
284a-c; CH 8, 285b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 3, A 6
18c-19a; Q 6, A 3, ANS 29c-30b; Q 7, A 2, ANS
31d-32c; Q 9, A 2 39c-40d; Q n, A i, REP 1-2
46d-47d; A 2, REP i 47d-48d; A 4, REP 2
49d-50b; Q 29, A i, ANS and REP 3 162a 163b;
Q 39, A 3, ANS 204c-205c; Q 40, A i, REP i
213b-214b; A 2, REP 4 214b-215b; Q 44, A 2,
ANS and REP i 239b-240a; Q 45, A 4 244d-245c;
Q 54, A i 285a-d; A 3 286c-287b; Q 67, A 3
351b-352a; Q 76, A 4 393a-394c; A 6 396a-d;
Q 77, A i 399c-401b; A 6 404c-405c; Q 85, A 5,
REP 3 457d-458d; Q 90, A 2, ANS 481d-482c;
Q 115, A i, ANS and REP 5 585d-587c; PART i-n,
Q 7, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 651d-652c; A 4,
REP 3 654b-655a; Q 17, A 4, ANS 688d-689c;
Q 18, A 3, REP 3 695d-696b; Q 29, A 2, REP i
745c-746b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 2b-4a; Q 50, A 2 7c-8a; Q
52, A i, ANS 15d-18a; Q 53, A 2, REP 3 21a*d;
Q 66, A 4, ANS 78c-79b; PART n-n, Q 23, A 3,
REP 3 485a*d; PART in, Q 2, A i, ANS 710a-
711c; PART in SUPPL, Q 70, A i, ANS 893d-
895d; Q 79, A i, REP 4 951b-953b; Q 83, A 3,
ANS 978c-980d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66, 114d-
115a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 41d; PART iv,
52d / Meditations, in 81d-89a passim, esp
7b(\) to 7b(2)
CHAPTER 7: BEING
143
87b-88c / Objections and Replies, DBF v 130b-c ;
DBF ix 130d; 135b-136b; 136c; 139b-c; 153d;
162d-165d; 170d; 211b-c; 228c-229c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 3-5 355b; AXIOM
1-2 355c-d; PROP 1-9 355d-357d; PROP 10,
SCHOL 358a-b; PROP 19 363c-d; PROP 20,
COROL 2 364a; PROP 21-23 364a-365a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 19 117c-d; BK n, CH xii, SECT 3-6 147d-
148c; CH xni, SECT 17-20 152a-d; CH xxin
204a-214b esp SECT 1-15 204a-208d;cH xxxn,
SECT 24 247c-d; BK in, CH ix, SECT 12-13
287d-288d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 1-7
413a-414c; SECT 25-33 417d-419a passim;
SECT 49 422b; SECT 73-78 427b-428b; SECT
88-91 430a-431a; SECT 101-102 432c-433a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 74b-76c; 130b-
133c esp 131c-d; 140b,d-143a / Practical
Reason, 310d-311d / Judgement, 529c-530a;
550a-551a,c; 566b-d; 580c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 26
121a-b; 39 122d / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
160c-161a; PART i, 211a-c
53 JAMES : Psychology, 572a-b
^(1) The conceptions of substance
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 6a-9a; CH 7
[8ai2-b24J 13a-d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 8
538b-c; BK vn-vni 550b,d-570d; BK x, CH 2
580b-d; BK xn, CH i 598a-c; BK xni, CH 2
[io77ai4-bn] 608b-609a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VH, SECT 23 281b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 2-3 252c-
253b; CH 10 257b-258b; CH 25 265b-d; TR in,
CH 2-10 281c-286d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 5, REP 1-2 17c-18b; A 6 18c-19a; Q u, A 3,
ANS 49a-c; Q 13, A 9, ANS 71b-72c; QQ 29-43
161d-237a,c passim, esp Q 29, A 2 163b-164b;
Q 45, A 4 244d-245c; QQ 75-76 378a-399b
passim; Q 88, A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; PART i-ii,
Q 17, A 4, ANS 688d-689c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART n-ii, Q 4,
A i, ANS and REP i 402a-403d; PART in, QQ 1-3
701b,d-730b; Q 17 806d-809d passim; PART in
SUPPL, Q 83 974d-983b passim
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 172b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 37 168d-
J69c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, DBF v-
vinl30b-d;153c-155c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 3,6 355b; PROP
1-9 3S5d-357d; PROP 11-14 358b-360a; PROP
15, SCHOL 360b-361d; PROP 19 363c-d; PART
n, PROP 10 376c-377a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 19 117c-d; BK n, CH xii, SECT 6 148b-c;
CH xin, SECT 17-20 152a-d; CH xxni 204a-
214b; CH xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; CH
xxxn, SECT 24 247c-d; BK in, CH vi, SECT 21
273c-d; SECT 42 280b-c; CH ix, SECT 11-17
287d-290a; BK iv, CH vi, SECT 4-16 331d-336d
passim, esp SECT n 334b-335b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 6-7
414b-c; SECT 26-27 418a-b; SBCT 73 427b-c;
SECT 88-91 430a-431a; SECT 135-136 440a-b;
SECT i39440d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15b-c; 63a; 63d-64a;
69c-72c;74b-76c;81b-83b;86c-87b;91d-93b;
95a-d; lOOd-lOlb; 121a-128b; 131c-d; 137a-
140c; 162b-163a; 186b-d / Judgement, 565b-d;
566d-567a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 146
55c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; PART i, 211a-c; 227d-228a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 221b; 223a
7^(2) Corporeal and spiritual substances, com-
posite and simple substances: the kinds
of substance in relation to matter and
form
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 7 265b 267a;
BK 11, CH i 268b,d-270a; BK iv, CH 2 288b-
289a / Heavens, BK i, CH 9 [277b26-278b9]
369a-d; BK iv, CH 4 [312*12-17] 403d / Gen-
eration and Corruption, BK i, CH 3 413c-416c /
Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12 493d-494d / Meta-
physics, BK in, CH i [995bi3~i8] 514a; (995b3i-
39] 514b; [996*13-15] 514c; CH 2 [997*34-
998*19] 516a-d; CH 4 [999*24~b23] 518a-c; CH
5 520c-521b; CH 6 [ioo2bn-32] 521b-d; BK v,
CH 8 538b-c; BK vn-vni 5SOb,d-570d; BK xi,
CH i [io59*33-bi4) 587b-c; CH 2 [1060*3-27]
588a-b; [io6ob23-29] 588d-589a; BK xn-xiv
598a-626d / Soul, BK n, CH 1-2 642a-644c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH n, 240d-
241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 21 265b-
c; BK vii, SECT 23 281b; BK vin, SECT n
286b; BK xii, SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 2-4
50b-51a; CH 6 51d-52a; TR v, CH 2 58b-d /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 7-19 110d-119a /
Fourth Ennead, TR vin, CH 6 203d-204b /
Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 2 208c-209b; TR ix, CH 3
247b-d / Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 27-28 266c-
267c; TR in, CH 2-10 281c-286d; TR v, CH 5-8
307a-308c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vii, par 1-2 43b-
44a; par 7 45a-d; par 16 48c-49a; par 20 49d;
par 26 51c-d; BK xn, par 5-6 lOOa-c; par 8
lOla-b; par 16 102d-103a; par 18-22 103a-
104b; par 24-26 104c-105b; par 28-30 105c-
106c; par 38-40 108d-110a; BK xni, par 48
124a / City of God, BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologicat PART i, Q 3
14a-20c; Q 6, A 3, REP i 29c-30b; Q 7, A i, ANS
31a-d; Q 8, A i, REP 2 34d-35c; A 2 35c-36b;
Q 9, A 2, REP 3 39c-40d; Q it, A 4, REP 3 49d-
50b; Q 14, A 2, REP 1,3 76d-77d; Q 18, A 4,
REP 3 107d-108c; Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-163b;
A 2, REP 3,5 163b-164b; Q 40, A i, REP i 213b-
214b; Q 45, A 4 244d-245c; Q 50 269a-275a;
144
THE GREAT IDEAS
(lb. The distinction between substance and attri-
bute, accident or modification: independent
and dependent being. 73(2) Corporeal and
spiritual substances, composite and simple
substances: the kinds of substance in relation
to matter andjorm.)
Q 70, A 3, RBP 2 365b-367a; QQ 75-76 378a-
399b; Q 77, A i, ANS and REP 2-3,6 399c-401b;
Q 85, A 5, REP 3 457d-458d; Q 86, A 3 463b-d;
Q 88, A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; Q 104, A i, ANS and
REP i 534c-536c; Q 115, A i 585d-587c; A 3,
REP 2 588c-589c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; PART n-n, Q 24, A n, ANS
498b-499c; PART in, Q 2, A i, ANS and REP 2
710a-711c; PART in SUPPL, Q 69, A i, ANS and
REP 2 885c-886c; Q 79, A 2, REP 2 953b-955c;
Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [121-
148] 116b-c; xxix [13-36] 150b-c
23 HOBBES. leviathan, PART in, 172a-177c; PART
iv, 258b 261a; 269d-271b
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 17b-d /
Novum Organum, BK n, APR 37 168d-169c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51d-52a /
Meditations, vi 96b-103d / Objections and Re-
plies, DBF vi-vin 130c-d; 153c-155c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PARI i, PROP 15 360a-361d;
PART n, PROP 1-2 373d-374a; PROP 6 374d-
375a; PROP 7, SCHOL 375b-c
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xin,
SECT 16-18 151d-152c; CH xv, SECT n 165a-b;
CH xxi, SECT 2-4 178c-179c; CH xxin, SECT 5
205a-b; SECT 15-37 208c-214b; CH XXVII,SECT
2 219b-c; BK in, CH x, SFCT 15 295a-c; BK iv,
CH in, SECT 6 313c-315b; CH x, SECT 9-19
351b-354c passim; rn xvi, SECT 12, 370c-371a
35 BERKELEY- Human Knowledge, SFCT 1-29
413a-418c, SECT 35-38 419c-420a; SECT 47-50
421c-422c; SECT 67-81 426b-428d, SECT 86 91
429c-431a passim; SECT 133-142 439c-441c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, lOOd-lOlb; 121a-128b;
186b-d; 203d-204c / Judgement, 557c-558b;
565b-d; 566d-567a
46 H EC. EL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; 160c-161a; 165a-b; PART i, 227d-228a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 118b-119b passim; 220b-
226a csp 221a-223a
Corruptible and incorruptible substances
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 13 [23*18-26]
35b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 1-3 359a-362a; CH 9
[279*12^4] 370b-d; BK i, CH IO-BK n, CH i
370d-376a; BK in, CH 6 396a~c / Metaphysics,
BK in, CH 2 [996*21-28] 514d; BK iv, CH 5
[1009*36-39] 528d; BK v, CH 5 [ioi5b9-i6]
536a; BK ix, CH 8 [i05ob5]-cH 9 [1051*21]
576b-577b; BK x, CH 10 586c-d; BK xi, CH 6
[1063*10-17] 591b; BK xn, CH i [io69*30-b2]
598b-c; CH 2 [io69b24~27J 598d-599a; CH 3
[1070*20-27] 599c; CH 6-8 601b-605a; CH 10
7*(3) to :
1-14] 606b / Soul, BK n, CH 2 I
29]643d-644a
9 ARISTOTLE : Motion of Animals, CH 4 [699bi2-
700*5] 234d-235a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [215-250]
3d-4b; [483-634] 7a-8d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; BK xin,
429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 929b-930b
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR i, CH 1-4 35a-
37b; CH 8 39c-d; TR iv, CH 6 51d-52a / Fourth
Ennead, TR vn, CH 10-12 198d-200a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 9, A 2
39c-40d; Q 10, A 2, REP 1-2 41d-42c; A 3, ANS
and REP i 42c-43b; AA 5-6 44b-46d; Q 18, A 3,
REP 3 106b-107c; Q 22, A 2, ANS 128d-130d;
Q 46, A i, REP 2-3 250a-252d; Q 48, A 2, ANS
and REP 3 260c-261b; Q 50, A 5 274b-275a;
Q 63, A i, REP 2 325c-326c; Q 66, A 2 345d-
347b; Q 68, A i, ANS 354a-355c; Q 75, A 6
383c-384c; Q 76, A 3, REP 1-2 391a-393a, Q 97,
A i 513c-514c; A 4 515d-516d; Q 104, A i, REP
1,3 534c-536c; Q 113, A 2, ANS 576d-577d;
PART I-II, Q 22, A I, REP 3 720d-721C
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; PART
n-n, Q 24, A n, ANS 498b-499c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 91, A i 1016b-1017c; AA 4-5 1022d-
1025b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-84]
115d-116a;[i2i-i48]116b-c;xm[52-87]126a-b
31 DESCARTFS- Objections and Replies, 127c-d
31 SPINOZ\. Ethics, PART i, PROP 6-8 356b-357d;
PROP 12-13 359b-d; PROP 15, SCHOL, 361d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [116-156] 96a-
97a; BK n [94-105] 113a b; BK vi [320-347]
203a-b; [430-436] 205b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 541b
35 LOCKE • Human Understanding, BK in, CH HI,
SECT 19, 259c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 141
441a-b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 121a-128b; 203d-204c /
Practical Reason, 348d-349a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 221b-222b; 224a-b
76(4) Extension and thought as dependent
substances or as attributes of infinite sub-
stance
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51d-52a /
Meditations, vi 96b-103d / Objections and
Replies, DBF vi-vin 130c-d; PROP iv 133c;
135d-136b; 152d 155d esp 153c-155c; 224d-
225d; 231a-232d; 248b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics^ PART i, PROP 14, COROL 2
360a; PART n, DBF 1-2 373a-b; PROP 1-2 373d-
374a; PROP 5-6 374c-375a; PROP 7, SCHOL
375b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xin,
SECT 1 8 152a-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 580c-d
7b(5) to
7$(5) Substance as subject to change and to
different kinds of change: the role of
accidents or modifications
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 (4*io-bi9] 8b-9a
/ Physics, BK i, CH 6-BK n, CH i 264c-270a;
BK in, CH 1-3 278a-280c; BK v-vin 304a-355d
/ Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 1-5
409a-420b; BK n, CH 9-10 436d>439c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 3 [983b7-984b8] 501d-502c;
BK in, CH 4 [999*24~b24] 518a-c; BK VII,CH 7-9
555a-558a; BK vm, CH i [i042*24-b7] 566b-d;
CH 3 [io43bi5-23] 568a-b; CH 4-5 568d-569d;
BK ix, CH i 570b,d-571b; CH 3 572a-c; CH 6-7
573c-575a; BK xi, CH 9 593d-594d; CH n
596a-d; CH 12 [io68a7-b26] 596d-597d; BK
XH, CH 1-5 598a-601a / Soul, BK n, CH 4
[4i6b8-i7] 646d-647a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2 167b-
168c; CH 5 169b-c; BK n, CH 4, 187a-b; BK in,
CH 7 203b-205a; CH 15, 214d-215d
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR i, CH 3-4 36b-
37b; TR iv, CH 6 51d-52a; TR vi, CH 1-2 60c-
62b / Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 7-19 HOd-
119a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 6, ANS 18c-19a; Q 9, A 2 39c-40d; Q 41, A 3
219d-221c; A 5 222b-223b; Q 44, A 2 239b-
240a; Q 4$, AA 1-5 242a-247a passim; A 8
249b-250a; Q 50, A 5 274b-275a; Q 53 280d-
284d; Q 65, A 4 342b-343c; Q 66, AA 1-2 343d-
347b; Q 67, A 3, ANS and REP i 351b-352a;
Q 73, A 3 371d-372c; Q 75, A 6 383c-384c;
Q 76, A 4 393a-394c; Q 78, A 2, ANS and REP 4
409a-410a;Q9o,A2,ANs and REP2481d-482c;
Q 92, A 3, REP i 490c-491b; Q 98, A i 516d-
517d; Q 104 534c-538c; Q 105, AA 1-2 538d-
540c; A 5, ANS 542a-543b; Q 115, AA 1-3 585d-
589c; A 6, ANS 591d-592d; Q 118, A i 600a-
601c; Q 119 604c-608d; PART i-n, Q 22, A i
720d-721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 13c-14b; Q 52, AA 1-2
15d-19a; Q 53, A i, REP 1 19d-21a; A 2, REP 1-3
21a-d; Q no, A 2, REP 3 349a-d; PART in
SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS 938a-939d; Q 80, A 4
959c-963a; Q 82, AA 1-2 968a-971a; Q 83, A i
974d-976b; A 5, ANS 981b-982c; Q 84 983c-
989b; Q 86, A A 2-3 993c-996a,c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66,
115a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 162d-
165d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 6 356b-c; PROP
12-13 359b-d; PROP 23 364d-365a; PROP 28
365c-366a; PART n, PROP 13 377d-378c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxn,
SECT ii 203c-d; CH xxvi, SECT 1-2 217a-d;
BK in, CH vi, SECT 42 280b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 74b-76c; 82a-83b; 86c-
87b; 141b,d-143a passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; 178c<d
CHAPTER 7: BEING
145
76(6) The nature and kinds of accidents or
modifications
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [i*2o-b9J 5b-c;
CH 4 5d-6a; CH 5 fr^-1^] 6b-c; [3*6-21] 7b;
CH 6-9 9a-16d / Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[32b4-i4] 48b-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 4
[73*33-bi6] lOOb-d / Topics, BK i, CH9 147a-b
/ Physics, BK i, CH 2 [185*20-186*4] 260a-d; CH
4 [188*5-13] 263b; BK n, CH i [i92b35~39]
269a; BK iv, CH 3 [2iobi-8] 289 b-c; BK vn, CH
3 329a-330d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 6 [ioi5b
16-34] 536a-b; CH 7 [1017*23-30] 537d-538a;
CH 9 [ioi7b27~ioi8*3] 538c; CH 30 547a-d;
BK vn, CH i [1028*10-18] 550b; CH 4-6 552b-
555a; BK vin, CH 4 [io44b8-2o] 569b; BK x,
CH 9 586a-c; BK xn, CH i [1069*18-25] 598a /
Seme and the Sensible, CH 6 [445^-446*20]
683b-684c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [449-482]
6c-7a
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR vi 60c-62d /
Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 4-24 253b-265b; CH 30
268b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 6 18c-19a; Q 8, A 2, REP 3 35c-36b; Q 9, A 2,
ANS 39c-40d; Q 28, A 2 158d-160a; Q 29, A 2,
ANS and REP 4-5 163b-164b; Q 44, A 2,
ANS 239b-240a; Q 45, A 4, ANS 244d-245c;
Q 54, A i 285a-d; A 3 286c-287b; Q 66,
A i, REP 3 343d-34Sc; Q 67, A 3 351b-352a;
Q 76, A 6 396a-d; A 8, ANS 397d-399b;
Q 77 399b-407a passim; Q 101, A i, REP i 522c-
523a; Q 108, A 5, ANS 555d-558b; Q 115, A i,
ANS and REP 3,5 585d-587c; A 6, ANS 591d-
592d; Q 116, A i, ANS 592d-593d; PART i-n,
Q 2, A 6, ANS 619d-620d; Q 7 651d-655a
passim; Q 17, A 4, ANS 688d-689c; Q 18, A 3
695d-696b; Q 35, A 4, ANS and REP 2 774d-
775d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
49-54 la-25d passim, csp Q 49, AA 1-2 Ib-
4a; Q 56, A i, REP 1,3 30a-c; PART n-n, Q 23,
A 3, REP 3 485a-d; Q 24, A 5, ANS and REP i
492b-493d; PART in, Q 2, A 6 716b-718b;
PART in SUPPL, Q 70, A i, ANS 893d~895d;
Q 79, A i, REP 4 951b-953b; Q 83, A 3 978c-
980d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 57a-b; 59c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66, 114d
115a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 41d / Objec-
tions and Replies, 135b-136b; 136c; 162d-165d;
228c-229c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 4-5 355b; PROP
10 358a-b; PROP 19, DBMONST 363c-d; PROP
20, COROL 2 364a; PROP 21-23 364a-36Sa
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vin
133b-138b csp SECT 8-10 134b-d; CH xn,
SECT 3-6 147d-148c; CH xm, SECT 17-20
152a-d; CH xxi, SECT 3 178d; SECT 75 200b-
d; CH xxiii, SECT 7-10 205d-206d; SECT 37
2 13 d- 2 14 b; CH xxx, SECT a 238b~c; CH xxxi,
146
THE GREAT IDEAS
7cto7c(2)
(lb. The distinction between substance and attri-
bute, accident or modification: independent
and dependent being. lb(6) The nature
and kinds of accidents or modifications.)
SECT 2 239b-d; BK nr, CH iv, SECT 16 263b-c;
CH ix, SECT 13 288a-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 1-15
413a-416a; SECT 25 417d-418a; SECT 49 422b;
SECT 73 427b-c; SECT 78 428a-b; SECT 102
432d433a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xu, DIV
122 505c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 503a-b; 572a-b; 650b-651a
7c. The distinction between potentiality and
actuality: possible and actual being
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 9 [i9a6-b4] 29b-
d; CH 13 [23*18-26] 35b-c / Topics, BK v, CH 8
[i38b27~i 39*9] 191c-d / Physics, BK HI, en 1-3
278a-280c; BK iv, CH 9 [217^20-^26] 297a-c /
Heavens, BK in, CH 2 [30 1^33-302*9 ] 393b /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 5 [1009*22-39] 528d;
BK v, CH 2 [1014*7-9] 534b; [1014*19-25]
534b-c; CH 7 [ioi7*}5-b9] 538a-b; CH 12 540b-
541b; BK ix 570b,d-578a,c; BK xn, CH 2
[io69bi5-34] 598d-599a; CH 5 600b-601a; BK
xin, CH 3 [1078*21-31] 609d; CH 10 [1087*10-
25] 619c / Soul, BK n, CH 2 [414*14-28] 644b-c;
CH 5 [417*2-418*6] 647c-648d
17 PLOTINUS • Second Ennead, TR v 57d-60c /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 8-19 lllc-119a; TR ix,
CH 3, 137d-138a / Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 15-17
260c-261d; CH 25-30 265b-268c; TR in, CH 22,
293d 294a; CH 27 296b-297a
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 35,
653c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; A 2,
ANS 15c-16a; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; A 5, ANS 17c-
18b; A 6, ANS 18c-19a; A 7, ANS 19a-c; A 8,
ANS 19d-20c; Q 4, A i 20d-21b; A 2, ANS 21b-
22b; Q 5, A i 23c-24a; A 2, REP 2 24b-25a;
A 3, REP 3 25a-d; Q 6, A 3, REP i 29c-30b;
Q 7, A 2, REP 3 31d-32c; Q 9, A i, ANS and
REP i 38c-39c; A 2, ANS 39c-40d; Q n, A i,
REP 2 46d-47d; Q 14, A 2 76d-77d; A 3, ANS
77d-78b; A 4, ANS 78b-79a; Q 18, A i, ANS
104c-105c; A 3, REP i 106b-107c; A 4, REP
3 107d-108c; Q 25, A i, REP i 143d-144c;
Q 45, A 5, REP 3 245c-247a; Q 46, A i, REP
i 250a-252d; Q 54, A i, ANS 285a-d; A 3, ANS
and REP 2 286c-287b; Q 75, A i, ANS and
REP 2 378b-379c; Q 86, A 3 463b-d; Q 115,
A i, ANS and REP 1,4 585d-587c; PART i-n,
Q 10, A i, REP 2 662d-663d; Q 27, A 3 738c-
739c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 86d-87a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, DBF 4 424a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 90c-91a / Practical Reason,
291a-292a / Judgement, 570c-571c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; 160d-161c; 178a-179d
7c(l) The order of potentiality and actuality
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 13 [23*21-26]
35b-c / Physics, BK in, CH i [201*19-27] 278d /
Heavens, BK iv, CH 3 [3iob22-3 11*12] 402b-c /
Metaphysics, BK in, CH 6 [ioo2b32-ioo3*5]
521d; BK v, CH ii [1019*1-14] 540a; BK VH, CH
9 [io34bi6-i9] 558a; BK ix, CH 8-9 575b-577c;
BK xn, CH 5 [1071*30-36] 601a; CH 6-7 601 b-
603b
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR v 57d-60c /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 7, llla-b; CH 1 1, 113b-
c; CH 14-15 115b-116c; TR ix, CH 3, 137d-138a
/ Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 15-22 260c-264c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
ANS 14b-15b; A 8, ANS 19d-20c; Q 4, A i, REP 2
20d-21b; A 2, ANS 21b-22b; Q 9, A i, ANS
38c-39c; Q ir, A 2, REP i 47d-48d; Q 25, A i,
REP 2 143d-144c; Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a;
PART i-n, Q 2, A 7, ANS 620d-621c; Q 3, A 2,
ANS 623a-624b; Q 9, A i, ANS 657d~658d; Q 22,
A 2, REP i 721c-722c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 2, REP 3 7c-8a; Q 71, A 3 107c-108b; PART in,
Q 10, A 3, ANS 769d-771b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d; xin [52-87] 126a-b; xxix [22-36] 150c
7c(2) Types of potency and degrees of actu-
ality
8 ARISTOTLE- Interpretation, CH 13 [22b35-2}*i7]
34d-35b / Physics, BK in, CH 6 [206*18-24]
284c; BK iv, en i [208^-209*1] 287b-c; BK
vii, CH 3 [247bi~248a6] 330b-d; BK vni, CH 4
[255*3o-b3i] 340a-c / Heavens, BK iv, CH 3
[3iob22-3ii*i2] 402b-c / Metaphysics, BK v,
CH 12 540b-541b; BKIX, CH 1-9 570b,d-577c;
BK xn, CH 5 600b-601a / Soul, BK n, CH i
[412*6-12] 642a; [412*22-28] 642b; BK in, CH
4-5 661 b- 662 d / Sense and the Sensible, CH 4
[44ibi6-24] 679b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i [ii03*26-b24]
348d-349b; CH 5 [1106*7-10] 351c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR v 57d-60c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8 626c-627a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 4,
A 2, ANS 21b-22b; Q 5, A i, REP i 23c-24a; Q 14,
A 2, ANS and REP 2-3 76d-77d; Q 18, A 3, ANS
and REP i 106b-107c; Q 25 143c-150a; Q 48,
A 4, ANS 262a-263a; Q 50, A 2 270a-272a; Q 52,
AA 1-2 278d-280a; Q 58, A i 300c-301a; Q 63,
A i, REP i 325c-326c; Q 66, A 2 345d-347b;
Q 75, A 5 382a-383b; A 6, REP 2 383c-384c;
Q 77, A i 399c-401b; A 3 401d-403a; A 6 404c-
405c; Q 79, A 2 414d-416a; A 10 423d-424d;
Q 87, A 2, ANS 466c-467b; Q 92, A 4, REP 3
491 b-d; Q 104, A 4, REP 2 538a-c; Q 105, A 5,
ANS 542a-543b; PART i-n, Q 3, A 2, ANS and
REP i 623a 624b; Q 10, A i, REP 2 662d-663d;
Q 22, A i 720d-721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 3 4b-5a; Q 50, A 2 7c-8a; A 6 lla-12a; Q 51,
to 7d
CHAPTER 7: BEING
147
A 2 13c~14b; Q 55, A 2, ANS 27a-d; Q 71, A 4,
REP 3 108b-109a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vn,
SECT 8 132d-133a; CH xxi, SECT 1-4 178b-
179c; SECT 74, 199d-200bj CH XXIH, SECT 7
205d-206a; SECT 28 211b-d
7c(3) Potentiality and actuality in relation to
matter and form
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*25-33]
268c; BK ii, CH i [i93*9-b2i] 269b-270a; BK
in, CH 1-3 278a-280c / Heavens, BK iv, CH 3
[3iob22-3iiai2] 402b-c / Generation and Cor-
ruption, BK i, CH 3 413c-416c; CH 7 421d-423b;
CH 9 425d-426c / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4
534d-535c; BK vii, CH 16 [i040b5-i6] 564c;
BK vui, CH 6 569d-570d; BK ix, CH 6-9 573c-
577c; BK xi, CH 9 593d-594d; BK xn, CH 5
600b-601a; BK xm, CH 3 [1078*21-31] 609d /
Soul, BK ii, CH 1-2 642a-644c
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR vm, CH 3-8 28a-
31c, CH 10 32a-33a; CH 12 33d-34a / Second
Ennead, TR iv, CH 6 51d-52a; TR v 57d-60c /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 7-19 110d-119a; TR
ix, CH 3, 137d-138a / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 2
208c-209b; TR ix, CH 3 247b-d/ Sixth Ennead,
TR i, CH 25-30 265b-268c; TR v, CH 5-8 307a-
308c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 3-6 99d-
lOOc; par 8, lOlb; par 9, lOlc; par 14-16
102b-103a; par 24-26 104c-105b; par 28-31
105c-107a; par 38-40 108d-110a
19 AQUINAS , Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 2,
ANS and REP 3 15c-16a; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; Q 4,
A i 20d-21b; A 2, ANS 21b-22b; Q 7, A i, ANS
31a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 3 31d-32c; Q 14, A 2,
REP 3 76d-77d; Q 18, A 3, REP i 106b-107c;
Q 25, A i, REP i 143d-144c; Q 44, A 2, ANS and
REP 3 239b-240a; Q 45, A 5, REP 2 245c-247a;
Q 50, A 2, REP 3 270a-272a; A 5, ANS 274b-
275a; Q 55, A 2, ANS 289d-290d; Q 62, A 7,
REP i 322d-323b; Q 66, A 2 345d-347b; Q 75,
A 2, ANS 379c-380c; A 5 382a-383b; Q 77, A i,
REP 2 399c-401b; Q 86, A 3 463b-d; Q 90,
A 2, REP 2 481d-482c; Q 92, A 3, REP i 490c-
491b; Q 104, A i, ANS and REP i 534c-536c;
Q 105, A i, ANS 538d-539c; PART I-H, Q i,
A 3, ANS 611b-612a; Q 10, A i, ANS and REP
2 662d-663d; Q 22, A i, ANS and REP i 720d-
721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS and REP i 5a-6a; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a;
PART in, Q 2, A i, ANS and REP 2 710a-711c;
PART in SUPPL, Q 82, A i, REP 2 968a-970c;
Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy ', PARADISE, i [121-141]
107c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 384c-d;
494a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 212a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b
7<£ The distinction between teal and ideal
being, or between natural being and
being in mind
7 PLATO: Parmenidcs, 489a-b
8 ARISTOTLE : Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 36 [48*40-
b9] 66d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 7 [1017*31-34]
538a; BK vi, CH 4 550a,c; BK ix, CH 3 [1047*
3o-b2] 572c; CH 10 577c-578a,c; BK xn, CH 7
[io72bi8-24] 602d*603a; CH 9 [i074b35~
1075*11] 605c-d / Soul, BK in, CH 4 [429*13-
29] 661b-c; CH 8 [43ib2o~432*9] 664b-c /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH i [45obi2-
451*14] 691c-692b
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK I,
403b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vm, CH 8 132d-
133c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A i, REP 2 lOd-lld; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 16d47c;
Q ii, A i, ANS and REP 3 46d-47d; Q 12, A 2
51c-52c; Q 13, A 3, REP 3 64d-65c; A 7, ANS
and REP 2,4-5 68d-70d; A 9, ANS and REP 2
71b-72c; A 12 74c-75b; Q 14, A i, ANS and
REP 3 75d-76c; A 2, ANS and REP 2-3 76d-77d;
A 6, REP i 80a-81c; A 8, ANS 82c-83b; A 9,
ANS 83b-d; A 13, REP 2-3 86d-88c; Q 15, A i,
ANS and REP 1,3 91b-92a; A 3, REP 4 93b-94a;
Q 16, A 2 9Sc-96b; A 7, REP 2 99a~d; Q 17, A 3,
ANS 102d-103c; Q 18, A 4, REP 2-^ 107d-108c;
Q 19, A 3, REP 6 HOb-lllc; Q 29, A I, REP 3
162a-163b; Q 30, A i, REP 4 167a-168a; A 4
170c-171b; Q 34, A i, REP 3 185b-187b; Q 50,
A 2, ANS 270a-272a; Q 55, A 2, ANS and REP i
289d-290d; A 3 esp REP i 291a<d; Q 56, A 2,
ANS and REP 3 292d-294a; A 3, ANS 294a-d;
Q 57, A 2 295d-297a; Q 58, A 6, ANS and REP
1,3 304c-305b; A 7, ANS 305c-306b; Q 66, A 2,
REP 2 345d-347b; Q 67, A 3, ANS 351b-352a;
Q 74, A 3, REP 5 375a-377a,c; Q 76, A 3, REP 4
391a-393a; A 6, REP 2 396a-d; Q 84 440b-451b;
Q 85, A 2 453d-455b; A 3, REP 1,4 455b-457a;
A 5, REP 3 457d-458d; Q 88, A 2, REP 4 471c-
472c; PART I-H, Q 5, A 6, REP 2 641a-642a;
Q 6, A 6, ANS and REP 2 649a-650a; Q 8, A i,
ANS and REP 3 655b-656a; Q 12, A 3, REP 2-3
670d-671b; Q 17, A 4, ANS 688d-689c; Q 22,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 721c-722c; Q 28, A i, REP 3
740b-741a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART m, Q 2,
A 5, REP 2 715a-716b; PART in SUPPL, Q 82,
A 3% ANS and REP 2 971a-972d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 53c; PART in,
172a-d; PART iv, 262a-d; 270a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard //, ACT v, sc v [1-41]
349d-350a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART i, la-8c,
18d-22a, PART n, 285a-288c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 71d-72a; in, 83b-
86a; v, 93a-94a / Objections and Replies, 108b-
109d; 121a-c; DEF m-iv 130b; AXIOM v 131d-
132a; 157b-158a; 212c-213a
148
THE GREAT IDEAS
7d(\) to 7d(2)
(l.Tbcdiwionsormodcto/btmg, 1<J, Tt* dis-
tinction between real and ideal being, or
between natural being and being in mind.)
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d
esp371c-372c; PART n, PROP 5-9 374c-376c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxn,
SECT 2 201a-b; CH xxx, SECT 2 238b-c; CH
xxxi, SECT 2 239 b-d; CH XXXH, SECT 14-18
245c-247a passim; BK in, CH in, SECT 15-19
258b-260a; CH vi 268b-283a passim, csp SECT
2-3 268c-d, SECT 8 270b-c; BK iv, CH n,
SECT 14 312b-d; CH iv, SECT 6-8 325a~c; CH
ix, SECT i 349a; CH xi, SECT 4-9 355b-357a
35 BERKELEY* Human Knowledge, SECT 1-96
413a-431d csp SECT 1-24 413a-417d, SECT 29-
44 418c-421a, SECT 48-49 422a-b, SECT 82-84
428d-429c, SECT 86-91 429c-431a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 44
468d-469c csp 469b-c; SECT xu, DIV 117-123
504a-506a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 24a-33d csp 25c-26a,
28a-b, 31d-32c; 85d-93c; 200c-209d; 211c-
212a / Practical Reason, 295 b-d / Judgement,
551a-553c; 604a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 134c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-c;
158a-160b; 188d-189a; PART i, 219d-220a;
236a-c; 257c-d; PART iv, 354b; 364b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic%, 385b
50 MARX: Capital, llb-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 128a-b; 142a-b; 176a-177a;
191b-192a; 302a; 639a-645b csp 640a, 644b~
645b; 659a-660b; 851b-852a; 865b-866a;
868 b; 879b-886a esp 881a-882a; 889a-890a
54 FREUD. General Introduction, 597d-598a
7</(l) The being of the possible
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v-vi, 368c-383a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 3 572a-c /
Soul, BK in, CH 4 [429*18-23] 661c
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR v, CH 4-5 59c-
60c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 2,
ANS and REP 3 31d-32c; Q 9, A 2, ANS 39c-40d;
Q 14, A 2, REP 3 76d-77d; A 9, REP i 83 b-d;
A 13, REP 2-3 86d-88c; Q 18, A 4, REP 3 107d-
108c; Q 46, A i, REP 1-2 250a-252d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 33, SCHOL i
367c-d; PART n, PROP 8 375c-376a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 85d-88a; 95a-tf; 97a-b;
176d-177a; 179c-180c / Judgement, 550a-578a
esp 550c-d, 552c<d, 555a-b, 564a-565b, 568a-
c, 569a, 570c-575b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a~c;
156d-157b; 178a-179d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 233b [fn i); 301b-302a
14(2) The being of ideas, universals, rights
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 87d-89a; 113c-114a,c /
Phaedo, 224a-225a; 228d-230c; 231b-232b;
240b-246c csp 242c-244b / Republic, BK v-vi,
368c-388a; BK ix-x, 426d-429c / Timaeus,
447a-d; 457h-458a / Parmenides, 486c-491a
csp 489a-c / Sophist, 567b; 570a-574c / Phile-
bus, 610d-613a / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH n
[77*5-9] 105d-106a; CH 22 [83*23-35] 113c-d;
CH 24 [85*3i-b3] 116c; [^17-22] 117a /
Topics, BK ii, CH 7 [113*24-33] 158d; BK vi,
CH 8 [147*5-11] 201a / Sophistical Refutations,
CH 22 [i78b37-i79*io] 246c / Physics, BK n,
CH 2 [i93b3 1-194*6] 270b; BK in, CH 4 [203*4-
9] 280d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 505b-506b;
CH 9 S08c-511c; BK in, CH i [995bi3~i8] 514a;
[995b27~996*io] 514b-c; CH 2 [997*34-bi2]
516a-b; [998*6-13] 516d; CH 4 [999b24- 1000*4]
518c-d; [1001*4-25] 519d-520c; CH 6 [ioo2b
11-31] 521b-d; [1003*5-17] 521d-522a,c; BK
vii, CH 8 [io33bi9-io34*8] 556d-557b; CH 10
[io35b28-32] 559b; CH 13-16 562a-565a; BK
vin, CH 6 569d-570d; BK ix, CH 8 [io5ob35-
1051*2] 576d-577a, BK x, CH 2 [105^9-23]
580b-c, CH 10 586c-d, BK xi, CH i [1059*34^8]
587b-c; CH i [io59b2i]-CH 2 [1060*27] 587d-
588b; CH 2 [io6oa36-b3o] 588c-589a; BK xu,
CH i [1069*27-37] 598b; CH 3 [1070*4]-^ 5
[I07ib2] 599b-601a, BK xm, CH i [1076*17-33]
607a-b; CH 4-5 610a-611d; CH 10 618c-619a,c
/ Soul, BK ii, CH 5 [4i7bi7~28] 648b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 341b-342c pas-
sim
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR v, CH 3 58d-59c;
IR vi, CH 3 62b-d / Third Ennead, TR vin, CH
8 132d-133c / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH i, 229a;
TR vn 238a-239b; TR ix, CH 5-8 248a-250a /
Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 5-8 307a-308c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a /
City of God, BK vin, CH 6, 269b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8,
A 4, REP i 37c-38c; Q 14, PREAMBLE 75c-d;
Q 15 91b-94a; Q 16, A 7, REP 2 99a-d; Q 18,
A 4 107d-108c; Q 29, A 2, REP 4 163b-164b;
Q 44, A 3 240b-241a; Q 47, A i, REP 2 256a-
257b; Q 55 288d-291d; Q 57, AA 1-2 295a-
297a; Q 65, A 4 342b-343c; Q 76, A 2, REP 4
388c-391a; Q 79, A 3, ANS 416a-417a; Q 84, AA
1-7 440d-450b; Q 85, A i, ANS and REP 1-2
451c-453c; A 2, ANS and REP 2 453d-455b;
A 3, REP 1,4 455b-457a; A 8, ANS 460b-461b;
Q 86, A 4, REP 2 463d-464d; Q 87, A i, ANS
465a-466c; Q 88, A i, ANS 469a-471c; A 2,
ANS 47lc-472c; Q 105, A 3, ANS 540c-541b;
Q no, A it REP 3 564c-565d; A 2, ANS 565d
566d; Q 115, A i, ANS 585d-587c; A 3, REP
2 588c-589c; PART I-H, Q 29, A 6, ANS 748b-
749a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 2,
A 5, REP 2 7l5a-716b; Q 4, A 4, ANS and REP 2
733a-734a; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS
1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55b-c; 59d; PART
iv, 262a-b
70(3) to 7^(4) CHAPTER 7: BEING
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning 43d-44c /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 51 lllc; BK 11, APH
2 137b-c; APH 17 149b-d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 84a-85a / Ob-
jections and Replies, 121a-c; DBF i-iv 130a-b;
AXIOM vi 132a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 37-40 386b-
388b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK 11, CH vm 133b-138b
passim; CH xi, SECT 8-9 145b-c; CH xxn, SECT
2 201a-b; CH xxx 238a-239b; CH xxxi, SECT 2
239b-d; CH xxxn, SECT 6-8 244b-d; SECT
14-18 245c-247a; BK in, CH HI, SECT 11-20
257a-260a; CH v-vi 263d-283a passim, esp CH
vi, SECT 32-33 277c-278c, SECT 36-37 279a-
b; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 4-5 324c-d, SECT 11-12
326b-d; CH vi, SECT 4 331d-332b, CH ix, SECT
i 349a; CH xi, SECT 4-9 355b-357a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INIRO, SI«CT
12-16 408a-409d; stcr 2-4 413b-414a; SECT
48-49 422a-b, SECT 86-91 429c-431a
35 HUME, Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
122 505c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 93c-99a; 112d-209d esp
112d-120c, 121a-128b, 129c-145c, 173b-190a;
237b / Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 281c-
282d / Science of Right, 404d-408b; 416b-417b
/ Judgement, 461a-c; 489 b-c; 504d-505a;
528d-530c; 542b-544c; 551a-552c; 570b c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PRLF, 6a-7a;
INTRO, par i 9a; PART i, par 66-67 29a-c;
par 71 31 b-c; PART in, par 184 64b; par 280
94d-95a; ADDITIONS, 2 115d / Philosoph\ of
History, INTRO, 156d-190b esp 156d-157b,
158a-160b, 165a-b; PART iv, 364b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 113a-115a esp 113b-114a,
128a-b; 300a-313a passim, esp 300a-301a,
304b, 307a-b, 309a-311a, 641b-643a passim,
659a-b; 865 b; 881b-882a
7</(3) The being of mathematical objects
7 PLATO. Phaedo, 228b-229d / Republic, BK vi,
387b-c; BK vn, 392a-394c; 395c-397a /
Theaetetus, 535b-c; 541b-d / Sophist, 562c-d /
Philebus, 636b-c / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[79*6-10] 108c; CH 18 [8ia4o-b5] lllb-c / Top-
ics, BK vi, CH 6 [i43bn-33] 197b-c / Physics,
BKII, cH2[i93b23-i94ftn]270a-c; BKIII, CH4
[203*4-9] 280d; CH 5 [204*8-34] 282a-b; BK
iv, CH i [2o8bi9~24J 287b-c; CH n [2i9b5-8]
299b; CH 14 [223*21-29] 303a / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 5 [985b22-986*2i] 503d-504b; CH 6
[987bio-34] 505c-506a; CH 8 [989b29~990a^2]
508a~c; CH 9 [99ib9-992bi8] 509d-511a; BK in,
CH i [995bi3-i8] 514a; [996*13-15] 514c; CH 2
[997^12-998*19] 516b-d; CH 5 [iooib26]-cn 6
[ioo2b25] 520c-521c; BK vn, CH 2 [io28bi8-28]
551a-b; CH 10 [iO35b32-io36ai2] 559b-c; CH
n [io36b32-i 037*4] 560b-c; BK xi, CH 2
[io6o*36-bi9] 588c-d; CH 3 [1061*29^4]
149
589c; BK xn, CH i [1069*30-37] 598b; CH 10
[i075b25-i076*4]606c-d; BK xin, CH i-3<507a-
610a; CH 6-9 611d-618c; BK xiv 619b,d-626d
/ Soul, BK in, CH 7 [43ibi3~i9] 664b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [1096*17-19]
341b; BK vi, CH 8 [1142*16-19] 391b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-812a;
813d-814b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi 310d-321b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 19 76a-b /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 3, REP 4 25a-d; Q 10, A 6, ANS 45c-46d; Q 11,
A i, REP i 46d-47d; A 3, REP 2 49a-c; Q 30, A i,
REP 4 167a-168a; Q 44, A i, REP 3 238b-239a;
Q 85, A i, REP 2 451c-453c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 83, A 2, ANS 976c-978c; A 3, REP 2 978c-980d
31 DESCARTES. Rules, xiv, 30b-32a / Discourse,
PART iv, 52d-53a / Meditations, i, 76c; v,
93a-d; v-vi, 96a-b / Objections and Replies,
169c-170a; 216d-217c; 218c; 228c-229a
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK n, CH xni,
SECT 5-6 149b-d; BK HI, CH in, SECT 19,
259c-d; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 5-8 324d-325c
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
12-16 408a-409d; SECT 12-16 415b-416a, SECT
118-128 436b-438d passim, esp SECT 121-122
436d-437c, SECT 125-126 438a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV 20
458a-b; SECT xii, DIV 122 505c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 16a-b; 17d-18d; 24d-25b;
31b-d; 46a-c; 55c; 62a-d; 68a-69c; 86b-c;
87b-c; 91c-d; 94b-95a; 211c-213c; 217c-d /
Practical Reason, 312c / Judgement, 551a-552c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 874a-878a passim; 880 b-
881a
7</(4) The being of relations
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 242c-245b / Parmenides, 489a-
c / Sophist, 570a-574c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [990b9~i7]
508d; BK xiv, CH i [io88ai5-b4] 620b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [1096*18-22]
341b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 6-9 254d-
257a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13, A 7,
ANS and REP 2,4-5 68d-70d; Q 28, AA 1-2 157c-
160a; A 4, ANS and REP 1,3-4 160c-161d; Q 40,
A 2, REP 4 214b-215b; Q 45, A 3, REP 1-3 244a-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A 7, REP 2 718b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 45 HOb
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK nf CH xxv,
SECT i 214d-215b; SECT 10 216d-217a; CH xxx,
SECT 4 238d-239a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT n, 415a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 24a-33d esp 31d-32c;
61a-64a esp 62d-63c; 72c-85d; 99a-108a,c;
119b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156b-c
150
THE GREAT IDEAS
7</(5) to 8*
(Id. The distinction between real and ideal being,
or between natural being and being in
mind. 7d(4) The being of relations.)
S3 JAMES: Psychology, 157b-161a csp 158b-159b;
458a-459b; 865b; 873a-b; 879b-886a csp
884b-885a; 889a-890a
7</(5) The being of fictions and negations
7 PLATO: Sophist, 561d-564b; 571d-574c esp
573a-574c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [990^9-15]
508d; BK iv, CH 2 [1004*9-15] 523a; BK v, CH 7
[1017*18] 537d; [1017*31-34] 538a; BK vn, CH
4 [1030*24-27] 553a; CH 7 [i032bi-6] 555b-c;
BK ix, CH 3 [i047*3o-b2] 572c; BK xn, CH i
[1069*18-24] 598a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK n, CH 24 [1402*3-6]
651b-c
12 LUCRETIUS -.Nature of Things, BK iv [722-748]
53d-54a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 12 16b /
City of God, BK xi, CH 22 333d-334c; BK XH,
CH 7 346c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13,
A 7, ANS 68d-70d; Q 34, A 3, REP 5 188b-189a;
Q 48, A 2 esp REP 2 260c-261b; Q 51, A 2, ANS
276b-277a; PART i-n, Q 8, A i, REP 3 655b-
656a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50d; 53c; 57b-c;
PART iv, 262a-d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 157b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vm,
SECT 1-6 133b-134a; BK in, CH in, SECT 19
259c-260a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 345c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 62d-63a; 174d-175b
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 639a-644a csp 642b [fn 2]
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 597b-598a esp
598a
7e. The distinction between appearance and
reality, between the sensible and supra-
sensible, between the phenomenal and
noumenal orders
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 113c-114a,c/ Phaedrus, 124d-
127a / Symposium, 167a-d / Phaedo, 224a-
225a; 228a-232a / Republic, BK v, 370d-373c;
BK vi, 383d-388a; BK vn, 396d-398c /
Timaeus, 447a-d; 450b-c; 45Sc-458a esp 457c-
458a / Thcaetetus, 534d-536a / Sophist, 567a-
568c / Statesman, 595b-c / Philebus, 634b-
635b / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 4 [i87*27-b7]
262b-c / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 29 [io24b22-
27] 546c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [308-332]
19a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ermcad, TR vi, CH i, 60c-
61b / Fourth Ennead, TR vm, CH 6 203d-204b
/ Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 281a-282a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 10 lla-b;
BK in, par 10 15b-d; BK vn, par 23 50b-c;
BK x, par 13 74c-d; par 16-19 75b-76b /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 2, ANS 105c-106b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 291b-294b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 238a-b;
257d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 372a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vm
133b-138b passim, esp SECT 7-10 134b-d, SECT
15-20 135c-136c; CH xxin, SECT 5 205a-b;
SECT 15 208c-d; SECT 29 211d-212a; SECT 32
212c-d; CH xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; BK
HI, CH in, SECT 15-18 258b-259c; CH vi
268b-283a passim, esp SECT 9 270d-271a; BK
iv, CH xvi, SECT 12 370b-371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-27
417d-418b; SECT 86-91 429c-431a passim;
SECT 101-102 432c-433a; SECT 135-142 440a-
441c; SECT 148 442b-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV 29
461a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15c-16c; 19a; 19d-20c;
27b-33d; 53b-59b esp 58a-b; 86c-88c; 93c-
99a; 101b-108a,c; 112b-d; 113c-115a; 153a-c;
164a-165c; 172c-173a; 227a-228b / Fund. Prm.
Metaphysic of Morals, 281c-282d / Practical
Reason, 292a-c; 307d-314d; 319c-321b; 328a-
329a; 331a-337c; 340a-342d esp 340c-341c;
348b-353d/ Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 383c-
d / Science of Right, 416b-417b / Judgement,
465a-c; 474b-475d; 500c-d; 501d-502a; 506d-
507a; 510b-c; 530a; 541a-542a; 543a; 543c-
544c; 551a-552c; 558d; 560c; 564a-c; 570b-
572b esp 571c-572a; 574b<577a; 579a; 581a-
b; 584c-d; 587d-588a; 594d [fn i]; 599d-
600d; 603a-b; 604a-b; 606d-607c; 611c-613a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 82-83
34d-35a; ADDITIONS, 52-53 124d-125a / Phi-
losophy of History, INTRO, 156d-157b; PART n,
270d-271c; PART iv, 349b-350a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 120a-121a; 385b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
168b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 185a-b; 234a-b; 503a-b;
569b-570a; 606b-608b esp 608a-b; 648a
54 FREUD- Unconscious, 430b-c
8. Being and knowledge
Ba. Being and becoming in relation to sense:
perception and imagination
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 126b-d / Phaedo, 224a-225a;
231b-232a / Republic, BK in, 333b-334b; BK
v, 368c-373c; BK VI-VH, 383d-398c / Timaeus,
447b-d; 450b-c; 453b-454a; 455c-458b esp
457b-458a / Theaetetus, 517b-536b / Sophist,
565a-569a esp 568a-569a / Philebus, 610d-613a
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK i,
CH 3 [3i8bi8-3io*2) 415c-d; CH 4 [319*5-24]
CHAPTER 7: BEING
151
416c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5
987*1] 504d-505a; CH 6 foST^^iS) 505b-d;
BK iv, CH 5-6 528c-531c; BK xi, CH 6 [io62b33~
io6?b8] 591a-d / Soul, BK i, CH 2 [404*7-
405*29] 633d-635a; CH 5 [409^8-411*7] 639c-
641a; BK H, CH 5 647b-648d; BK n, CH 12
[424*i6]-BK in, CH 2 [426*25] 656a-658c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811c-d
iTPLOTiNus: Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH i 228b-
229c; TR ix, CH 5 248a-249a / Sixth Ennead,
TR r, CH 27-28 266c-267c esp CH 28 267b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10 15b-d;
BK iv, par 15-17 23a-c; BK vn, par 23 50b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 67,
A 3, ANS 3Slb-352a; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-411d;
Q 86, A 3 463b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-293d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51c-53b /
Meditations, 74afc; n, 81 d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 2-3
413b-d; SECT 25-27 417d-418b; SECT 88-91
430a-431a; SECT 135-142 440a-441c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 34a-72c esp 34a-c, 39a-c,
41c-42b, 45b-59b, 61a-64a, 65d-72c / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 281c-282d /
Judgement, 603d-604b
&. Being and becoming in relation to intellect:
abstraction and intuition
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 125a-
126c / Symposium, 167a-d / Phaedo, 224a-
226c; 228a-232a / Republic, BK in, 333 b-
334b; BK v-vi, 368c-375b; BK vi, 376d;
382a-c; BK vi-vn, 383d-398c/ Timaeus, 447b-
d; 450b-c; 455c-458b/ Theaetetus, 534d-536b/
Sophist, 565a-569a esp 568a-569a / Philebus,
610d-613a; 615c-619d esp 619a-d; 634b-635b
/ Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 8
104a-b / Topics, BK iv, CH i [121*20-26] 169a-
b / Physics, BK iv, CH n [2i9b23~3i] 299c-d;
BK vn, CH 3 [247bi-248a8] 330b-d / Heavens,
BK in, CH i [298bi5-24J 390a-b / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 5 [986^5-987*1] 504d-505a; CH 6
[987*20^18] 505b-d; BK in, CH i [995b4~26]
513d-514b; CH 2 [996*18-997*34] 514d-516a;
BK iv 522a-532d; BK vi 547b,d-550a,c; BK
vii, CH 15 [io39b20-i 040*8] 563c-564a; BK xi,
CH 1-8 587a-593d; BK xn, CH 7 602a-603b;
CH 9 605a-d / Soul, BK i, CH 2 [404b7-405b29]
633d-635a; CH 5 [409^8-411*7] 639c-641a;
BK ii, CH 5 [417*21-418*3] 647d-648c; BK in,
CH 4-8 661b-664d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-d
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 1-2
228b-229d; TR ix, CH 5 248a-249a / Sixth
Ennead, TR i, CH 27-28 266c-267c esp CH 28
267b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 23 50b-c
/ City of God, BK xi, CH 10, 328c-d / Christian
Doctrine, BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 2, ANS 24b-25a; Q 12, A i S0c-51c; AA 3-4
52c-54c; Q 16, AA 2-3 95c-96d; Q 26, A 2, ANS
150c-151a; Q 34, A i, REP 2 185b-187b; Q 50,
A 2, ANS and REP i 270a-272a; Q 54, A 2 285d-
286c; Q 78, A i, ANS 407b-409a; Q 79, AA i-io
413d-424d passim; Q 84, AA 1-2 440d-443c;
AA 6-7 447c-450b; Q 85, A i 451c-453c; A 5,
REP 3 457d-458d; Q 86, A i 461c-462a; A 3
463b-d; Q 88 468d-473a; Q 89, A 4 476c-477a;
Q 105, A 3, ANS 540c-541b; PART i-n, Q 3, A 8,
ANS 628d-629c; Q 10, A i, REP 3 66 2 d- 663d
20 AQUINAS * Summa Theohgica, PART n-ii, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 392d-393c; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i
1025c-1032b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51c-53b /
Meditations, n, 81b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-27
417d-418b; SECT 88-91 430a-431a; SECT 135-
i42440a-441c
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 38a-108a,c esp 39a-c,
41c-93c / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
281c-282d; 285a-287d / Judgement, 465a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 343
HOd-llla / Philosophy of History, IN FRO, 160d-
161c
8c. Essence or substance as the object of defini-
tion: real and nominal essences
7 PLATO. Meno, 174a-179b passim / Euthyphro,
196a-b / Gorgias, 252d-253b / Republic, BK vi,
384a-386c esp 385b-c/ Theaetetus, 514b-515c;
547c-549c / Sophist, 551a-552c / Laws, BK x,
763c-d / Seventh Letter, 809a-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [2*i9~3b24] 6b-8a
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 22 113b-115b;
CH 33 [89ai7-b5] 121d-122a,c; BK n, CH 3-10
123c-128d; CH 13 131b-133c / Topics, BK i, CH
4 [10^17-23] 144b-c; CH 5 [ioib37-io2*5]
144d; CH 8 [io3bi-n] 146d; CH 18 [io8a38-b9]
152d; [io8bi9~32] 153a,c; BK vi, CH i [139*24-
34] 192a; BK vi, CH 4~BK vii, CH 5 194c-211a,c
passim / Physics, BK i, CH 3 [i 86° 14-3 4] 261c-
262a; BK n, CH i [i93*30-bi9] 269c-270a; CH 2
[194*11-14] 270c / Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12
493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [983*24-
29] 501c; CH 5 [987*19-27] 505b; CH 6 [987*35-
bio] 505c; [987b3o-33] 506a; BK n, CH 2 [994b
16-27] 513a-b; BK in, CH 2 [996^2-21] 515a-
b; BK iv, CH 4 [ioo6*29-bi8] 525c-d; [1007*20-
bi8] 526c-527a; BK v, CH 2 [1013*27-28] 533b;
BK vi, CH i [io25b28-io26*6] 547d-548a; BK
vn, CH i [1028*31-37] 550d;cH4-6552b-555a;
CH 10-17 558a-566a,c; BK vin, CH 2-3 566d-
568d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*19-
28] 592c; BK xir, CH 9 [io74b37-i075*2] 605c;
BK xin, CH 2 [io77bi-io] 608d-609a; CH 4
[io78bi8-32] 610b-c / Soul, BK i, CH i 631a-
632d; BK n, CH i [4i2*i-b24] 642a-d; BK in,
CH 6 [430b26-3i] 663b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[641*14-31] 163d-164a; CH 2-3 165d-167d
152
THE GREAT IDEAS
(8, Being and knowledge. Sc. Essence or substance
as the object of definition: real and nominal
essences.)
19 AQUINAS : Sutnma Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 7,
REP i 7a-c; Q 2, A i, REP 2 lOcMld; A 2, REP 2
lld-12c; Q 3, A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 5, ANS 17c-
18b; Q 17, A 3 102d-103c; Q 18, A 2, ANS 105c-
106b; Q 29, A i 162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-
164b; Q 44, A i, REP i 238b-239a; A 3, REP 3
240b-241a; Q 58, A 5 303c-304c; Q 75, A 4,
ANS 381b-382a; Q 85, A 6 458d-459c; <? 116,
A i, CONTRARY 592d-593d; PART i-n, Q 10,
A i, REP 3 662d-663d
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A i, ANS 710a-711c; A 2, ANS 711d-712d, Q 60,
A 4, RP.P i 849c-850b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55b-c; 56b; PART
iv, 269b-271a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 142d-
143a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c /
Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 4 137d-138b
31 DESCARTES:, Discourse, PART iv, 51d-52a /
Objections and Replies, POSTULATE iv 131a-b;
153d;160d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 4 355b, PROP 8,
SCHOL 2, 357b-d; PROP 10 358a-b; PART n,
DEF 2 373b; PROP 37 386b-c; PART in, PROP 4
398d
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 372b-373b; 376b-377a /
Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-431b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxni, SECT 1-16 204a-209a esp SECT 6 205b-c,
SECT 14 208b-c; SECT 29-32 211d-212d; CH
xxxi, SECT 3 240a-b, SECT 6-13 240d-243b;
CH xxxn, SECT 18 246c-247a; SEC i 24 247c-d,
BK in, CH in, SECT 12-20 257b-260a, CH iv,
SECT 3 260b; CH v, SECT 14 267b-c; CH vi
268b-283a; CH ix, SECT 11-17 287d-290a; CH
x, SECT 17-21 295d-297b; CH xi, SECT 15-23
303b-305b; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 11-17 326b-
328d;cHVi, SECT4-i6331d-336d;cHXii,sLCT
7-12 360b-362c passim, esp SECT 9 360d-361b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SFCT
18 410a-c; SECT 101-102 432c-433a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 179d~180a; 215d-216c /
Science of Right, 404d; 423d-424b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 185a-b; 668a-670b
8d. The role of essence in demonstration: the
use of essence, property, and accident in
inference
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 27
[70*3-39] 92a-c / Posterior Analytics 97 a-137a,c
esp BK ii 122b,d-137a,c / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH 3 {983*24-29] SOlc; BK III, CH 2 [996bI2-2l]
515a-b; [997*25-34] 515d-516a; BK vi, CH i
[io25bi-i8] 547b,d; BK xi, CH i [1059*29-34]
587b; CH 7 [io63b36-io64a9] 592b / Soul, BK
ii, CH 2 [4i3*io-bi3] 643 a- d; CH 4 [415*14-
23] 645b-c
Uto Sf
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 2,
REP 2-3 lld-12c; Q 3, A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 17,
A 3, REP 1-2 102d-103c; Q 18, A 2, ANS 105c-
106b, Q 46, A 2, ANS 253a-255a; Q 77, A i, REP
7 399c-401b
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART iv, 269d-270c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, v, 93b-c / Objec-
tions and Replies, 207b
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK in, CH xi,
SECT 15-17 303b-304a esp SECT 16 303c-d;
BK iv, CH in, SFCT 9-17 315c-317c passim, esp
SECT 14 316b-d; CH vi, SECT 4-16 33 Id- 336 d
passim; CH xn, SECT 6-9 360a-361b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 180c-182b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 666b-673a esp 667b-671a
8e. The accidental in relation to science and
definition
8 ARISTOTLE. Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32b4~
23] 48b-d / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 4 lOOa-
lOlb, CH 6 [75*18-38] 103a-c; CH 8 104a-b;
CH 30 119d / Topics, BK ii-ni 153a-168a,c;
BK iv, CH i [121*6 9] 168d-169a; CH 2 [i22bi2-
18] 170d-171a, CH 4 [i25a33-bio] 174b-c, CH 6
[i27bi-4] 177a; BK v 178b,d-192a,c; BK vi, CH
6 196d-199c; CH 14 [i5i*32-b2] 206b-c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 9 [99ob22~99ia2] 509a; BK m,
CH i [995bi8-27] 514a-b, CH 2 [997*25-34]
515d-516a; BK iv, CH 2 522b-524b esp [1005*
13-17] 524b; BK vi, CH 2 548c-549c; BK vn,
CH 4-6 552b-555a; BK vni, CH 4 [io44b8-2o]
569b; BK xi, CH i [1059*29-34] 587b; CH 3
589a-d, BK xin, CH 2 [io77*23~bi4] 608c-609a
11 NICOMACHUS- Arithmetic, BK i, 811b-812a
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, ANS and REP 3 86d-88c, Q 18, A 2, ANS
105c-106b; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 86,
A 3 463b-d; PART I-H, Q 7, A 2 esp REP 2
652d-653c; Q 18, A 3, REP 2 695d-696b
31 DESCARTES • Objections and Replies, 135b-
136b; 153d, 170d; 207b; 209c-210b
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxni, SECT 3-16 204c-209a esp SECT 6 205b-c,
SECT 14 208b-c; SECT 29-32 211d-212d, SECT
37 213d-214b; CH xxxi, SECT 8-n 242a-243a;
SECT 13 243a-b, BK m, CH vi 268b-283a pas-
sim, esp SECT 2-5 268c-269d; CH ix, SECT
13-17 288a-290a; CHXI,SECF 19-22 304b 305a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT: 1 413a-b;
SECT 49 422b
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
67 480c-481a
Sf. Judgments and demonstrations of existence:
their sources and validity
7 PLATO- Laws, BK x, 757d-765d esp 758c-760a,
760d-762b, 765b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [99Ob9~22]
508d-509a; BK vi, CH i [i025bi-i8] 547b,d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 9 (n7o*i6-b8]
423d-424b passim, esp [ii7o*28-bi] 424a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [418-448]
6b-c
8/ CHAPTER 7: BEING 153
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 26 336d- CH HI, SECT 21 319c; CH VH, SECT 7 338c; CH
337b ix-xi 349a-358c; CH XVH, SECT 2, 371d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, 35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 18-20
A i, REP 2 lOd-lld; A 2 lld-12c; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 416b-417a; SECT 25-29 417d-418c; SECT 88-89
16d-17c; A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 12, A 12, ANS and 430a-c
REP i 60d-61c;Q 46, A 2, ANS 253a-255a 35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 269d-270c 2O-SECT v, DIV 38 458a-466c passim, esp SECT
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51c-53b / iv, DIV 30 461d-462b, SECT v, DIV 35 464c-d,
Meditations, 71d-72a; n, 78a-b; in, 85a-86d; DIV 38, 466b; SECT xi 497b-503c passim, esp
v-vi 93a~lQ3d / Objections and Replies, HOb-c; DIV 115 503b-c; SECT xn, DIV 117-123 504a-
121b-c; 122c-123a; 126b-127c; POSTULATE iv- 506a; DIV 132 509a-d
vn 131a-c; 140b-c; 207b; 209d-210b; 224b,d; 42 KANT- Pure Reason, 85d-88a; I79c-201c esp
261a 193a-b; 228c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP n 358b-359b; 44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 134c-d
PROP 14 359d-360a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 280
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK n, CH vn, 94d-95a
SECT 7 132d; CH xiv, SECT 3 155c-d; CH xxin, 53 JAMES: Psychology, 176a-177a; 640b [fn i];
SECT 5 205a-b; BK iv, CH n, SECT 14 312b-d; 643a-659a esp 643b-645b, 648a
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: 'Being* as a transcendental term or concept, see IDEA 4b(4); METAPHYSICS 2b; OPPOSITION
2c; for the analysis of the meaning of words like "being," and for the theory of 'being' as an
analogical term or concept, see RELATION id; SAME AND OTHER 4c; SIGN AND SYMBOL 3d.
The discussion of unity, goodness, and truth as properties of being, or as convertible with
being, see GOOD AND EVIL ib; ONE AND MANY i; SAME AND OTHER la, 2e; TRUTH ib.
Other treatments of the distinction between being and becoming, and of the problem of the
reality of mutable as compared with immutable being, see CHANGE i, IDC; ETERNITY 43-
4b; MATTER i; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 2c.
Considerations relevant to the distinction between essence and existence, see FORM 2a; GOD
23-20, 43; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 2a-2b; SOUL 4b; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR
2a; for considerations relevant to the distinction between substance and accident, or
between the essential and the accidental, see FORM 20(2); MATTER ib; NATURE ia(i);
NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 2d; QUALITY i; QUANTITY i; SAME AND OTHER 33;
SOUL 2a; and for the problem of the being of qualities, quantities, and relations, see
QUALITY i; QUANTITY i; RELATION la.
Considerations relevant to the distinction between potentiality and actuality, or matter and
form, see CHANGE 2a; DESIRE 23; FORM 2c(i); HABIT la; INFINITY ib, 40; MATTER i-ia,
3b; MIND 2b, 40; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY i; for considerations relevant to the dis-
tinction between the real and the ideal, see IDEA 30, 6a-6b; KNOWLEDGE 63(3); and for the
controversy over the real existence of ideas, forms, mathematical objects, umversals, see
FORM la, 2a; MATHEMATICS 2b; SPACE 5; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 2a-2c.
Considerations relevant to the distinction between sensible and supra-sensible being, see
KNOWLEDGE 6a(i), 63(4); MIND ia(i).
Elaborations of the theory of substance and treatments of the distinction between material and
immaterial, corruptible and incorruptible substances, see ANGEL 2; CHANGE ice; ELEMENT
53; FORM 2d; MAN 33-33(1), 3b; MATTER 2, 2d, 33; MIND ib, 2a, loc-iod; SOUL 33-30, 4b.
The relation of being and becoming as objects of knowledge to the faculties of sense and
reason, see CHANGE u; KNOWLEDGE 6a(i); OPINION i; SENSE ib.
Essence in relation to the natures of things and to their definitions, see DEFINITION la; FORM
3c; KNOWLEDGE 63(2); NATURE la, 13(2), 43.
The relation of the concept 'being' to the principle of contradiction, both as a principle of
being and of thought, see OPPOSITION 23; PRINCIPLE ic.
Logical problems concerning judgments of existence and proofs of existence, see GOD 2c;
JUDGMENT 8c; KNOWLEDGE 63(3); NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 2b; REASONING da.
154
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works ace divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
AQUINAS, On Being and Essence
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART i,
HOBBFS. Concerning Body, PART n, CH 8, 10
BERKELEY. Three Dialogues Between Hylas and
Philonous
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART i,
SECT VI, PART II, SLCT VI
KANT. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, vni
- . Science of Logic, VOL i, BK i, SECT i; SECT in,
CH I (c), 3; BK II, SECT I, CH I J SECT II, CH I \ SECT
in, CH 2, 3 (A)
- . Logic, CH 7-8
W. JAMES. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 2-3
II.
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Physicists, BK n, CH 5
PORPHYRY. Introduction to Aristotle's Predicaments
PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (c, j)
BOETHIUS. In Isagogem Porphyri Commenta
- . De Trimtate (On the Trinity)
ERIGENA. De Dwisione Naturae
BON A VENTURA. Itineranum Mentis in Deum (The
Itinerary of the Mind to God)
DUNS SCOTUS. Tractatus de Pnmo Pnncipw (A
Tract Concerning the First Principle)
CRESCAS. Or Adonat, PROPOSITIONS 18-25
ALBO. The Boof(of Principles (Sefer ha-Ikfcarim), BK
II, CH I
G. Pico DELLA MIRANDOLA. Of Being and Unity
CAJETAN. De Conceptu Entis
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae
JOHN OF SAINTTHOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Thomis-
ticus, Ars Logica, PART n, QQ 2, 13-19
MALEBRANCHE. Dialogues on Metaphysics and
Religion
LEIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, VIII-XIH
1 New Essays Concerning Human Understanding,
BK II, CH 23-24
- . Monadology, par 1-9
WOLFF. Ontologia
DIDEROT. /> reve de fAlembert
]. G. FICHTE. The Science of Knowledge
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL i,
BK I, IV
I. H. FICHTE. Ontologie
KIERKEGAARD. Concluding Unscientific Postscript
CLIFFORD. "On the Nature of Things-In-Them-
selves," in VOL n, lectures and Essays
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK ix, CH 1-3
. Metaphysics, BK i, CH 1-3
C. S. PURGE Collected Papers, VOL i, par 545-567;
VOL vi, par 327-372, 385
BRADLEY The Principles of Logic, Terminal Essays,
VII, XI
. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 2, 7-8; BK n,
CH 13-15, 24, 26
ROYCE. The World and the Individual, SERIES i
('-4- 8)
CASSIRER. Substance and Function, PART i; PART n,
CH 6
HUSSERL. Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phe-
nomenology
GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE. God, His Existence and Na-
ture, PART II, APPENDIX 2
BERGSON. Creative Evolution
. The Creative Mind, CH 3, 6
MCTAGGART. The Nature of 'Existence ', BK i
MOORE. Philosophical Studies, CH 6
DEWEY. Experience and Nature, CH 2, 8, 10
HEIDEGGER. Sein und Zeit
B. RUSSELL. The Analysis of Matter, CH 23
SANTAYANA. The Realm of Essence, CH i-ii
WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality
LOVE JOY. The Great Chain of Being
A. E. TAYLOR. Philosophical Studies, CH in
BLONDEL. Uhrc et les etres
WFISS. Reality
SARTRE. Letre et le nSant
. Existentialism
MARITAIN. An Introduction to Philosophy, PART n
(5-7)
. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 4
. A Preface to Metaphysics, LECT i-iv
. Existence and the Existent
GILSON. L'ftre et r essence
. Being and Some Philosophers
Chapter 8: CAUSE
INTRODUCTION
EXPLANATION is an inveterate human
tendency. Even philosophers who think
that we cannot attain to knowledge of causes
get involved in explaining why that is so. Nor
will their disputes about the theory of causes
ever remove the word "because*' from the vo-
cabulary of common speech. It is as unavoid-
able as the word "is." "The impulse to seek
causes," says Tolstoy, "is innate in the soul of
man."
The question "Why ?" remains after all other
questions are answered. It is sometimes the only
unanswerable question — unanswerable either in
the very nature of the case or because there are
secrets men cannot fathom. Sometimes, as Dan-
te says, man must be "content with the quta"
the knowledge that something is without know-
ing why. "Why?" is the one question which it
has been deemed the better part of wisdom not
to ask; yet it has also been thought the one
question which holds the key to wisdom. As
Virgil writes, in one of his most famous lines,
Fehx, quipotuttrerum cognoscere causas (Happy
the man who has been able to know the causes
of things).
The question "Why ?" takes many forms and
can be answered in many ways. Other knowl-
edge may prove useful in providing the answers.
A definition, for example, which tells us what a
thing is, may explain why it behaves as it does
or why it has certain properties. A narrative,
which tells us how some thing happened by de-
scribing a succession of events, may also be part
of the total explanation of some event in ques-
tion.
In other circumstances, a demonstration or a
statement of grounds or reasons may be ex-
planatory. "How do you know?" is often a con-
cealed form of the "Why" question. To answer
it we may have to give our reasons for thinking
that something or other is the case; or perhaps
give the genesis of our opinion ..Things as differ-
ent as a logical demonstration and a piece of
autobiography seem to be relevant in account-
ing for our convictions; as, in accounting for
our behavior, we may refer to our purposes and
to our past.
THE GREEK WORD for cause, from which our
English word "aetiology" is derived, came into
the vocabulary of science and philosophy from
the language of the law courts. In its legal sense
it was used to point out where the responsibility
lay. A suit at law is based upon a cause of action;
he who demands redress for an injury suffered
is expected to place the blame. The charge of
responsibility for wrongdoing— the blame or
fault which is the cause for legal redress or pun-
ishment— naturally calls for excuses, which may
include a man's motives.
In the context of these legal considerations,
two different meanings of cause begin to ap-
pear. One man's act is the cause of injury to
another, in the sense of being responsible for
its occurrence. If the act was intentional, it
probably had a cause in the purpose which mo-
tivated it.
These two types of cause appear in the ex-
planations of the historians as well as in trials at
law. Herodotus and Thucydides, trying to ac-
count for the Persian or the Peloponnesian war,
enumerate the incidents which led up to the
outbreak of hostilities. They cite certain past
events as the causes of war — the factors which
predisposed the parties toward conflict, and
even precipitated it. The historians do not
think they can fully explain why the particular
events become the occasions for war except by
considering the hopes and ambitions, or, as
Thucydides suggests, the fears of the contest*
ants. For the ancient historians at least, finding
the causes includes a. search. for the motives
155
156
THE GREA'T IDEAS
which underlie other causes and help to explain
how other factors get their causal efficacy.
Thucydides explicitly distinguishes these two
kinds of causes in the first chapter of his history.
After noting that the "immediate cause" of the
war was the breaking of a treaty, he adds that
the "real- cause" was one "which was formally
most kept out of sight," namely, the "growth
of the power of Athens, and the alarm which
this inspired in Lacedaemon."
It is sometimes supposed that Thucydides
owes his conception of causes to the early medi-
cal tradition. That might very well be the case,
for^ Hippocrates constantly seeks the "natural
caused of disease; and in his analysis of the
various factors involved in any particular dis-
ease, he tries to distinguish between the pre-
disposing and the exciting causes.
But the classification of causes was not com-
pleted in the Athenian law courts, in the Greek
interpretation of history, or in the early prac-
tice of medicine. Causes were also the pre-
occupation of the pre-Socratic physicists. Their
study of nature was largely devoted to an anal-
ysis of the principles, elements, and causes of
change. Concerned with the problem of change
in general, not merely with human action, or
particular phenomena such as crime, war, or
disease, Greek scientists or philosophers, from
Thales and Anaxagoras to Empedocles, De^moc-
ritus, Plato, and Aristotle, tried to discover the
causes involved in any change. Aristotle carried
the analysis furthest and set a pattern for all
later discussions of cause.
THE EXPLANATION OF a thing, according to
Aristotle, must answer all of the queries "com-
prehended under the question 'why.' " This
question can be answered^ he thinks, in at least
four different ways, and these four ways of say-
ing why something is the case constitute his fa-
mous theory of the four causes.
uln one sense," he writes, "that out of which
a thing comes to be and which persists, is called
'cause1 "— the material cause. "In anothersense,
thd form or the archetype" is a cause—the for-
mal cause. " Again the primary sourc^dd? the
change or coming to rest" is 1 caUse*~the em*
cient cause, "Again the end or 'that for the
saW of which' a thing is done" is a cause*--the
final cause* 'This," he conclude, "perhaps ex1
hausts the number of ways in which the term
'cause' is used."
The production of works of art, to which
Aristotle hinieeff frequently turns for examples,
most readily illustrates these four different
kinds of causes. In making a shoe, the material
cause is that out of which the shoe is made — the
leather or hide. The efficient cause is the shoe-
maker, or more precisely the shoemaker's acts
which transform the raw material into the
finished product. The formal cause is the pat-
tern which directs the work; it is, in a sense,
the definition or type of the thing to be
made, which, beginning as a plan in the artist's
mind, appears at the end of the work in the
transformed material as its own intrinsic form.
The protection of the foot is the final cause or
end— that for the sake of which the shoe was
made.
Two of the four causes seem to be less dis-
cernible in nature than in art. The material and
efficient causes remain evident enough. The
material cause can usually be identified as that
which undergoes the change— the thing which
grows, alters in color, or moves from place to
place. The efficient cause is always that by
which the change is produced. It is the
moving cause working on that which is sus-
ceptible to change, e.g., the fire heating the
water, the rolling stone setting another stone
in motion.
But the formal cause is not as apparent in
nature as in art. Whereas in art it can be iden-
tified by reference to the plan in the maker's
mind, it must be discovered in nature in the
change itself, as that which completes the pro-
cess. For example, the redness which the apple
takes on in ripening is the formal c^use of its
alteration in color. The trouble with the final
cause is that it so often tends to be inseparable
from the formal cause; for unless some extrinsic
purpose can be found for a natural change—*
some end beyond itself which the change serves
—the final cause, or that for the sake of which
the change took place, is no other than the
quality or form which the matter assumes as a
result of its transformation.
THIS SUMMARY of Aristotle's dottrine of the
four causes enables us to note some of the basic
issues and shifts in the thebrv of causation.
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
157
The attack on final causes does not, at the
beginning at least, reject them completely.
Bacon, for example, divides natural philosophy
into two parts, of which one part, "physics,
inquireth and handleth the material and effi-
cient causes; and the other, which is meta-
physics, handleth the formal and final causes."
The error of his predecessors, of which he com-
plains, is their failure to separate these two
types of inquiry. The study of final causes is
inappropriate in physics, he thinks.
"This misplacing," Bacon comments, uhath
caused a deficiency, or at least a great impro-
ficiency in the sciences themselves. For the
handling of final causes, mixed with the rest in
physical inquiries, hath intercepted the severe
and diligent inquiry of all real and physical
causes, and given men the occasion to stay upon
these satisfactory and specious causes, to the
great arrest and prejudice of further discov-
ery." On this score, he charges Plato, Aristotle,
and Galen with impeding the development of
science, not because "final causes are not true,
and worthy to be inquired, being kept within
their own province; but because their excur-
sions into the limits of physical causes hath bred
a vastness and solitude in that tract."
Such statements as "the hairs of the eyelids
are for a quickset and fence about the sight,"
or that "the leaves of trees are for protecting of
the fruit, "or that "the clouds are for watering
of the earth," are, in Bacon's opinion, "imper-
tinent" in physics. He therefore praises the
mechanical philosophy of Democntus. It seems
to him to inquire into the "particularities of
physical causes" better "than that of Aristotle
and Plato, whereof both intermingled final
causes, the one as a part of theology, the other
as a part of logic."
As Bacon's criticisms indicate, the attack on
final causes in nature raises a whole series of
questions. Does every natural change serve
some purpose, either for the good of the chang-
ing thing or for the order of nature itself? Is
there a plan, analogous to that of an artist,
which orders the parts of nature, and their ac-
tivities, to one another as means to ends? A
natural teleology, which attributes final causes
to everything, seems to imply that every nat-
ural thing is governed by an indwelling form
working toward a definite end, and that the
whole of nature exhibits the working out of a
divine plan or design.
Spinoza answers such questions negatively.
"Nature has set no end before herself," he de-
clares, and "all final causes are nothing but
human fictions." Furthermore, he insists, "this
doctrine concerning an end altogether over-
turns nature. For that which is in truth the
cause it considers as the effect, and vice versa''
He deplores those who "will not cease from
asking the causes of causes, until at last you fly
to the will of God, the refuge of ignorance."
Spinoza denies that God acts for an end and
that the universe expresses a divine purpose.
He also thinks that final causes are illusory even
in the sphere of human action. When we say
that "having a house to live in was the final
cause of this or that house," we do no more than
indicate a "particular desire, which is really an
efficient cause, and is considered as primary, be-
cause men are usually ignorant of the causes of
their desires."
Though Descartes replies to Pierre Gassen-
di's arguments "on behalf of final causality," by
saying that they should "be referred to the
efficient cause," his position more closely re-
sembles that of Bacon than of Spinoza. When
we behold "the uses of the various parts in
plants and animals," we may be led to admire
"the God who brings these into existence," but
"that does not imply," he adds, "that we can
divine the purpose for which He made each
thing. And although in Ethics, where it is often
allowable to employ conjecture, it is at times
pious to consider the end which we may con-
jecture God set before Himself in ruling the
universe, certainly in Physics, where every-
thing should rest upon the securest arguments,
it is futile to do so."
The elimination of final causes from natural
science leads Descartes to formulate Harvey's
discoveries concerning the motion of the heart
and blood in purely mechanical terms. But
Harvey himself, as Boyle points out in his Dis-
quisition About the Final Causes of Natural
Things, interprets organic structures in terms of
their functional utility; and Boyle defends the
soundness of Harvey's method— employing fi-
nal causes— against Descartes.
Guided as it is by the principle of utility or
function, Harvey's reasoning about the circula-
158
THE GREAT IDEAS
tion of the blood— especially its venal and ar-
terial flow in relation to the action of the lungs
— appeals to final causes. He remarks upon the
need of arguing from the final cause in his work
on animal generation. "It appears advisable to
me," he writes, "to look back from the perfect
animal, and to inquire by what process it has
arisen and grown to maturity, to retrace our
steps, as it were, from the goal to the starting
place."
Kant generalizes this type of argument in his
Critique of Teleologtcal Judgement. "No one has
ever questioned," he says, "the correctness of
the principle that when judging certain things
in nature, namely organisms and their possi-
bility, we must look to the conception of final
causes. Such a principle is admittedly necessary
even where we require no more than a guiding-
thread for the purpose of becoming acquainted
with the character of these things by means of
observation." Kant criticizes a mechanism
which totally excludes the principle of finality
— whether it is based on the doctrine of "blind
chance" of Democritus and Epicurus, or the
"system of fatality" he attributes to Spinoza.
Physical science, he thinks, can be extended by
the principle of final causes "without interfer-
ing with the principle of the mechanism of
physical causality."
THE TENDENCY TO dispense with final causes
seems to prevail, however, in the science of me-
chanics and especially in the domain of inani-
mate nature. Huygens, for example, defines
light as "the motion of some sort of matter."
He explicitly insists that conceiving natural
things in this way is the only way proper to
what he calls the "true Philosophy, in which
one conceives the causes of all natural effects in
terms of mechanical motions."
Mechanical explanation is distinguished by
the fact that it appeals to no principles except
matter and motion. The material and the mov-
ing (or efficient) causes suffice. The philosoph-
ical thought of the i7th century, influenced by
that century's brilliant accomplishments in me-
chanics, tends to be mechanistic in its theory
of causation. Yet, being also influenced by the
model and method of mathematics, thinkers
like Descartes and Spinoza retain the formal
cause as a principle of demonstration, if not of
explanation. Spinoza, in fact, claims that the
reliance upon final causes "would have been
sufficient to keep the human race in darkness
to all eternity, if mathematics, which does not
deal with ends, but with the essences and prop-
erties of forms, had not placed before us another
rule of truth."
Nevertheless, the tendency to restrict causal-
ity to efficiency— a motion producing a motion
—gams headway. By the time Hume questions
man's ability to know causes, the term cause
signifies only efficiency \ understood as the energy
expended in producing an effect. Hume's doubt
concerning our ability to know causes presup-
poses this conception of cause and effect, which
asserts that "there is some connection between
them, some power in the one by which it in-
fallibly produces the other." The identification
of cause with the efficient type of cause becomes
a commonly accepted notion, even among those
who do not agree with Hume that "we are ig-
norant ... of the manner in which bodies oper-
ate on each other"; and that "their force and
energy is entirely incomprehensible" to us.
The narrowing of causality to efficiency also
appears in the doctrine, more prevalent today
than ever before, that natural science describes,
but does not explain— that it tells us how things
happen, but not why. If it does not require the
scientist to avoid all reference to causes, it
does limit him to the one type of causality
which can be expressed in terms of sequences
and correlations. The exclusion of all causes ex-
cept the efficient tends furthermore to reduce
the causal order to nothing but the relation of
cause and effect.
The four causes taken together as the suffi-
cient reason for things or events do not as such
stand in relation to an effect, in the sense in
which an effect is something separable from and
externally related to its cause. That way of con-
ceiving causation — as a relation of cause to
effect — is appropriate to the efficient cause
alone. When the efficient cause is regarded as
the only cause, having a power proportionate to
the reality of its effect, the very meaning of
came involves relation to an effect,
In the other conception of causation, the
causal order relates the four causes to one an^
other. Of the four causes of any change or act,
the first, says Aquinas, "is the final cause; the
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
159
reason of which is that matter does not receive
form, save in so far as it is moved by an agent,
for nothing reduces itself from potentiality to
act. But an agent does not move except from
the intention of an end." Hence in operation
the order of the four causes is final, efficient,
material, and formal; or, as Aquinas states it,
"first comes goodness and the end, moving the
agent to act; secondly the action of the agent
moving to the form; thirdly, comes the form.'1
THE THEORY OF causes, as developed by Aris-
totle and Aquinas, proposes other distinctions
beyond that of the four causes, such as the dif-
ference between the essential cause or the cause
per se and the accidental or coincidental cause.
As indicated in the chapter on CHANCE, it is in
terms of coincidental causes that Aristotle
speaks of chance as a cause.
A given effect may be the result of a number
of efficient causes. Sometimes these form a se-
ries, as when one body in motion sets another in
motion, and that moves a third, or, to take an-
other example, a man is the cause of his grand-
son only through having begotten a son who
later begets a son. In such a succession of causes,
the first cause may be indispensable, but it is
not by itself sufficient to produce the effect.
With respect to the effect which it fails to pro-
duce unless other causes intervene, it is an ac-
cidental cause. In contrast, an essential cause is
one which, by its operation, immediately brings
the effect into existence.
Sometimes, however, a number of efficient
causes may be involved simultaneously rather
than successively in the production of a single
effect. They may be related to one another as
cause and effect rather than by mere coinci-
dence. One cause may be the essential cause of
another which in turn is the essential cause of
the effect. When two causes arc thus simulta-
neously related to the same eifect, Aquinas calls
one the principal, the other the instrumental
cause; and he gives as an example the action of
a workman sawing wood. The action of the saw
causes a shaping of the wood, but it is instru-
mental to the operation of the principal cause,
which is the action of the workman using the
saw.
These two distinctions— between essential
and accidental causes and between principal
and instrumental causes— become of great sig-
nificance in arguments, metaphysical or theo-
logical, concerning the cause of causes— a first
or ultimate cause. Aristotle's proof of a prime
mover, for example, depends upon the proposi-
tion that there cannot be an infinite number of
causes for a given effect. But since Anstotle
also holds that the world is without beginning
or end and that time is infinite, it may be won-
dered why the chain of causes cannot stretch
back to infinity.
If time is infinite, a temporal sequence of
causes reaching back to infinity would seem to
present no difficulty. As Descartes points out,
you cannot "prove that that regress to infinity
is absurd, unless you at the same time show that
the world has a definite beginning in time.'*
Though it is a matter of their Jewish and Chris-
tian faith that the world had a beginning in
time, theologians like Maimonides and Aquinas
do not think the world's beginning can be
proved by reason. They do, however, think that
the necessity of a first cause can be demon-
strated, and both adopt or perhaps adapt the
argument of Aristotle which relies on the im-
possibility of an infinite regression in causes.
The argument is valid, Aquinas makes clear,
only if we distinguish between essential and
accidental causes. "It is not impossible," he
says, "to proceed to infinity accidentally as re-
gards efficient causes. ... It is not impossible
for man to be generated by man to infinity."
But, he holds, "there cannot be an infinite num-
ber of causes that are per se required for a cer-
tain effect; for instance, that a stone be moved
by a stick, the stick by the hand, and so on to
infinity," In the latter case, it should be ob-
served, the cooperating causes are simultaneous
and so if there were an infinity of them, that
would not require an infinite time. The crux of
the argument, therefore, lies either in the im-
possibility of an infinite number of simulta-
neous causes, or in the impossibility of an infinite
number of causes related to one another as in-
strumental to principal cause.
Among causes so related, Descartes, like
Aquinas, argues that there must be one first or
principal cause. "In the case of causes which are
so connected and subordinated to one another,
that no action on the part of the lower is possi-
ble without the activity of the higher; e.g., in
160
THE GREAT IDEAS
the case where something is moved by a stone,
itself impelled by a stick, which the hand moves
... we must go on until we come to one thing
in motion which first moves." But for Des-
cartes, unlike Aquinas, this method of proving
God as the first cause of all observable effects
has less elegance than the so-called "ontological
argument" in which the conception of God as
a necessary being, incapable of not existing,
immediately implies his existence.
The argument from effect to cause is tradi-
tionally called a posteriori reasoning, in contrast
to a priori reasoning from cause to effect. Ac-
cording to Aristotle and Aquinas, the latter
mode of reasoning can only demonstrate the
nature of a thing, not its existence. Aquinas,
furthermore, does not regard the ontological
argument as a form of reasoning at all, but
rather as the assertion that God's existence is
self-evident to us, which he denies.
The various forms which these arguments
take and the issue concerning their validity are
more fully discussed in the chapters on BEING,
GOD, and NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY. But
here it is worth noting that Kant questions
whether the a posteriori method of proving
God's existence really differs from the ontologi-
cal argument. It is, according to him, not only
"illusory and inadequate," but also "possesses
the additional blemish of an ignoratio elenchi —
professing to conduct us by a new road to the
desired goal, but bringing us back, after a short
circuit, to the old path which we had deserted
at its call." Hence the causal proof does not, in
Kant's opinion, succeed in avoiding the fallacies
which he, along with Maimomdes and Aquinas,
finds in the ontological argument.
THE ANALYSIS OF CAUSATION figures critically
in the speculation of the theologians concerning
creation, providence, and the government of
the world.
The dogma of creation, for example, requires
the conception of a unique type of cause. Even
if the world always existed — a supposition
which, as we have seen, is contrary to Jewish
and Christian faith but not to reason— the re-
ligious belief in a Creator would remain a belief
in that unique cause without whose action to
preserve its being at every moment the world
would cease to be.
On the assumption that God created the
world in the beginning, it is, perhaps, easy
enough to see with Augustine how "the creat-
ing and originating work which gave being to
all natures, differs from all other types of causa-
tion which cause motions or changes, or even
the generation of things, rather than their very
existence." It may, however, be more difficult
to understand the creative action of God in re-
lation to a world already in existence.
But a theologian like Aquinas explains that
"as long as a thing has being, so long must God
be present to it" as the cause of its being —a
doctrine which Berkeley later reports by saying
that this makes "the divine conservation ... to
be a continual creation." Aquinas agrees that
"the conservation of things by God is not by a
new action, but by the continuation of that
action whereby He gives being." But in the
conservation of things Aquinas thinks that God
acts through natural or created causes, whereas
in their initiation, being is the proper effect of
God alone.
The dogma of divine providence also requires
a theory of the cooperation of the first cause
with natural or secondary causes. Dante, m de-
scribing the direction which providence gives
to the course of nature, uses the image of a bow.
"Whatsoever this bow shoots falls disposed to
its foreseen end, even as a thing directed to its
aim." That God governs and cares for all things
may be supposed to reduce nature to a puppet
show in which every action takes place in obe-
dience to the divine will alone. Natural causes
would thus cease to be causes or to have any
genuine efficacy in the production of their own
effects.
Some theologians have tended toward this
extreme position, but Aquinas argues contrari-
wise that natural causes retain their efficacy as
instrumental causes, subordinate to God's will
as the one principal cause. "Since God wills
that effects be because of their causes," he
writes, "all effects that presuppose some other
effect do not depend solely on the will of God" ;
and, in another place, he says, "whatsoever
causes He assigns to certain effects, He gives
them the power to produce those effects ... so
that the dignity of causality is imparted even to
creatures."
In addition to the role of divine causality in
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
the regular processes of nature, still another
kind of divine causation is presupposed by the
religious belief in supernatural events, such as
the elevation of nature by grace and the devia-
tions from the course of nature which are called
"miracles." All these considerations, and espe-
cially the matter of God's miraculous interven-
tion in the regular course of nature, have been
subjects of dispute among theologians and phi-
losophers (and sometime physicists and histo-
rians). Some of those who do not deny the ex-
istence of a Creator, or the divine government
of the universe through natural law, neverthe-
less question the need for divine cooperation
with the action of every natural cause, or God's
intervention in the order of nature.
Throughout these controversies, the theory
of causes defines the issues and determines the
lines of opposing argument. But since other
basic notions are also involved in the debate of
these issues, the further consideration of them
is reserved for other chapters, especially GOD,
NATURE, and WORLD.
THE DISCUSSION OF CAUSE takes a new turn in
modern times. The new issues arise, not from
different interpretations of the principle of
causality, but from the skeptic's doubts con-
cerning our ability to know the causes of things,
and from the tendency of the physical sciences
to limit or even to abandon the investigation of
causes.
According to the ancient conception of sci-
ence, knowledge, to be scientific, must state the
causes of things. The essence of scientific meth-
od, according to the Posterior Analytics of Aris-
totle, consists in using causes both to define and
to demonstrate. Sometimes genus and differ-
entia are translated into material and formal
cause; sometimes a thing is defined genetically
by reference to its efficient cause, and sometimes
teleologically by reference to its final cause.
The degree to which this conception of sci-
ence is realized in particular fields may be ques-
tioned. The treatises of the astronomers, for
example, do not seem to exemplify it as much
as do Aristotle's own physical treatises or Har-
vey's work on the circulation of the blood. Yet
until modern developments in mathematical
physics, the ascertainment of causes seems to be
the dominant conception of the scientific task;
and until the separation widens between thei
perimental and the philosophical sciences* M
possibility of knowing causes is not genera
doubted,
Galileo's exposition of the new mccbar
explicitly announces a departure from the t
ditional interest of the natural philosopher
the discovery of causes. The aim, he says in
Two New Sciences, is not "to investigate
cause of the acceleration of natural mott
concerning which various opinions have b<
expressed by various philosophers"; but rat
"to investigate and to demonstrate some of
properties of accelerated motion." The "v
lous opinions" about causes are referred tc
"fantasies" which it is "not really worth whi
for the scientist to examine.
This attitude toward causes, especially c
cient causes, characterizes the aim of mat
matical physics, both in astronomy and r
chanics. For Newton it is enough— in fact,
says, it "would be a very great step in phii
ophy" — "to derive two or three general pi
ciples of motion from phenomena . . . thoi
the causes of those principles were not yet <
covered. And, therefore, I scruple not to p
pose the principles of motion . . . and lei
their causes to be found out." In other passaj
Newton disparages the search for "hidden
occult causes" as no part of the business
science,
Hume goes further. He insists that all cat
are hidden. By the very nature of what cai
are supposed to be and because of the man
in which the human mind knows, man i
have no knowledge of how causes really j:
duce their effects. "We never can, by our
most scrutiny," he says, "discover anyth
but one event following another, with
being able to comprehend any force or po*
by which the cause operates, or any connex
between it and its supposed effect."
All that men can be referring to when tj
use the words "cause" and "effect," HU
thinks, is the customary sequence of "one
ject followed by another, and where all obj<
similar to the first are followed by objects $i
lar to the second." So far as any knowlei
based upon reason or experience can go,
relation of cause and effect is simply one
succession, impressed upon the mind "far
162
THE GREAT IDEAS
customary transition." That one event leads to
another becomes more and more probable— but
never more than probable— as the sequence
recurs more and more frequently in experience.
Hume's skepticism about causes, and his re-
interpretation of the meaning of cause, gains
wide acceptance in subsequent thought, es-
pecially among natural scientists. William
James, for example, considering "the principle
that 'nothing can happen without a cause,' "
declares that "we have no definite idea of what
we mean by cause, or of what causality consists
in. But the principle expresses a demand for
some deeper sort of inward connection between
phenomena than their merely habitual time-
sequence seems to be. The word 'cause' is, in
short, an altar to an unknown god; an empty
pedestal still marking the place for a hoped-for
statue. Any really inward belonging- together
of the sequent terms," he continues, "if dis-
covered, would be accepted as what the word
cause was meant to stand for."
Though Hume holds that we cannot pene-
trate beyond experience to the operation of
real causes imbedded in the nature of things,
he does not deny the reality of causation as a
principle of nature, On the contrary, he denies
that anything happens by chance or that any
natural occurrence can be uncaused. "It is uni-
versally allowed," Hume says with approval,
"that nothing exists without a cause of its exist-
ence, and that chance, when strictly examined,
is a mere negative word, and means not any
real power which has anywhere a being in na-
ture." But "though there is no such thing as
chance in the world, our ignorance of the real
cause of any event has the same influence on
the understanding, and begets a like species of
belief or opinion."
In other words, Hume's position seems to be
that man's ignorance of real causes, and the
mere probability of his opinions about custom-
ary sequences of "cause" and "effect," indicate
human limitations, not limits to causal deter-
mination in the order of nature itself. Adversar-
ies of Hume, coming before as well as after
him in the tradition of the great books, take
issue with him on both points.
Against Hume's determinism, which is no
less complete than Spinoza's, Aristotle, for
example, affirms the existence of chance or real
contingency in the happenings of nature.
Against Hume's reduction of statements about
causes to probable opinion, Kant insists that,
in the metaphysics of nature, such judgments
can be made with absolute certainty. These
related issues are discussed in the chapters on
CHANCE, FATE, and NECESSITY AND CONTIN-
GENCY.
In the development of the natural sciences
since Hume's day, his translation of cause and
effect into observed sequences or correlations
reinforces the tendency, which first appears
with Galileo and Newton, to describe rather
than to explain natural phenomena. Yet to the
extent that the findings of science bear fruit
in technology, man's control over nature seems
to confirm Bacon's view of science rather than
Hume's— at least to the extent that the appli-
cation of scientific knowledge to the production
of effects implies a knowledge of their causes.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CAUSALITY— that nothing
happens without a cause or sufficient reason,
or, as Spinoza puts it, "nothing exists from
whose nature an effect does not follow"— has
been made the basis for denials of human free-
dom as well as of chance or contingency in the
order of nature. The problem of man's free will
is discussed m the chapters on FATE, LIBERTY,
and WILL, but we can here observe how the
problem is stated in terms of cause, with re-
spect to both divine providence and natural
causation.
If God's will is the cause of everything which
happens, if nothing can happen contrary to His
will or escape the foresight of His providence,
then how is man free from God's foreordmation
when he chooses between good and evil ? If, as
the theologians say, "the very act of free choice
is traced to God as to a cause," in what sense
can the act be called "free"? Is it not neces-
sarily determined to conform to God's will and
to His plan ? But, on the other hand, if "every-
thing happening from the exercise of free
choice must be subject to divine providence,"
must not the evil that men do be attributed to
God as cause ?
The problem takes another form for the scien-
tist who thinks only in terms of natural causes,
especially if he affirms a reign of causality in
nature from which nothing is exempt — just as,
CHAPTER 8: CAUSfr , 163
for the theologian, nothing is exempt from God's give to these questions have profound conse*
will. Since the realm of nature includes human quences for man's view of himself, the universe,
nature, must not human acts be caused as are ancl his place in it. As the issue of necessity and
all other natural events ? Are some human acts chance is central in physics or the philosophy of
free in the sense of being totally uncaused, or nature, so the issue of determinism and freedom
only in the sense of being caused differently is central in psychology and ethics, in political
from the motions of matter ? Are causality and theory and the philosophy of history, and above
freedom opposed principles within the order of all in theology. It makes opponents of James
nature, appropriate to physical and psychologi- and Freud, of Hegel and Marx, of Hume and
cal action; or do they constitute distinct realms Kant, of Spinoza and Descartes, of Lucretius
—as for Kant, the realms of phenomena and and Marcus Aurelius. It raises one of the most
noumena, the sensible and the supra-sensible; perplexing of all theological questions for Au-
or as for Hegel, the realms of nature and gustine, Aquinas, Pascal, and for the two great
history ? poets of God's will and man's freedom— Dante
The different answers which the great books and Milton.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The general theory of causation 164
i a. The kinds of causes: their distinction and enumeration 165
ib. The order of causes: the relation of cause and effect
2. Comparison of causes in animate and inanimate nature 166
3. Causality and freedom 167
4. The analysis of means and ends in the practical order
5. Cause in relation to knowledge 168
50. Cause as the object of our inquiries
5^. Cause in philosophical and scientific method: the role of causes in definition,
demonstration, experiment, hypothesis 169
5^. The nature and sources of our knowledge of causes 170
5</. The limits of our knowledge of causes
6. The existence and operation of final causes 171
7. The causality of God or the gods 172
70. Divine causality in the origin and existence of the world: creation and conserva-
tion
7& Divine causality in the order of nature or change: the first cause in relation to all
other causes
7?. Divine causality in the government of the universe: providence and free will 173
7</. Divine causality in the supernatural order: grace, miracles 175
8. The operation of causes in the process of history 176
164
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PACE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
uppcrand lower halves of the page. For example, m$3 JAMES; Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the let terse and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 ana ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
I. The general theory of causation
7 PLATO: Euthyphro, 195c-d / Phaedo, 226d-
228a; 240b-246c / Timaeus, 447b-d / Phtlcbus,
615c-619d / Laws, BK x, 760a-765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 11-12
128d-131b / Physics, BK n, CH 3-9 271a-278a,c
/ Metaphysics, BK in, CH 2 J996ai 8-997*1 4]
514d-515d; BK v, CH 1-2 533a-534c; BK vi, CH
2 [1026^4-1027*15] 549a-b; BK vii, CH 17
565a-S66a,c; BK vm, CH 3 1104^5-14] 567d-
568a; CH 4 568d-569b; CH 6 569d-570d; BK x,
CH i (i052b8-i4] 579a; BK xn, CH 4-5 599d-
601a; BK xiv, CH 6 625d-626d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [136^39-
1360111] 602c-d; CH 10 [1369*5-^7] 612b-613a
12 LUCRETIUS* Nature of Things, BK vi [703-711]
89c-d
12 AUREUUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH i 78a-c;
CH 4 79d-80a; CH 10 82b / Fourth Ennead, TR
iv, CH y 174d-175c / Sixth Ennead, TR vu,
CH 2 322b-323a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3 12c-14a; Q 3, A 4, ANS 16d-17c; o 33, A i,
REP i 180d-181c; Q 49 264d-268a,c passim;
Q 52, A 3, ANS 280a-d; Q 65, A i 339b-340b;
A 3 341c-342b, Q 82, A 3, REP i 433c-434c;
Q 87, A 2, REP 3 466c-467b; q 103, A 7 533b-d;
Q 104, AA 1-2 534c-537b; Q 105, AA 1-2 538d-
540c; A 5 542a-543b; Q 106, A 3 547c-548b;
Q 115, AA 1-2 585d-588c; Q 115, A 6-Q 116, A 4
591d-595c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 51,
AA 2-3 13c-15a; Q 75, A i 137d-138c; A 4
140a-d; Q 76, A i 141a-c; PART in SUPPL, Q 76,
A i 939d-941a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 80b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42a-46a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 84b-86b /
Objections and Replies, llld-112a; 121b-c;
AXIOM i-iv 131d; 212a; 212c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF i 355a; DBF 7
355b; AXIOM 3-5 355d; PROP 3 356a; PROP 8,
SCHOL 2, 357b-d; PROP 36 369b; APPENDIX
369b-372d; PART n, PROP 7, COROL and SCHOL
375a-c
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE i-n 270a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 1-5 178b-179d; SECT 19 182 b-c; CH xxn,
SECT ii 203c-d; CH xxvi, SECT 1-2 217a-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a pa&im; SECT 6o-£6 424b-426a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT HI, DIV
i8-SECT viii, DIV 75 457c-485a passim
la to \b
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
165
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 17c-d; 46d-47c;
57c-d; 58d-59b; 63b; 67d-68b [fn i]; 76c~83b;
95a-d; 133a; 140b,d-143a; 152a-153a; 164a-
171a; 187c-189a; 214b,d [fn i); 225c-226b /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 279b,d-
287d esp 285c-286a / Practical Reason, 291a-
292a; 294c-295d; 311d-314d; 339a / Judge-
ment, 550a-578a esp 550a-551a,c, 555a-558b,
564a-c, 566a-b, 568c-570a, 577c-578a, 587a<
591b; 592a-d; 597a-599d; 611d-613a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 885b-886a
la. The kinds of causes: their distinction and
enumeration
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 240c-245c / Timaeus, 447b-c;
455a-458a; 465d-466a / Sophist, 577d-578b /
Statesman, 592d-593a; 596a-b / Philebus, 615c-
619d; 637c-d / Laws, BK x, 760a-765c esp
762b-763b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2
[7ib33~72a6] 98b-c; BK n, CH n 128d-129d /
Physics, BK n, CH 3-7 271a-275d esp CH 3
271a-272c; BK in, CH 7 [207b35-2o8&4] 286c;
BK iv, CH i [209*18-23] 288a / Generation and
Corruption, BK n, CH 9-10 436d-439c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 3-10 501c-511d; BK n, CH 2
[994b28-3i] 513b; BK in, CH 2 [996ai8-b26]
514d-515b, BK v, CH 2 533b~534c; CH 18 543c-
d; CH 30 547a-d; BK vi, CH 2-3 548c-549d;
BK vn, CH 17 565a-566a,c; BK vin, CH 2 566d-
567d; CH 3 [104^5-24] 567d-568b; en 4
568d-569b; BK xi, CH 8 [io65R26-b4] 593d;
BK xii, CH 4--') 599d-601a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639b8-642b4] 161d-165d / Generation of Ani-
mals, BK i, CH i [715*1-18] 255a-b; CH 20
(729aio]-CH 22 [7}ob33] 269b-271a passim;
BK v, CH i [778ai6-bi9J 320a-321a / Ethics,
BK in, CH 3 [iii2H3o-33]358b/ Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 10 [i369a3i-b5] 612c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3
12c-14a, Q 3, A 8, REP i 19d-20c; Q 4, A 3,
ANS 22b-23b; Q 5, A 2, REP 1-2 24b-25a; A 4
25d-26c; Q u, A 3, ANS 49a-c; Q 13, A 5, ANS
and REP i 66b-67d; Q 14, A 8, ANS and REP i
82c-83b; A n, ANS 84c-85c; A 16, REP i 90b-
91b; Q 19, A 6, ANS 113c-114d, Q 25, A 2, REP
2-3 144c-145b; Q 36, A 3, ANS 194c-195d, Q 39,
A 2, REP 5 203b-204c; Q 44 238a-241d; Q 46,
A 2, REP 7 253a-255a; Q 48, A i, REP 4 259b-
260c; Q 49, A i, ANS 264d-265d; Q 51, A i,
REP 3 275b-276b; Q 52, A 3, ANS 280a-d; Q 65
339a-343c; Q 75, A 5, REP 3 382a-383b; Q 82,
A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 87, A 2, REP 3 466c-
467b; Q 104 534c-538c; Q 105, A 5, ANS 542a-
543b; PART i-n, Q 2, A 5, REP 3 618d-619c;
Q 7, A 3, ANS 653c-654b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica JPWT i-n, Q 60,
A i, ANS 49d-50c; Q 72, A 3 113b-114a; Q 75,
A i, ANS and REP 2 137d-138c; Q 76, A i, ANS
and REP i 141a-c; Q 85, A i, REP 4 178b-179b;
A 5, ANS and REP i 181d-182d; PART in, Q 62,
A i 858c-859d; A 4 861a-862a; PART in SUPPL,
Q 76, A i, ANS 939d-941a
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMelibeus, par 37 417b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78c-d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 36d
28 HARVEY. On Antmal Generation, 335d; 407c;
408b; 415b-417a; 42Sa-429b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d; 45a-
46a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 87c-88c; iv,
90a-b / Objections and Replies, llOc-llld;
AXIOM vni 132b; 158b-161d passim, esp 158c-
161b; 212a; 213b-c; 214c; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF i 355a; PROP n
358b-359b; PROP 17, SCHOL-PROP 18 362c-
363c; PROP 28, SCHOL 366a; APPENDIX 369b-
372d; PART n, PROP 45, SCHOL 390b; PART in,
DEF 1-3 395d-396a; PROP 1-3 396a-398c; PART
iv, PREF 422b,d-424a; DEF 7 424b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvi,
SECT 2 217b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 51-53
422d-423a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229b-230a
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 133a; 164a-171a / Judge-
ment, 550a-551a,c; 553c-555a; 556b-558b;
577c-578a; 584c-d; 594b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165a-
166b
\b. The order of causes: the relation of cause
and effect
7 PLATO: Lysis, 24b / Phaedrus, 124b-c /
Euthyphro, 195c-d / Gorgias, 267c-268a /
Timaeus, 455a-b; 460c; 465d-466a / Theaete-
tus, 521b-522b / Philebus, 617b-c / Laws, BK
x, 760a-765c esp 762b-763b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 12 [i4bio-22] 20b /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2 [7ib^~72a6]
98b-c; BK n, CH 12 129d-131b; CH 16-18 134b-
136a / Physics, BK n, CH 6 [198*5-13] 275a;
CH 8-9 275d-278a,c; BK in, CH 2 [202a2J-cH 3
[202b22J 279c-280c; BK vn, CH 1-2 326a-329a;
BK vni 334a-355d / Heavens, BK i, CH 7
[275*i-b29] 366a-367a / Generation and Cor-
ruption, BK i, CH 7 421d-423b / Metaphysics,
BK n, CH r (993b23J-cH 2 [994^0] 512a-513b;
BK v, CH 2 [1013^3-16] 533c-d; [1014*20-25]
534b-c; BK xi, CH 8 [io65b2~4] 593d; BK xn,
CH 3 [1070*20-24] 599c; CH 4 [io7ob22~35]
600b; CH 6-8 601b-605a / Soul, BK i, CH 3
[4o6a2-i2] 635b-c; [4o6b5~9] 635d-636a; CH 4
[408*29-33] 638a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639bi3-642*24] 161d-165b esp [639bi3~32]
161d-162a; BK n, CH i [646*25-bio] 170b-c /
Motion of Animals, CH 5 235c-d / Generation
of Animals, BK n, CH 6 [742*i6~bi7] 283b-d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 7 [1364*33-36] 606a; BK n,
CH 23 [1400*28-35] 649a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 168b-c;
CH 4 169a
166
THE GREAT IDEAS
\btol
(1. The general theory of cautation. lb. The order
qf causes: the relation of cause and effect.)
16 KEPLJBR: Epitome, BK iv, 854b; 940b-941a
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth. Ennead, TR H, CH i 214c-215a
/ Sixth Ennead, TR VH, CH 2 322b-323a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of 'God \ BK xn, CH 24-25
358a-359a; BK xxn, CH 2 587b-588a; CH 24
609a-612a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q a, A 3
12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-
16a; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; A 6, ANS 18c-19a; A 7,
ANS and REP i 19a-c; A 8, ANS and REP 1-2
19d-20c; Q 4, A 2, ANS 21b-22b; A 3, ANS and
REP 4 22b-23b; Q 5, A 2, REP i 24b-25a; A 4,
ANS 25d-26c, Q 8, A i 34d-35c; Q 13, A 5, ANS
and REP i 66b-67d; A n, REP 2 73c-74b; Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, AA 4-5 lllc-113c;
A 6, ANS and REP 3 113c-114d; A 7, REP 2
U4d'115d; A 8 116a-d; Q 22, AA 2-3 128d-131c;
Q 23, A 5, ANS 135d-137d; Q 36, A 3, ANS and
REP 4 194c-195d; Q 39, A 2, REP 5 203b-204c;
Q4i, A i, REP2217d-218c; A2, ANs218c-219d;
Q 42, A 2, ANS 225d-227a; A 3, ANS and REP 2
227a-d; Q 44, A i, REP i 238b-239a; A 2 239b-
240a; Q 45, A 2, REP 2 242d-244a; A 3 244a-d;
A 5, ANS 245c-247a; Q 46, A i, REP 6 250a-
252d; A 2, HEP i 253a-255a; Q 48, A i, REP 4
259b-260c; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-270a; Q 52, A
3, ANS 280a-d; Q 63, A 8, REP i 332c-333b;
Q 65, A 3 341c-342b; Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-
379c; Q 82, A 3, REP i 433c-434c; A 4 434c-
435c; Q 87, A 2, REP 3 466c-467b; Q 88, A 3,
REP 2 472c-473a; Q 90, A 3 482c-483a; Q 103,
AA 6-8 532b-534b; Q 104, A i, ANS 534c-536c;
A 2 536c-537b, Q 105 538d-545b; Q 112, A i,
ANS 571d-573a; Q 114, A 3, ANS 583b-d; QQ
115-116 !>85c-595c; Q 118, A 2, REP 3 601c-
603b; PART i-ir, Q i, A 2 610b-611b; Q 46, A i,
ANs813b-814a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 66,
A 6, REP 3 80c-81b; Q 75, A 4 140a-d; Q 112,
AA 1-3 356c-358d; Q 113, A 8 367d-368c; PART
II-H, Q i, A 7, REP 3 385c-387a; Q 9, A 2, ANS
424b-425a; PART in, Q 6, A i, ANS 740b-741b;
A 5, ANS 744a-d; Q 18, A i, RBP 2 810a-811c;
QI9, A i, ANS and REP2816a-818b, g62858b-
864c passim; Q 64, A i, ANS 870c-871b; A 8,
REP i 876c-877c; PART in SUPPL, Q 70, A 3,
ANS 897d-900d; Q 74, A 3, REP 2 927c-928d;
Q 76, A i, REP i 939d-941a; A 2 941b-942b;
Q 80, A i, REP i 956c-957c; Q 86, A 3, REP 2
994d-996a,c
21 DANTE' Dwine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-148]
109a-b
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMelibcus, par 37 417b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78c-79a; 79d-
80a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 135c-
136b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 390c; 415b-
416c; 426a-429b; 442c-443c; 445c; 447a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55d-56a /
Meditations, in, 84b-86b; 87c-88c/ Objections
and Replies, 110a-112a csp llld-112a; 120b-
121c; AXIOM i-v 131d-132a; AXIOM vin 132b;
PROP n 132c; 158b-161d passim; 212a; 213b-d;
229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF i 355a; AXIOM
3-5 355d; PROP 3 356a; PROP 8, SCHOL 2,
357b-d; PROP 11 358b-359b; PROP 21-29 364a'
366c esp PROP 28 365c-366a; PROP 33 367 b-
369a; PROP 36 369b; APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART n, DEF 5 373b-c? DEF 7 373c; PROP 7,
COROL and SCHOL 375a-cJ LEMMA 3 378d-379a;
PROP 48, DEMONST 391a; PART III, DEF 2-3
395d-396a; PROP 1-3 396a-398c; PART v,
AXIOM 2 452c
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK v [469-490] 185b-
186a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 505 261a-b / Vacuum,
369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE i-n 270a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 1-5 178b-179d; SECT 19 182b-c; CH xxn,
SECT ii 203c-d; CH xxvi, SECT 1-2 217a-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a passim; SECT 65-66 425d-426a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT in, DIV
i8-SECT vni, DIV 75 457c-485a passim, esp
SECT vn, DIV 60 477a-c; SECT xi 497b-503c
passim, esp DIV 105 498d-499a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 17c-d; 47b-c;
57c-d; 58d-59b; 63b; 67d-68b [fn i], 76c-
83b esp 81c-d; 95a-d; 140b,d-145c; 152a-
153a; 187c-189c; 214b,d [fn i] / Practical
Reason, 311d-314d; 339a / Judgement, 550a-
551a,c; 553c-555a; 561c-562a,c; 577c-578a;
582c-583b
45 FARADAY- Researches in Electricity, 582b-584a
passim
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 9b-c; lOd; 65a-66a
/ Descent of Man, 285b-c
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK x, 447c-448d;
BK xi, 470a-c; EPILOGUE i, 650b-c; EPILOGUE
n 675a-696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 772b; 884b-885a
2. Comparison of causes in animate and in-
animate nature
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241d-242b / Laws, BK x, 763a-
765d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BKII, CH8-9275d-278a,c;
BK viii, CH 2 [252bi6-28] 336c-d; [253*6-21]
337a-b; CH 4 [254bi2-33J 339a-b / Heavens,
BK ii, CH 12 383b-384c / Meteorology, BK iv,
CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4
[ioi4b2o-26] 535a; BK vn, CH 9 [1034*32-
b8] 55Tc-d; CH 10 [1035^4-28] 559a-b; CH 16
[i040b5-i6] 564c; BK ix, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5
573a-c; CH 7 [1049*12-19] 574d / Soul, BK n,
CH 4 (4i5b8-28] 645d-646a; BK HI, CH 9-13
664d-668d / Sleep r CH 2 [455bi3~28] 698b-c
3 to 4
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
167
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639bi2-642*i4) 161d-165b / Gait of Animals,
CH 2 [704bi2-i8] 243c / Generation of 'Animals,
BK i, CH i [715*1-7] 255a; BK H, CH i [734*17-
735'»4] 274c~275c
10 GALEN: Natural faculties, BK i, CH 12 172d-
173c; CH 14-17 177a-183d; BK n, CH 1-7
183bfd-191b passim; CH 9, 197b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [700-729]
23d-24b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 930b-931b; 959a-
960a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8,
A i, REP 3 34d-35c; Q 14, A 8, ANS 82c-83b;
Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 22, A 2, ANS 128d-
130d; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q 98, A i, ANS
516d-517c; PART i-n, Q i, A 2 610b-611b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 75, A 3, REP 4 938a-939d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvni
[19-39] 80a-b; PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d;
n [112-148] 109a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; PART iv,
271d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT v, sc n [7-14]
239a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 385a-c
31 DESCARTES- Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objec-
tions and Replies, 215a-b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE i-n 270a
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxin, SECT 28-29 211b-212a
42 KANT judgement, 555a-558b esp 557c-558b;
564a-c; 566a-b; 578d-580a; 581a-582c
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 540a-541a,c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 9b-10d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b; 84a-94b csp 85a-
87b, 88b-90b
3. Causality and freedom
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 573a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 3 [iii2ai8-bi2]
358a-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [i368b7-i369b27J
611d-613a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d; BK v [306-310] 65a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 49c; BK iv, 69a; BK
vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i 78a-82b csp
CH 4 79d-80a, CH 9-10 82a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 9-10 213b-
216c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
AA 3-10 110b-118b passim; Q 41, A 2 218c-219d;
Q46, A i, REP 9-10 250a-252d; Q 47, A i, REP i
256a-257b; Q 59, A 3 308b-309a; Q 62, A 8,
REP 2 323c-324a; Q 83, A i 436d-438a; Q 103,
A ii REP 1,3 528b-529a; Q 115, A 6, ANS 591d-
592d; PART i-n, Q 10 662d-666a,c; Q 13, A 6
676c-677b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 71,
A 4, ANS and REP 3 108b-109a
21 DANTE: Dwtne Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [52-
84] 77b-d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
138-154 106b-108b / Nun's Prittfs Talc
[15,238-256] 456b-457a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 112d-113c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 452a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n
[135-141] 570d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 7 355b; PROP
16-17 362a-363c, PROP 26-36 365b-369b;
APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART n, PROP 48-49
391a-394d; PART in, 395a-d; PART iv, PREP,
423b-c
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 154b-159a / Pen-
sees, 821 331b-332a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 14, 108d-109a; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 7-27
180a-184c; SECT 48-53 190c-192b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin478b-
487a
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a; 132d-133a;
140b,d-145c; 164a-171a; 234c-235a; 236d-
237a; 238b / Fund. Pnn. Metaphystc of Morals,
264d-265a; 275b; 279b,d-287d esp 282c,
286a-c / Practical Reason, 292a-293b; 296a-d;
301d-302d; 310b-321b esp 3l4b-d, 320c-321b;
327d-329a; 331c-337a,c / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 383c; 386b-387a,c;390b; 392d-393c
/Judgement, 463a-465c; 571c-572a; 587a-588a;
594d [fn i]
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 392d-393a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 39
21d; par 66, 29a; PART n, par 139 48d-49b;
PART in, par 187 65a-c; par 352 112b; ADDI-
TIONS, 90 130b-d / Philosophy of History, IN-
TRO, 160c-164d; 170c-172b; 178a-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 158b-159a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; BK xi, 469a-472b; BK xin,
563a-572a; BK xv, 619d-621b; EPILOGUE i,
645a-650c; EPILOGUE n, 688a-696d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 84a-94b esp 85a-87b, 88b-
90b; 291a-295b; 388a; 820b-826a csp 825b-
826b [fn 2}
54 FREUD- Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 13c / General Introduction, 454b-c;
486c-487a
4. The analysis of means and ends fn the
practical order
7 PLATO: Lysis, 23a-b / Laches, 29b-c / Gorgtas,
262a-264b; 280b-d / Republic, BK n, 3lOc-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH i [n6b22~36]
163b-c / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 [292*14^26]
383d-384b / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2 [994b8-
16] 512d-513a; BK v, CH 2 [ioi3m32-b3l 533c;
[ioi3b25-28] 533d-534a; BK ix, CH 8 {1050*4-
bi] 575d-576b / Soul, BK in, CH 10 665d-666d
168
THE GREAT IDEAS
4 to 5a
(4. The analysts of means and ends in the practical
order.}
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; CH 5
340d-341b csp [1096*5-10] 341a-b; CH 6
[1096^-26] 341d-342a; CH 7 342c-344a pas-
sim, CH 9 [io99b25~32] 345b; BK in, CH 3
358a-359a; BK vi, CH 2 [ii39ai7-b5J 387d-
388a, CH 5 389a-c passim; CH 9 [ii42bi7~33]
391d-392b / Politics, BK vn, CH 13 [i33ib24-
38] 536b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6-7 602d-607d;
CH 8 [1366*3-16] 608b-c; CH 10 [i369*5-b2;]
612b-613a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 2 177c-178d;
CH 10 185d-187a; CH 14, 189d; BK iv, CH 4
225a-228a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 16 271c-d;
BK vi, SECT 40-45 277d-278c; BK vn, SECT 44
282b-c; BK vin, SECT 19-20 286d-287a
17 PLOIINUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 6 15a-b
18 AUGUSIINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 4 266d-
267c, CH 8 270a-d; BK xix, CH 1-3 507a-
511a; CH 13-17 519a-523a; CH 20 523d-524a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-5 625b-626a;
CH 22 629b~630a; CH 31-33 633b-634b; CH 35
634c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A 4
25d-26c; A 6, ANS 27c-28b; Q 18, A 3, ANS
106b-107c; o 19, A 2, REP 2 109c-110b; A 3,
ANS HOb-lllc; AA 4-5 lllc-113c; Q 23, A 7,
ANS 138d-140a, Q 44, A 4 241a-d; Q 65, A 2
340b-341b; Q 82, AA 1-4 431d-435c; Q 83, A 3,
ANS 438d-439c; A 4, ANS 439c-440b; Q 103,
A 2 529a-530a, PART i-n, QQ 1-2 609a-622b;
Q 3, A i, ANS 622c-623a; Q 4, AA 1-4 629d-632c;
0 5, A 6, REP i 641a-642a, Q 6, AA 1-2 644d-
646c, Q 8, AA 2-3 656a-657c; Q 9, A i, ANS
657d-658d; A 3, ANS 659c-660a; Q 10, A 2,
REP 3 663d-664d; Q 11, A 3 667d-668d; Q 12,
AA 2-4 670b-672a; Q 13, A 3 674c-675a; Q 14,
A 2 678b-c; Q 15, A 3 682c-683b; Q 16, A 3
685b686a
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 54,
A 2, REP 3 23d-24c; Q 57, A 5, ANS 39a-40a;
Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a; A 4, ANS 223d-224d;
Q 95, A 3 228c-229b; Q 107, A i, ANS 325c-327b;
0 114, A 4, REP i 373a-d; PART n-n, Q 27, A 6,
ANS 524c-525c
22 CHAUCER- TaleofMehbeusAQlaA32a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53a-b; 76c-d;
90a; PART in, 237d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 330b-332a
30 B\CON' Advancement of Learning, 91d-92a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 44c-45b;
PART in, 50b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PARTI, APPENDIX, 369b-370a;
PART iv, DBF 7 424b
33 PASCAL: Pensfes, 98 190b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 52-53 191d-192b; SECT 62 194c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b / Fund, Prin.
Mctaphysic of Morals, 253d-254c; 256a-b;
257c-d; 260a-c; 265c-268b; 271c-279d csp
274d-275b; 282c; 286a-287b / Practical Rea-
son, 307a-d; 314d-329a esp 320c-321b, 327d-
329a; 357c-360d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics, 367c / Science of Right, 397b-398a /
Judgement, 477b-c; 478a-b; 557d [fn 2); 586a-
b; 588b [fn 2]; 594b-595c; 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 23, 85b; NUMBER 31,
103c-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445a-d; 446d-447a;
461c-463c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 45
23c-d; par 61 27b-c; PART n, par 119-128 43b-
45d esp par 122 44a; par 140 49b-54a, PART HI,
par 182 64a; par 191-193 66b-c; par 328
108b-c; par 340 llOb-c; ADDITIONS, 38 122c-d;
76-81 128a-129a/ Philosophy of History, INTRO,
162a-170c; PART n, 267a-b
53 JAMES- Psychology, 4a-6b; 203a; 381b-382a;
788a-789a
5. Cause in relation to knowledge
5a. Cause as the object of our inquiries
7 PLATO: Meno, 188b-189a / Phaedo, 240a-246c
/ Gorgias, 260a-262a / Timaeus, 465d-466a
8 ARISTOTLE* Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2
[7^19-33] 98a-b; CH 13 107c-108c; BK n, CH
1-2 122b,d-123c / Physics, BK i, CH i [184*10-
16] 259a; BK n, CH 3 [i94bi6-23J 271a-b;
[i95b2i-28] 272b; CH 7 275b-d / Meteorology,
BK iv, en 12 [390bi4-i9] 494d / Metaphysics,
BK i 499a-511d esp CH 1-2 499a-501c, CH 7
506b-d, CH 10 511c-d; BK HI, CH 2 [996ai8-b26]
514d-515b; BK iv, CH 2 [ioo3a33~bi9] 522b-c;
BK vi, CH i [io25bi-i8] 547b,d; BK vn, CH 17
fi04iaio-bii] 565b-d; BK vm, CH 4 [1044*33-
b2o] 569a-b; BK xi, CH i [io59ai7-23] 587a;
[1059*34-38] 587b; CH 7 [1063^36-1064*9]
592b, BK xn, CH i 598a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH i
[646^- 1 3] 170a / Gait of Animals, CH i 243a-b
/ Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [715*1-18]
255a-b; BK n, CH 6 [742^7-743*1] 283d-284a;
BK iv, CH i [765a35-b6] 306c; BK v, CH i
[778b7~io] 320d / Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [1098*34-
b2] 343d; BK in, CH 3 [1112^5-24] 358c-d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*1-11] 593a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 168b-
c; CH 4 169a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1053-
1075] 43c-d; BK v [526-533] 67d-68a
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, n [475-493] 65a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a<506a
16 KEPLBR: Epitome, BK iv, 959a-960a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 78d /
Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH n, 348b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 19,
A 5, REP 2 112d-113c; Q 85, A 7, CONTRARY
459c-460b; PART i-n, Q 3, A 8, ANS 628d-
629c
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
169
20 AQUINAS iiSbntma Theolagica,
0,9,
23 HOBBES : Leviathan, PART i, 53a-b; 60a-c; 63a;
78a-80a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 497d-498a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 5a-7a passim
28 GALILEO i Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 202a-
203a
28 HARVEY : Circulation of the Blood, 316a b; 319c
/ On Animal Generation, 335c-336c; 425a
30, BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42a-46a;
46c-47c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 4$ llOd-
llla; APH 117-119 131a-132a; BK n 137a-195d
esp APH 2 137b-c / New Atlantis, 210d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61d-62c /
Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objections and Replies,
UOa; HOc-d; AXIOM 1 131d; 158b-162a;215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-
372d; PART n, PROP 40, DEMONST 387a; PROP
45, DEMONST 390b
34 NEWTON: Principles, lb-2a / Optics, BK in,
543a-b
34 HUYGENS- Light, CH i, 553a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
SECT 16 317a-c
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, SECT 32 418d-
419a; SECT 102-109 432d-434b passim, esp
SECT 107 433d-434a
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9
454c-455a; SECT iv, DIV 26 460b-c; SECT vn,
DIV 60 477a-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335b-337a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin Metaphysic of Morals,
285c-d / Practical Reason, 311d-314d
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 6d-7a passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK xui, 563a-b; EPILOGUE n 675a-696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 2a; 89b-90a; 745b; 885b-
886a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 454b-c
£. Cause in philosophical aad scientific
method: the role of causes in definition,
demonstration, experiment, hypothesis
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 240b-246c / Timaeus, 455a-b;
465d-466a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics 97a-137a,c esp
BK i, CH 13 107c-lQ8c, BK ii 122b,d-137a,c /
Topics, BK vi, CH 6 [i45a32-b2o] 199a-b /
Physics, BK n, CH 7 275b-d; CH 9 [20o*3o-b9]
277d-278a,c; BK w, CH 4 [211*6-11] 290a /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [983*24-32] 501c; BK
in, CH 2 [996ai8-b26] 514d-515b; BK v,, CH 5
[ioi5bo-9] 535d-536a; BK vin, CH A {io44bi2-
15] 569b / Soul, BK i, CH i [403»25-b7] 632b-c;
BK H, CH 2 [413*11-19] 643a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i 161a-
165d esp [642*14-^4] 165b~d / Generation of
Animals, BK i, CH i [715*1-18] 255a-b; BK n,
qH 6 [742b*7-743*lJ 283d- 284a; BK iv, CH i
1765*35-^6] 306c; BK v, CH i [778b7-u] 320d
. 10 GALJ&N: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 4 l<Wa / i
^ ,i2 LUCRETIUS : Nattitv of Things* BX v {5^6-533]
67d-6Sa; BK vi [703-714] 89c-d
16 COPERNICUS : Revolutions of* the Heavenly
Spheres, S05a-506a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 846b-847b; 959a-
960a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q2, A 2,
ANS and REP 2-3 lld-12c; Q 14,, A 7 31d-82b;
A ii, ANS 84c-85c; Q 19, A 5, ANS 1124'113c;
Q 44, A i, REP i 238b 239a; Q 57, A J,-ANS
295d-297a; PART I-H, Q 14, A 5, ANS 680a-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 55,
A 4 28c-29d; PART n-n, Q 9, A 2, ANS 424b-
425a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-b; PART iv,
267a-b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY< 202a-
203a; FOURTH DAY, 252a-b
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 316a-b;
319c / On Animal Generation, 335c-336c;
393b-c;425a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a>4» 56c-
59c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 73 117d-
118a; APH 117, 131a-b; BK n, APH 2 137b-c /
New Atlantis, 210d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52a-d; PART
vi, 61d-62c, 66a-b / Meditations, m 81d-89a
esp 84b-85a, 87c-88c; w, 90a-b / Objections
and Replies, 108a-115a,c; 120c-122c; AXIOM v
131d-132a; 212c; 215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, AXIOM 2,4 355d;
PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d esp 357b-d;
APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART HI, 395a-d; PART
iv, PREF, 422b,d-423c; APPENDIX, i 447a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 368b-369a
34 NEWTON; Principles, lb-2a; DBF vni 7b-8a;
BK HI, RULE i-ii 270a / Optics, BK HI, 531 b;
541b-542a; 543a-b
34 HUYCENS: Light, CH i, 553b-554a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH HI,
SECT 9-17 315c-317c; SECT 28-29 322a-323a;
CH xn, SECT 9 360d-361b; CH XVH, SECT 2
371d-372b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 50-53
422c-423a passim; SECT 60-66 424b-426a
passim; SECT 102-109 432d-434b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
57, 475d-476b [fn 2]; DIV 60, 477a; SECT vni,
DIV 70, 481d-482a; SECT ix, DIV 82 487b-c;
SECT xi, DIV 115 503b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a>c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 46d-47c / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 285c-286a / Practical
Reason, 311d:314d; 339a / Judgement, 574a-b;
578«-d; 579bnj
45 LAVOISIKR: Elements of Chemistry, PAUT i, 9b-
lOb
45 FOURIER; Theory of Heat, 169a; I&3a484a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 3 116a
/ Philosophy of History, INTRO^ 156c-158a; PART
iv,
170
(5. Qruie fa relation to knowledge. 5b. Cause in
philosophical and scientific method: the role
of causes m definition, demonstration, ex-
periment, hypothesis)
49 DARWIN- Ortgtn of Species, 217d-218a; 239c-
240d
50 MARX: Capital, lOb-llb
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 470a-c; BK
xni, 563b; EPILOGUE 11 675a-696d passim, esp
677b~680b, 687b-688a, 694d-695c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 89b 90a; 324b; 668a-671a
esp 670a-b; 745b; 824b-825a; 884b-886a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 454 b-c; 483d-
484a
3c. The nature and sources of our knowledge
of causes
7 PLATO- Meno, 188b 189a / Phaedo, 240c-245c
/ Republic, BK Vi, 383d-388a / Timaeus, 455a-
c; 465d-466a
8ARISTOTLF* Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2
[7ib33~72*6] 98b-c; BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 1-2 499a-501c, BK n, en
i [99^19-31] 512a-b; BK in, CH 2 [996*i8-b26]
S14d-515b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 4 169a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 7 326a-c;
c« 29 339a-b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13,
A 5, ANS 66b-67d; Q 14, A 8, REP i 82c-83b;
Q 19, A 5, ANS 112d-113c; Q 57, A 2, ANS 295d-
297a
23 HORBFS- Leviathan, PARTI, 53a-b; 60a-b; 63a;
78c-d; 79b-80a
28 HARVFY. On Animal Generation, 442c; 443c
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 42a-c;
43a-c; 45a~46a; 46c-47c / Novum Organum,
BK i, APH 48 llOd-llla; APH 99 127b-c; BK n
137a-195d
31 DFSCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 62a-b /
Objections and Replies, llOa-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, AXIOM 4 355d;
APPENDIX 369b-372d
33 PASCAL: Pentfes, 234-235 216b / Great Experi-
ment, 388b
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 543a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 1-7 178b-180a; CH xxv, SECT II-CH
xxvi, SECT 2 217a-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT in, DIV
i8-SECT viii, DIV 75 4S7c-485a passim; SECT
ix 487b-488c passim; SECT xi 497b-503c
passim, esp DIV 105 498d-499a, DIV 115 503b-c
3£ SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335b-337a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 17c-d; 46d-47c;
57c-58b; 58d-59b; 66d-67b; 76c-83b; 85a-b;
86c-d; 95a-d; HOb; 164a-l7la; 194d-195a;
214b,d [fn i]; 225c-226b / Fund. Prin. Meta-
physic of Morals, 285c 286a / Practical Reason,
294c-295d; 311d-314d / Intro. Metaphystc of
Morals, 387a-b / Judgement, 562d-563b
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 88a-90b passim
THE GREAT IDEAS 5c to 5d
Id. The limits of our knowledge of causes
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 38-39— (D) Job, 38:1-
39:30
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 383d-388a / Ttmaeus,
447b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 4 [19^5-7) 273a
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982b28-983sn]
501a-b; BK in, CH 2 [996*i8-b26] 514d-515b
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK 11, CH 6
(742bi7-743*iJ 283d-284a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [526-533]
67d-68a; BK vi [703-711] 89c-d
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vin, CH n 348b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A 8, ANS 57b-58b; Q 19, A 5, REP 2 112d-113c;
Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [24-
45] 56a-b; xvin [49-60] 80b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54a; 78a-80c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-82b; 271b-273b;
497b-502c passim
30 BACON' Advancement of Learning, 45a-46a /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 2 137b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objec-
tions and Replies, llOa-b; 215a-b
31 SPINOZA : Ethics, PARTI, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART iv, PREF, 422b,d-423c
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 184-241 205a-217b passim,
esp 233-241 213b-217b
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
371b-372a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 4 178d-179c, SECT 70 197a-b; CH xxm,
SFCT 28-29 211b-212a; BK iv, CH HI, SECT io~
16 315c-317c; SECT 28-29 322a-323a; CH vi,
SECT 5-16 332b-336d passim; CH xvi, SECT
i2,370b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 102-109
432d-434b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv-vii
458a-478a; SECT vm, DIV 71-72 482c-483c;
SECT xi 497b-503c passim, esp DIV 105 498d-
499a, DIV 115 503b-c; SECT xii, DIV 127 507b-c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 348a,c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335b-336c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 46d-47c; 140b,d-145c;
171a-172c; 234c-235a / Fund. Prin. Metaphystc
of Morals, 267d-268a; 285c-d / Practical
Reason, 291a-292a; 294c-295d; 313b-314d /
Intro. Metaphystc of Morals, 390b / Judgement,
550a-551a,c; 557c-558b; 564a-c; 584c-d;611d-
613a,c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 65a; 92d-94c pas-
sim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 405a-b; BK xi, 469a-470c; BK xin,
563a-b; EPILOGUE i, 646c-647b; 650b-c;
EPILOGUE n 675a<696d esp 687d-688a, 693c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 90a; 822b; 885b-886a
CHAPTBR 8: CAUSE
171
6. The existence and operation of final causes
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241b-242b / Timaeus, 447d-
448a;465d-466a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH n
(94b8-95*9] 129b-d / Physics, BK i, CH 9
[192*16-24] 268b-c; BK 11, CH i [i93bi2-i9]
269d-270a; CH 2 [i94*27-b8] 270d-271a; CH 3
[I94b33-i95*2] 271b-c; [195*22-26] 271d; CH
8-9 275d-278a,c / Heavens, BK n, CH 12
[292*i4-b26] 383d-384b / Meteorology, BK iv,
CH 12 [389b22-390b2] 493d-494c / Metaphys-
ics, BK i, CH 2 [982b4-n] 500d; CH 7 [988^-15]
506c-d; CH 9 [992*29-34] 510c; BK 11, CH 2
[994b8-i6] 512d-513a; BK m, CH 2 [996*22-36]
514d-515a; BK v, CH 2 [ioi3*33-b2] 533c; CH 4
(ioi4b34-ioi5*io] 535b; BK xn, CH 7 [io72bi-
4] 602c; CH 10 [io75*i2-bi6] 605d-606c / Soul,
BK n, CH 4 [4i5bi5-22] 645d-646a; CH 8
[42obi6-23] 652a; BK in, CH 9 [432^1-26]
665b-c; CH 12-13 667a-668d passim / Sleep,
CH 2 [455^3-28] 698b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639b8-640*i2] 161d-162b; [64ibio-642b4]
164c-165d; CH 5 [645*23-26] 169a; BK n-iv
170a-229d passim, esp BK n, CH i [646*25^27]
170b-d, BK in, CH 2 [663b22-2}] 191b, BK iv,
CH 2 [677*15-19] 206d-207a / Gait of Animals,
CH 2 [704bi2-i8] 243c; CH 12 249b-d passim /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [715*1-11]
255a; CH 4-13 257a-260b; BK n, CH 5 [74ib2-
4] 282c; CH 6 [742*i6-bi7] 283b~d; [744*36-
b28] 285c-286a; BK in, CH 4 296b-c; BK iv, CH
3 [767^-15] 309a; BK v, CH i [778*1 5^19]
320a-321a; CH 8 [788b22~789bi5] 330c-331a,c
/ Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1252^0-1253*1] 446a-b;
CH8[i256b8-26]450b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 6, 170b-c;
CH 10 171b-172b; CH 12 172d-173c; CH 13,
174d-175c; BK n, CH 3 185a-186d; CH 4, 187c;
BK in, CH i 199a-c; CH 3 200a-201a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1022-1037]
13c-d; BK ii [1052-1063] 28b-c; BK iv [823-
857] 55a-b; BK v [76-90] 62a-b; [156-234]
63a-64a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b; BK vi, SECT 40 277d
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 51 Ib
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 846b-847a; 857b-
860b; 863b-887a passim; 913a-b; 915b-916a;
925b-928a; 932a-933a / Harmonies of the
World, 1023b-1080b esp 1049b-1050a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR n, CH i 40a-
41a / Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 7 242d-243c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 22 333d-
334c; BK xn, CH 4-5 344b-345b; BK xix,
CH 12-14, 518c-520c; BK xxn, CH 24, 610c-
611c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 5, A 2, REP 1-2
24b-25a; A 4 25d-26c; Q 6, A i, REP 2 28b-d;
Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-
109c; A 4, ANS lllc-112c; Q 22, A 2, ANS
128d-130d; Q 23, A i, ANS and REP 1-2 132c-
133b; Q 36, A 3, ANS 194c-195d; Q 44, A 4
241a-d; Q 48, A i, REP 4 259b-260c; Q 59, A i,
ANS 306c-307b; Q 60, A 5, ANS 313b-314c; Q
65, A 2 340b-341b; Q 70, A 3, ANS 365b-367a;
Q 76, A 5, ANS 394c-396a; Q 78, A i, REP 3
407b-409a; Q 82, A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 85,
A 3, REP i 455b-457a; Q 91, A 3 486b-487d;
0 92, A i, REP i 488d-489d; Q 98, A i, ANS
516d-517c; Q 103 528a-534b passim; Q 105,
A 5, ANS 542a-543b; PART i-n, Q r, A 2
610b-611b; A 3, ANS and REP 3 611b-612a;
A 6, ANS 614a-c; A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A 5, REP 3
618d-619c; Q 8, A i, ANS 655b-656a; Q 9, A i,
ANS 657d-658d; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c; Q 21,
A i, ANS and REP 1-2 717a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 4 938a 939d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvni
[19-39] 80a-b; PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; PART iv,
271d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 302c / Circula-
tion of the Blood, 309b-d / On Animal Genera-
tion, 349a-b; 355c-d; 390b-c; 402c; 418b-c;
439c-440a; 442d-443c; 447a-b; 453c; 454b-c;
461a-c;462c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d;
45a-46a / Novum Qrganum, BK i, APH 48
llOd-llla
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 44c-45a /
Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objections and Re-
plies, 215a-b
31 SPINOZA \Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a; DBF 7 424b
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 72, 184b; 75 185b-186a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
371a / Optics, BK in, 528b-529a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH i,
SECT 15, 125b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 60-66
424b-426a passim; SECT 107 433d-434a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 44,
469b-c; SECT xi, DIV in 501b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229b-230a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 187a-190a; 205a-209b;
239a-240b / Judgement, 467d-470b; 473a-
474b; 523c-d; 550a-613a,c esp 550a-562a,c,
568c-570b, 575b-578a, 587a-588a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157b-c;
161d-162a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d; 41c-42a;
60b-61d passim; 95d-97a esp 96b; 217d-218a
/ Descent of Man, 593d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 646c-
647b; 650b-c; EPILOGUE n, 687d-688a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b; 671b [fn i]
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401 b / Instincts, 415b /
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654c pas-
sim, esp 654a-c
172
7. The causality of God or the gods
la, Divine causality in the origin and existence
of the world; creation and conservation
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2; 7:4 / Nehemiah,
9:6-(£>) // Esdras, 9:6 / Job, 26:7; 37:18;
38:1-42:2 / Psalms, 8 esp 8:3-5; 19:1; 33.6-9;
74:16-17; 89:11-12; 95:4-5; 96:5; 102:25; 104;
115:3; 119:73; 121:2; 136:5-9; 146:5-6; 148.1-
6~(D) Psalms, 8 csp 8:4-6; 18:2; 32:6-9;
73:16-17; 88:12-13; 94:4-5; 95:5; 101:26; 103;
113:3; 118:73; 1202; 135:5-9; 145:5-6; 148:1-
6 / Proverbs, 3:19-20; 8:23-29 / Isaiah, 40:26-
28; 42:5; 44:24; 45:7-12,18; 48:13; 65:17-
(D) Isaias, 40:26-28; 42:5; 44:24; 45:7-12,18;
48:13; 65:17 / Jeremiah, 10:12; 27:5; 31:35;
51:15-16— (D) Jeremias, 10:12; 27:5; 31:35;
51:15-16 / Amos, 5:8 / Zechanah, i2'i — (D)
Zacharias, 12:1
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:14— (Z)) OT, Judith,
16:17 / Rest of Esther, 13:10— (D) OT, Esther,
13:107 Wisdom of Solomon, 1:14; 11:17— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 1:14; 11:18 / Ecclesias-
ticus, 24:8-9; 33:10-13; 39:16-35; 43— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 24:12-14; 33:10-14; 39*21-
41 ; 43 / Bel and Dragon, 5~(D) OT, Daniel,
14:4 / // Maccabees, y.2^-(D) OT, II
Machabees, 7:23,28
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 7:40^50; 14:15; 17:22-28
—(D) Acts, 7:49-50; 14:14; 17:22-28 / Colos-
sians, 1:16-17 / Hebrews, i.io; 3:4; 11:3 /
// Peter, 3:5 / Revelation, 4:11; 14:7— (D)
Apocalypse, 4 : 1 1 ; 1 4 7
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447a-452d; 465d-466a /
Sophist, 577d-578b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-158]
2d-3a; BK v [146-234] 63a-64a
17PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 1-12
65d-73d / Fifth Ennead, TR n, CH i 214c-215a;
TR vni, CH 7 242d-243c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK vii, par 16-23 48c-50c; BK xi, par 4-11
90a-92b; BK xn, par 2-9 99c-101c; par 14-40
102b-110a; BK xni, par 6-48 112a-124a / City
of God, BK vn, CH 29-31 261a-262a; BK xi,
CH 4-24 324a-336a; BK xn, CH 10-27 348b-
360a,c; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8, A i
34d-35c; A 2, ANS 35c-36b; A 3, ANS and REP i
36b-37c; Q 9, A 2, ANS 39c-40d; Q 21, A 4,
REP 4 126c-127c; QQ 44-46 238a-255d; Q 50,
A i, ANS 269b-270a; A 3, ANS 272a>273b; Q 56,
A 2, ANS and REP 4 292d-294a; Q 57, A 2, ANS
and REP 2 295d-297a; Q 61 314d-317c; Q 65
339a-343c; Q 75, A 6, REP 2 383c-384c; Q 84,
A 3, REP 2 443d-444d; QQ 90-93 480c-501c;
Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a; Q 104, A i csp REP 4
534c-536c; Q 118, AA 2-3 601c-604b; PART 1-11,
Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv [37-
78] 91d-92a; PARADISE, vn [121-148] 116b-c;
THE GREAT IDEAS
7 to n
x [1-6] 120b; xni [52-84] 126*-b; xix [40-51]
135c; xxix [13-45] 150b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2987-3010] 209te-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 111, 173d; PART iv,
251a<b
28 GALILEO : Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a /
Meditations, HI, 87b-88c / Objections and Re-
plies, AXIOM ix 132b; PROP in 132d-133a;
137d-138a; 214c; 215a-b; 228a-c; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 16-18 362a-
363c; PROP 25 365b; PROP 33, SCHOL2, 368c-
369a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [650-659] 107b;
BK ii [345-353] 118b-119a; BK in [708-735]
150b-151b; BK iv [720-735] 168a-b, BK v
[468-505] 185b-186a; [577-594] 187b-188a;
[800-868] 192b-194a; BK vn [59-640] 218b-
231a esp [139-161] 220a-b, [216-550] 221b-
229a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 482 258a
34 NEWTON- Optics, BK in, 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 12, 165c; BK iv, CH x, SECT 15 352d-
353a; SECT 18-19 353c-354c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a esp SECT 29-33 418c-419a; SECT
45-46 421b-c; SECT 48 422a passim; SECT 57
423d-424a; SECT 146-150 442a-443b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
132, 509d[fn i]
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 81d-82a; 143a-145c /
Judgement, 597a-599d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 245d-
246c; PART iv, 361a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239c-d; 243d
lb. Divine causality in the order of nature or
change: the first cause in relation to all
other causes
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 455a-b; 465d-466a / States-
man, 587a-589c
8 ARISTOILE: Physics, BK vn, CH 1-2 326a-329a;
BK vin 334a-355d / Heavens, BK n, CH 12
383b-384c / Generation and Corruption, BK n,
CH 10 [336^5-34] 438d; [337*15-23] 439a*b /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [983*7-9] 501 b; BK
xn, CH 4 [io7ob22~35] 600b; CH 5 [1071*30-36]
601a; CH 6-10 601b-606d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Sacred Disease, 154a 156a;
160b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-158]
2d-3a; BK n [167-183] 17a-b; [1090-1104] 29a;
BK vi [43-95] 80d-81c; [379-422] 85b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 14 120d-121c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1049b-1050a
17 PLOTINUS: Sec&nd Ennead, TR n, CH 2 4la-c /
Third Enntad, TR II-IH 82c-97b passim; TR vni
129«-136a / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 2 208c-209b
Ib to 7c
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
173
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK vn, par 16-23 48c-50c / City of God, BK vn,
CH 29-31 261a-262a; BK x, CH 14 307c-308a;
BK xi, CH 22 333d-334c; BK xn, CH 25 358b-
359a; BK xix, CH 12-17 517b-523a; BK xxn,
CH 24 609a-612a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; A 2, ANS
15c-16a; A 4, ANS 16d-l7c; A 6, ANS 18c~19a;
A 7, ANS and REP 1 19a-c; A 8, ANS and REP 1-2
19d-20c; Q 4 20c-23b; Q 12, A i, ANS 50c-51c;
Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 5 112d-113c;
Q 23, A i, ANS and REP 1-2 132c-133b, Q 46,
A 2, REP 7 253a-255a; Q 47, AA 1-2 256a-258c;
Q 49, A 2 266a-c; Q 51, A i, REP 3 275b-276b;
A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 52, A 2 279b-280a;
Q 60, A i, REP 2-3 310b-311a; Q 75, A i, REP i
378b-379c; Q 76, A 5, REP i 394c-396a; Q 83,
A i, REP 3 436d-438a; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-
443c; A 4, REP i 444d-446b; A 5 446c-447c;
Q 88, A 3, REP 2 472c-473a; Q 89, A i, REP 3
473b-475a; Q 92, A i, REP i 488d-489d; A 2,
REP 2 489d-490c; A 4 491b-d; Q 94, A 3, ANS
504a-505a; QQ 104-105 534c-545b; Q 116
592d-595c; PART i-n, Q 2, A 3, ANS 617b-618a,
A 5, REP 3 618d-619c; Q 6, A i, RFP 3 644d-
646a; Q 9, A 6 662a-d; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c;
Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 79,
A 2, ANS 157b-158a; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a;
Q 109, A i, ANS 338b-339c; Q no, A i, REP 2
347d-349a; PART II-H, Q 9, A 2, ANS 424b-
425a; Q 18, A 4, ANS 464c-465a; PART in, y 6,
A i, REP i 740b-741b; Q 13, A3, CONTRARY
782b-783b; PART m SUPPL, Q 74, A 2, RLP 3
926c-927c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [94-142]
107b-d; ii [112-148] 109a-b; xm [52-84]
126a-b, xxvn [97-120] 148b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2987-3040] 209a-
210a / Tale of Mehbeus, par 37-38 417b-
41 8a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 78d-79a; 79d-80a;
PART in, 241c-242a; PART iv, 272b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 390d-391a;
406b-407b; 416b-c; 426a-429b; 443a-c; 490d-
493a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-d; 4b-c /
New Atlantis, 203a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55d-56a /
Meditations, in, 87c-88c; iv, 90a-b / Objec-
tions and Replies, llOa; 123b; AXIOM ix 132b;
158a-162a; 213b-d; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 16-18 362a-
363c; PROP 24-29 365a-366c; PROP 33 367b-
369a; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART u, PROP 5-7
374c-375c; PROP 9-10 376a-377a; PROP 45
390a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [468-474] 185b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 77 186a; 513, 262a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-371a / Optics, BK in, 528b-529a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH xxi,
SECT 2 178c; CH xxin, SECT 28 211b-d; BK iv,
CH in, SECT 28-29 322a-323a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a passim, esp SECT 29-33 418c-419a;
SECT 51-53 422d-423a; SECT 57 423d-424a;
SECT 60-66 424b-426a; SECT 105-109 433 b-
434b passim; SECT 146-153 442a-444a passim,
csp SECT 150 442d-443b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54-57 474b-475d
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 140b,d-145c; 164a-165c;
171a-172c; 177b-179b; 183b [fn i); 184b-c;
187a-189c esp 188c-189a; 190a-b; 191a-d;
205a-209a;239a-240b / Practical Reason,334b-
335c; 345a-c / Judgement, 564a-567b; 572b-
578a; 581b-582c; 587a-592d; 597a-599d
46 HFGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 161d*
162a; PART i, 245d-246c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 396b-397a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 243b-d
7c. Divine causality in the government of the
universe: providence and free will
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-3; 4:5-7; 6-9 esp
8-21-22; 12-13 esp 12:1-3, 127, 13.14-18; 15
esp 15:13-21; 17-18; 21-22 esp 22:1-19; 26:1-
6,22-25; 28.10-22; 35:9-15; 37-50 csp 45.7-8
/ Exodus, 3; 4:21; 7-14 esp 7:3, 9 12, 10:1,
10.20, 10:27, u. 10, 12:1-51, 13:21-22, 14:4,
14:8, 14*17; 15:18; 19-20 esp 19:3-9; 23 20-33;
33-18-19; 40-34-38— (D) Exodus, 3; 4:21;
7-14 esp 7:3, 9:12, 10. i, 10:20, 10:27, ir.io,
12-1-51, 13:21-22, 14-4, 14:8, 14:17; 15:18;
19-20 esp 19*3-9; 23:20-33; 33-18-19; 40:32-
36 / Numbers, 9:15-23; 12; 22-24 / Deuteron-
omy, 4-1-40; 5-11 esp 11:26-28; 29:1-31:8 esp
30:1-4, 30:19-20 / Joshua, i-n; 23-24 esp
24:14-28— (D) Josue, i-n; 23-24 esp 24:14-
28 / Judges, 1-16 / 7 Samuel, 8-10; 15-16— (D)
I Kings, 8-10 ; 15-16 / // Samuel, 7— (D)
// Kings, 7/7 Kings, n; 13-22 passim — (D)
/// Kings, u ; 13-22 passim / // Kings passim
— (D) IV Kings passim / / Chronicles, 17:4-14;
29-11-12— (D) / Parahpomenon, 17.4-14;
29:11-12 / II Chronicles, 1 1-36 passim, esp 36—
(D) // Parahpomenon, 11-36 passim, esp 36 /
Esther esp 4:12-17— (D) Esther, 1.1-10:3 esp
4:12-17 / Job esp 1-2, 24, 27, 38-41 / Psalms
passim, esp 3-4, 9-11, 13, 17-18, 20, 23, 65,
104— (D) Psalms passim, esp 3-4, 9-10, 12,
16-17, J9» 22» *M» I03 / Proverbs, 16:33 /
Ecclesiastes, 3; 8-9; 11-12 / Isaiah, 36-37; 46;
51; 52:7— (D) Isaias, 36-37; 46; 51; 52:7 /
Jeremiah, 17:5-8; 18-19; 31; 45— (D) Jeremias,
17:5-8; 18-19; 31; 45 / Ezetyel, i8-(D)
Ezechiel, 18 / Daniel esp 3, 6— (D) Daniel,
1:1-3:23 esp 3:1-23; 3:9^12:13 esp 3:91-97.
6:1-28 / Jonah, i-2— (D) Jonas, 1-2
APOCRYPHA: Tobit—(D) OT, Tobias / Judith esp
5^6, 8-i6-(Z>) OT, Judith esp 5-6, 8-16 /
Rest of Esther— (D) OT, Esther, 10:4-16:24 /
174
THE GREAT IDEAS
7c
[7, The causality of God or the gods. Ic. Divine
causality in the government of the universe:
providence and free will)
Eccltsiasticus, 15:11-20— (D) OT, Ecclesias-
ticus, 15:11-22 / Song of Three Children— (D)
OT, Daniel, 3:24-90 / Susanna— (D) OT,
Daniel, 13:1-64 / Bel and Dragon— (D) OT,
Daniel, 13:65-14:42 / I Maccabees, 3:13-26—
(D) OT, / Machabees, 3 13-26 / II Maccabees,
6:i-i6-(Z)) OT, // Machabees, 6:1-16
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6.25-34; 10:29-33;
23.37 / Lu^e, 12:4-7,22-34; 21 112-19 esp 21 :i8
/John, 6:22-71 csp 6:40, 6:44-45, 6:64-65 —
(D) John, 6:22-72 esp 6:40, 6:44-45, 6:65-66
/ Acts, 6:8-7.60 csp 7:51; 13:48— (D) Acts,
6:8-7.59 csp 7:51; 13:48 / Romans, 8:28-11:36
/ Ephesians, 1:4-2:10; 4:1-7 / Philippians,
2:12-13 / // Timothy, 1:9 / Hebrews, 13-5-6
/ / Peter, 1:1-5 / Revelation, 1 1-15-1 8— (D)
Apocalypse, 11:15-18
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK VIH [130-144] 52c; BK xxiv
[522-551] 176d-177a
5 EURIPIDES- Helen [703-733] 304d-305a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 112d-113b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 321d-322d; BK x,439b
/ Critias, 479c
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK n,
CH 10 [336b25~34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 10 605d-606d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [1179*23-32]
434a / Politics, BK vn, CH 4 [1326*29-32]
530b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [167-183]
17a-b; [1090-1104] 29a; BK v [146-234] 63a-
64a; [1161-1240] 76b-77b; BK vi [43-95] 80d-
81c; [379-422] 85b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 12 118d-120b; CH 16 121d-122d; BK n, CH
14 153d-155b; BK in, CH 17 191d-192a; CH 22
195a-201a; BK iv, CH 3 224b-d; CH 5 228a-
230b;cH7232c-235a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK nf SECT 3 257a-b;
SECT ii 258a-b; BK in, SECT 11 262a-b; BK v,
SECT 8 269d-270b; BK vi, SECT 8 274b; SECT
n 274c; SECT 40-45 277d-278c; SECT 58 279d;
BK vn, SECT 8 280b; SECT 58 283c-d; SECT 68
284c-d; BK vm, SECT 17 286d; SECT 35 288b;
SECT 46-47 289b-c; SECT 51 289d-290a; BK x,
SECT 3 296d; SECT 6 297a-b; SECT 25 299c;
SECT 35 301b; BK xii, SECT 3 307b-d; SECT 5
307d-308a; SECT 11-14 308b-c
13 VIRGIL • Aeneid, BK i [254-296] llOa-llla; BK
IV i332-363) 176a-177a;BKix [123-139] 282a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus,lS9a-c/ Nicias,435b-d
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR in, CH 7 44c-45a
/ Third Ennead, TR n-ni 82c-97b passim /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 13 149b-d; TR iv,
CH 31, 175b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 14 12a-b;
BK ix, par i 61c-d / City of God, BK i, CH 8-9
133a-135a; BK iv, CH 33 206c-d; BK v, CH i-n
207d-216d; CH 21-22 226a 227a; BK vii, CH 30
261 b-d; BK ix, CH 21 296d-297a; BK x, CH
14-15 307c-308b; BK xi, CH 17 331c-d; CH 22
333d-334c; BK xn, CH i-9342b,d-348b; CH22
357c; CH 25 358b-359a; CH 27 359c-360a,c;
BK xiv, CH 27 396c-397a; BK xix, CH 12-17
517b-523a; BK xxn, CH 1-2 586b,d<588a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, REP i 14b-15b; Q 8, A 3,
ANS and REP 2-3 36b-37c; Q 13, A 8, ANS and
REP i 70d-71b; Q 15, A 3, REP 4 93b-94a; Q 19,
A 3 HOb-lllc; QQ 22-24 127c-143c; Q 63, A 7,
ANS 331c-332b; Q 96, A r, ANS and REP 2 510b-
511b; QQ 103-119 528a-608d esp QQ 103-105
528a-545b; PART i-n, Q 9, A 6 662a-d; Q 10,
A 4 665d-666a,c; Q 19, A 4 705b-c; Q 21, A 4,
REP 2 719d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
AA 1-2 208b-209d; Q 93 215b,d-220d passim;
PART ii-n, Q i, A 7, ANS 385c-387a; Q 25, A 11,
REP 3 508d-509c; PART in, Q 61, A i, ANS
855a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vii [61-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, xvi [52-114] 77b-78a; xxi
[40-72] 85b-d; PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d;
n [112-148] 109a-b; vm [85-148] 117c-118c;
xi [28-39] 122b; xn [37-45] 124a; xx [118-138]
138a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
137-154 106b-108b / Knight's Tale [1251-1267]
180b; [1303-1333] 181b-182a; [1663-1672]
187b; [2987-3046] 209a-210a / Friar's Tale
[7064-7085] 281a-b / Franklin's Tale [11,177-
206] 353b-354a / Monk's Tale 434a-448b /
Nun's Priest's Tale [15,236-256] 456b-457a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxv, 35a~b
23 HOB BBS- Leviathan, PART i, 53d; 96b; PART 11,
113b-c; 160b-c; 163d-164a, PART iv, 254b;
271b;272b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc 11 [7-11]
68a; [230-235] 70a
28 HARVEY- On Animal Generation, 491d-492a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38a; 94b-c
/ Novum Organum, BK i, APH 93 125d-126a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv 89a-93a; vi, 99c
/ Objections and Replies, 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 7 355b; PROP 17,
COROL 1-2 and SCHOL 362b-363c; APPENDIX
369b-372d; PART n, PROP 3, SCHOL 374b-c
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xvi 66b-67a / Paradise Lost,
BK n [310-328] 118a; BK in [80-134] 137a-
138a; BK v [600-615] 188b; BK vi [171-188]
200a; BK vn [139-173] 220a-221a; BK x [1-62]
274b-275b / Samson Agonistts [667-709] 354a-
355a / Areopagitica, 394b-395b
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 205 211a; 619-641 284b-
290a; 876345a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvm, SECT 8 230a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 3
405b-c; SECT 29-33 418c-419a passim; SECT 57
423d-424a; SECT 60-66 424b-426a; SECT 93-
7d
CHAPTER 8: CAUSE
175
94 431b-c; SECT 105-109 433b-434b passim;
SECT 146-155 442a-444c passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding* SECT VH, DIV
54-57 474b-475d; SECT vm, DIV 78-81 485c-
487a; SECT xi 497b-503c passim, csp DIV 108-
109 500b-501a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 75c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-2b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 414d; BK
iv, 437d-438b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 292d-293b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 334a-335c / Judge-
ment, 594 d [fn i]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
160b; 161d-168b; 168d-170b; 182d-184d;
PART iv, 368d-369a,c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-270] 7a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 85a; 237a; 396b-397a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b; BK
vm, 303d-304b; BK ix, 342a-344b; 357b-
358b; BK x, 389a-391c; 447c-448a; 465c-467a
passim; BK xin, 563a-b; BK xv, 619d-620a;
631a-c; EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c passim, esp
646c-647b, 650b-c; EPILOGUE n, 675a-676a;
680b c; 684b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim; BK xi, 343b-c
54 FREUD- Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-b
/ New Introductory Lectures, 878a-b
id. Divine causality in the supernatural order:
grace, miracles
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 19:24-26; 21:1-8 /
Exodus, 3-12 passim, esp 3-2, 3:20; 14; 16-17 /
Numbers, 9:15-23; 11-12; 16-17; 20:1-13;
21:5-9; 22.21-34 / Joshua, 3:13-4.24; 6'i-
20; 10:12-14; 24.6-7— (D) Josue, 3:13-4 25;
6-1-20; 10:12-14; 24:6-7 / Judges, 6:36-40 /
/ Samuel, 12:17-19— (D) / Kings, 12-17-19 /
/ Kings, 17; 18:30-39— (D) HI Kings, 17;
18:30-397 II Kings, 1-6; 13:20-21; 20:1-11 —
(D) IV Kings, 1-6; 13.20-21; 20:1-11 / Nehe-
miah, 9— (Z>) II Esdras, 9 / Psalms, 78; 84 n;
85:1-3; 86:5; 103:1-5; 105; 1067-11; 130— (D)
Psalms, 77; 83:12; 84:2-4; 85:5; 102:1-5; 104;
105:7-11; 129 / Proverbs, 3-1-4,21-26 / Isaiah,
38; 44:22; 557-(Z>) Isaias, 38; 44:22; 55.7
/Jeremiah, 33:1-14— (D) Jeremias, 33:1-14 /
Daniel, 3:1-4:3; 5-6; 9:9— (Z)) Daniel, 3:1-
23,91-100; 5-6; 9:9 / Joel, 2:30-31 / Jonah—
(D) Jonas / Micah, 7:18-20— (D) Micheas,
7:18-20 / Zechariah, 12:10— (D) Zachanas,
12-10
APOCRYPHA: Song of Three Children — (D) OT,
Daniel, 3:24-90 / Bel and Dragon, 28-42— (D)
OT, Daniel, 14:27-42 / II Maccabees, i -18-22;
2:10— (D) OT, UMachabees, 1:18-22; 2:10
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8-9; 12:22-29;
14:13-36; 15:22-39; 17:1-8; 20:29-34 / Marl^
1:20-34,40-44; 2:3-12; 4:34-41; 5; 6:34-56;
7:24-8:26; 9:2-10,17-30; 10:46-52; 13:24-26
^(D) Mar)(, 1:29-34,40-44; 2:3-12; 4:34-40;
51 6:34-56"! 7:24-8:26; 9:1-9,16-29; 10:46-52;
13:24-26 / Lu%e, 1:5-66; 4:31-5:26; 7:1-16;
8:22-56; 9:12-17,28-42; 11:14-26; 13:11-17;
14:1-6; 17:11-19; 18:35-43— (D) Lu^e, 1:5-66;
4:31-5:26; 7:1-16; 8:22-56; 9:12-17,28-43;
11:14-26; 13:11-17; 14:1-6; 17:11-19; 18:35-43
/ John, 1:14-17; 2:1-11; 4:46-54; 11:1-45 /
Acts, 2:1-22; 3:1-16; 4:33; 5:12-16; 9:36-43;
14:8-10; 19:11-12; 20:7-12; 28:1-10— (D)Acts,
2:1-22; 3:1-16; 4:33; 5:12-16; 936-43; 14:7-
9; 19:11-12; 20 7-12; 28:1-10 / Romans, 1:3-5;
3:19-7.25; ii // Cormthians, 3:1-15; 15:9-10 /
// Corinthians, 4:15; 8-9 passim; 12:1-10 /
Galatians, 5 14 / Ephesians, i :i-i i / Philippians,
2:12-13; 4-13 / // Thessalomans, 2:16-17— (D)
II Thessalonians, 2:15-16 / II Timothy, 2:1 /
Titus, 2:11-15; 3:3-9 / Hebrews, 2:9; 12:14-29
/ James, 4 :6 / / Peter, 5 15
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 191d-192b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 5-6 2b-c;
BK n, par 15 12b-c; BK vi, par 4 36a-b / City of
God, BK x, CH 8 303a-d; CH 12-18 306d-310d;
BK xni, CH 3-5 361a-362c; CH 7 362d-363b;
CH 14-15 366b-d; CH 20 370c-371a; BK xin,
CH 23-BK xiv, CH i 372a-377a; BK xiv, CH
26-27, 396b-397a; BK XV,CH 1-3 397b,d-399c,
BK xvi, CH 26 438c-439a; CH 37 444b-445a;
BK xvni, CH ii 477c-d; BK xxi, CH 5-8 563d-
568d, CH 15-16 572c~574a; BK xxn, CH 5-10
589a-599b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH i
624b,d
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 2,
REP i lld-12c; Q 8, A 3, ANS and REP 4 36b-
37c; Q 12, A 2 51c-52c; AA 4-5 53b-55b; A 13
61c-62b; Q 62 317c-325b; Q 89, A i, REP 3
473b-475a; A 2, REP 3 475a-d; A 8, REP 2
479c-480c; Q 92, A 4, ANS 491b-d; o 95 506b-
510a; Q 104, A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q 105, AA 6-8
543b-545b; Q 106, A 3, ANS 547c-548b; Q 108,
A 8, ANS and REP 1-2 561a-562a; Q no, A 4
567c-568b; Q 113, A i, REP 2 576a-d; Q 114,
A 4 584a-585a; Q 119, A i, ANS 604c-607b;
PART i-n, Q 5, A 6, REP 2 641a-642a; Q 10, A 4,
REP 2 665d-666a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 4 15a-d; Q 55, A 4, ANS and REP 6 28c-29d;
Q 58, A 3, REP 3 43b-44a; Q 62, A i 60a-d;
Q 63, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 64b-65a; Q 65, A 3,
ANS 72d-73d; Q 66, A 2, REP i 76c-77c; Q 76,
A 2, REP 2 141d-142c; Q 79, A 3, ANS 158a-d;
Q 81, A 3, REP 3 165d-166b; A 4 166b-167a;
Q 85, A 6, ANS 182d-184a; Q 98, A i, ANS 239b-
240c; Q 106, A i, ANS and REP 1,3 321a-322a;
QQ 109-114 338a-378a,c esp Q 113, A 10 369c-
370b; PART n-ii, Q 24, A 3, REP i 491a-d; PART
in, QQ 7-8 745c-763b; Q 61, A r, REP 2 855a-d;
Q 62 858b-864c; PART in SUPPL, Q 75, A 3 938a-
939d; Q 83, A 3 978c-980d; Q 92, A i 1025c-
1032b
21 DANTB: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [16-
120] 115b-116b; xni [52-87] 126a-b; xx
[79-138] 137c-138a; xxix [58-66] 150d-151a;
XXXH [40-87] 155a-c; XXXH [i39]-xxxiii [145]
156a-157d
176
THE GREAT IDEAS
8
(7. The causality of God or the gods. Id. Divine
causality in the supernatural order; grace,
miracles.)
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Man of Law 236b-255b esp
[4869-4924] 242b-243b, [5247-5253] 249b /
Prioress's Tale [13,418-620] 392a-395b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 83c; 88c-89a;
PART n, 137b-c; 149c-d; 160b-c; PART in,
165d-167b; 172a-177c passim; 183d-187a;
188a-191a; 241c-242a; PART iv, 249b-250a;
264a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 212a-d; 267d-268a;
273a b; 294a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 19b-c;
33c-d, 41b-c / New Atlantis, 201d-203c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 125d-
126a
32 MILTON '.Paradise LOJ/,BK n [1024-1033] 133b;
BK in [56-415] 136b-144b csp [130-134] 138a,
[167-184] 139a~b, [227-238] 140b; BK xi [1-21]
299a~b; [251-262] 304b-305a; BK xn [173-222]
323a-324a / Samson Agomstes [356-372] 347b;
[652-666] 353b-354a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, la-14a; 19a-26b;
29b; 154b-159a / Pensees, 202 211a; 430-435
245a-251a; 458 254a; 505 261a-b, 508-511
261b; 513-517 262a-263b; 520-524 263b-264a;
643-644 290b-291b; 803-856 328b-341b, 876
345a; 88 1 345b
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi,
SFCT 13 371a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 62-63
425a-c; SECT 84 429b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54 474b-c, SECT x 488d-497b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 180b-c; 189b-191a;
206b-d; 295b-296b; 465d-467a; 605b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 227d-228a; 232a-c;
398b399b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 238b
44 Bosw ELL- Johnson, 126b-c; 359a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 307a-
b; PARI iv, 338b-c; 348d-349a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 219b-220a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, lla-
b; BK v, 127b-137c passim; BK vii, 171a-177b;
189d-190a
}. The operation of causes in the process of
history
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 21d-22a; BK ix,
291b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 354d-
355a; BK iv, 462a-b
7 PLATO: Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws, BK in,
663d-666d; BK iv, 679a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v 502a-519d passim
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [449-482]
6c-7a
12 AURBLIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b; BK vii, SECT i 279b; SECT 49 282d;
BK ix, SECT 28 293d-294a; BK x, SECT 27 299d
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid 103a-379a csp BK i [254-296]
HOa Ilia, BK vi [713-853] 230a-234a
14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 107c / Timoleon, 201a-
203b
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK in, 49c; BK vi, 91b-d /
Histories, BK i, 190a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, PREF 129a-d,
CH 36 149c-d; BK n, CH 2-3 150c-151c; BK iv,
CH 33 206c-d, BK v, CH i 207d-208c, CH 11-26
216c-230a,c; BK xi, CH i 322b,d-323a; CH 18
331d-332a; BK xiv, CH 28-BK xv, CH i 397a-
398c; BK xv, CH 21-22 415b-416c; BK xvm,
CH 1-2 472b,d-473d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, xvi [52-114] 77b-78a;
PARADISE, vi [28-111] 113d-114d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xiv, 21b; CH xxv
35a-36b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 464b-465c passim
26 SHAKESPEARE' Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc in
[215-224] 590d
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 34c
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 505 261a-b; 619-641 284b-
290a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 121a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU' Spirit of Laws, BK vin, 56b-
57c; BK xvn 122a-125a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Pall, 456d-457a,c;
609b-c;630b,d-634a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline 0/^Ftf//,451c-453a,c; 590a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3, 33c
43 MILL- Representative Government, 327b,d-332d
passim, esp 331b-332d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 115
42b-c; PART in, par 340-360 110b-114a,c esp
par 342 llOc-d, par 347 lllb-c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 155c; 156d-170b; 173a-175c;
190b-201a,c esp 190b-d, 194b-196a; 203a-
206a,c; PART i, 235d-237a; 258b-d, PART n,
262c-263d; 274a-275a; 281d-282d; 283c-
284a,c; PART in, 300a-301c; PART iv, 337d-
342a
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 323a-b; 327a-328d
50 MARX- Capital, 7b; 8a-lld passim; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-
417a,c; 419b,d-425b passim; 428b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; 430b-432c; 447c-448c; BK
xi, 469a-472b; BK xin, 563a-575a; BK xiv,
588a-590c; 609a-613d; BK xv, 618b-621b;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE n 675a-
696d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c
54 FREUD: War and Death, 761a-c / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 781a-782d; 787a-788d;
791b-d; 799a-802a,c esp 801d-802a,c / New
Introductory Lectures, 834b-c; 882b-884c
.CHAPTER 8: CAUSE 177
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The consideration of cause in relation to principle and clement, sec ELEMENT a; PRINCIPLE la.
The distinction between necessary and contingent causes, and for the conception of chance
in relation to cause, see CHANCE xa-ib; NATURE 3c~3c(i); NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY
3a-3c.
The issue concerning determinism in nature or history, see FATE 5-6; HISTORY 43(1);
MECHANICS 4c(i); NATURE 2f, 3c(2).
Other discussions of the controversy concerning causality and free will, and of the problem
of man's freedom in relation to God's will, see FATE 2, 4; HISTORY 43(1); LIBERTY 4a~4b,
53, 5d; WILL 5a(3)~5a(4)> 5^), 5C> ?c-
The theory of divine causality in creation, providence, and the performance of miracles, see
ASTRONOMY 8d; GOD 53, 73-76; MATTER 3d; NATURE 3c(4); WORLD 40, 4d^e.
The role of ends or final causes in the order of nature and the structure of the universe, sec
DESIRE i ; GOD 5b; NATURE 3c(3); WORLD ic, 6c; and for the general theory of means and
ends, see GOOD AND EVIL 40, 5c; JUDGMENT 3; PRUDENCE 33, 4b; WILL ac(2)-2c(3).
The discussion of cause as an object of knowledge and in relation to the methods and aims of
philosophy, science, and history, see ASTRONOMY 3a~3b; DEFINITION 2d; HISTORY 3b;
KNOWLEDGE 53(3); MECHANICS 2c; PHYSICS 2b; REASONING 5b(4)~5b(5); SCIENCE ib(i),
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Gieat Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups;
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas,
I. II.
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK in, CH 1-16, SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK HI,
64-83, 88-98 CH 1-20
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART i, 28 . Against the Physicists, BK i (Concerning Cause
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART n, CH 9 and the Passive)
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART in, PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (B,G,I)
SECT n-iv, xv MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART i,
BERKELEY. Sins CH 69; PART n, CH 48
KANT. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural DUNS SCOTUS. Tractatus de Prtmo Pnncipio (A
Science, DIV in Tract Concerning the First Principle)
GIBBON. An Essay on the Study of Literature, XLVIII- BRUNO. De la causa, principio, e uno
LV, LXXVIII-LXXXII SUAREZ. Disputatwncs Mctaphysicac, xi (3), xn-
HEGEL. Science of Logic, VOL i, BK n, SECT i, CH 3; xxvn,xxix,xxxi(8-io), xxxiv(6-7), XLVIII (i)
SECT HI, CH 3(fl) ; VOL II, SECT II, CH 3 JOHN OP SAINT THOMAS. CuTSUS PhlloSOphlCUS Tho-
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK in, CH 4-6, 9-10, misticus, Philosophia Naturalis PART i, QQ 10-13,
15, 21 25-26
. An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's BOYLE. A Disquisition About the Final Causes of
Philosophy, CH 16 Natural Things
FREUD. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, CH 12 MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la veritc, BK vi(n),
W. JAMES. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 12-13 CH 3J Edaircissement 15
178
THE GREAT IDEAS
MALEBRANCHE. Dialogues on Metaphysics and Reli-
gion, VII
LEIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, xv-xxii
. New Essays Concerning Human Understanding,
BK 11, CH 26
VOLTAIRE. Candtde
. "Change or Generation of Events/' "Final
Causes," in A Philosophical Dictionary
T. REID, Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, i
SCHOPENHAUER. On the Fourfold Root of the Princi-
ple of Sufficient Reason
, The World as Will and Idea, VOL HI, SUP, CH
26; APPENDIX
BROWN. An Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and
Effect
. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind,
VOL i, pp 189-220, VOL ii, pp 128-134
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, INTRO, CH i ; BK HI,
CH i
W. HAMILTON, lectures on Metaphysics and Logic,
VOL i (38-40)
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL I, BK HI, CH 1-4; BK IX, CH 6j BK X, CH $', VOL
II, BK XI, CH 7
HELMHOLTZ. Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects,
VIII
WUNDT. Die Prmzipien der mechanischen Naturlehre
JEVONS. The Principles of Science, CH 1 1
LOTZE. Logic, BK I, CH 2 (fl)
P. A. JANET. Final Causes
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL vi, par 66-87,
393-394
DOMET DE VORGES. Cause cfficiente et cause finale
WATTS. The Reign of Causality
VENN. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic, CH 2
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART i, CH 3
PEARSON. The Grammar of Science, CH 4
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, BK in, PART n,
CH 2
. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 6
BOSANQUET. Science and Philosophy, 8
BERGSON. Creative Evolution
BROAD. Perception, Physics, and Reality, CH 1-2
HENDERSON. The Order of Nature
W. E. JOHNSON. Logic, PART HI, CH 3-1 1
MEYERSON. Identity and Reality, CH i
. De F explication dans les sciences
DUCASSE. Causation and the Types of Necessity
WHITEHEAD. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
Natural Knowledge, CH 16
. Symbolism, Its Meaning and Effects
EDDINGTON. The Nature of the Physical World,
CH 14
McTAGGART. The Nature of Existence, CH 24-26
SANTAYANA. The Realm of Matter, CH 7
M. R. COHEN. Reason and Nature, BK i, CH 4(2) ;
BK II, CH 2
LENZEN. The Nature of Physical Theory, PART iv,
CH 16
WEYL. The Open World, LECT n
MARITAIN. A Preface to Metaphysics, LECT V-VH
A. J. TOYNBFE A Study of History
PLANCK Where Is Science Going?, CH 4-5
. The Philosophy of Physics, CH 2
DEWFY, Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 22
B. RUSSELL. Principles of Mathematics, CH 55
. Our Knowledge of the External World, vin
. Mysticism and Logic, en 9
. The Analysis of Matter, CH 30-31, 35
. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits,
PART IV, CH 9~IO; PART VI, CH 5~6
Chapter 9: CHANCE
INTRODUCTION
ONE sense in which we use the word
"chance" does not exclude the operation
of causes. The chance event, in this sense, is
not uncaused. But within this meaning of
chance, there is the question oihow the chance
event is caused.
On one view, what happens by chance is dis-
tinguished from what happens by nature in
terms of a difference in manner of causation—
the difference between the contingent and the
necessary. On another view, the chance event
does not differ causally from that which hap-
pens regularly or uniformly. The difference lies
not in the pattern of causes, but in our knowl-
edge of them. The chance event is unpredict-
able or less predictable because of our ignorance
of its causes, not because of any real contingency
in the order of nature.
There is still a third sense of "chance" in
which it means that which happens totally
without cause — the absolutely spontaneous or
fortuitous.
These three meanings of chance at once in-
dicate the basic issues in which the concept is
involved. The third meaning is the most radi-
cal. It stands in opposition to the other two.
Their opposition to one another can be con-
sidered after we examine the sense in which
chance excludes every type of cause.
THE DOCTRINE OF absolute fortuitousness is
indetermmism in its most extreme form. The
familiar phrase, "a fortuitous concourse of
atoms,'* indicates the classical statement of
this doctrine, and identifies it in the great books
with the theory of atomism. It would be more
precise to say "with Lucretius' version of that
theory," because it is with regard to chance
that he departs from the teachings of Democ-
ritus and Epicurus, and adds an hypothesis of
his own.
The swerve of the atoms, according to Lu-
cretius, accounts for the origin of the world,
the motions of nature, and the free will of man.
But nothing accounts for the swerve of the
atoms. It is uncaused, spontaneous, fortuitous.
"When the atoms are being carried downwards
straight through the void by their own weight,
they push a little from their path at times quite
undetermined and at undetermined places,
yet only just so much as you would call a
change of trend. If they did not swerve, all
things would fall downward through the deep
void like drops of rain, nor could collision come
to be, nor blows be brought to pass among the
atoms; thus nature would never have brought
anything to being."
Since the atoms differ in shape, size, and
weight, it might be supposed that the heavier
atoms, falling straight yet more rapidly, would
overtake and hit the lighter atoms, thus bring-
ing about their grouping or interlocking. But
this supposition, says Lucretius, is contrary to
reason. It may hold for things falling through
water or thin air, but through the empty void
"all things, even of unequal weight, move with
an equal velocity through the unresisting void."
Therefore heavier things will never be able to
fall on the lighter from above nor of themselves
bring about the blows sufficient to produce the
varied motions by which nature carries things
on. Wherefore, Lucretius concludes, the atoms
"must swerve a little."
Once the atoms have collided, the way in
which they are locked together in the patterns
of composite things, and all the subsequent mo-
tions of these things, can be accounted for by
reference to the natural properties of the atoms.
The atomic sizes, shapes, and weights determine
how they behave singly or in combination. But
the swerve of the atoms is not so determined.
It is completely spontaneous.
179
180
THE GREAT IDEAS
"If each motion is always due to another, and
the new always springs from the old in a deter-
mined order, and if the atoms do not by swerv-
ing break through the decree* of fate, so that
cause does not follow cause through infinite
time"; whence, asks Lucretius, "is it wrested
from fate, this will whereby we move forward
where pleasure leads each one of us, and swerve
likewise in our motions, neither at a fixed time
nor at a fixed place, but only when and where
the mind itself has prompted us?" The answer
he gives is that there must be "in the atoms . . .
another cause of motion besides blows and
weights, whence comes this power born in us,
since we see that nothing can come to be from
nothing."
BEING ABSOLUTELY fortuitous, the swerve of
the atoms is absolutely unintelligible. There is
no answer to the question why they chance to
swerve at undetermined times and places. This
unintelhgibility may not, however, make the
fortuitous either unreal or impossible. It can
be argued that chance may exist even though,
for our limited understanding, it remains mys-
terious.
The same problem of intelligibility arises
with respect to that meaning of chance wherein
it is identified with coincidence or contingency.
Here, as in the case of the absolutely fortuitous,
chance belongs to reality or nature. "Some
things always come to pass in the same way, and
others for the most part," writes Aristotle as an
observer of nature, but there is also "a third
class of events besides these two— events which
all say are 'by chance.' " Things of this last
kind, he goes on to say, are those which "come
to pass incidentally"— or accidentally.
According to this theory, a real or objective
indeterminism exists. Chance or contingency is
not just an expression of human uncertainty
born of insufficient knowledge. Contingency,
however, differs from the fortuitousness or
spontaneity of the atom's swerve, in that it is
a product of causes, not their total absence.
Of the contingent event, "there is no definite
cause," in Aristotle's opinion, but there is "a
chance cause, />., an indefinite one."
In the chance happening, two lines of action
coincide and thereby produce a single result.
This is our ordinary understanding of the way
accidents happen. The chance meeting of old
friends who run across each other in a railroad
station after a separation of many years is a
coincidence — a coinciding of the two quite
separate and independent lines of action which
brought each of them to the same station at
the same time, coming from different places,
going to different places, and proceeding un-
der the influence of different causes or pur-
poses. That each is there can be explained by
the operation of causes. That both are there
together cannot be explained by the causes
determining their independent paths.
So understood, the chance event exemplifies
what Aquinas calls a "clashing of two causes."
And what makes it a matter of chance is the
fact that "the clashing of these two causes, in-
asmuch as it is accidental, has no cause." Pre-
cisely because it is accidental, "this clashing of
causes is not to be reduced to a further pre-ex-
isting cause from which it follows of necessity."
The illustration is not affected by considera-
tions of free will. Whether men have free will
or not, whether free acts are caused or are, as
Kant suggests, uncaused and spontaneous, the
event we call a "chance meeting" remains acci-
dental or, more precisely, a coincidence. What-
ever the factors are which control the motions
of each man, they operate entirely within that
single man's line of action. Prior to the meeting,
they do not influence the other man's conduct.
If we could state the cause for the coincidence
of the two lines of motion, it would have to be
some factor which influenced both lines. Were
there such a cause and were it known to us, we
could not say that the meeting happened by
chance. It would still be a coincidence in the
merely physical sense of coming together, but
it would not be a coincidence causally.
That free will is irrelevant to this meaning of
chance can be seen from the fact that the col-
lision of particles which produces atomic fission
is regarded as resulting from chance or coinci-
dence in a manner no different from the acci-
dental meeting of friends. Causes control the
speeds and directions of the colliding particles,
but no cause determines their collision > or, in
other words, there is no cause for the coinci-
dence of two separate lines of causation. Con-
temporary physics affirms a real or objective
indeterminism insofar as it does not merely say
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE
181
that the cause of the coincidence is unknown
to us, but rather holds that no such cause exists
to be known.
THE CONCEPTION OF THE chance event as an
uncaused coincidence of causes is an ancient as
well as a modern doctrine. In his Physics^ Aris-
totle distinguishes between what happens by
nature and what happens by chance in terms of
different types of causality. "Chance," he
writes, is "reckoned among causes; many things
are said both to be and to come to be as a result
of chance." But the fact that its effects cannot
be "identified with any of the things that come
to pass by necessity and always, or for the most
part" at once distinguishes the causality of
chance from that of nature.
"The early physicists," Aristotle observes,
"found no place for chance among the causes
which they recognized . . . Others there are
who, indeed, believe that chance is a cause, but
that it is inscrutable to human intelligence, as
being a divine thmgand full of mystery." But to
Aristotle himself "it is clear that chance is an
incidental cause" and "that the causes of what
comes to pass by chance are infinite." For this
reason, he explains, "chance is supposed to be-
long to the class of the indefinite, and to be in-
scrutable to man." Though he distinguishes be-
tween spontaneity and chance, he says that both
"are causes of effects which, though they might
result from intelligence or nature, have in fact
been caused by something incidentally."
What happens by nature happens regularly,
or for the most part, through causal necessity.
This necessity results from the operation of es-
sential causes, causes in the very nature of the
moving things. When the regularity fails, it is
due to the intervention of some accidental
cause. What happens by chance, then, or con-
tingently, is always due to an accidental (or
better, incidental) cause. As indicated in the
chapter on CAUSE, an accidental as opposed to
an essential cause is, in Aristotle's theory, one
which does not by itself 'produce the given effect.
It does so only through the conjunction of other
causes. But since it does not determine these
other causes to operate, the effect — contingent
on their combined activity — is produced by
chance, that is, by the contingency of several
incidental causes working coincidentally.
A world in which chance really exists is re-
markably different from a world in which neces-
sity prevails, in which everything is determined
by causes and there are no uncaused coinci-
dences. William James vividly epitomizes their
difference by calling the world of absolute ne-
cessity or determinism— the world of Spinoza
or Hegel— a "block universe" in contrast to
what he describes as a "concatenated universe.**
Voltaire before him, in his Philosophical Dic-
tionary, had used the phrase "the concatenation
of events" to express the meaning of chance.
The phrase evokes the right image, the pic-
ture of a world in which many concurrent lines
of causality, exercising no influence upon one
another, may nevertheless concatenate or be
joined together to produce a chance result.
The block universe presents the contrasting pic-
ture of a world in which each motion or act de-
termines and is determined by every other in
the fixed structure of the whole.
Spinoza claims, for example, that "in nature
there is nothing contingent, but all things are
determined from the necessity of the divine
nature to exist and act in a certain manner.**
Chance, in other words, does not exist in nature.
A thing is said to be contingent, Spinoza writes,
only "with reference to a deficiency in our
knowledge. For if we do not know that the es-
sence of a thing involves a contradiction, or if
we actually know that it involves no contra-
diction, and nevertheless we can affirm nothing
with certainty about its existence because the
order of causes is concealed from us, that thing
can never appear to us either as necessary or
impossible, and therefore we call it either con-
tingent or possible." Hence, for Spinoza, con-
tingency or chance is illusory rather than real
— a projection of the mind's ignorance or of its
inadequate knowledge of causes.
The issue between real indeterminism and
absolute determinism—further discussed in the
chapters on FATE and NECESSITY AND CON-
TINGENCY—inevitably raises theological ques-
tions. Just as the theologian must reconcile
man's free will with God's predestination, so
must he, if he accepts its reality, also reconcile
chance with divine providence, apart from
which nothing can happen either necessarily
or contingently.
For Augustine it would seem that divine
182
THE GREAT IDEAS
providence leaves no room for chance among
natural things. After noting that causes are
sometimes divided into a "fortuitous cause, a
natural cause, and a voluntary cause/' he dis-
misses "those causes which are called fortui-
tous" by saying that they "are not a mere name
for the absence of causes, but are only latent,
and we attribute them either to the will of the
true God, or to that of spirits of some kind or
other/'
In certain places Aquinas seems to talk in
much the same fashion— as though chance
existed only for our limited intellects and not
for God. "Nothing," he declares, "hinders
certain things from happening by luck or
chance, if compared to their proximate causes;
but not if compared to divine providence, ac-
cording to which 'nothing happens at random
in the world/ as Augustine says." The example
he uses to illustrate his point is that of two serv-
ants who have been sent by their master to the
same place: "the meeting of the two servants,
although to them it appears a chance circum-
stance, has been fully foreseen by their master,
who has purposely sent them to meet at one
place, in such a way that one has no knowledge
of the other." In such a way also "all things
must of necessity come under God's ordering,"
from which it follows that God directly causes
the action of even accidental causes, and their
coincidence* The chance event would then be
necessitated by God. It would be determined
by His will, however indeterminate it might ap-
pear to us.
Yet in other places Aquinas writes that "God
wills some things to be done necessarily, some
contingently .... To some effects He has at-
tached unfailing necessary causes, from which
the effects follow necessarily; but to other
defectiblc and contingent causes, from which
effects arise contingently." For some minds
this may only deepen the mystery rather than
solve it. At least it leaves many questions un-
answered.
Docs Aquinas mean that a coincidence of
causes is not itself uncaused ? Does he mean that
God causes the concatenation of events, and
that a sufficient reason for every contingency
exists in God's will? If so, is chance an illusion,
a function of our ignorance of divine provi-
dence? May chance be quite real on the level of
nature where no natural causes determine the
coincidence, while not real— at least not in the
same sense—for God ? Or does the statement
that what "divine providence plans to happen
contingently, happens contingently" mean that
chance remains a real feature of the universe
even for God ?
One thing is clear. In one sense of the word,
the Christian theologians completely deny
chance. If "chance" means something which
God does not foresee, something unplanned
by His providence, then according to their
faith nothing happens by chance. It is in this
sense also that what happens by chance is
opposed to what happens on purpose, or has a
final as well as an efficient cause. As the chapter
on CAUSE indicates, those who deny final causes
in nature sometimes use the word "chance" to
signify not lack of cause, nor even contingency,
but only the blindness of causality— working
to no end.
The controversy discussed in the chapter on
WORLD— between those who see in the struc-
ture of the universe the grand design of a di-
vine plan and those who attribute whatever
order there is in nature to blind chance— further
indicates the sense in which theologians like Au-
gustine and Aquinas deny chance. But if
"chance" means no more than contingency, then
to affirm chance excludes, not providence, but
fate, at least that sense of "fate" according to
which everything is blindly necessitated. Here
it is Spinoza's statement that "in nature there
is nothing contingent, but all things are de-
termined from the necessity of the divine na-
ture" which opposes the statement of Aqui-
nas that "the mode both of necessity and con-
tingency falls under the foresight of God."
THE THEORY OF chance has obvious bearings on
the theory of knowledge, especially with regard
to the distinction between knowledge and opin-
ion and between certainty and probability.
On any view of chance— whether it is real or
illusory— 'iyhen men call a future event con-
tingent they mean that they cannot predict it
with certitude. So far as human prediction goes,
it makes no difference whether the future event
is necessarily determined and we lack adequate
knowledge of its causes, or the event has a gen-
uine indeterminacy in the way it is caused or
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE
183
uncaused. Regardless of what the objective
situation is, the assurance with which we pre-
dict anything reflects the state of our knowl-
edge about it.
The ancients who, for the most part, regard
chance as real and objective, treat probability
as subjective. For them, the different degrees of
probability which men attach to their state-
ments measure the inadequacy of their knowl-
edge and the consequent uncertainty of their
opinions about matters which cannot be known
but only guessed. Holding different theories
of the distinction between knowledge and
opinion, both Plato and Aristotle exclude the
accidental and the contingent, along with the
particular, from the objects of science. Since in
their view certitude belongs to the essence of
science — or of knowledge as contrasted with
opinion— science for them deals not only with
the universal but with the necessary.
In the Republic Socrates assigns opinion to
the realm of becoming— the realm of changing
and contingent particulars. Unlike Plato, Aris-
totle does not restrict knowledge to the realm of
eternal and immutable being, but he does in-
sist that physics, as a science of changing things,
preserve the certitude of science by concerning
itself only with the essential and the necessary.
"That a science of the accidental is not even
possible," he writes, "will be evident if we try
to see what the accidental really is." It is a mat-
ter of chance that cold weather occurs during the
dog-days, for "this occurs neither always and
of necessity, nor for the most part, though it
might happen sometimes. The accidental, then,
is what occurs, but not always nor of necessity,
nor for the most part. Now ... it is obvious
why there is no science of such a thing."
Though he disagrees with Aristotle and
Aquinas about the reality of chance or con-
tingency, Spinoza agrees with them that knowl-
edge—at least adequate knowledge — has the
necessary for its object. Of individual things,
he says, "we can have no adequate knowledge
. . . and this is what is to be understood by us as
their contingency." To be true to itself and to
the nature of things, reason must "perceive
things truly, that is to say, as they are in them-
selves, that is to say, not as contingent but as
necessary."
The position of Aquinas is worth stating for
comparison. To the question "whether our
intellect can know contingent things," he re-
plies that "the contingent, considered as such>
is known directly by sense and indirectly by
the intellect, while the universal and necessary
principles of contingent things are known by
the intellect. Hence," he goes on, "if we con-
sider knowable things in their universal prin-
ciples, then all science is of necessary things.
But if we consider the things themselves, thus
some sciences are of necessary things, some of
contingent things."
Among the sciences of contingent things,
Aquinas includes not only "the sciences of na-
ture" but also "the moral sciences," because the
latter, dealing with human action, must reach
down to contingent particulars. In the sphere
of morals as of nature, certainty can be achieved
only on the level of universal principles. De-
liberation about particular acts to be done
moves on the level of probable opinion. In con-
trast to the moral scientist, the man of action
must weigh chances and make decisions with
regard to future contingencies. It would be as
foolish, Aristotle says, to expect the certitude
of scientific demonstration from an orator or a
judge, as "to accept probable reasoning from a
mathematician."
IT is NOT SURPRISING that the modern theory of
probability — or, as it was later called by Boole,
Venn, and others, the "logic of chance" —
should have its origin in the sphere of practical
problems. Pascal's correspondence with Fermat
illustrates the early mathematical speculations
concerning formulae for predicting the out-
come in games of pure chance. For Pascal the
logic of chance also has moral implications. If
we are willing to risk money at the gaming
table on the basis of calculated probabilities,
how much more willing should we be to act
decisively in the face of life's uncertainties,
even to risking life itself on the chance of eternal
salvation.
When we act "on an uncertainty, we act
reasonably," Pascal writes, "for we ought to
work for an uncertainty according to the doc-
trine of chance." If the chance of there being
an after-life is equal to the chance of there
being none — if the equiprobability reflects our
equal ignorance of either alternative — then,
184
THE GREAT IDEAS
Pascal argues, we ought to wager in favor of
immortality and act accordingly. "There is
here the infinity of an infinitely happy life to
gain, a chance to gam against a finite number of
chances of loss, and what you stake is finite."
Like Pascal, Hume thinks that we must be
content with probability as a basis for action.
"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the ex-
cessive principles of skepticism," he writes, "is
action, and employment, and the occupations
of common life." But unlike the ancients,
Hume also thinks we should be content with
probabilities in the sphere of the natural sci-
ences. Certitude is attainable only by the
mathematician who deals with the relations be-
tween ideas. Since the natural sciences deal
with matters of fact or real existence, and since
to know such things we must rely entirely upon
our experience of cause and effect, we cannot
reach better than probable conclusions.
The scientist, according to Hume, "weighs
opposite experiments. He considers which side
is supported by the greater number of experi-
ments; to that side he inclines, with doubt and
hesitation; and when at last he fixes his judg-
ment, the evidence exceeds not what we prop-
erly call probability. All probability, then, sup-
poses an opposition of experiments and observa-
tions ... A hundred instances or experiments
on one side, and fifty on another, afford a
doubtful expectation of any event; though a
hundred uniform experiments, with only one
that is contradictory, reasonably beget a pretty
strong degree of assurance."
Hume applies the logic of chance to weighing
the evidence against and the testimony in
favor of miracles, as well as to contrary hy-
potheses in science. As much as Spinoza, he
denies the existence of chance or contingency
in the order of nature. Chance is entirely sub-
jective. It is identical with the probability of
our opinions. In the throw of dice, the mind, he
says, "considers the turning up of each particu-
lar side as alike probable; and this is the very
nature of chance, to render all the particular
events, comprehended in it, entirely equal."
But there may also be "a probability, which
arises from a superiority of chances on any side;
and according as this superiority increases, and
surpasses the opposite chances, the probability
receives a proportionate increase . . . The case,"
Hume asserts, "is the same with the probability
of causes, as with that of chance."
Since Hume's day, the theory of probability
has become an essential ingredient of empirical
science. The development of thermodynamics
in the I9th century would have been impossible
without it. This is also true of the quantum
mechanics and atomic physics of our own time.
But like the doctrine of chance, the theory of
probability tends in one of two directions:
either toward the subjective view that proba-
bility is only a quality of our judgments, meas-
uring the degree of our ignorance of the real
causes which leave nothing in nature unde-
termined; or toward the objective view that
there is genuine indetermmism in nature and
that mathematical calculations of probability
estimate the real chance of an event's occurring.
THE ELEMENT OF chance also has a bearing on
the general theory of art. The hypothesis of the
melody which a kitten might compose by walk-
ing on the keyboard, is obviously intended to
contrast a product of chance with a work of
art. The competent musician knows with
certainty that he can do what the meandering
kitten has only one chance in many millions
of ever accomplishing.
In proportion as an art is developed, and to
the degree that its rules represent a mastery of
the medium in which the artist works, chance
is excluded from its productions. This point is
strikingly exemplified in the history of medi-
cine. "If there had been no such thing as medi-
cine," Hippocrates suggests, "and if nothing
had been investigated or found out in it," all
practitioners "would have been equally un-
skilled and ignorant of it, and everything con-
cerning the sick would have been directed
by chance." On the same principle, Galen dis-
tinguishes the physician from the empiric, who,
"without knowing the cause," pretends that he
is "able to rectify the failures of function."
The empiric works by trial and error — the very
opposite of art and science, for trial and error
can succeed only by chance. The physician,
learned and skilled in medicine, works from a
knowledge of causes and by rules of art which
tend to eliminate chance.
Augustine reports a conversation with the
proconsul concerning the relative merits of
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE
medicine and astrology. When the proconsul
tells him that, as compared with medicine,
astrology is a false art, Augustine* at this time
himself "much given to the books of the horo-
scope-casters," asks how the fact that "many
things were foretold truly by [astrology]" can be
explained. The proconsul "answered, very rea-
sonably, that it was due to the force of chance,
which is always to be allowed for in the order of
things." Thus, Augustine says later, "I saw it
as obvious that such things as happened to be
said truly from the casting of horoscopes were
true not by skill but by chance; and such things
as were false were not due to want of skill m the
art but merely that luck had fallen the other
way."
Neither art itself, nor skill in its practice,
can ever be perfect enough to remove chance
entirely, for the artist deals with particulars.
Yet the measure of an art is the certainty which
its rules have as directions for achieving the de-
sired result; and the skill of the artist is meas-
ured by the extent to which he succeeds by
rule and judgment rather than by chance.
When Aristotle quotes Agathon's remark that
"art loves chance and chance loves art," he ex-
plains its sense to be that "chance and art are
concerned with the same objects"— that which
docs not come to be by nature nor from neces-
sity. Hence art sometimes fails, either from un-
controllable contingencies or from insufficient
knowledge of causes. "All causes," says Hume,
"are not conjoined to their usual effects with
like uniformity. An artificer, who handles only
dead matter, may be disappointed of his aim, as
well as the politician, who directs the conduct
of sensible and intelligent agents."
IN THE REALM OF human affairs— in morals,
politics, and history— the factor of chance is
usually discussed in terms of good and bad for-
tune. The word "fortune" — as may be seen in
the root which it shares with "fortuitous"—
has the same connotations as "chance." Aris-
totle treats fortune as the kind of chance that
operates in the sphere of human action rather
than natural change. Fortune, he thinks, can
be attributed properly only to intelligent be-
ings capable of deliberate choice. The sense of
this distinction between chance and fortune
seems to be borne out in history by the fact
that fortune, unlike chance* receives persdnin>
cation in myth and legend. Fortune is a goddess
or, like the Fates whom she combats, a 'power
with which even the gods must reckon.
The doctrine of chance or fortune occupies
an important place in moral theory. Aristotle's
classification of goods tends to identify external
goods with goods of fortune — the goods which,
unlike knowledge and virtue, we cannot ob-
tain merely by the exercise of our will and
faculties. Considering the elements of happi-
ness, Aquinas groups together wealth, honor,
fame, and power as goods of the same sort be-
cause they are "due to external causes and in
most cases to fortune."
The goods of fortune, as well as its ills, con-
sist in things beyond man's power to command
and, in consequence, to deserve. Recognizing
the unpredictable operation of fortune, Epicte-
tus, the Stoic, argues that "we must make the
best of those things that are in our power, and
take the rest as nature gives it." We have "the
power to deal rightly with our own impres-
sions." Hence the Stoics advise us to control our
reactions to things even though we cannot con-
trol the things themselves. Yet men will always
ask, as Hamlet does, "Whether 'tis nobler in
the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of out-
rageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of
troubles, and by opposing end them?"
The fact that the goods and ills of fortune arc
beyond our power to control raises the fur-
ther question of man's responsibility regarding
them. We can hardly be held responsible for
everything that happens to us, but only for
those things which are subject to our will.
This traditional moral distinction between the
good or evil which befalls us by fortune and
that which we willfully obtain or accomplish,
parallels the legal distinction between acciden-
tal and intentional wrongdoing.
What is true of the individual life seems to
apply to history— the life of states and the de-
velopment of civilization generally. For the
most part, the historians— Herodotus and
Thucydides, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Gibbon-
find fortune a useful principle of interpretation,
To Machiavelli history seems to be so full of
accidents and contingencies — "great changes in
affairs . . . beyond all human conjecture" —
that he tries to advise the prince how to make
186 THE GREAT IDEAS
use of fortune in order to avoid being ruined by shall not be obliged to have recourse to chance
it. Such advice can be followed because, in his for an explanation of those small events which
opinion, "Fortune is the arbiter of one half of made these people what they were, but it will
our actions, but still leaves us to direct the be clear that all those small events were inevi-
other half, or perhaps a little less." table."
Hegel, on the contrary, does not admit chance As the contingent is opposed to the neces-
or fortune in his view of world history as a sary, as that which happens by chance is op-
"necessary development out of the concept of posed to that which is fully determined by
the mind's freedom alone." For Tolstoy also, causes, so fortune is opposed to fate or destiny,
either necessity or freedom rules the affairs of This opposition is most evident in the great
men. Chance, he writes, does "not denote any poems, especially the tragedies, which depict
really existing thing," but only "a certain stage man's efforts to direct his own destiny, now
of understanding of phenomena." Once we pitting his freedom against both fate and for-
succeed in calculating the composition of forces tune, now courting fortune in his struggle
involved in the mass movements of men, "we against fate. t
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1 . The conception of chance 1 87
la. Chance as the coincidence of causes
\b. Chance as the absolutely fortuitous, the spontaneous or uncaused
2. The issue concerning the existence of chance or fortune 188
2a. The relation of chance to causality: philosophical or scientific determinism
2^. The relation of chance to fate, providence, and predestination
3. Chance, necessity, and design or purpose in the origin and structure of the world 189
4. Cause and chance in relation to knowledge and opinion: the theory of probability
5. The control of chance or contingency by art
6. Chance and fortune in human affairs: the mythology of Fortune 190
6a. Chance and fortune in the life of the individual
6£. Chance and fortune in politics and history 191
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE 187
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page •
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER- Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES -Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The conception of chance REP i 531b-532b; A 7, REP 2 533b-d; Q 115,
A 6, ANS and REP 3 591d-592d; Q 116, A i
la. Chance as the coincidence of causes 592d-593d
7 PLATO- Timaeus, 455a-b 23 HOBBI&S: leviathan, PART iv, 272b
8 ARISTOILE: Interpretation, CH 9 [i8b5~9] 28c / 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, DEP 1-3 395d-
Prtor Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [^2b4-i4] 48b-c / 396a
Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH n [95*3-9] 129d/ 35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vi 469d-
Toptcs, BK n, CH 6 [ii2bi-2i] 157d-158a; BK 470d passim; SECT vm, DIV 67 480c 481a
in, CH i [n6bi-7J 162d-163a / Physics, BK n, 42 KANT, Judgement, 566a-b
CH 4-6 272c-275a; CH 8 275d-277b / Heavens, 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK i, CH 12 [283a3o-b6] 375a-c; BK n, CH 5 BK xm, 584d-585b
[287^2-26! 379b; CH 8 [289^2-28] 381b; BK 53 JAMES- Psychology, 71a; 91a-92a; 765b; 857b-
iv, CH 3 [310*23-31] 401d / Metaphysics, BK v, 858a passim
CH 30 [1025*13-29] 547a-c; BK vi, CH 2-3
548c-549d; BK xi, CH 8 593a-d; BK xn, CH 3 **• Chance as the absolutely fortuitous, the
[1070*4-9] 599b / Memory and Reminiscence, spontaneous oruncaused
CH 2 [452*3o-b6] 694b 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 4 lipfft^-fy]
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i 272d-273a; CH 6 [198*5-14] 275a
[640*12-33] 162b-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1022-
[i369*3i-b5] 612c-d 1029] 13c-d; BK n [184-293] 17b-18d esp [284-
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b 293] 18c-d; [1048-1066] 28b-c; BK v [181-194]
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16, 150c 63b-c; [416-431] 66c-d
/ Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH 10, 347c-d 17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BKIV, par4-620a-d; 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK iv, CH 18 197c-
BK VH, par 8-10 45d-47a passim 198a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 22, 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 16,
A 2, REP i 128d-130d; Q 47, A i, ANS 256a- A i, REP 2 94b-95c; Q 22, A 2, ANS 128d-130d;
257b; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 103, A 5, Q 47, A i, ANS 256a-257b
188
THE GREAT IDEAS
2 to Ib
(1. Tb* conception of chance. Ib. Chance as the
absolutely fortuitous, the spontaneous or
uncaused.)
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 132d-133a; 140b,d-143a
/ Practical Reason, 331c-332a / Judgement,
566a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 454b-c
2. The issue concerning the existence of chance
or fortune
2a. The relation of chance to causality: philo-
sophical or scientific determinism
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 438c-439a / Timaeus,
455c-456a; 465d-466a / Statesman, 587a~589c
csp 587a-b / Laws, BK x, 759d-765d
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 9 28a-29d /
Posterior Analytics, BK 11, CH n [95*3-9] 129d/
Physics, BK n, CH 4-5 272c-274b; CH 8 [199*33-
bi6] 276c-277a / Heavens, BK n, CH 5 [287*22-
26] 379b; CH 8 [28942-28] 381b; BK iv, CH 3
[310*23-31] 401 d / Generation and Corruption,
BK n, CH 6 [333*35~b2o] 434b-c / Metaphysics,
BK v, CH 30 547a-d; BK vi, CH 2 [1027*8-18]
549b; CH 3 549c-d; BK xi, CH 8 [io65*6-b4J
593b-d; BK XH, CH 3 [1070*4-9] 599b /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [452*30-^6]
694b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640*1 2-b4] 162b-163a / Ethics, BK HI, CH 3
[1112*30-33] 358b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10
[1369*31-%] 612c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [184-307]
17b-19a; [1048-1066] 28b-c; BK v [55-58] 61d;
[181-194] 63b-c; [306-310] 65a; [416-431] 66c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vn, SLCT i 279b;
SECT 49 282d; BK ix, SECT 28 293d-294a,
SECT 35-36 294d-295a; SECT 39 295a; BK x,
SECT 27 299d
17 PLOTINUS : Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 78d; CH 3
79b-c; TR n, CH i, 82c / Fourth Ennead, TR HI,
CH 16 150c-d; TR iv, CH 33 176b-d / Sixth
Ennead, TR vm, CH 9-10 347a-348a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, REP i 86d-88c; Q 19, A 8 116a-d; Q 22,
A 2, REP i 128d-130d; A 4 131c-132b; Q 103, A
5, REP i 531b-532b; A 7, REP 2 533b-d; Q 115,
A 6 591d-592d; Q 116, A i 592d-593d; A 3
594c-595a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 113b-c; PART iv,
272b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412c-413a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 45b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 7 355b; AXIOM 3
355d; PROP 16 362a; PROP 21-23 364a-365a;
PROP 26-29 365b-366c; PROP 33-36 367b-
369 b; PART n, PROP 31, COROL 385c; PROP 44
389b-390a; PART HI, 395a-d; PROP 2, SCHOL
396d-398b; PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a; DEP
3-4 424*; APPENDIX, vi 447c-d; PART v, PROP
6, DBMONST 454a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 542a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vi, DIV 46,
469d; DIV 47, 470b; SECT vm 478b-487a pas-
sim, csp DIV 67 480c-481a, DIV 74 484a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 397a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 72c-85d esp 74b-76c;
91d-92c; 132d-133a; 140b,d-143a; 153a; 171a-
172c; 184b-c / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of
Morals, 285c-d / Practical Reason, 331c-333a /
Judgement, 558b-c; 564a-c; 566a-b; 587a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 342
HOc-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157b-
158a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick,, 159a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 37c-d; 65a /
Descent of Man, 593d
50 MARX: Capital, lOb-llb
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; BK xi, 469a-472b; EPILOGUE
i, 646c-650c esp 646c-647b; EPILOGUE n 675a-
696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 71a; 90b-93a esp 91a-92a;
377b; 387b-388a; 765b; 823a-825a passim
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 454b-c; 486c-
487a / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 660c
2b. The relation of chance to fate, providence,
and predestination
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 1633 / Jonah, i i-io
— (D) Jonas, 1:1-10
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 6:44-45, 64-65 — (D)
John, 6:44-45,65-66 / Acts, 1:15-26; 13-48 /
Romans, 8:28-11:36 esp 8 28-30, 9.15, 10.13-
14, 11:5 / Ephesians, 1:4-2:10
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xxiv [522-551] 176d-177a
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [507-520]
45a-b
5 SOPHOCLES: Trachiniae [95-140] 171a-b /
Philoctetes [169-200] 183d-184a
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [712-720] 304d-305a /
Heracles Mad [60-8 1] 365c-d
7 PLATO. Laws, BK iv, 679a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 4 [i96b5~7] 273a
/ Metaphysics, BK XII,CH 10 [1075*11-24] 605d-
606a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [i099b8-24]
345a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 12 118d-120b; CH 16 121d-122d; BK in, CH
17 191d-192a; BK iv, CH 3 224b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b;
SECT ii 258a-b; BK in, SECT n 262a-b; BK iv,
SECT 3, 263c; BK ix, SECT 28 293d- 294a; BK
XH, SECT 14 308c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [194-209] 108a-b; [595-
624] 119b-120a; BK XH [631-649] 370b-371a
14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 107c
15 TACITUS: Annuls, BK vi, 91b-d / Histories, BK
i, 194a-c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 1-2 82c-
83d; TR HI, CH 2 93d / Fourth Ennead, TR in,
CH 1 6 i50c-d
3/o 5
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE
189
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH i 207d-
208c; CH 9 213b-215c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 14,
A 13 86d-88c; Q 15, A i, ANS 91b-92a; Q 16,
A i, REP 2 94b-95c; Q 19, A 8 116a-d; Q 22,
A 2, REP i 128d-130d; A 4 131c-132b; Q 47,
A i, ANS 256a-257b; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-
298a; Q 86, A 4, ANS 463d-464d; Q 103, A 5,
REP i 531b-532b; A 7, REP 2 533b-d; Q 116,
A i 592d-593d; A 3 594c-59Sa; PART I-H,
Q 10, A 4 665d-666a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [49-99]
lOa-c; PARADISE, viii [91-148! 117d-118c; xm
[52-87] 126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK in, STANZA
89 66a; BK w, STANZA 138-154 106b-108b;
BK V, STANZA 221 149a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxv, 35a b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 149d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 514d-515a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in (80-134] 137a-
138a; BK vn [170-173] 220b-221a, BK x [613-
640] 287b-288b / Samson Agomstes [667-709]
354a-355a / Areopagitica, 394b-395b
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 205 21 la
35 BFRKELEY. Human Knowledge, SECT 93 431b
37 FIELDING Tom Jones, 75c-d
38 MONILSQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-b
42 KANT. Practical Reason, 334a-335c / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn i]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 343
HOd-llla / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
159b; 169d-170b; PART in, 300c-301c
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 593d
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; 447c-448c; EPILOGUE i,
646c-650c esp 646c-647b; EPILOGUE 11 675a-
696d
3. Chance, necessity, and design or purpose in
the origin and structure of the world
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 450b-c / Phikbus, 618b-619c
/ Laws, BK x, 760a-765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK 11, CH 4 [i96825-b4]
272d-273a; CH 6 [198*5-13] 275a / Metaphys-
ics, BK i, CH 3 [984^-22] 502d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[64^13-24] 164c
12 LUCRETIUS' Nature of Things, BK i [1008-
1051] 13c-14a; BK n [167-183] 17a-b; [1048-
1066] 28b-c; BK v [146-194] 63a-c; [416-508]
66c-67c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 27 266a;
BK VI, SECT 10 274b-C
17 PLOTINUS • Second Ennead, TR in, CH 7 44c-45a
/ Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 15,
A i, ANS 91b-92a; Q 19, A 4, ANS lllc-112c;
Q 22, A 2, ANS and REP 3 128d-130d; A 4 131c-
132b; Q 47, A i, ANS 256a-257b; Q 103, A i
528b-529a; A 7, REP 2 533 bd
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 33 367b-369a;
APPENDIX 369b-372d
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a / Optics, BK in, 541b-542b
42 KANT: Judgement, 558b-559d; 560d-562a,c;
562d-567b; 568c-570b; 575b-588a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; 158c-159b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 5a
4. Cause and chance in relation to knowledge
and opinion: the theory of probability
7 PLATO: Meno, 189c / Crtto, 214a
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 9 28a-29d /
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32b4-23] 48b-d /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2 [7ib8-i6] 97d-
98a; CH 6 102b-103c; CH 30 119d; CH 33
[88b3 0-89*10] 121b-c / Metaphysics, BK vi, CH
2 548c-549c; BK vn, CH 15 [io39b3i-i04o*8]
563d-564a; BK ix, CH 10 [io5ib6-i7] 577d;
BK xi, CH 8 593a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [1094^2-27]
339d-340a; BK in, CH 3 [ni2*i9-bi2] 358a-c;
BK vi, CH 3 [ii39bi8-24] 388b-c; CH 5 389a-c
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [1357*14-39] 596d-
597a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c /
Sixth Ennead, TR vin, CH 10 347c-348a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, ANS and REP 3 86d-88c; Q 16, A i, REP 2
94b-9Sc; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 79, A 9,
REP 3 422b-423d; Q 86, AA 3-4 463b-464d;
Q 116, A i, ANs592d-593d
23 HOB BBS- Leviathan, PART iv, 272b
31 DESCARTES Rules, 11 2a-3b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 29-30 384d-
385c; PROP 44 389b-390a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 23^-241 213b-217b / Arith-
metical Triangle, 460a-468b / Correspondence
with Permat, 474a-477b; 479b-486a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 70 197a-b, BKIV, CHIII, SECT I4316b-d;
SECT 29 322c 323a; CH vi, SECT 5-16 332b-
336d passim; CH xv-xvi 365a-371c; CH xvn,
SECT2371d-372b
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT vi 469d-
470d; SECT x, DIV 86-91 488d-491c passim, csp
DIV 87 489b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 228c-d / Fund. Pnn.
Metaphysic of Morals, 285c-d / Judgement,
603d 604b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 65a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 188a-190c;
BK ix, 365a-c; BK x, 441b-d; BK xni, 584c-
585b; EPILOGUE i, 646c-647b; EPILOGUE n,
694d-695c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 851b csp [fn i]
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 454b-c
5. The control of chance or contingency by art
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Gorgias, 253a /
Laws, BK iv, 679a-c; BK x, 760a-b
190
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 6a
(5. The control of cbanct or contingency by art.)
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK 11, CH n
[95*3-9] 129d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980**
25-98 1*5] 499b; BK xn, CH 3 [1070*4-9] 599b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640*25-33] 162d / Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99bi8-
24] 345a-b; BK n, CH 4 [1105*18-26] 350d; BK
in, CH 3 [ni2*i9-bi2] 358a-c; BK vi, CH 4
[1140*10-23) 388d-389a / Politics, BK i, CH n
[125^35-36] 453b; BK n, CH n [i273bi7~24]
470b; BK vn, CH 13 [1332*28-32] 537a / Rhet-
oric, BK i, CH i [1354*1-11] 593a; CH 5 [i36ib
39-1362*4] 602c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par i la-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK xn [391-440] 364b-
365b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 57,
A 3, ANS 297b-298a; PART I-H, Q 14, A 4, ANS
679b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xm [52-
84] 126a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 52c-53c; 377a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT in, sc iv [29-
66] 340c-d
30 BACON Advancement of Learning, 50c-51d;
56b-57b; 85c-86c; 90b-91a / Novum Organum,
BK i, APH 8 107c-d; APH 82, 121a; APH 108-
109 128d-129c; BK n, APH 31 159d-161a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
67 480c-481a
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 452a-b
47 OORTHE: Faust, PRELUDE [134-157] 4a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 183b-184a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 188a-190c;
BK ix, 359a-365c; BK x, 425b-426a; 441b-
442c; 445d-448c; 456a-459d esp 458c-459d;
BK xi, 471c-472b; 505a-507a csp 505d-506a,
507a; BK xm, 563c-575aesp 563c-564d, 570d-
572a, 573c-575a; 582a-587d esp 584c-585b;
BK xiv, 609a-613d; BK xv, 618b-621b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 673a-b
6. Chance and fortune in human affairs: the
mythology of Fortune
6a. Chance and fortune in the life of the indi-
vidual
OLD TESTAMENT: Ecclesiastes, 9:11
4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d esp BK xxiv [522-551]
176d-177a
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [909-1076] 24d-26d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[1522-1530] 113c / Antigone [1155-1171] 140d-
141a / Trachiniae [1-48] 170a-c; [293-306]
172c-d; [932-946] 178b / Philoctetes [500-506]
186c
5 EURIPIDES: Heracleidae 248a-257a,c esp [853-
866] 2S5d / Suppliants [263-270] 260c; [549-
557] 263a / Trojan Women 270a-281a,c esp
[1200-1206] 280a-b / Heracles Af^36Sa-377d
csp (474-49^1 369a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7b-8a; 46c; BK
in, 91d-92b; 98a-99a; 116a-b; BK vir, 225b-d;
252b-c
6THucYDiDBs: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
398c-d
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Republic, BK x,
439b-440c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 5 [197*25-32]
274a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK j, CH 9-10 345a-346c;
BK vn, CH 13 [ii53bi4~24] 405a / Politics, BK
vn, CH i [1323^2-36] 527c-d / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 5 [1361^39-1362*11] 602c-d; CH 10 [i368b
33-1369*7] 612a-b; [i369*3i-b5] 612c-d; BK
n, CH 12 [i388b3i-i389*i] 636a; CH 15-17
638a-639a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b;
SECT 17 259b-d; BK in, SECT 4 260b 261a;
SECT lo-n 261d-262b; BK iv, SECT 26 265d;
SECT 33-36 266c-d; SECT 44 267b; SECT 49
268a-c; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; SECT 24
272c; SECT 27 272d; BK vi, SECT n 274c;
SECT 20 276a; SECT 39 277d; SECT 58 279d;
BK vn, SECT 8 280b; SECT 34 282a; SECT 54
283b; SECT 57-58 283c-d; SECT 68 284c-d;
SECT 75 285c, BK vin, SECT 17 286d; SECT 32
287d-288a; SECT 35 288b; SECT 44-47 289a-c;
SECT 51 289d-290a; BK ix, SECT 28 293d-
294a; BK x, SECT 3 296d; SECT 5-6 296d-297b;
SECT 25 299c; SECT 33 300c-301a; SECT 35
301b; BK xn, SECT 3 307b-d; SECT 11-14
308bc
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [194-209] 108a-b; [595-
624] 119b-120a; BK xn [391-440] 364b-365b;
[631-649] 370b-371a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74c-75c / Sulla,
370c-371b / Sertorius, 457b,d-458b / Pompey,
535c-d / Demetrius, 739c-740d; 744b-c
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK vi, 91b-d / Histories, BK
iv, 281a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR in, CH 10 46a-b
/ Third Ennead, TR ii-m 82c-97b passim /
Fourth Ennead, TR HI, CH 16 150c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 4-6 20a-d;
BK vn, par 8-10 45d-47a / City of God, BK iv,
CH 18-19 197c-198b
21 DANTE' Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [49-99]
lOa-c; xv [22-99] 21b-22a; PARADISE, vin
[94-148] 118a-c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
120-122 16b-17a; BK n, STANZA 40-42 26b-
27a; BK in, STANZA 89 66a; BK iv, STANZA 41
94a; STANZA 55-56 95b-96a / Words of the Host
[12,226-231] 371a / Tale of Mehbeus, par 42
419a-b / Monf(s Tfl^434a-448b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxv 35a-36b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 79b-80d; 81b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
144d-156c; 158b-178a; 204c-215c; BK iv, 258c-
259d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 26d-28a; 52c-53c; lOOa-
lOlc; 169c-170a; 302b-306a passim; 312d-
CHAPTER 9: CHANCE
191
314b; 318a-319b; 393b-394a; 451d-452d;
484b-d; 489b-490c; 506d-508a; 514d-515a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors 149a-169d
csp ACT i, sc i [29-159] 149b-150d / Merchant
of Venice, ACT n, sc i [23-46] 411d-412a /
Henry V, ACT in, sc vi [21-40] 547d-548a /
Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n [135-141] 570d; ACT
iv, sc HI [218-224] 590d / As You Like It, ACT
i, sc n [29-60] 599b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc iv [23-37]
36a-b; ACT HI, sc n [68-79] 49c-d; [210-223]
51b / Troilus and Cressida, ACT i, sc in [1-54]
108a-c; ACT in, sc m [74-174] 123b-124b /
AlTs Well That Ends Well, ACT v, sc n [1-36]
169a-c / King Lear, ACT n, sc n [162-180]
257d-258a; ACT iv, sc i [1-9] 269b-c / Antony
and Cleopatra, ACT iv, sc xn [19-30] 341 b-c /
Ttmon of Athens, ACT i, sc i [63-94] 394b-c;
ACT iv, sc in [3-18] 410c-d / Sonnets, xxv
590a;cxi603b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 76d-77a
32 MILTON On Timel2a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vui, DIV
67-70 480c-482c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 194b-195a; 202b-
208b
37 FIELDING Tom Jones, 15d; 32a-d; 275d-276a;
283a-b;310b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 44d-47b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 347b-c /
Utilitarianism, 452d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 311a-b
48 MELVILLE Moby Dic{, 158b-159a; 237a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 188a-190c;
BK v, 221b-d; EPILOGUE i, 646c-650c; EPI-
LOGUE n, 688a-696d passim
6b, Chance and fortune in politics and history
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [909-1076] 24d-26d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 2b; BK vn, 225b-d;
252b-c
6 THUCYDIDBS: Pelopormesian War, BK i, 368d-
369a; BK iv, 451a-c; 462a-b; BK v, 506a-c; BK
vu, 560a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 366a-c / Laws, BK iv,
679a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH n [i273bi7-24]
470b; BK vu, CH 13 [1332*28-32] 537a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-495] 115a-116b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 18d / Camtllus, I07b-c;
109c-110a / Timoleon 195a-213d esp 196b,
203b, 205b-c / Aemihus Paulus, 225a-c /
Philopoemen, 300b-c / Phoaon, 604b,d-605d /
Demosthenes, 698b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK m, 49b-c; BK vi, 91b-d
/ Histories, BK iv, 281a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK V,CH i 207d-208c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [49-99]
lOa-c; PARADISE, xvi [73-87] 131a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
20 3b; BK v, STANZA 221 149a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vi, 8c-9b; CH vn,
lOa-c; CH xxi, 32d; CH xxiv-xxv, 34d-36b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 52c-53c; 136b-139b;
451d-452d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc m
[215-224] 590d(
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
70, 481d-482a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 609b-c; 615a; 630b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 590a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 323-
324 107a-d; par 340 llOb-c; par 345 lllb /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b-c; PART in,
300c-301c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,849-872] 264a~b
50 MARX: Capital, 378b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 359a-365c;
BK x, 389a-391c; 447c-448c; 449a; 456a-4S9d
csp 458c-459d; BK xi, 505a-507a csp 505d-
506a, 507a; EPILOGUE i, 646c-650c; EPILOGUE
n, 688a-696d passim
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the issue of determinism and chance, see FATE 3, 5-6; HISTORY 43(1);
NATURE 30-30(1); NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 33-30; and for the relation of chance to
free will, sec LIBERTY 43; WILL 53(3), 50.
The general theory of cause and its bearing on the concept of chance, see CAUSE i-ib, ^d~6;
NATURE 30(3).
The theological problems of chance in relation to fate, providence, and predestination, see
CAUSE 70-70; FATE 4; GOD 70.
Other discussions of the theory of probability, see JUDGMENT 6c; KNOWLEDGE 4b, 6d(i)-
6d(3); NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 43; OPINION i, 3b; SCIENCE 46; TRUTH 4d.
Discussions bearing on the rektion of art to chance, see ART i, 2a; and for the role of chance
in the sphere of prudence, see PRUDENCE 43-4^ 53.
The theory of the goods of fortune, see GOOD AND EVIL 4d; HAPPINESS 2b(i); VIRTUE AND
VICE 6~c; WEALTH loa.
192
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Of Fortune," "Of the Tranquillity of
the Mind," in Moralia
F. BACON. "Of Fortune," in Essays
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART in,
SECT XI-XIII
KAN r. Introduction to Logic, x
J. S, MILL. A System of Logic, BK in, CH 17-18
FREUD. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, CH 12
W. JAMES. "The Dilemma of Determinism," in
The Will to Believe
. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 9-13
II.
BOETHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK n,
iv-v
SUA*REZ, Disputationes Metaphysicae, xix (12)
J. BUTLER. The Analogy of Religion, INTRO
VOLTAIRE. "Change or Generation of Events,"
"Necessary-Necessity," "Power-Omnipotence,"
in A Philosophical Dictionary
SCHOPENHAUER. On the Fourfold Root of the Princi-
ple of Sufficient Reason
LAPLACE. A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities
DE MORGAN. An Essay on Probabilities
COURNOT. Exposition de la theone des chances et des
probability
BOOLE. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, CH
16-18, 21
TODHUNTER. History of the Mathematical Theory of
Probability
VENN. The Logic of Chance
WHITWORTH Choice and Chance
BOUTROUX. The Contingency of the Laws of Nature
JEVONS. The Principles of Science, CH 10-12
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, Terminal Essays,
VIII
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL n, par 645-754;
VOL vi, par 35-65
T. HARDY. Life's Little Ironies
PL ARSON. The Chances of Death
MEYERSON. Identity and Reality, CH 9
POINCARE". Science and Hypothesis, PART iv, CH n
. Science and Method, BK i, CH 4
HENDERSON. The Fitness of the Environment
N. R. CAMPBELL. Physics; the Elements, CH 7
W. E. JOHNSON. Logic, PART in, CH 2
J. M. KEYNES. A Treatise on Probability, PART i-n,
iv-v
G. N. LEWIS. The Anatomy of Science, ESSAY vi
DEWLY. The Quest for Certainty, CH i
HEISENBERG. The Physical Principles of the Quantum
Theory
NAGEL. On the Logic of Measurement
M. R. COHEN. Reason and Nature, BK i, CH 3(4)
MARITAIN. A Preface to Metaphysics, LECT vn
RLICHENBACH. Theory of Probability
SANFAYANA. The Realm of Truth, CH n
VON NEUMANN and MORGENSTERN. Theory of Games
and Economic Behavior
JEFFREYS. Theory of Probability
B. RUSSELL. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and
Limits, PART v
Chapter 10: CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
FROM the pre-Socratic physicists and the
ancient philosophers to Darwin, Marx, and
James — and, in our own day, Dewey and White-
head— the fact of change has been a major focus
of speculative and scientific inquiry.
Except by Parmenides and his school, the
existence of change has never been denied. Nor
can it be without rejecting all sense-perception
as illusory, which is precisely what Zeno's para-
doxes seem to do, according to one interpreta-
tion of them. But if argument cannot refute
the testimony of the senses, neither can reason-
ing support it. The fact of change, because it
is evident to the senses, does not need proof.
That change is, is evident, but what change is,
is neither evident nor easy to define. What prin-
ciples or factors are common to every sort of
change, how change or becoming is related to
permanence or being, what sort of existence be-
longs to mutable things and to change itself—
these are questions to which answers are not
obtainable merely by observation. Nor will
simple observation, without the aid of experi-
ment, measurement, and mathematical calcu-
lation, discover the laws and properties of mo-
tion.
The analysis of change or motion has been a
problem for the philosophers of nature. They
have been concerned with the definition of
change, its relation to being, the classification
of the kinds of change. The measurement of
motion, on the other hand, and the mathemat-
ical formulation of its laws have occupied the
experimental natural scientists. Both natural
philosophy and natural science share a common
subject matter, though they approach it by dif-
ferent methods and with different interests.
Both are entitled to use the name "physics"
for their subject matter.
The Greek word phiisis from which "phys-
ics" comes has, as its Latin equivalent, the word
natura from which "nature" comes. In, their
original significance, both words had reference
to the sensible world of changing things, or to
its underlying principle-— to the ultimate source
of change. The physics of the philosopher and
the physics of the empirical scientist are alike
inquiries concerning the nature of things, not in
every respect but in regard to their change and
motion. The conclusions of both inqumes have
metaphysical implications for the nature of the
physical world and for the character of physi-
cal existence.
The philosopher draws these implications for
being from the study of becoming. The scien-
tist, in turn, draws upon philosophical dis-
tinctions in order to define the objects of his
study. Galileo, for example, in separating the
problem of freely falling bodies from the
motion of projectiles, employs the traditional
philosophical distinction between natural and
violent motion. The analysis of time and space
(basic variables in Newtonian mechanics), the
distinction between discontinuous and contin-
uous change, and the problem of the divisibility
of a continuous motion— these are philosoph-
ical considerations pre-supposed by the scien-
tific measurement of motion.
WE HAVE so FAR used the words "change" and
"motion," as well as "becoming," as if all three
were interchangeable in meaning. That is
somewhat inaccurate, even for the ancients
who regarded all kinds of change except one
as motions; it is much less accurate for the
moderns who have tended to restrict the mean-
ing of "motion" to local motion or change of
place. It is necessary, therefore, to examine
briefly the kinds of change and to indicate the
problems which arise with these distinctions.
In his physical treatises, Aristotle distin-
guishes four kinds of change. "When the change
193
194
THE GREAT IDEAS
from contrary to contrary is in quantity" he
writes, "it is 'growth and diminution'; when
it is in place, it is 'motion'; when it is ... #i
quality, it is 'alteration'; but when nothing per-
sists of which the resultant is a property (or an
'accident' in any sense of the term), it is 'com-
ing to be,' and the converse change is 'passing
away.' " Aristotle also uses other pairs of words
—"generation" and "corruption," "becom-
ing" and "perishing"— to name the last kind of
change.
Of the four kinds of change, only the last is
not called "motion." But in the context of
saying that "becoming cannot be a motion,"
Aristotle also remarks that "every motion is a
kind of change." He does not restrict the mean-
ing of motion to change in place, which is usu-
'ally called "local motion" or "locomotion."
There are, then, according to Aristotle's vocab-
ulary, three kinds of motion: (i) local motion,
in which bodies change from place to place;
(2) alteration or qualitative motion, in which
bodies change with respect to such attributes
as color, texture, or temperature; (3) increase
and decrease, or quantitative motion, in which
bodies change in size. And, in addition, there
is the one kind of change which is not motion —
generation and corruption. This consists in the
coming to be or passing away of a body which,
while it has being, exists as an individual sub-
stance of a certain sort.
Becoming and perishing are most readily ex-
emplified by the birth and death of living
things, but Aristotle also includes the transfor-
mation of water into ice or vapor as examples of
generation and corruption. One distinctive
characteristic of generation and corruption,
in Aristotle's conception of this type of change,
is their instantaneity. He thinks that the other
three kinds of change are continuous processes,
taking time, whereas things come into being
or pass away instantaneously. Aristotle thus
applies the word "motion" only to the con-
tinuous changes which time can measure. He
never says that time is the measure of change,
but only of motion.
But the contrast between the one mode of
change which is not motion and the three kinds
of motion involves more than this difference
with regard to time and continuity. Aristotle's
analysis considers the subject of change— that
which undergoes transformation — and the
starting-point and goal of motion. "Every mo-
tion," he says, "proceeds from something and
to something, that which is directly in motion
being distinct from that to which it is in mo-
tion and that from which it is in motion; for in-
stance, we may take the three things 'wood,'
'hot,' and 'cold,' of which the first is that which
is in motion, the second is that which to which
the motion proceeds, and the third is that from
which it proceeds."
In the alteration which occurs when the
wood changes quality, just as in the increase
or decrease which occurs with a body's change
in quantity and in the local motion which
occurs with a body's change of place, that which
changes persists throughout the change as the
same kind of substance. The wood does not
cease to be wood when it becomes hot or cold;
the stone does not cease to be a stone when it
rolls from here to there, or the organism an
animal of a certain kind when it grows in size.
In all these cases, "the substratum"— that
which is the subject of change— "persists and
changes in its own properties. . . . The body,
although persisting as the same body, is now
healthy and now ill; and the bronze is now
spherical and at another time angular, and yet
remains the same bronze."
Because the substance of the changing thing
remains the same while changing in its proper-
ties— i.e., in such attributes or accidents as
quality, quantity, and place—Aristotle groups
the three kinds of motion together as accidental
change. The changing thing does not come to be
or pass away absolutely, but only in a certain
respect. In contrast, generation and corruption
involve a change in the very substance of a
thing. "When nothing perceptible persists in
its identity as a substratum, and the thing
changes as a whole," then, according to Aris-
totle, "it is a coming-to-be of one substance,
and the passing-away of another."
In such becoming or perishing, it is matter
itself rather than a body or a substance which
is transformed. Matter takes on or loses the
form of a certain kind of substance. For exam-
ple, when the nutriment is assimilated to the
form of a living body, the bread or corn be-
comes the flesh and blood of a man. When an
animal dies, its body decomposes into the ele*
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
195
mcnts of inorganic matter. Because it is a
change of substance itself, Aristotle calls the
one kind of change which is not motion sub-
stantial change, and speaks of it as "a coming* to-
be or passing-away simply"~-that is, not in a
certain respect, but absolutely or "without
qualification."
These distinctions are involved in a long
tradition of discussion and controversy. They
cannot be affirmed or denied without opposite
sides being taken on the fundamental issues
concerning substance and accident, matter and
form, and the causes of change or motion. The
adoption or rejection of these distinctions af-
fects one's view of the difference between inor-
ganic and organic change, and the difference
between the motions of matter and the changes
which take place in mind. The statement of
certain problems is determined accordingly;
as, for example, the problem of the transmu-
tation of the elements, which persists in various
forms from the physics of the ancients through
mediaeval alchemy and the beginnings of
modern chemistry to present considerations
of radioactivity and atomic fission.
SINCE THE lyTH CENTURY, motion has been
identified with local motion. "1 can conceive
no other kind" of motion, Descartes writes,
"and do not consider that we ought to conceive
any other in nature." As it is expressed "in com-
mon parlance," motion, he says, "is nothing
more than the action by which any body passes
from one place to another"
This can hardly be taken to mean that
change of place is the only observable type of
change. That other kinds of change are ob-
servable cannot be denied. The science of
mechanics or dynamics may be primarily or ex-
clusively concerned with local motions, but
other branches of natural science, certainly
chemistry, deal with qualitative transforma-
tions; and the biological sciences study growth
and decay, birth and death.
The emphasis on local motion as the only
kind of motion, while it does not exclude ap-
parent changes of other sorts, does raise a ques-
tion about their reality. The question can be
put in several ways. Are the various apparently
different kinds of change really distinct, or can
they all be reduced to aspects of one underlying
mode of change which is local motion? Even
supposing that the kinds of change* are not re-
ducible to one another, is local motion pri-
mary in the sense that it is involved in all the
others ?
When mechanics dominates the physical
sciences (as has been so largely the case in
modern times), there is a tendency to reduce all
the observable diversity of change to various
appearances of local motion. Newton, for ex-
ample, explicitly expresses this desire to formu-
late all natural phenomena in terms of the
mechanics of moving particles. In the Preface
to the first edition of his Mathematical Princi-
ples, after recounting his success in dealing with
celestial phenomena, he says, "I wish we could
derive the rest of the phenomena of Nature by
the same kind of reasoning from mechanical
principles, for I am induced by many reasons
to suspect that they may all depend upon cer-
tain forces by which the particles of bodies, by
some causes hitherto unknown, are either mu-
tually impelled towards one another, and co-
here in regular figures, or are repelled and re-
cede from one another."
The notion that all change can be reduced to
the results of local motion is not, however, of
modern origin. Lucretius expounds the theory
of the Greek atomists that all the phenomena
of change can be explained by reference to the
local motion of indivisible particles coming to-
gether and separating. Change of place is the
only change which occurs on the level of the
ultimate physical reality. The atoms neither
come to be nor pass away, nor change in quality
or size.
But though we find the notion in ancient
atomism, it is only in modern physics that the
emphasis upon local motion tends to exclude all
other kinds of change. It is characteristic of
what James calls "the modern mechanico-
physical philosophy" to begin "by saying that
the only facts are collocations and morions of
primordial solids, and the only laws the changes
of motion which changes in collocation bring/1
James quotes Helmholtz to the effect that "the
ultimate goal of theoretic physics is to find the
last unchanging causes of the processes of Na-
ture." If, to this end, "we imagine the world
composed of elements with unalterable quali-
ties," then, Helmholtz continues, "the only
196
THE GREAT IDEAS
changes that can remain in such a world are
spatial changes, />., movements, and the only
outer relations which can modify the action of
the forces arc spatial too, or, in other words, the
forces are motor forces dependent for their ef-
fect on spatial relations."
In the history of physics, Aristotle represents
the opposite view. No one of the four kinds of
change which he distinguishes has for him
greater physical reality than the others. Just as
quality cannot be reduced to quantity, or cither
of these to place, so in his judgment the mo-
tions associated with these terms arc irreducible
to one another. Yet Aristotle does assign to lo-
cal motion a certain primacy. "Motion in its
most general and primary sense," he writes, "is
change of place, which we call locomotion." He
does not mean merely that this is the primary
sense of the word, but rather that no other
kind of motion can occur without local motion
being somehow involved in the process. Show-
ing how increase and decrease depends on alter-
ation, and how that in turn depends on change
of place, he says that "of the three kinds of
motion ... it is this last, which we call locomo-
tion, that must be primary."
THE SHIFT IN MEANING of the word "motion"
would not by itself mark a radical departure in
the theory of change, but it is accompanied by
a shift in thought which has the most radical
consequences. At the same time that motion is
identified with local motion, Descartes con-
ceives motion as something completely actual
and thoroughly intelligible. For the ancients,
becoming of any sort had both less reality and
less intelligibility than being.
Aristotle had defined motion as the actuality
of that which is potential in a respect in which
it is still potential to some degree. According
to what Descartes calls its strict as opposed to
its popular meaning, motion is "the transfer-
ence of one part of matter or one body from
1 the vicinity of those bodies that are in immedi-
ate contact with it, and which we regard as in
repose, into the vicinity of others." This defi-
nition—contrasted with the Aristotelian con-
ception which it generally supersedes in the
subsequent tradition of natural science — is as
revolutionary as the Cartesian analytical geom-
etry is by comparison with the Euclidean. Nor
is it an unconnected fact that the analytical
geometry prepares the way for the differential
calculus that is, needed to measure variable mo-
tions, their velocities, and their accelerations.
The central point on which the two defini-
tions are opposed constitutes one of the most
fundamental issues in the philosophy of nature.
Does motion involve a transition from poten-
tial to actual existence, or only the substitution
of one actual state for another — only a "trans-
portation," as Descartes says, from one place to
another?
While motion is going on, the moving thing,
according to Aristotle's definition, must be
partly potential and partly actual in the same
respect. The leaf turning red, while it is altering^
has not yet fully reddened. When it becomes
as red as it can get, it can no longer change in
that respect. Before it began to change, it was
actually green; and^since it could become red,
it was potentially red. But while the change is
in process, the potentiality of the leaf to be-
come red is being actualized. This actualization
progresses until the change is completed.
The same analysis would apply to a ball in
motion. Until it comes to rest in a given place,
its potentiality for being there is undergoing
progressive actualization. In short, motion in-
volves some departure from pure potentiality
in a given respect, and never complete attain-
ment of full actuality in that same respect.
When there is no departure from potentiality,
motion has not yet begun; when the attain-
ment of actuality is complete, the motion has
terminated.
The Aristotelian definition of motion is the
object of much ridicule in the iyth century.
Repeating the phrasing which had become tra-
ditional in the schools-— "the actualization of
what exists in potentiality, in so far as it is
potential" — Descartes asks: "Now who under-
stands these words ? And who at the same time
does not know what motion is? Will not every-
one admit that those philosophers have been
trying to find a knot in a bulrush?" Locke also
finds it meaningless. "What more exquisite
jargon could the wit of man invent than this
definition . . . which would puzzle any rational
man to whom U was not already known by its
famous absurdity, to guess what word it could
ever be supposed to be the explication of. If
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
197
Tully, asking a Dutchman what beweegmgc
was," Locke continues, "should have received
this explication in his own language, that it
was actus entts in potcntia quatcnus in potential
I ask whether any one can imagine he could
thereby have guessed what the word beweeginge
signified?"
Locke does not seem to be satisfied with any
definition of motion. "The atomists, who define
motion to be 'a passage from one place to an-
other/ what do they more than put one synon-
ymous word for another? For what is passage
other than motion ? . . . Nor will 'the successive
application of the superficies of one body to
those of another,' which the Cartesians give us,
prove a much better definition of motion, when
well examined." But though Locke rejects the
definition of the atomists and the Cartesians
on formal grounds, he accepts their idea of
motion as simply change of place; whereas he
dismisses the Aristotelian definition as sheer
absurdity and rejects the idea that motion or
change necessarily involves a potentiality capa-
ble of progressive fulfillment.
As we have already remarked, the omission
of potentiality from the conception of motion
is a theoretical shift of the deepest significance.
It occurs not only in Descartes' Principles of
Philosophy and in the atomism of Hobbes and
Gassendi, but also in the mechanics of Galileo
and Newton. According to these modern philos-
ophers and scientists, a moving body is always
actually somewhere. It occupies a different
place at every moment in a continuous motion.
The motion can be described as the successive
occupation by the body of different places at
different times. Though all the parts of the mo-
tion do not coexist, the moving particle is com-
pletely actual throughout. It loses no reality
and gains none in the course of the motion,
since the various positions the body occupies
lie totally outside its material nature. It would,
of course, be more difficult to analyze alteration
in color or biological growth in these terms, but
it must be remembered that efforts have been
made to apply such an analysis through the re-
duction of all other modes of change to local
motion.
The principle of inertia, first discerned by
Galileo, is critically relevant to the issue be-
tween these two conceptions of motion. It is
stated by Newton as the first of his "axioms or
laws of motion." "Every body," he writes,
"continues in its state of rest, or of uniform
motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed upon it."
As applied to the motion of projectiles, the
law declares that they "continue in their mo-
tions, so far as they are not retarded by the re-
sistance of air, or impelled downwards by the
force of gravity."
In his experimental reasoning concerning the
acceleration of bodies moving down inclined
planes, Galileo argues that a body which has
achieved a certain velocity on the descent
would, if it then proceeded along a horizontal
plane, continue infinitely at the same velocity
— except for the retardation of air resistance
and friction. "Any velocity once imparted to a
moving body," he maintains, "will be rigidly
maintained as long as the external causes of ac-
celeration or retardation are removed." So in
the case of projectiles, they would retain the
velocity and direction imparted to them by the
cannon, were it not for the factors of gravity
and air resistance. Bodies actually in motion
possess their motion in themselves as a complete
actuality. They need no causes acting on them
to keep them in motion, but only to change
their direction or bring them to rest.
The motion of projectiles presents a difficulty
for the theory which describes all motion as a
reduction of potency to act. "If everything that
is in motion, with the exception of things that
move themselves, is moved by something else,
how is it," Aristotle asks, "that some things,
e.g., things thrown, continue to be in motion
when their movent is no longer in contact with
them ?" This is a problem for Aristotle precisely
because he supposes that the moving cause
must act on the thing being moved throughout
the period of the motion. For the potentiality
to be progressively reduced to actuality, it
must be continuously acted upon.
Aristotle's answer postulates a series of causes
so that contact can be maintained between the
projectile and the moving cause. "The original
movent," he writes, "gives the power of being
a movent either to air or to water or to some-
thing else of the kind, naturally adapted for
imparting and undergoing motion The mo-
tion begins to cease when the motive force pro-
198
THE GREAT IDEAS
duccd in one member of the consecutive scries
is at each stage less than that possessed by the
preceding member, and it finally ceases when
one member no longer causes the next member
to be a movent but only causes it to be in mo-
tion." It follows that inertia must be denied by
those who hold that a moving body always re-
quires a mover; or even that a body cannot sus-
tain itself in motion beyond a point propor-
tionate to the quantity of the impressed force
which originally set it in motion.
FOR THE ANCIENTS, the basic contrast between
being and becoming (or between the permanent
and the changing) is a contrast between the in-
telligible and the sensible. This is most sharply
expressed in Plato's distinction between the
sensible realm of material things and the intel-
ligible realm of ideas. "What is that which al-
ways is and has no becoming," Timaeus asks;
"and what is that which is always becoming
and never is?" He answers his own question by
saying that "that which is apprehended by in-
telligence and reason is always in the same state;
but that which is conceived by opinion with
the help of sensations and without reason, is al-
ways in a process of becoming and perishing,
and never really is."
Even though Aristotle differs from Plato in
thinking that change and the changing can be
objects of scientific knowledge, he, too, holds
becoming to be less intelligible than being, pre-
cisely because change necessarily involves po-
tentiality. Yet becoming can be understood to
the extent that we can discover the principles
of its being — the unchanging principles of
change. "In pursuing the truth," Aristotle re-
marks—and this applies to the truth about
change as well as everything else — "one must
start from the things that are always in the
same state and suffer no change."
For Aristotle, change is intelligible through
the three elements of permanence which are its
principles: (i) the enduring substratum of
change, and the contraries — (2) that to which,
and (3) that from which, the change takes
place. The same principles arc sometimes stated
to be (i) matter, (2) form, and (3) privation;
the matter or substratum being that which
both lacks a certain form and has a definite po-
tentiality for possessing it. Change occurs when
the matter undergoes a transformation in which
it comes to have the form of which it was de-
prived by the possession of a contrary form.
Neither of the contrary forms changes. Only
the thing composite of matter and form changes
with respect to the forms of its matter. Hence
these principles of change are themselves un-
changing. Change takes place through, not j«,
them. As constituents of the changing thing,
they are the principles of its mutable being,
principles of its being as well as of its being
mutable.
The explanation of change by reference to
what does not change seems to be common to
all theories of becoming. Lucretius, as we have
already seen, explains the coming to be and
passing away of all other things by the motions
of atoms which neither come to be nor pass
away. The eternity of the atoms underlies the
mutability of everything else.
Yet the atoms are not completely immutable.
They move forever through the void which,
according to Lucretius, is required for their
motion. Their local motion is, moreover, an
actual property of the atoms. For them, to be
is to be tn motion. Here then, as in the Cartesian
theory, no potentiality is involved, and motion
is completely real and completely intelligible.
THE NOTIONS OF time and eternity are insep-
arable from the theory of change or motion. As
the chapters on TIME and SPACE indicate, local
motion involves the dimensions of space as well
as time, but all change requires time, and time
itself is inconceivable apart from change or mo-
tion. Furthermore, as appears in the chapters
on TIME and ETERNITY, the two fundamentally
opposed meanings of eternity differ according to
whether they imply endless change or absolute
changelessness.
Eternity is sometimes identified with infinite
time. It is in this sense that Plato, in the Ti-
maeus, refers to time as "the moving image of
eternity" and implies that time, which belongs
to the realm of ever-changing things, resembles
the eternal only through its perpetual endur-
ance. The other sense of the eternal is also im-
plied—the sense in which eternity belongs to
the realm of immutable being. The eternal in
this sense, as Montaigne points out, is not mere-
ly that "which never had beginning nor never
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
199
shall have ending,11 but rather that "to which
time can bring no mutation.*1
There are two great problems which use the
word "eternity" in these opposite senses. One
is the problem of the eternity of motion: the
question whether motion has or can have either
a beginning or an end. The other is the prob-
lem of the existence of eternal objects — im-
mutable things which have their being apart
from time and change.
The two problems are connected in ancient
thought. Aristotle, for example, argues that "it
is impossible that movement should either have
come into being or cease to be, for it must al-
ways have existed." Since "nothing is moved
at random, but there must always be something
present to move it," a cause is required to sus-
tain the endless motions of nature. This cause,
which Aristotle calls "the prime mover," must
be "something which moves without being
moved, being eternal, substance, and actual-
ity."
Aristotle's theory of a prime mover sets up a
hierarchy of causes to account for the different
kinds of motion observable in the universe. The
perfect circular motion of the heavens serves to
mediate between the prime mover which is
totally unmoved and the less regular cycles of
terrestrial change. The "constant cycle" of
movement in the stars differs from the irregular
cycle of "generation and destruction" on
earth. For the first, Aristotle asserts the neces-
sity of "something which is always moved with
an unceasing motion, which is motion in a cir-
cle." He calls this motion of the first heavenly
sphere "the simple spatial movement of the
universe" as a whole. Besides this "there are
other spatial movements— those of the planets
— which are eternal" but are "always acting in
different ways" and so are able to account for
the other cycle in nature— the irregular cycle
of generation and corruption.
In addition, a kind of changelessness is attrib-
uted to all the celestial bodies which Aristotle
calls "eternal." Eternally in motion, they are
also eternally in being. Though not immovable,
they are supposed to be incorruptible sub-
stances. They never begin to be and never
perish.
The theory of a world eternally in motion is
challenged by Jewish and Christian theologians
who affirm, as an article of their religious faith,
that "in the beginning God created heaven and
earth." The world's motions, like its existence,
have a beginning in the act of creation. Crea-
tion itself, Aquinas insists, is not change or mo-
tion of any sort, "except according to our way
of understanding. For change means that the
same thing should be different now from what
it was previously. . . . But in creation, by which
the whole substance of a thing is produced, the
same thing can be taken as different now and
before, only according to our way of under-
standing, so that a thing is understood as first
not existing at all, and afterwards as existing."
Since creation is an absolute coming to be from
non-being, no pre-existent matter is acted upon
as in generation, in artistic production, or in
any of the forms of motion.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL and theological issues con-
cerning creation and change, eternity and time,
are further discussed in the chapters on CAUSE,
ETERNITY, and WORLD. Other problems aris-
ing from the analysis of change must at least
be briefly mentioned here.
Though less radical than the difference be-
tween creation and change, the difference be-
tween the motions of inert or non-living things
and the vital activities of plants and animals
raises for any theory of change the queslf&i
whether the same principles apply to both. The
rolling stone and the running animal both move
locally, but are both motions locomotion in the
same sense ? Augmentation occurs both in the
growth of a crystal and the growth of a plant,
but are both of them growing in the same sense ?
In addition, there seems to be one kind of
change in living things which has no parallel in
the movements of inert bodies. Animals and
men learn. They acquire knowledge, form hab-
its and change them. Can change of mind be
explained in the same terms as change in mat-
ter?
The issues raised by questions of this sort are
more fully discussed in the chapters on ANIMAL,
HABIT, and LIFE. Certain other issues must be
entirely reserved for discussion elsewhere. The
special problems of local motion— such as the
properties of rectilinear and circular motion,
the distinction between uniform and variable
motion, and the uniform or variable accelera-
200
THE GREAT IDEAS
tion of the latter— are problems which belong
to the chapters on ASTRONOMY and ME-
CHANICS. Change, furthermore, is a basic fact
not only for the natural scientist, but for the
historian —the natural historian or the histori-
an of man and society. The considerations
relevant to this aspect of change receive treat-
ment in the chapters on EVOLUTION, HISTORY,
and PROGRESS.
Even these ramifications of discussion do not
exhaust the significance of change. The cyclical
course of the emotions and the alternation of
pleasure and pain have been thought inexpli-
cable without reference to change of state in re-
gard to desire and aversion — the motion from
want to satisfaction, or from possession to dep-
rivation. Change is not only a factor in the
analysis of emotion, but it is also itself an object
of man's emotional attitudes. It is both loved
and hated, sought and avoided.
According to Pascal, man tries desperately to
avoid a state of rest. He does everything he can
to keep things in flux. "Our nature consists in
motion," he writes; "complete rest is death. . . .
Nothing is so insufferable to man," he contin-
ues, "as to be completely at rest, without pas-
sions, without business, without diversion,
without study. He then feels his nothingness,
his forlornness, his dependence, his weakness,
his emptiness." Darwin does not think that the
desire for change is peculiar to man. "The lower
animals," he writes, "are . . . likewise capricious
in their affections, aversions, and sense of beau-
ty. There is also reason to suspect that they love
novelty for its own sake."
But men also wish to avoid change. The old
Prince Bolkonski, in War and Peace, "could not
comprehend how anyone could wish to alter his
life or introduce anything new into it." This is
not merely an old man's view. For the most
part, it is permanence rather than transiency,
the enduring rather than the novel, which the
poets celebrate when they express man's dis-
content with his own mutability. The with-
ering and perishing of all mortal things, the
assault of time and change upon all things fa-
miliar and loved, have moved them to elegy
over the evanescent and the ephemeral. From
Virgil's Sunt lacnmae rerum et mentem mortaha
tangunt to Shakespeare's "Love is not love
which alters when it alteration finds," the poets
have mourned the inevitability of change.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The nature and reality of change or motion
2. The unchanging principles of change
2a. The constituents of the changing thing
2#. The factor of opposites or contraries in change
3. Cause and effect in motion: the relation of mover and moved, or action and passion
4. Motion and rest: contrary motions
5. The measure of motion
50. Time or duration as the measure of motion
5#. The divisibility and continuity of motion
6. The kinds of change
6a. The reducibility of all modes of motion to one kind of change
6£. The primacy of local motion
6V. Comparison of change in living and non-living things
6V. Comparison of the motions of matter with changes in the Older of mind
PAGE
202
203
204
205
206
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE 201
PAOB
7. The analysis of local motion 207
ja. Space, place, and void
7^. Natural and violent motion
yc. Kinds of local motion 208
(1) Rectilinear and rotary or circular motion
(2) Uniform or variable motion
(3) Absolute or relative motion
(4) Terrestrial and celestial motion
yd. The properties of variable motion: the laws of motion
8. Change of size 209
80. The increase and decrease of inanimate bodies
8£. Growth in living organisms
9. Change of quality
90. Physical and chemical change: compounds and mixtures 210
9^. Biological change: vital alterations
10. Substantial change: generation and corruption
100. Substantial change in the realm of bodies: the transmutation of the elements 211
io£. Plant, animal, and human reproduction
loc. The incorruptibility of atoms, the heavenly bodies, and spiritual substances
11. The apprehension of change: by sense, by reason 212
12. Emotional aspects of change
120. Rest and motion in relation to pleasure and pain
lib. The love and hatred of change
13. The problem of the eternity of motion or change 213
14. The theory of the prime mover: the order and hierarchy of movers and moved 214
15. The immutable
150. The immutability of the objects of thought: the realm of truth
15^. The unalterability of the decrees of fate 215
15^. The immutability of God
202
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume m the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-119b,the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in ti tie of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature and reality of change or motion
7 PLATO: Cratyhs, 86b-89b; 94c-d; 99b-104b;
H2a-lUa,c/Phaedrus, 124c-126c / Symposium,
165c-166b / Phaedo, 231c-232b / Republic, BK
n, 322d-323a; BK v, 370a-373c / Timaeus,
447b-d; 455c-4S8b passim; 460c-d / Par-
menides, 504c-505c / Theaetetus, 517d-534b
csp 517d-518b, 532a-534b / Sophist, 564d-
574c / Statesman, 587a-b / Philebus, 632a-d /
Laws, BK x, 760a-765d esp 762b-765d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i84bi5-i85fti4]
259b-d; CH 4-9 262a-268d; BK in, CH 1-3
278a-280c; BK iv, CH n [2i9b9~3i] 299b-d;
BK vi, CH 6 319c-321a / Heavens, BK iv, CH 3
(3iob22-3ii*i2] 402b-c; CH 4 [3iib2o-33] 403c
/ Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
[336b25~34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3-10
501c-511d passim; BK iv, CH 2 [ioo4b27~29]
523d; CH 5 [1010*6-38] 529c-530a; CH 8
[ioi2b22~33] 532d; BK ix, CH 3 [1047*10-29]
572b-c; CH 6 573c-574c; CH 8 [io49b29-io5o*3J
575c-d; CH 10 [io5ib28~3o] 578a; BK xi, CH 6
590d-592b; CH 9 593d-594d; CH 11-12 596a-
598a,c esp CH 11 [io67bi5-io68*7] 596b-d, CH
12 [io68b2o-25] 597c-d; BK xn, CH 5 [io7ob36-
1071*4] 600b-c / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [4o6bn-i4]
636a; BK HI, CH 7 [431*1-8] 663c
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK v, CH i
[778^-7] 320c-d / Ethics, BK x, CH 4 [1174*13-
bi4] 428b-429a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2 167 b-
168c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-448]
2d-6c; BK n [62-332] 15d-19b; [1105-1174]
29a-30a,c; BK v [235-415] 64a-66c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 35-36
266d; SECT 42-43 267b; SECT 46 267c; BK v,
SECT 23 272b; BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; BK vn,
SECT 18 281a; SECT 50 283a; BK vin, SECT 6
285d-286a; BK ix, SECT 19 293b; SECT 28
293d-294a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1051b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 3-4 36b-
37b; TR v 57d-60c / Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH
15-22 260c-264c; TR in, CH 21-28 293a-297b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 15-17
23a-c; BK vn, par 17-18 49a-b; BK xi, par 6
90c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 9, A i, ANS and REP i 38c-
39c; Q 10, A 4, REP 3 43b-44b; A 5, ANS 44b-
45c; Q 18, A it ANS 104c-105c; A 3, REP i
106b-107c; Q 23, A i, REP 3 132c-133b; Q 53,
A i, REP 2-3 280d-282a; A 3, ANS 283 b- 2 84 d;
2 tola
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
203
Q 65, A 4 342b-343c; Q 67, A 3, REP r 351b-
352a; A 4, ANS 352a-354a; Q 73, A i, REP 2
370a-371a; A 2, ANS 371b-d; Q 79, A 9, ANS
422b-423d; Q 103, A 5, REP 2 531b-532b;
PART I-H, Q 10, A i, REP 2 662d-663d; Q 23,
AA 3-4 725c-727a; Q 25, A i, ANS and REP 2
730b-731b; Q 31, A 3, REP 2 754a-d; A 8
758b-759a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 15,
A 10, REP i 795b-796a; Q 62, A 4 861a-862a;
PART III SUPPL, Q 91, A 3, REP 2 1020d-1022c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2987-3040] 209a-
210a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-294b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY-
FOURTH DAY 197a-260a,c esp THIRD DAY, 224d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66 114d-
115c; BK ii, APH 48 179d-188b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 24a
31 SPINOZ\: Ethics, PART n, LEMMA 3 378d-379a
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 433b-
434a
34 NEWTON- Principles, DEFINITIONS-BK n 5a-
267a esp DEFINIIIONS, SCHOL 8b-13a, LAW i
14a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH iv,
SFCT 8-9 260d-261b
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SECT 102
432d-433a, SECT 110-115 434b 435c
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 27a; 28b-c; 29c-d; 31d-
32a; 55c-56a; 72c-85d esp 74b-76c, 82a-83b;
91d-93c; 95a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-
179d; 186d-190b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xiv, 608a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 882a-884b
2. The unchanging principles of change
7 PLATO Phaedrus, 124b-c/ Ttmaeus, 455c-458a
/ Sophist, 564d-574c / Philebus, 610d-619d /
Laws, BK x, 760a-765d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i 259a-268d / Heavens,
BK i, CH 3 [270ai2-i7) 361b / Metaphysics,
BK in, CH 4 [99Qa24-b24] 518a-c, BK xn, CH 10
[1075*25-34] 606a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2 167b-
168c
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK i [146-920]
2d-12b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a;
BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; BK ix, SECT 28 293d-
294a; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 854b
17 PLOTINUS- Second Ennead, TR i, CH 1-4 35a-
37b; TR iv-v 50a-60c / Third Ennead, TR vi,
CH 7-19 110d-119a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A i, ANS 108d-109c; Q 84, A i, REP 3 440d-
442a; Q 86, A 3 463b-d; Q 113, A i, ANS 576a-d;
Q 115, A3, ANS and REP 2 588c-589c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 23a 33d esp 27a, 29c-d;
49c-51d esp 51c-d; 72c-76c; 82a-83b; 91d-
93c; 120c-129c esp 121a-124<J, 126a-128b;
141b,d-145c; 200c-204c
2a. The constituents of the changing thing
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 458a-460d / Philebus, 610d-
619d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 6-9
264c-268d; BK HI, CH 1-3 278a-280c; BK iv,
CH 9 [2i7a20-b27] 297a-c; BK v, CH i [225*12-
29] 305b-c; BK vi, CH 10 [240b8-24i*26] 324c-
325b / Heat/ens, BK r, CH 3 [270*12-17] 361b;
BK iv, CH 4 [312*3-22] 403c-d / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH i [31 4^6-3 15*3] 410a-b;
CH 3 413c-416c esp [3i8*i-3i9b4] 414b-416c;
CH 4 [320*2-6] 417a; BK n, CH i [}29B24-b2]
429a-b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [987^0-
988*8] 506a; CH 8 [988b22~989b24] 506d-508a;
BK in, CH 4 [999*24^24] 518a-c; BK iv, CH 5
[1009*22-38] 528d; BK v, CH i [1013*3-7] 533a;
CH 2 [1013*24-27] S33b; CH 4 534d-535c; BK
vn, CH 8-10 556b-559d; CH 15 [io39b2o-
1040*8] 563c-564a; BK vin-ix 566a-578a,c;
BK xi, CH 9 [1065^5-31] 594b; CH 12 [io68bio-
14] 597c; BK xn, CH 1-5 598a-601a; CH 10
[1075*25-34] 606a
9 ARIS TOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 18
[724*20^13] 264b-d; CH 20 [729*6]-^ 22
[73ob33] 269b-271a
10 GALEN* Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2-3 167b-
169a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-634]
2d-8d; BK n [62-1022] 15d-28a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xn, SECT 30
310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vm, CH 8 30d-31c
/ Second Ennead, TR i, CH 1-4 35a-37b; TR iv,
CH 6-8 51d-53a; TR v, CH I-TR vi, CH 2 57d-
62b / Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 8-19 lllc-119a
/ Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 22 293d-294c; TR v,
CH 8 307d-308c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xn, par 3-16 99d-
103a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 9,
A i, ANS 38c-39c; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c;
Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-163b; Q 45, A 2, REP 2
242d-244a; Q 48, A 3, ANS 261b-262a; Q 58,
A 7, REP 3 305c-306b; Q 62, A 7, REP r 322d-
323b; Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 75, A 5,
REP 2 382a-383b; Q 92, A 2, REP 2 489d-490c;
A 3, REP i 490c-491b; A 4, ANS and REP i
491b-d; Q 104, A i, ANS and RHP 1-2 534c-
536c; PART i»ii, Q i, A 3, ANS 611b-612a; Q 10,
A i, REP 2 662d-663d
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q 24,
A n, ANS 498b-499c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 172b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 494a-496d
esp 494b, 495c-496a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 6
139b-c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 541b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 74b-76c
204
THE GREAT IDEAS
2bto 3
(2. The unchanging principles of change.)
2b. The factor of opposite* or contraries in
change
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165c-166b/ Phaedo, 226d-
228a; 243c-246c / Republic, BK iv, 350d-351b
/ Thcaetctus, 519d-520b / Sophist, 565a-c /
Laws, BK x, 760a-c; 762b-764c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [4*10^19] 8b-9a;
CH 10 [13*17-37] 18d-19a; CH 14 [i5bi-i6]
21b-c / Physics, BK i, CH 5-9 263c-268d; BK n,
CH x [i93bi9-22] 270a; BK in, CH i (201*4-8]
278c; BK iv, CH 9 [2i7*2o-b26] 297a-c; BK v,
CH i [224b27-225*i2] 304d-305a; [225*34-b9J
305d; CH 2 [226*23-b9] 306d-307a; CH 3
[226^4-34] 307c; CH 5 310a-311a; CH 6
[23ob27-23i*2] 312b-c; BK vi, CH 4 [234bio-2i]
316d-317a; BK vin, CH 2 [252b9-n] 336b-c;
CH 7 [260*29-^] 346b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 3
[270*13-23] 361b-c; CH 4 362a-c; CH 8 [277*13-
34] 368b-c, CH 12 [283^7-23] 375c-d; BK iv,
CH 3 401c-402c; CH 4 [31^29-312*22] 403c-d
/ Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 4 416c-
417a; CH 7 421d-423b, BK n, CH 1-5 428b,d-
433d csp CH 4-5 431b-433d / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 8 [989*18-29] 507b-c; BK n, CH 2
[994»i9-b6] 512c-d; BK iv, CH 7 [ioiib29~38|
531d; BK vin, CH 5 569b-d; BK ix, CH 9
[1051*4-13] 577a; BK x, CH 7 [1057*18-34]
584c-d; BK xi, en 9 [io65b5~i4] 593d-594a;
CH n 596a-d; BK xn, CH 2 598c-599a; CH 10
[1075*25-34] 606a / Soul, BK H, CH 4 [416*18-
b8] 646c-d / Longevity, CH 3 710d-711b
9 ARISTOTLE. Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 18
[724*20-bi3] 264b-d; BK iv, CH 3 [768*2-7]
309c / Ethics, BK vm, CH 8 [i 159^9-23] 411d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b-d
17 PLOIINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 8 lllc-d /
Sixth Ennead, TR HI, CH 22 293d-294c; CH 27
296b-297a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A i, ANS 108d-109c; Q 23, A i, REP 3 132c-133b;
Q 26, A j, REP 2 150b-c; Q 58, A j , REP 3 305c-
306b; Q 62, A 7, REP i 322d-323b; PART i-n,
Q 18, A 8, REP i 699d-700b; Q 23, A 2 724c-
725c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 408c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 4-6 398d-
399a; PART iv, PROP 29-35 431d-434a; PART
v, AXIOM i 452c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 27a; 76c-83b csp 76c-d;
91d-93c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-d;
165a-b; 178a-d; 179b-d
3. Cause and effect in motion: the relation of
mover and moved, or action and passion
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Gorgias, 267c-268a
/ Timaeus, 460c-d / Laws, BK x, 760a-7<?5d
csp 761b-765d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 9 [nbi-7] 16c-d /
Physics, BK HI, CH i [2oob29~32] 278b; CH 2
[202*2 ]-CH 3(202b29] 279c-280c; BK vn, CH 1-2
326a-329a; BK vin, CH 10 [266b27~267*2 1 ]
354b-d / Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270*12-17] 361b;
CH 7 [275*i-b29] 366a-367a; CH 8 [277^-8]
368c-d, BK HI, CH 2 [3oob8-30i*i2] 391d-392c;
[3oib2-32] 392d-393b; BK iv, CH 3 401c-402c /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 6 [323*12-
34] 421b-c; CH 7-9 421d-426c; BK 11, CH o-io
436d-439c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [987^30-
988*8] 506a; CH 7 [988*3i-bi6] 506c-d; BK v,
CH 2 [ioi3b3-i6] 533c-d; BK ix, CH 1-5
570b,d-573c; CH 7 [i048b35-io49ai8] 574c-d;
BK xi, CH 9 [1066*27-34] 594d; BK xn, CH 3
[1069^5-1070*9] 599a-b; [1070*21-30] 599c-d;
CH 4 [io7ob22]-cH 8 [io74bi4] 600b-605a; CH
10 [io75bi~37] 606b-d / Soul, BK n, en 5
647b-648d; BK in, CH 2 [426*2-6] 658a-b
9 ARISIOFLE Motion of Animals, CH 8 [702*5-
22] 237b-c / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 20
[729*9]-cH 21 [729^1] 269b-270a; BK n, CH 4
[740^8-26] 281c-d; BK iv, CH 3 [768^6-24]
310b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 168b-c;
BK in, CH 7, 203b-c
12 LucRi-nus: Nature of Things, BK n [80-141]
16a-d; [184-293] 17b-18d
16 KEPLER- Epitome, BK iv, 854b; 855b; 940b-
941a; 959a-960a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 15-22 260c-
264c; TR in, CH 23 294d-295a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8, A i,
ANS and REP 2 34d-35c; Q 41, A i, REP 2 217d-
218c; Q 44, A 2, REP 2 239b-240a; Q 48, A i,
REP 4 259b-260c; Q 60, A i, REP 2 310b-311a;
Q 75, A i, REP 3 378b-379c; Q 80, A 2, ANS
428a-d; Q 115, A i 585d-587c; PART i-n, Q i,
A 3, ANS and REP i 611b-612a; A 6, ANS 614a-c;
Q 9, A 4, ANS 660a-d, Q 22 720b,d-723b; Q 23,
A 4 726a-727a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 113,
A 8 367d-368c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 26d-40b passim;
BK vi, 109a-b, 112d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
202a-203a
28 HARVEY' On Animal Generation, 423d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 87c-88a / Objec-
tions and Replies, AXIOM ii 131d; 212a
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 1-5 373c-d;
LEMMA 3 378d-379a; PART in, DEF 1-3 395d-
396a; PROP 1-4 396a-398d; PART iv, AXIOM-
PROP 7 424c-426b; PART v, AXIOM 2 452c;
PROP 3-4 453a-d
34 NEWTON: Principles, DBF in-iv 5b-6a; LAW
i-ni 14a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 1-5 178b-l79d; SECT 74, 199d-20Qb; CH
xxn, SECT ii 203c-d; CH xxin, SECT 28-29
211b-212a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT in, DIV
i8-SECT vin, DIV 74 457c-484c passim, csp
SECT VH, piv 60 477a-c
CHAPTER 10: CHANG£
205
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 43a-b; 76c-83b;
91d-93c
4. Motion and rest: contrary motions
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 112b / Republic, BK iv, 350d-
351b / Timaeus, 453b-c; 460c-d / Sophist,
567a-574c , Statesman, 587a-589c esp 587a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 14 [i5bi-i6] 21b-c
/ Physics, BK v, CH 5-6 310a-3I2d / Heavens,
BK i, CH 4 3fc2a-c / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2
[ioo4b27-29J 523d; BK xi, CH 12 [1068^0-25]
597c-d / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [406*22-27] 635c
10 GALEN Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b-d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 832c
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517b-518a, 519b-520b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 931 b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 24 295b-c;
CH 27 296b-297a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 4, REP 3 43b-44b, Q 18, A i, REP 2 104c-105c;
Q 53, A 3, ANS 283b-284d; Q 73, A 2, ANS
371b-d; P\RT in, Q 6, A i 644d-646a; A 4
647b-648a, Q 9, A 4, REP 2 660a-d, Q 41, A 3
799c-800b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 3-5 938a-939d, Q 84,
A 3, REP 2 985d-989b
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 50a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 26a-b; BK vi,
HOb
30 BACON . Novum Organum, BK n, APH 35, 163a
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART n, AXIOM i 378c;
LEMMA 1-3 378c-379a
34 NEW i ON: Principles, DBF in 5b; LAW 1 14a
5. The measure of motion
5a. Time or duration as the measure of motion
7 PLAIO. Timaeus, 450c-451d / Panpenides,
504c-505c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 10-14 297c-
304a,c; BK vi 312b,d-325d esp CH 2 314a-315d
/ Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
[337*22-34] 439b-c / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 13
[1020^5-33] 541c; BK x, CH i [1053*9-12]
579c; BK xn, CH 6 [107^6-12] 601b
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK x, CH 4 [ii74*i2-bi4]
428b-429a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 7-13
122d-129a / Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 15
165c-d / Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 5, 254c-d; CH
16 260d-261c; TR in, CH 22, 294c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 12-40
92b-99a; BK xn, par 9 101 b-c / City of God,
BK xi, CH 6 325c-d; BK xn, CH 15 351b-
352d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 3, REP 4 32c-33c; Q 10, A i, ANS 40d-41d; AA
4-6 43b-46d; Q 53, A 3 283b-284d; Q 57, A 3,
REP 2 297b-298a; Q 63, A 5, ANS 329a-330c;
A 6, REP 4 330c-331c; Q 66, A 4, REP 4 348d-
349d; PART i-n, Q 31, A 2, ANS and REP i
753c-754a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 113,
A 7, REP 5 366a-367c; PART in SUPPL, Q 84,
A 3 985d-989b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxvn
[106-120] 148b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
201a-202a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 46 177c-
179a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 5 373b-c
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK v [580-582] 188a
33 PASCAL. Geometrical Demonstration, 432b-
433b;434a-439b passim
34 NEWTON* Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 8b-
lOa; 12a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 22 159d, CH xvin, SECT 2 174a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 292a-293a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 27a; 29c-d; 72c-76c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 249a-251b
5b. The divisibility and continuity of motion
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH n [219*10-13]
298d-299a; BK v, CH 4 308b-310a; BK vi
312b,d-325d; BK vii, CH i [242*32^4] 326c-d;
BK vin, CH 7 [26i*28]~cH 8 [265*12] 347c-352a
/ Metaphysics, BK v, CH 6 [1016*4-7] 536b-c;
CH 13 [1020*25-33] 541c; BK x, CH i [1052*15-
21] 578b; BK xii, CH 6 [107^8-11] 601b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 4 [ii74b9-i4J
428d-429a
17 PLOTINUS. Third Ennead, TR vii, CH 8-9 123b-
125d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 3,
REP 4 32c-33c; Q 53 280d-284d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 113,
A 7 366a-367c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 201a-
202a
30 BACON. Novum Organum, BK n, APH 6 139b-c;
APH 41 173d-174b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 87c-d / Objcc*
tions and Replies, 2 13 b-c
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 434a-
439b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, LEMMA n, SCHOL,
31b-32a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 26b-27a; 74b-76c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 469a-d
6. The kinds of change
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 449b-450c esp 450a / Par-
menides, 492a-493b esp 492d-493b; 504c-505a
/ Theaetetus, 533a-b / Laws, BK x, 762b-763b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 14 20d-21c / Phys
tCS, BK III, CH I [200b32-20I*I4] 278b-CJ BK V,
CH 1-2 304a-307b; CH 5 310a-311a; BK vn,
CH 4 330d-333a / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 [268bi5-
269*8] 359d-360a; BK iv, CH 3 401c-402c /
206
(6. Tbt touts of change.)
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 1-5 409a-
420b csp CH 4 [3i9b32~32o*2] 41 7a / Metaphys-
ics, BK n, CH 2 [994*1 9~b6] 512c-d; BK vn,
CH 9 [io34b8-i9] 557d-558a; BK xi, CH 9
[io65b7-i4] 593d-594a; CH n [io67bi]-cH 12
[io68b25] 596a-597d; BK xn, CH 2 [1069^-14]
598d / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [406*12-21] 635c
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 18
[724»20-bi3] 264b-d
10 GALEN: "Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b-d;
CH 5 169b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 21-27
293a-297a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 44,
A 2, AN!> 239b-240a; Q 45, A i, REP 2 242a-d;
Q 66, A i, ANS 343d-345c; Q 118, A 2, REP 2
601c-603b; PART I-H, Q i, A 3, ANS 611b-612a;
Q 23, A 2, ANS 724c-725c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART I-H, Q 107,
A i, ANS 325c-327b; PART HI SUPPL, Q 84, A 2,
REP 1,4 984c-985d; A 3, ANS 985d-989b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 407c-409b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66 114d-
115c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxn,
SECT ii 203c-d
6a. The reducibility of all modes of motion to
one kind of change
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VHI, CH 7 [26oa26-bi4]
346b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH
1-5 409a-420b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b-
168b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [418-448]
6b-c; BK n [730-1022] 24b-28a; BK in [417-
869] 35c-41a; BK iv [522-817] 51a-54d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-c; PART HI,
173a; PART iv, 271a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 50 11 Ib
34. NEWTON: Principles, lb-2a / Optics, BK HI,
541 b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 553b-554a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a-b; 182a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 882a-884b
6b. The primacy of local motion
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH i [208*28-33]
287a; BK vm, CH i [250^5-18] 334a; CH 7
346b-348a / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 [268^5-17]
359d; BK iv, CH 3 [3iob22-34] 402 b / Genera-
tion and Corruption, BK n, CH 10 437d-439c /
Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 6 [io7ib2-n] 601 b;
[1071*32-38] 601d; CH 7 [io72b4-io] 602c; CH
8 [1073*24-39)6030
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 5 23Sc-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 67,
A 2, REP 3 350b-351a; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-
411d; Q 1 10, A 3, ANS 566d-567b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 84, A 2, RBP 1,4 984c-985d
THE GREAT IDEAS 6a to 6d
6c. Comparison of change in living and non-
living things
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 2 [244bi-
245*12] 328b-d; BK vm, CH 4 338d-340d; CH
6 [2£9*2o-b3i] 345a-d / Heavens, BK i, CH 7
[275^26-28] 367a; BK n, CH ^ [284^0 -285*1]
376c / Soul, BK H, CH 4 [4i5b22-4i6b3i] 646a-
647b
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH i [698*15-
21] 233b; CH 4 [700*5-27] 235b-c; CH 6 235d-
236b; CH 7 [7oibi]-cH 8 J702bi2] 236d-238a /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 21-22 269c-
271a; BK n, CH i [734*17-735*15] 274c-275d;
CH 4 [740*13-18] 281a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 7 170c-
171a; BK n, CH 3, 186c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [700-729]
23d-24b; [1105-1174] 29a-30a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 18,
A i 104c-105c; Q 27, A 2, ANS 154c-155b; PART
i-n, Q 17, A 9, REP 2 692d-693d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT v, sc n [7-15]
239a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK in, 67b-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412b-415b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27 157b-
158d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59a-60c /
Objections and Replies, 156a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT ii 140b-c; CH xxm, SECT 22 209d; SECT
28-29 211b-212a; CH xxvi, SFCT 2 217b-d;
CH xxvii, SECT 5 220b-c; BK iv, CH x, SECT 19
354a-c
42 KJ^NT. Judgement, 579d-580a; 582b-c
45 FARADAY . Researches in Electricity, 836d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 62a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b; 68a-69b; 71a
64. Comparison of the motions of matter with
changes in the order of mind
7 PLATO: Laws, BK x, 764c-765a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [247^-
248*8] 330b-d / Generation and Corruption, BK
ii, CH 6 [334*10-15] 435a / Metaphysics, BK ix,
CH 2 571c-572a / Soul BK i, CH 3 635b-637b;
CH 4 [408*29-^1] 638a-d; BK ii, CH 5 [417*21-
b2i] 647d-648b; BK in, CH n [434*16-22]
667a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [177-207]
32b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 1-3 106b-
108c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 14,
A 15 89b-90b; Q 18, A i, ANS 104c-105c; A 3,
REP i 106b-107c; Q 19, A 7 114d-115d; Q 27,
AA 1-2 153b-155b; Q 34, A i, REP 2 185b-187b;
Q 46, A 2, REP 3 253a-255a; Q 50, A i, REP 2
269b-270a; Q 73, A 2, ANS 371b-d; Q 75,
A 5, REP 2 382a-383b; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-
411d; Q 82, A 2, REP 2-3 432d-433c; Q 94,
A 2, ANS 503a-504a; PART i-n, Q 22, A i, ANS
7 to n
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
and REP i 720d-721c; A 2, REP 3 721c-722c;
Q 35, A 6, REP 2 777b-778c; Q 36, A i, ANS
780c-781b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS and REP 3 15d-18a; Q 72, A 3, ANS and
REP 1-2 113b-114a; Q 113, A 7, ANS and REP 1,4
366a-367c; PART ii-n, Q 180, A 6 613a-614d;
PART III SUPPL, Q 82, A 3, ANS and REP 2
971a-972d; Q 84, A 3, ANS and REP i 985d-
989b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
[10-33] 80a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a-d; 61a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 7 375a-c; PART
in, 395a-d; PROP 1-3 396a-398c; PART iv,
PROP 7 426a-b; PART v, PROP i 452d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xn,
SECT i 147b-d; CH xxi, SECT 74 199c-200b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 144 441d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-
161a; 178a-179c; 186d-190b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 95b-97a
7, The analysis of local motion
7<*. Space, place, and void
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 460c-d; 471 b-c / Laws, BK
x, 762b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK in, CH 5 [205*10-
206*8] 283b-284b; BK iv, CH 1-9 287a-297c /
Heavens, BK i, CH 7 [274b3o~33] 366a; [275b30-
276ai8] 367a-b; CH 8 [276*22-27] 367b-c;
[277bi4-23] 368d-369a; BK n, CH 2 376b-377c;
BK in, CH 6 [305*27-28] 396c; BK iv, CH 1-5
399a-404d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 13 [1020*
25-33] 541c; BK ix, CH 6 [i048b9~i7] 574a;
BK xi, CH 10 [1067*8-33] 595c-596a / Soul,
BK i, CH 3 [406*12-21] 635c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 16, 181a~d;
BK n, CH 1-2, 183b,d-184c; CH 6 188c-191a;
BK in, CH 14-15, 213b-214c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK ir, 832c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [329-448]
5b-6c; [958-1007] 12d-13b, [1052-1082] 14a-c;
BK n [80-250] 16a-18a; BK vi [830-839] 91b-c;
[998-1041] 93c-94a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, lOb-llb
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517b-518a; 519a-520b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 855b; 900b-903a;
922a-b; 931b-932a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 8, 123d-
124a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8,
A i, REP 3 34d-35c; A 4 37c-38c; Q 52, AA 1-2
278d-280a; Q 53, AA 1-2 280d-283b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 83, AA 2-5 976c-982c; Q 84, A 2, REP i 984c-
985d; A 3 985d-989b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; 61b; PART
in, 173a; PART iv, 271d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 32c; BK vi, 110b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-
160a passim; THIRD DAY, 202d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 37 168d-
169c; APH 45 176a-177c; APH 48, 180a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, ix, 15c
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 366a-367a; 370a / Weight
of Air, 405b-415b passim
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL 8b-
13a; BK in, GENERAL SCHOL, 3 70a-37 2a /
Optics, BK in, 520a-522b; 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 23 153c-d; CH XVH, SECT 4 168b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 110-117
434b-436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 29c-d; 31d-32a; 55c-56a;
84b-c;135d[fn2]
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 513d-514c;
685d-686c; 816b,d-819a,c; 824a-b; 855a,c
Ib. Natural and violent motion
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 463d-464b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH i [2o8b9~22]
287b; CH 8 [215*1-13] 294c-d; BK v, CH 6
[230*18-231*19] 311c-312d; BK vin, CH 4
338d-340d / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 [268bi2j-
CH 3 [270*13] 359d-361b; CH 7 [274b3o~33]
366a; [275bi2-29] 366d-367a; CH 7 [276*8]-
CH 8 [277b25] 367b-369a; CH 9 [278b22-
279*8] 370a-b; BK n, CH 13 [294b3I~295*29]
386b-d, BK in, CH 2 391c-393b; CH 5 [3O4b
11-23] 395d-396a; CH 6 [305*22-28] 396c /
Generation and Corruption, BK 11, CH 6 [333b
22-33] 434c-d / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [406*12-29]
635c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1052-
1094] 14a-c; BK n [184-215] 17b-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, lla-b; BK in, 86b;
BK ix, 270b
16 COPERNICUS' Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517b-520b passim
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 929b-930b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 8, 39d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A i, REP 2 104c-105c; Q 105, A 4, REP i 541c-
542a; A 6, REP i 543b-544a; PART i-ii, Q 6,
A i, ANS and REP 3 644d-646a; A 4 647b-648a;
A 5, ANS and REP 2-3 648b-649a; Q 41, A 3
799c-800b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 3-5 938a-939d; Q 91,
A 2, ANS and REP 6 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [94-142]
107b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; PART iv,
271d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 109a-b; HOb-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157d-
158a; THIRD DAY, 200a-d; 203d; FOURTH DAY,
238a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66, 115b-
c; BK n, APH 36 164a-168d passim; APH 48
179d-188b
203
7c. Kinds of local motion
lc(l) Rectilinear and rotary or circular mo-
tion
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 350d-351b / Parmen-
f<fo,492d-493b / Laws, BK x, 762 b-d; 764b-
765a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 5 [212*3 i-b2]
291d; BK vii, CH 4 [248*io-b6] 330d-331b; BK
VIH, CH 8-9 348b-353b / Heavens, BK i, CH 2-
6 359d-365c; CH 7 [274b22-29] 365d-366a;
[275bi2-i8] 366d; CH 8 [277*12-26] 368b-c;
[277b8-i8] 368d / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 6
[io7ibio-n] 601b; CH 7 [1072*20-22] 602b
/ Soul, BK i, CH 3 [4o6b26-407bi3] 636b-
637b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 6a; 7a-8b; BK in,
86b; BK ix, 270b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 514a; 517b-518a; 519b-520b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 887a; 913a; 931 b-
933a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 3, 36b-c;
CH 8 39c-d; TR 11, CH i, 40b-c; CH 2, 41b-c /
Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 24 295b-c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 3, ANS 32c-33c; Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, HOb-c
28 GALILEO' Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
240d; 245b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 35,
163a-d; APH 48, 186b-d
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEF in 5b, DEF v 6a-7a;
DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, llb*12a; LAW i 14a;
LAWS OF MOTION, SCHOL, 19b-20aj BK I, PROP
1-3 and SCHOL 32b 35b; BK n, PROP 53, SCHOL
266a-267a
7<r(2) Uniform or variable motion
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 8 [215*24-
216*21] 295a-d; BK v, CH 4 [228bi 5-229*7]
309d-310a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [225-242]
17d-18a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-
160a; THIRD DAY, 197b-198b; 200a-d; 203d;
205b-d; 209a-c; 224d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 48,
186b-d
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEF HI-IV 5b-6a; LAW
j-n 14a-b; COROL iv-vi 18a-19b
7^(3) Absolute or relative motion
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [387-390]
49b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 514b-515a; 519a; BK n,
557a-b
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1015a-b
2^ GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 115a d
3Q BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36, 165c-
166b
THE GREAT IDEAS
7 c to Id
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL 8b-
13a csp 9a-b; COROL v-vi 19a-b; BK i, PROP
57-61 lllb-114b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xin,
SECT 7-10 149d-150d passim
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 110-115
434b-435c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 511b-512a
7c(4) Terrestrial and celestial motion
7 PLATO: Statesman, 587a-b / Laws, BK vii,
729d-730d; BK x, 763d-765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens 359a-405a,c csp BK i,
CH 2-3 359d-362a / Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 8
[i05ob20-28] 576c-d; BK xn, CH 2 [1069^4-
27] 599a; CH 6 [io7ib32]-cn 7 [1072*22] 601d-
602b / Soul, BK i, CH 3 [4o6b26-407bi3J 636b-
637b
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 3 234a-c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; 7a-8b; 12a;
BK in, 86b-87a; BK ix, 270b; BK xin, 429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 513b-514b; 517b-518a; 519b-
520b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b 895b; 897a-
905a passim, csp 904b-905a; 929a-933a; 934b-
935b; 940b-941a; 959a-960a
17 PLOTINUS' Second Ennead, IR i, CH 1-4 35a-
37b; TR i, CH S-TR n, CH 2 39c-41c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 66,
A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; PART in SUPPL, Q 84, A 3, REP 2
985d-989b
28 GILBERT' Loadstone, BK vi, HOb-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 35,
163a-b, APH 36, 165d-166a; APH 48, 186b-d
34 NEWTON- Principles, la-2a; BK in 269a-372a
passim, csp RULE i-m 270a-271a, PROP 1-7
276a-282b, PROP 35, SCHOL 320b-324a, GEN-
ERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a / Optics, BK in, 540a-
541b
Id. The properties of variable motion: the laws
of motion
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 8 [215*24-
216*21] 295a-d; BK vn, CH 4 330d-333a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 1-4 233a-
235c passim / Gait of Animals, CH 3 243d-244a
/ Generation of Animals, BK iv, CH 3 [768** 1 6-
24]310b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK 11 [80-99]
16a-b; [184-250] 17b-18b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 894a; 899a-900a;
905a-906b; 933b-934b; 936a-937a; 938b-939a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; PART iv, 271d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 56b c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-
172d passim; THIRD DAY-FOURTH DAY 197a-
. 260a,c
8/o 9
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
209
30 BACON: Novum Ofganum, BK n, APH 35, »
163c-d; APH 36, 166b-c; 167b-c; APH 48 179d-
188b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM I-LEMMA 7
378c-380b
34 NEWTON: Principles, DBF in 5b; LAWS OF
MOTION 14a-24a; BK i, PROP 1-17 and SCHOL
32b-50a; PROP 30-69 and SCHOL 76a-131a;
PROP 94-98 and SCHOL 152b-157b; BK n
159a-267a passim / Optics, BK in, 540a-542a
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 558b-563b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 4 178d-179c; CH xxin, SECT 17 209a;
SECT 22 209d; SECT 28-29 211b-212a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 50 422c;
SECT 102 432d-433a
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
27, 460c; SECT vn, DIV 57, 475d-476b [fn 2]
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ib
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 694d-
695c
8. Change of size
8a. The increase and decrease of inanimate
bodies
7 PLATO* Timaeus, 460c-d / Laws, BK x, 762b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH i [209*27-29]
288a; CH 6 [2i3bi9~22] 293b; CH 9 296b-297c;
BK vii, CH 2 [245fti2-i8] 328d-329a; BK vin,
CH 3 [253bi2-23J 337d / Heavens, BK i, CH 3
[270*23-36] 361c / Generation and Corruption,
BK ii, CH 6 [333B35-b3] 434b / Soul, BK n, CH 4
[4i5b28-4i6fti8] 646a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 7 170c-
171a; BK n, CH 3, 186c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [311-328]
5a; BK n [62-79] 15d-16a; [1105-1174] 29a-
30a,c; BK v [235-323] 64a-65b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A i, ANS 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 52,
AA 1-2 15d-19a; PART ii-n, Q 24, A 5 492b-
493d; A 6, ANS 493d-494b; PART in, Q 7, A 12,
REP i 754c-755c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 271d-272a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
139b-141d; 151c-154b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 40, 171a-
172d; APH 48, 180a-181a; 184a-c
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, PROP 6, COROL iv
m\>/ Optics, BKin,539b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 9a-
15c csp 9a-10b
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 184a-185b; 192a-b
8£. Growth in living organisms
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 471d-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH i [i93bi3-i9]
269d-270a; BK vi, CH 10 [24 1*32^2] 325c; BK
vin, CH 7 [26o*2^-bi] 346b-c / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [3i5*26-b3] 4104-41U;
CH 5 417b-420b; BK IT, CH 6 [333*35-b3) 434b;
CH 8 [335*10-14] 436c / Metaphysics, BK v,
CH 4 [ior4b2o-26) 535a / Soul, BK n, CH 4
[4i5b28-4i6»i8] 646a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 19
[55ob26-3i] 77d; CH 33 [558*17-24] 84d-85a
BK vn, CH i [582*21-25] 107d / Motion oj
Animals, CH 5 235c-d / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 18 [723*9-23] 263a-b; CH 22 [730*33-
b9] 270d; BK n, CH i [733bi-4J 273d; [735*13-
26] 275d-276a; CH 4 [7 3 9^4-74 1*2] 280d-
281d; CH 6 [744^8-745^] 286a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b-d
CH 5 169b-c; CH 7 170c-171a; CH n 172b-d,
BK n, CH 3 185a-186d
12 LUCRETIUS; Nature of Things, BK i [146-264
2d-4b; BK n [1105-1174] 29a-30a,c; BKiv[858-
876] 55b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY
187b-d
28 HARVEY : Circulation of the Blood, 320a-b / Of
Animal Generation, 353b-354a; 388c-d; 408c
409b, 412b-415b csp 415a; 441a-443b; 494a-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 71a-c
9. Change of quality
7 PLATO- Parmenides, 509a-510a / Theaetetus
533a-534a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [4*io-bi9] 8b-9a
CH 14 [15*14-32] 20d-21a / Topics, BK vi, CH (
[145*2-13] 198c-d / Physics, BK i, CH 7 [190^-
9] 266b; BK v, CH 2 [226*26-29] 306d; [226V
9] 307a; BK vi, CH 10 [241*26-32] 325b~c
BK vn, CH 2 [244bi-245*i2] 328b-d; CH
329a-330d; BK vm, CH 7 [260*26^14] 346b-<
/ Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270*26-36] 361c; CH i.
[283bi7-23] 375c-d / Generation and Corrup
tion, BK i, CH 1-4 409a-417a csp CH 4 416c
41 7a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 8 [989*18-29
507b-c; BK v, CH 21 544a-b; BK xi, CH i,
[io68bi5-i9] 597c / Sense and the Sensible, CH i
[446b27-447*9] 685b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167b
168b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 8-10 lllc
113a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 48
A 4, ANS and REP 3 262a-263a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 5C
A i, REP 3 6a-7b; Q 52, A i, ANS and RE
3 15d-18a; PART in SUPPL, Q 82, A 3, ANS an<
REP 2 971a-972d; Q 91, A i, REP 2,4 1016t
1017c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 172b
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 541b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxv;
SECT 1-2 217a-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25
33 417d-419a passim, esp SECT 25-26 41 7d
418a
210
(9. Change of quality.)
9a, Physical and chemical change: compounds
and mixtures
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 448b-d; 459d-462b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 14 [151*20-32]
206a / Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270*26-36] 361c,
CH 5 [27ibi8-23J 362d-363a; BK in, CH 3
393c-d; CH 8 [3o6b22-29] 398a / Generation
and Corruption, BK i, en 2 [315*28-33] 410d;
CH 10 426c-428d; BK 11, CH 6-8 433d-436d /
Meteorology, BK in, CH 6 ftyS^J-BK iv, CH 12
[390b2i] 482c-494d / Metaphysics, BK vn, CH
17 [io4ibi2-33] 565d-566a,c / Sense and the
Sensible, CH 3 [440*33-bi3] 677d-678a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH i
[646*12-24] 170a-b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK i [635-920]
8d-12b; BK n [730-864] 24b-26a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK x, SECT 7 297b-c
17 PLOTINUS . Second Ennead, TR i, CH 6-8 37d-
39d, IR vn, CH 1-2 62d-64b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 71,
A i, REP 1-2 367a-368b; Q 76, A 4, REP 4
393a-394c; Q 91, A i 484a-485b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 50,
A i, REP 3 6a-7b; PART in, Q 2, A r, ANS 710a-
711c; PART in SUPPL, Q 74, A i, REP 3 925c-
926c, A 5 929d-931b; Q 80, A 3, REP 3 958b-
959c; Q 82, A i, ANS 968a-970c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 13b-14d; BK n,
29c-30a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
148c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 495c-496d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 50 lllb;
BK n, APH 7 139c-140a; APH 48, 181a-183a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 517b-518a; 531b-
542a esp 541b
35 LOCKE • Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvi,
SECT 1-2 217a-d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i-n,
22c-86a,c; P\RT in, 87c-d; 103b-c; 105d;
117a-128c csp 117a-118a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 309a-312a;
312c-313d; 314a-b; 315a-b, 327a-422a,c pas-
sim; 541b,d-584a,c passim
53 JAMES: Psychology, 68a-b; 104a-105a; 876a
A. Biological change: vital alterations
7 PLATO: Laws, BK n, 659c-d; BK vn, 713d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246aio-bi9]
329c-330a
9 ARISTOTLE- History of Animals, BK v, CH 19
I55iai3-552b5l 78a-79b; CH 30 [55^5-9] 83b;
BK vn, CH i 106b,d-108a; BK ix, CH 50
[63ibi9-632a32] 157a-c; CH 498 [632bi4~
633*29] 157d-158c / Motion of Animals, CH 5
235c-d; CH 7 [7oibi]-cH 8 [702*22] 236d-237c;
CH n (703b8-ai] 239b-c / Generation of Ani-
mals, BK i, CH 18 [724*2o-bi3] 264b-d; BK n,
THE GREAT IDEAS 9a to 10
* CH i t733bi-i7] 273d-274a; CH 5 [74^5-15]
282c; CH 6 [742*8-16] 283a; BK v, CH i [778*
15-20] 320a-b; CH 3 [782*1-20] 324a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 5, 169b;
CH 8 171a; BK HI, CH 7, 203c-204c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1030-
1057] 57c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-293d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412a-415b;
450b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 38-39 436b-
437a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, lOa-c; 61d-62a;
219d-222a csp 221b-222a, 224b-c / Descent of
Man, 354c-355a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 665a-d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 68b-73b
54 FREUD' Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 65 5a-
657d esp 655b, 656b-657c / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 770b
10. Substantial change: generation and corrup-
tion
7 PLATO Symposium, 165c-166b/ Phaedo,226d-
228a / Republic, BK vin, 40Ja-b, BK x, 434c-
436a / Parmemdes, 504c-d; 509a-d / Laws,
BK x, 761b-762c
8 ARISTOTLE Topics, BK vn, CH 3 [153^1-34]
209a / Physics, BK n, CH i [19^19-22] 270a /
Generation and Corruption 409a-441a,c /
Metaphysics, UK i, CH 3 [98^8-19] 501d; CH 8
[988b22-c)89b24] 506d-508a; BK n, CH 2
[994ai9-b8] 512c-d; BK vn, CH 7-9 555a-558a;
BK xi, CH n 596a-d; BK xn, CH 2-3 598c-599d
/ Soul, BK n, CH 4 Ui6b8-i7l 646d-647a
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167d-
168b; CH 5 169b-c, CH 12 172d-173c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [569-580]
22b, [865-1022] 26a-28a, BK in [117-129]
31c-d; [203-230] 32c-33a; [323-349] 34b-c;
[417-869] 35c-41a; BK v [783-836] 71b-72a
12 AURELIUS Meditations, BK vii, SECT 23 281b;
SECT 25 281c
18 AucusiiNh' Confessions, BK vn, par 18 49a-b
19 AQUINAS, Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 15,
A i, ANS 91b-92a; Q 19, A 9, ANS 116d-117d;
Q 27, A 2 154c-155b; Q 33, A 2, REP 4 181c-
182b; Q 41, A 5, ANS and REP i 222b 223b;
Q 44, A 2, ANS 239b-240a, Q 45, A 2, REP 2
242d-244a; Q 50, A 5, REP 3 274b-275a; Q 53,
A 3, ANS 283b-284d; Q 65, A 4, ANS 342b-343c;
Q 66, A i, ANS 343d-345c; A 2, ANS 345d-347b;
Q 67, A 3, REP i 351b-352a; Q 71, A i, REP i
367a-368b; Q 72, A i, REP 5 368b-369d, Q 75,
A 6, ANS 383c-384c; Q 90, A 2, ANS 481d-482c;
Q 96, A i, ANS 510b-511b; Q 119 604c-608d;
PART I-H, Q 22, A i, ANS and REP 3 720d-721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 53,
A 1 19d 21a; A 3 21d 22d; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a;
Q no, A 2, REP 3 349a-d; PART II-H, Q i, A 7,
REP 3 385c-387a; PART in SUPPL, Q 75, A 3,
ANS 938a-939d; Q 79, A i, REP 3-4 951b-953b;
to lOc
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
211
A 2, REP i 953b-955c; Q 80, A 5, REP 3 963a-
964b; Q 82, A i, REP 2 968a-970c; Q 86, A 2,
ANS and REP 1-2 993c-994d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [3011-3034] 209b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART iv, 249b-250a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, 104d-105d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 35, 162c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 127c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 6 356b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvi,
SECT 1-2 217a-d passim; BK in, CH in, SECT
19 259c-260a
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 74b-76c, 82a-83b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
41b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 187a-b;
189b-190a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 95b-98a passim
54 FREUD' Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652b-
653c;655a-657d
lOa. Substantial change in the realm of bodies:
the transmutation of the elements
7 PLATO. Timaeus, 456b-c; 458b-460b
8 ARISTOTLE- Heavens, BK i, CH 3 360d-362a;
BK in, CH i [298a24-299ai] 389b,d-390b, CH 2
[3oib33-302tt9] 393b; CH 6 [30^2 ^]-CH 8
[3o6b29] 396a.'39Sa/ Generation and Corruption
409a-441a,c esp BK i, CH 1-3 409a-416c, CH 6
[322bi-2i] 420b-d, BK n, CH 4-11 431b-441a,c
/ Meteorology, BK i, CH 3 [339*36-^3] 445d; BK
iv, CH i 482b,d-483c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3
[983b7-984ai6l 501d-502b; CH 8 [989*18-29]
507b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167d-
168b; BK 11, CH 3, 185c-d; CH 4, 187a-b; BK
in, CH 7, 203c
12 LUCRETIUS Nature of Things, BK i [635-920]
8d-12b; BK 11 [80-108] 16a-b; BK v [235-305]
64a-65a; [380-415] 66a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 13, 189a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 3 257a-b;
BK iv, SECT 21 265b-c; SECT 46 267c; BK v,
SECT 13 271b; BK vn, SECT 18 281a; SECT 23
281b; SECT 25 281c; SECT 50 283a; BK x,
SECT 7 297b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 3-4 36b-
37b; TR iv, CH 6 51d-52a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 66,
A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 67, A 2, ANS 350b-
351a; Q 91, A i, ANS and REP 3 484a-485b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 74, A i, ANS and REP 3 925c-926c; A 5, ANS
929d-931b; Q 91, A 5, ANS and REP 4 1024a-
1025b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [121-
148] 116b-c
22 CHAUCER: Canon's Yeoman's Prologue 471b-
474a / Canon's Yeoman's Tale 474b-487a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 14b-c /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66 114d-115c; BK
n, APH 35, 162c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 531a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n» CH n,
SECT 2 128a-b; CH xxvi, SECT 1-2 217a-d
passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 148a-b
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 299d-300a
42 KANT: Judgement, 582 b-c
44 BoswELL:/o/r;won, 262c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART I,
41b-c
10&. Plant, animal, and human reproduction
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 476b-d / Statesman, 586c-
588a
8 ARISTOTLE: Meteorology, BK iv, CH i [379b6-8]
483c; CH 3 [38^9-^3] ^Sd; CH n [389R28-b7]
493 c / Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 9 [io34*32-b8]
557c-d; BK ix, CH 7 [1049*12-18] 574d; BK
xn, CH 6 [io7ib29~3i] 601c; CH 7 [io72b3o-
1073*2] 603a
9 ARISTOTLE* Generation of Animals 25$a-33la,c
passim, esp BK i, CH 1-2 255a-256c, CH 17-22
261b-271a, BK 11, CH i [733b23]-CH 5 [74^24]
274a-282d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 5-6 169b-
170c; BK 11, CH 3 185a-186d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 25 358b-
359a; BK xxn, CH 24, 609c-610a
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 41,
A 5, ANS and REP i 222b-223b; Q 72, A i, REP 4
368b-369d; Q 73, A 3, ANS 371d-372c; Q 78,
A 2, REP 2-3 409a-4lOa; Q 90, A 2, ANS 481 d-
482c; Q 92, A i, ANS 488d-489d; A 4, ANS and
RFP i 491b-d; Q 98 516d-519a; Q 115, A 2,
RKP 3-4 587c-588c; A 3 588c-589c; Q 118, A I
600a-601c; Q 119 604c-608d
21 DANTE' Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[34-78] 91d-92a; PARADISE, vn [121-141]
116b-c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 14b-c; BK v, 105a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 278a / On Ani-
mal Generation 329a-496d passim, esp 331a-b,
383d-396a, 400c-429c, 496b-d
30 BACON' Novum Organum, BK n, APH 50,
192a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [660-673] 166b-
167a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvi,
SECT2217b-d
42 KANT: Judgement, 582b-c
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 654c-
656d;659d-660b
lOc. The incorruptibility of atoms, the heavenly
bodies, and spiritual substances
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [270*12-36]
361b-c; CH 9 [279*12]-^ 12 [283^24] 370b-
375d / Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 8 [io5ob2o-28]
576c-d; BK xn, CH 2 [io69b24-27l 599a; CH
6-8 601b-605a
9 ARISTOTLE : Motion ofAnimalst CH 4 [699^2-
700*6] 234d-235b
212
THE GREAT IDEAS
11 to \2b
(10. Substantial change; generation and corrup-
tion. We. The incorruptibility of atoms, the
heavenly bodies, and spiritual substances.}
10 GALEN ; Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173a-b;
BK n, CH 6, 189c-190a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [483-634]
7a-8d; BK n [842-864] 25c-26a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; BK xin,
429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 929b-930b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 1-4 35a-
37b; CH 8 39c d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 9,
A 2 39c-40d; Q 10, A 2, REP 1-2 41d-42c; A 3,
ANS 42c*43b; A 5 44b-45c; Q 46, A i, REP
2-3,5 250a-252d; Q 50, A 5 274b-275a; Q 58,
A 3, ANS 301d-302d; Q 63, A i, REP 2 325c-
326c; Q 66, A 2 345d-347b; Q 68, A i, ANS
354a-355c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q 97, A i, ANS
513c-514c; Q 104, A i, REP 1,3 534c-536c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [121-
148] 116b-c; xni [52-60] 126a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i 355a-372d passim, esp
DBF r 355a, DEF 3,6 355b, AXIOM 1-2 355c-d,
PROP 1-15 355d-361d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [128-142] 96a-b;
BK ii [81-105] 113a-b; BK vi [296-353] 202b-
204a esp [320-353] 203a-204a; [430-436] 205b
33 PASCAL- Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON- Optics, BK in, 541b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 137a-140c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 68a-b
11. The apprehension of change: by sense, by
reason
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedo, 231c-
232a / Timaeus, 447b-d; 457c-d / Sophist,
565a-569a esp 568a-569a/ Laws, BK x, 765a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH n 298c-300a
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [987*29^18] 505 b-d,
CH 9 [990^9-15] 508d; BK in, CH 2 [996*1 8 -b26]
514d-515b; BK iv, CH 5 528c-530c; CH 8 [ioi2b
23-32] 532d; BK xi, CH 6 [io63Bio~b8] 591b-d
/ Soul, BK HI, CH i [425*i4-bio] 657b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [311-328]
5a; BK n [62-141] 15d-16d; [308-332] 19a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 23 50b-c;
BK xi, PAR 17-41 93b-99b / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 8-9 626c-627a; BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 15, REP 2 89b-90b; Q 78, A 3, REP 2 410a-
411d; Q 84, A i esp REP 3 440d-442a; Q 86,
A 3 463b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 172b; PART iv,
249c-d
25 MoNTAidNE: Essays, 291b-294b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 5-6
138b-139c; APH 23 153d-154c; APH 40-41 170c-
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xii, 24a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH v
131b; CH vn, SECT 8-9 132d-133a; CH vin,
sect 18 136a-b; CH xiv, SECT 6-12 156b-157c;
CH xxm, SECT 28-29 211b-212a; CH xxvi,
SECT 1-2 217a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 27a-33d esp 28b-c, 29c-
d; 43a-b; 55c-56a; 76c-83b esp 76c-d; 91d-
93c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 405b-406b; 418b-419b;
510a-512a; 563a-567a; 612a-616b esp 616a;
634b-635a
12. Emotional aspects of change
I2a. Rest and motion in relation to pleasure
and pain
7 PLATO- Gorgias, 275c-277c / Timaeus, 463d-
464b / Philebus, 619d-620b, 626a-c; 631d-
632d / Laws, BK vn, 713c-715a
8 ARISTOTLE Topics, BK iv, CH i [i2ia27-39J
169b
9 ARISTOTLE* Ethics, BK vn, CH n [ii52b8]-cH
12 [1153*17] 403c-404b, CH 14 [i 154^0-30]
406c; BK x, CH 3 [ii73»29-b7] 427c-d; CH 4
[ii74*i3-bi4] 428b-429a / Politics, BK vin,
CH 5 [i34oai-bi9] 545c-546a / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH n [i369b33-i37otti7] 613a-c, [1371*26-30]
614d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, IR iv, CH 18-21,
167a-168c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 32,
A2759d-760d
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 50a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART in 395a-422a,c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 29-48 184d-190d passim
50 MARX. Capital, 166b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 41 Oa
54 FREUD. Narcissism, 403d-404a / General In-
troduction, 592c-593a / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 639b-640a; 648d-649c / Ego and Id,
701a-b
12^. The love and hatred of change
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248]
125b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 224d-225a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344b-d / Laws, BK
vn, 717d-718d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [11 54^0-30]
406c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Fractures, par i 74b,d-75a /
Aphorisms, SECT n, par 50 133d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1105-
1174] 29a-30a,c; BK in [912-977] 41d-42c;
[1053-1084] 43c-44a; BK v [156-173] 63a-b;
[I379-H35] 79a-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 14 258d;
SBCT 17 259b-d; BK iv, SECT 3 263b-264a;
SECT 5 264b; SECT 12 264c; SECT 33 266c-d;
lib to 13
SECT 10 270c-d; SECT 13 271b; SECT 23 272b;
SECT 33 273b-c; BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; SECT
36 277c; BK vn, SECT 18-19 281a; SECT 35
282a; SECT 49 282d; BK vin, SECT 6 285d-
286a; SECT 16,18 286d; BK ix, SECT 21 293 b-c;
SECT 28 293d-294a; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c;
SECT 31 300a-b; SECT 34 301a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-462] 115a-b esp
[462] H5b
14 PLUTARCH: Aemihus Paulus, 225b-c; 229a-c
17 PLOIINUS: First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 18 57d-
58a; par 25-26 60a-b / Christian Doctrine, BK
i, CH 9 62 7a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-c; xiv [94-120] 20c-d; xxvi [90-142] 39a-
c; PURGATORY, xi ['j^-n'j} 69c-70a; xiv [91-
126] 74c-75a; xxvm [76-148] 96d-97c; PARA-
DISE, xv-xvi 128b-132a
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5583-6410]
256a-269b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vi, 9b-c
23HoBBEs- Leviathan, PART i, 79c-d; PART 11,
150c; 154b-c; PART iv, 271d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 33b-36a; 47a-51a; 131b-
132a; 28Ia-282a; 292d-294b; 318c-319b;
458b-c, 462c-465c; 478c-479c; 540d-541c
26 SHAKESPEARE. 2nd Henry IV, ACT in, sc I
[45-56] 483b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [68-73]
32b; ACT v, sc i [202-240] 66c-d / Troilus and
Cressida, ACT in, sc in [145-189] 124a-c; ACT
iv, sc iv [26-50] 128c / King Lear, ACT iv, sc i
[10-12] 269c / Sonnets, xv 588b-c, xxv 590a;
XLIX 593d; LX 595b-c, LXIV-LXV 596a-b;
cxvi 604a, cxxin 605a
28 GILBERI: Loadstone, PREF, 2a
28 HARVEY. Motion of the Heart, 274a; 285b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 14c-15c csp
15a-b; 16c-d; 61b; 65b-c; 90b-d / Novum
Organum, BK i, APH 90 124d-125a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 45d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 4-11 398d-
400b; PART v, PROP 6, SCHOL 454a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 129-131 195b; 135 196a;
139-143 196b-200a; 164-172 202b-203b; 181
204b / Vacuum, 355a-358b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 223
76c-d / Human Understanding, 85a-c
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART in, 105a-106b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [15-20] Ib
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 14, 62a-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Repre-
sentative Government, 336b-c; 350c; 377d-
378a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-c;
PART i, 209b; 258b
47 GOETHE: Faust, DEDICATION la-b; PART n
[n.573-586] 281b-282a; [11,612-622] 282b-
283a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 302b; 577c-d
CHAFER 10: CHANGE 213
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 221b-d; BK vi,
238c-243d passim; 267c; BK vn, 275a-276b;
294a-b; BK vm, 305b d; 307d-309c; BK ix,
356b-d; BK x, 394 d; 403a-405a; BK xir, 538a-
539c; 5S6d-557a; BK xv, 639c; EPILOGUE i,
645a-646c; 668a-669c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 524a-525a; 707b-708a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651b-d
13. The problem of the eternity of motion or
change
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Timaeus, 450c-
451a; 460c-d
8 ARISTOTLE : Physics, BK iv, CH 13 [222*29~b8]
302 b; BK vin, CH 1-4 334a-340d; CH 8 348b-
352a / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 [269b2-io] 360c-d;
CH 3 [27obi-24] 361c-362a; BK i, CH 9 [279*12]-
BK ii, CH i [284^] 370b-376a; BK n, CH 6
379c-380c / Generation and Corruption, BK n,
CH 10-11 437d-441a,c / Meteorology, BK i, CH
14 [352*16-353*27] 458b-459a,c passim; BK n,
CH 3 [356^-357*4] 462b-c / Metaphysics, BK
ix, CH 8 [1050^0-28] 576c-d; BK xn, CH 6
[io7ib3]-CH 7 [1072*22] 601b-602b; CH 7
[1073*2-34] 603a c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [951-1051]
12d-14a csp [988-1007] 13b; BK n [80-141]
16a-d; [294-302] 18d; [569-580] 22b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 13 271b;
SECT 23 272b; BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; BK ix,
SECT 28 293d-294a; BK xi, SECT 27 306b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK xin, 429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b 891a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 7-8 122d-
124c; CH 11-13 126a-129a / Fourth Ennead,
TR iv, CH 7-8 161d-162d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 10-17
91d-93c; BK xn, par 8-9 lOla-c; par 12-16
101d-103a; par 29 105d-106a; par 33 107b-c;
par 39-40 109a-110a / City of God, BK xi,
CH 4-6 324a-325d; BK xn, CH 10-20 348b-
357a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 2, REP 2 41d-42c; A 4, ANS 43b-44b; Q 14,
A 12, ANS 85d-86d; Q 46, AA 1-2 250a-255a;
Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-379c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b; Q 91, A 2 101 7c-
1020c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 56b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
224d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 35,
163a; APH 48, 186b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xin, 27b-c
34 NEWTON: Prmc iples, LAW 1 14a; BK HI, PROP xo
284a-285a / Optics, BK in, 540a-541b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xiv,
SECT 26 160c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 135a-137a,c; 152a-d;
160b-161d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 882a
214
THE GREAT IDEAS
14*? 15*
14. The theory of the prime mover: the order
and hierarchy of movers and moved
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Statesman, 587a-
589c / Laws, BK x, 758d-765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH i-2326a-329a;
BK vui 334a-355d / Heavens, BK HI, CH 2
[30ob8-3oi*i2] 391d~392c / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 7 421d-423b; BK 11, CH 6
[334*6-9] 435a / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 8
[ioi2b22-32] 532d; BK v, CH ri [ioi8bi9~22]
539c-d; BK ix, CH 8 [i049bi7~28] 575b-c;
[io5o*3-b6] 575d-576b; BK XH, CH 4 [io7ob22-
35] 600b; CH 5 [1071*30-36] 601a; CH 6-8
601b-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH i [698*10-
15] 233a; CH 3-6 234a-236b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14, 120d-
121a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; Q 9,
A i, REP i 38c-39c; Q 19, A i, REP 3 108d-109c;
Q 25, A 2, REP 3 144c-145b; Q 46, A i, REP 5
250a-252d; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 60,
A i, REP 2 310b-311a; Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-
379c; QQ io5-ii9538d-608d passim; PART i-n,
Q i, A 4, ANS 612a-613a; A 6, ANS 614a-c; Q 6,
A i, REP 3 644d-646a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
109, A i, ANS 338b-339c; PART in SUPPL, Q 91,
A I,REP2l016b-1017c
21 D\NTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d; xin [52-84] 126a-b; xxvn [106-120]
148b-c; xxvin [1-78] 148d-149c
23 HoBBLs: leviathan, PART i, 79d-80a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK vi, 107c-110d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 415b-417a
esp 416b-c; 426a-429b; 443a-c; 490d-493a esp
492b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [469-505] 185b-
186a
33 PASCAL: Pensfes, 77 186a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 140b,d-145c; 177b-179b;
239a-240b / Practical Reason, 334b-337a,c /
Judgement, 597d-599d; 610b-613a,c
15. The immutable
1 5a. The immutability of the objects of
thought: the realm of truth
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 100:5; 117:2; 119:160;
146:6— (D) Psalms, <)g\%; 116:2; 118:160; 145:7
/ Proverbs, 8.22-30
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 24:9— (D) OT, Eccle-
siasticus, 24:14
NEW TESTAMENT: II John, 2
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 1130-1148,0 / Phaedrus, 125a-
b / Symposium, 167b-d / P haedo, 231b-232b /
Republic, BK v, 371a-373c / Timaeus, 447a-d;
4S7b-458a / Parmenides, 487c-491a / Sophist,
568a-b / Philebus, 634b-635b / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [4aio-bi2] 8b-9a
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 8 104a-b / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 6 505b<506b; CH 9 508c-511c;
BK in, CH i [995bi3-i8] S14a; [995b3 1-996*1]
514b; [996V91 [99^l*3-I5l 514c» c« 2
[997*34-998*i9] 516a-d; CH 3 [998bi4]-cH 4
[999^4] 517b-518c; CH 4 [iooi*4)-cH 6
[ioo2b3i] 519d-521d; BK vn, CH 8 [io33bi9-
1034*8] 556d-557b; CH 10 [1035^2-1036*12]
559b-c; CH n [io36b32-io37*4] 560b-c; CH
13-14 562a-563c; CH 15 [iO4o*8-b4] 564a-c, CH
16 [i040b28-i04i*4] 564d-565a; BK ix, CH 8
[io5ob35-io5i*2] 576d-577a; BK x, CH 10
586c-d; BK xi, CH i [i059*33-bi4] 587b-c;
BK xii, CH i [io69*30-b2] 598b-c; CH 3
[1070*4-30] 599b-d; BK xm, CH 1-5 607a-
611d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 341b-342c
11 NICOMACHUS. Arithmetic, BK i, 811b-d; 813d-
814b
17 PLOHNUS: Second Ennead, TR v, CH 3 58d-59c
/ Third Ennead, TR ix 136a-138a,c / Fifth
Ennead, TR vn, CH i 238a*b; TR ix, CH 5-13
248a-251c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a; BK
xi, par 9-11 91c-92b / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 8-10 626c-627b, BK n, CH 38 6S4b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A }, REP 4 25a-d; Q 10, A 3, REP 3 42c-43b;
Q 16, AA 7-8 99a-100d; Q 44, A i, REP 5
238b-239a; Q 84, \ i, ANS and REP 3 440d-
442a; Q 85, A i, REP 2 451c-453c; Q 86, A 3
463b-d; Q 113, A i, ANS 576a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 53,
A i, ANS and REP 2-3 19d-21a; Q 94, AA 5-6
224d-226b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27d-28c;
43d-44c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52d-53a /
Meditations, v 93a-96a / Objections and Re-
plies, 123b; 216d-217d; 228a-c; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 8 35Sc; PROP 7
356c; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PROP 17,
SCHOL 362c-363c; PART n, PROP 32 385c; PROP
34 385d; PROP 37-39 386b-387a; PROP 40,
DEMONST 387a; PROP 43-47 388c-391a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384a-b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH n,
SECT 2 128a-b; BK HI, CH HI, SECT 19 259c-
260a; CH vi, SECT 6 269d-270a; BK iv, CH i,
SECT 9 308c-309b; CH HI, SECT 31 323c-d;
CH xi, SECT 14 3S8b-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 551a-553c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, i,
115a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [73-74! 3a
50 MARX-£NOELS: Communist Manifesto, 428b-d
I5b to I5c
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
215
53 JAMES: Psychology, 299a-304b csp 301a, 302a-
304 b; 869a; 879b-882a
1 5b. The uaalterability of the decrees of fate
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvm [52-126] 130c-131c;
BK xxn [131-223] 156c-157c
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [507-525] 45a-
b / Agamemnon [1018-1033] 63a
5 EURIPIDES: Heracles Mad [1313-1353] 376c-d
/ Iphigenia Among the Tauri [1435-1499]
424a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-10a; 20b-22a;
BK n, 77a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-120b;
BK n, CH 8 146a-147c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT n 262a-
b; BK x, SECT 5 296d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK x [606-632] 318b-319b
14 PLUTARCH: Caesar, 601c-604d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH i-io 207d-
216c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 116,
A 3 594c-595a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BKIV, STANZA
136-154 106a-108b
32 MILTON: Arcades [54-83] 26b-27a / Paradise
Lost, BK vn [170-173] 220b-221a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE n, 675a-c
1 5c. The immutability of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:18 / Deuteron-
omy, 32:39-40 / 7 Chronicles, 16:34-36— (D)
I Parahpomenon, 16:34-36 / Psalms, 9:5-8;
10:16; 29.10-11; 33:10-11; 45.6; 48 esp 48 8,
48:14; 66:7; 89-90 esp 89:30-35, 90:1-4; 93:2;
102 esp 102:11-12, 102*26-27; 103:17-18; 136;
145-146 esp 145:13, 146:10— (D) Psalms, 9:6-
9; 9.16; 28:10; 32:10-11; 44.7; 47 esp 47:9,
47:15; 65:7; 88-89 esP 88*31-36, 89:1-4; 92-2;
101 esp 101:12-13, 101:27-28; 102:17-18; 135;
144-145 esp 144:13, 145:10 / Ecclesiastes, 3:14-
15 / Isaiah, 40:8,28; 43:10-13; 57:15— (D)
Isaias, 40:8,28; 43:10-13; 57:15 / Jeremiah,
10:10— (D) Jeremias, 10:10 / Lamentations,
5:19 / Daniel, 6:25-27 / Malachi, 3:6— (D)
Malachias, 3*6
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 36:17; 39:20; 42:21 —
(D) OT, Eccksiasticus, 36:18-19; 39:25542:21-
22
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:35 /John, 1:1-5 /
Romans, 1:21-25; 6.23 / Colossians, 1:16-17 /
/ Timothy, 1:17 / Hebrews, 1:10-12; 7:23-28;
13:7-8 /James, 1:17 / I John, 5:11-12 / Revela-
tion, 1:17-18; 10 :6; 11:15-18— (D) Apocalypse,
1:17-18; 10:6; 11:15-18
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [607-615] 120a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 322d-323c; 324a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vm, CH 6 [258bio-
259b3Il 344b-345d / Heavens, BK i, CH 9
[279*23-b4J 370c-d; BK n, CH 3 [286*8-13] 377c
/ Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
[337*15-23] 439a-b / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 5
[ioi5b9-i6] 536a; BK XH, CH 6-7 601b-603b;
CH 9 605a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [ii54b20-
3o]406c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 296a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH r-6 119b-
122d / Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH 18-^-21 351d-
353d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK iv, par 26 25c-d; par 29 26b; BK vn, par
1-6 43b-45a; par 17-18 49a-b; par 23 50b-c;
par 26, 51c; BK xn, par n lOld; par 18 103a-c;
BK xin, par 44 122d / City of God, BK vn, CH
30 261b-d; BK vm, CH n, 272c; BK x, CH i,
298b,d; BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d; CH 21-22
333a-334c; BK xn, CH 1-3 342b,d-344b; CH 14
350d-351b; CH 17 353a-354a / Christian Doc-
trine, BK i, CH 5 625d-626a; CH 8 626c-627a;
CH 10 627b; CH 22-23 629b-630c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS and REP 4 14b-
15b; QQ 9-10 38c-46d; Q 14, A 7 81d-82b; A 15
89b-90b; Q 18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 19, A 7 114d-
115d; Q 26, A i, REP 2 150b-c; Q 43, A 2, REP 2
230d-231c; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; PART in, Q i, A i, REP 3
701d-703a; Q 2, A i, ANS 710a-711c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xnr [52-
84] 126a-b; xxiv [130-141] 144a; xxvni [1-78]
148d-149c; xxix [13-36] 150b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2994-3015] 209a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 173a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-294b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52b-d /
Meditations, in, 86a-87a; v 93a-96a esp 93d-
95b / Objections and Replies, 228a-c; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i 355a-372d esp DEF i
355a, DEF 3,6-7 355b, PROP 3 356a, PROP 5-8
356b-357d, PROP 11-15 358b-361d, PROP 17
362b-363c, PROP 19-20 363c-364a, PROP 33,
SCHOL i 367c-d, PROP 34 369a; PART v, PROP
17 456c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [372-389] 143b-
144a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 469 256a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvn,
SECT 20 172d-173c; CH xxm, SECT 21 209c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 117 436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 175d-176c; 177b-179b;
190c; 192d; 201b-c / Practical Reason, 352a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 270,
85c / Philosophy of History, PART in, 306a
216 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The broad philosophical context of the theory of change, see BEING 5; DESIRE i ; FORM i-ib;
MATTER i-ib, 20.
The distinction between the mutable and the immutable, #v ASTRONOMY 8a; BEING 7b(3);
ELEMENT 53; ETERNITY 4~4d; FORM la; TRUTH 5.
The issue concerning time and eternity in relation to change, see ASTRONOMY 8c(i); ETER-
NITY i ; TIME 2, 2b; WORLD 43.
' A discussion relevant to the theory of the prime mover, see ANGEL 2a.
The mathematical and experimental approach to the study of local motion and the formula-
tion of its laws, see ASTRONOMY 8c-8c(3); MFCHANICS 5-5^2), 6c-6e; ONE AND MANY
33(2); QUANTITY 5c; SPACE 2a.
The discussion of biological and psychological change, see ANIMAL 43, 60-7, 8b; CAUSE 2;
DESIRE 2c-2d; EDUCATION 4, 5c, 6; EMOTION ib, 2b; HABIT 4b; REASONING ib; TIME 7;
VlRTUL AND VlCE 40-4^
Other discussions of the distinction between generation and other kinds of change, see ART
2a; FORM id(2); WORLD 4e(i); and for the problem of the transmutation of the elements,
see ELEMENT }c.
The theory of historical change in nature and society, see EVOLUTION 4d, 6a, 7c; HISTORY
4b; PROGRESS la, ic-2; TIME 8a.
The consideration of economic, political, and cultural change, see CONSTITUTION 7-73,
8-8b; PROGRESS 3-4^ 6-6b; REVOLUTION 2-2C, 4-4^ WEALTH 12.
The discussion of change or becoming as an object of knowledge, see BEING 8a-8b; KNOWL-
EDGE 6a(i); OPINION i.
Other considerations of man's attitude toward change and mutability, see CUSTOM AND
CONVENTION 8; PROGRESS 5; TIME 7.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofe of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works aie divided into two groups:
I. Works bv authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I. II.
AQUINAS. De Principiis Naturae SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Physicists, BK n,
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART 11, CH 2, 5
24-53 . Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK in, CH 1-20
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART in, CH 15-16, 21-22 CRESCAS. Or Adonai, PROPOSITIONS 4-9, 13-14,
BERKELEY. Siris 17, 25
KANT. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xvm (n),
Science xxx (8-9), LX (8), XLVI (3), XLVIII-L
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, in JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho-
. Science of Logic, VOL i, BK i, SECT i, CH i(c) misttcus, Philosophia Naturalis, PART i, QQ 14, 19,
. Logic, CH 7 22-24, PART ni» QQ I~2» 10-12
W. IAMBS. Some Problems of Philosophy \ CH 9-10, LEIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, xv-xxn
12 . Monadology, par 10-18
CHAPTER 10: CHANGE
217
VOLTAIRE. "Motion," in A Philosophical Dictionary
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL i, BK ii, CH 13
HELMHOLTZ. Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects,
VII
MAXWELL. Matter and Motion
CLIFFORD. The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,
CH 5
LOTZE. Metaphysics, BK i, CH 4-5 ; BK n, CH 4
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 5
CROCE. History, Its Theory and Practice
BERGSON. Creative Evolution
. The Creative Mind, CH 5
G. N. LEWIS. The Anatomy of Science, ESSAY m-iv
HEIDEGGER. Sftn und Zcit
B. RUSSELL. Principles of Mathematics, CH 54,
56-59
. The Analysis of Matter, CH 27, 33-34
EDDINGTON. The Nature of the Physical World,
CH5
DEWEV. Experience and Nature, CH 2
. The Quest for Certainty, CH 2
WHITEHEAD. The Concept of Nature, CH 5
. Process and Reality, PART n, CH 10
SANTA Y AN \. Scepticism and Animal Faith, CH 5
. The Realm of Matter, CH 5-6
RIEZLER. Physics and Reality
Chapters: CITIZEN
INTRODUCTION
," like "comrade," has been and
/ still is a revolutionary word. Both words
have been titles proudly adopted by men to
mark their liberation from the yoke of despo-
tism or tyranny. Both titles are still sought by
those who have not yet gained admission to the
fraternity of the free and equal.
The rank and status of citizenship first ap-
peared in the ancient world with the begin-
ning of constitutional government in the city-
states of Greece. The Greeks were conscious
of this fact, and proud of it. In terms of it,
they set themselves apart from the barbarians
who were subjects of the Great King of Persia
or the Egyptian Pharaoh. The Spartan heralds,
according to Herodotus, thus address the
Persian commander: "Thou hast experience
of hall the matter; but the other half is beyond
thy knowledge. A slave's life thou under-
standest; but, never having tasted liberty,
thou canst not tell whether it is sweet or no.
Ahl hadst thou known what freedom is, thou
wouldst have bidden us fight for it, not with
the spear only, but with the battle-axe."
Not only Herodotus and Thucydides but
also the great tragic poets, notably Aeschylus
in the Persians, record this Hellenic sense of
distinction from the surrounding peoples who
still lived in childlike submission to absolute
rule. But the Greeks were also conscious that
their political maturity as self-governing cit-
izens was, as Aristotle intimates in the Politics,
a recent development from the primitive con-
dition in which tribal chieftains ruled despot-
ically.
The basic distinction between subjection and
citizenship is inseparable from the equally basic
distinction between absolute and limited, or
between despotic and constitutional, govern-
ment. The difference between these two modes
of government is treated in the chapter on
CONSTITUTION. It is sufficient here to note that
the difference in the authority and power pos-
sessed by rulers— according as it is absolute or
limited— corresponds with a difference in the
status, the degree of freedom, and the rights
and privileges of the people ruled.
IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND citizenship it is neces-
sary to understand the several ways in which
men can belong to or be parts of a political
community. There are two divisions among
men within a community which help us to
define citizenship.
According to one of these divisions, the
native-born are separated from aliens or foreign-
ers. In the Greek city-states it was almost im-
possible for aliens to become citizens. Plutarch
notes that Solon's law of naturalization, which
he qualifies as "of doubtful character," would
not allow strangers to become citizens unless
"they were in perpetual exile from their
own country, or came with their whole family
to trade there." The metics, or aliens, who
were allowed in the city were usually a class
apart.
In Rome the situation was different; it was
possible for outsiders to receive the high honor
of Roman citizenship. "The aspiring genius of
Rome," Gibbon writes, "sacrificed vanity to
ambition, and deemed it more prudent, as well
as honourable, to adopt virtue and merit for
her own wheresoever they were found, among
slaves or strangers, enemies or barbarians."
Most modern republics set up naturalization
proceedings for the regular admission of some,
if not all, immigrants to membership in the
state. Yet a difference always remains between
a citizen and a denizen, or mere resident. Ac-
cordingly, Rousseau criticizes Bodin for con-
fusing citizens with townsmen. "M. D'Alem-
bert," he says, "has avoided this error, and in
218
CHAPTER 11: CITIZEN
219
his article on Geneva, has clearly distinguished
the four orders of men (or even five, counting
mere foreigners) who dwell in our town, of
which two only compose the Republic."
According to a second way in which men
are divided within the political community,
free men are separated from slaves. The latter,
though they may be native-born, are not
members of the political community, but
merely part of its property. A slave, accord-
ing to Aristotle, is one "who, being a human
being, is also a possession." But, he says in
another place, "property, even though living
beings are included in it, is no part of a state;
for a state is not a community of living beings
only, but a community of equals."
On this principle, Aristotle excludes more
than the chattel slave from the status and priv-
ilege of citizenship. "We cannot consider all
those to be citizens," he writes, "who are neces-
sary to the existence of the state; for example,
children are not citizens equally with grown-up
men. ... In ancient times, and among some
nations," he continues, "the artisan class were
slaves or foreigners, and therefore the majority
of them are so now. The best form of state will
not admit them to citizenship."
The "slaves who minister to the wants of
individuals," and the "mechanics or laborers
who are the servants of the community" are
to be counted as its "necessary people" but not
as members of the state. When he discusses the
size and character of the population for an ideal
state, Aristotle says, "we ought not to include
everybody, for there must always be in cities a
multitude of slaves and sojourners and foreign-
ers; but we should include only those who are
members of the state, and who form an essential
part of it."
The exclusion of slaves and resident aliens
from membership in the political community
has a profound bearing on the meaning of the
political concept expressed by the words "the
people." The people is not the same as the pop-
ulation— all those human beings who live with-
in the state's borders. Even in societies which
have abolished chattel slavery and in which
suffrage tends to be unrestricted, infants and
aliens remain outside the pale of political life.
The people is always a part— the active polit-
ical part— of the population*
THE DISTINCTION OF citizen from slave, infant,
or alien does not complete the picture. The
subjects of a king are not slaves, nor are they
citizens of a republic. Yet like citizens, subjects
have membership in the political community.
They constitute the people the king serves as
well as rules, unless he is a tyrant, for only if he
is a tyrant does he treat them as if they were
his property, to be used for his own pleasure or
interest. Sometimes a distinction is made be-
tween first- and second-class citizens, and then
the latter, who occupy an intermediate position
between citizenship and slavery, are regarded
as subjects. "Since there are many forms of
government," Aristotle writes, "there must be
many varieties of citizens, and especially of cit-
izens who are subjects; so that under some gov-
ernments the mechanic and the laborer will be
citizens, but not in others." The whole meaning
of citizenship changes for Aristotle when the
working classes are admitted to it.
From a somewhat different point of view,
Aquinas holds that a man can be "said to be a
citizen in two ways: first, absolutely; secondly,
in a restricted sense. A man is a citizen abso-
lutely if he has all the rights of citizenship; for
instance, the right of debating or voting in the
popular assembly. On the other hand, any man
may be called citizen only in a restricted sense
if he dwells within the state, even lowly people,
or children, or old men, who are not fit to enjoy
power in matters pertaining to the common
welfare." Those who are thus disfranchised, but
are not slaves, are subjects rather than citizens
in the full sense.
It is possible, of course, for men to have the
dual status of subject and citizen, as is the case
now in England and the self-governing domin-
ions of the British commonwealth. This double
status does not blur the distinction between cit-
izen and subject; rather it signifies the mixed
nature of a form of government which is both
royal— at least in its vestiges of monarchy — and
constitutional. In the time of Locke, when a
great constitutional victory had been won
against the despotism of the last Stuart, the
English people did not yet regard themselves
as citizens. Observing that the title of citizen
has never been given "to the subjects of any
prince, not even the ancient Macedonians,"
Rousseau Ends himself compelled to add: "not
220
THE GREAT IDEAS
even the English of today, though they are
nearer liberty than anyone else."
Unlike citizens, the subjects of a king, espe-
cially of one claiming absolute power, have no
voice in their own government, and no legal
means for protecting their natural rights as
men. So long as the absolute ruler does not
tyrannize, he governs for the welfare of his
people; and so, though a despot in the sense of
wielding absolute power over political inferiors,
he is benevolent in the sense of serving rather
than using them. But if he ceases to be benevo-
lent and turns tyrannical, his subjects have no
recourse except rebellion. They must resort to
violence in order to emancipate themselves
from a condition which amounts to slavery.
A citizen, on the other hand, is safeguarded
in his legal as well as in his natural rights and,
in some modern republics at least, he is pro-
vided with juridical means for rectifying sup-
posed injustices, For citizens, the right of re-
bellion is the last, not the only, resort.
THE DISTINCT CONDITIONS of slavery, subjec-
tion, and citizenship can be summarized by de-
fining three ways in which rulers are related to
the persons they rule. These three relations
seem to have been first clearly differentiated by
Aristotle.
He rinds all three relationships in the struc-
ture of the household, as that is constituted in
antiquity. Of household management, he writes,
"there are three parts— one is the rule of a
master over slaves . . . another of a father, and
a third of a husband." In each case, "the kind of
rule differs: the freeman rules over the slave
after another manner from that in which the
male rules over the female, or the man over the
child."
As we have already seen, Aristotle conceives
the slave as a piece of property. When he says
that the slave "wholly belongs to his master"
or that "he is a part of his master, a living but
separated part of his bodily frame," he is ob-
viously considering only the chattel slave.
There are, as the chapter on SLAVERY indicates,
other kinds or degrees of slavery less extreme
than this.
But chattel slavery, more clearly than the
attenuated forms of servitude, defines the na-
ture of mastery. The master maxiages or uses
the slave as he manages and uses other instru-
ments— inanimate tools or domesticated ani-
mals. "The rule of a master," Aristotle declares,
is "exercised primarily with a view to the in-
terest of the master." Yet it "accidentally con-
siders the slave, since, if the slave perish, the
rule of the master perishes with him."
Thus conceived, the slave lacks every vestige
of political liberty. He is treated as radically
inferior to his master— almost as if he were
something less than a man. He has no voice in
his own government, nor is his welfare the para-
mount consideration of his ruler. In short, we
have slavery when one man governs another in
the way in which a man manages his property,
using it for his own good.
When one man governs another in the way
in which good parents administer the affairs of
children as members of the household, we have
the type of rule which also appears in the rela-
tion between absolute kings or benevolent des-
pots and their subjects. "The rule of a father
over his children is royal," Aristotle writes, "for
he rules by virtue of both love and of the re-
spect due to age, exercising a kind of royal
power. ... A king," Aristotle adds, "is the nat-
ural superior of his subjects, but he should be
of the same kin or kind with them, and such is
the relation of eider and younger, father and
son."
From the analogous type of rule in the fam-
ily, we see two differences between the condi-
tion of a slave and that of a subject under abso-
lute or despotic rule in the state. The inferiority
of children, unlike that of slaves, is not their
permanent condition. It is an aspect of their
immaturity. They are temporarily incapable
of judging what is for their good, and so need
the direction of their superiors in age, ex-
perience, and prudence. But children have
some equality with their parents, to the ex-
tent that their humanity is recognized as the
reason why they should not be ruled as slaves,
but governed for their own welfare.
The government of children, Aristotle de-
clares, "is exercised in the first instance for the
good of the governed, or for the common good
of both parties, but essentially for the good of
the governed." In the same way, the subjects of
a benevolent despot, or of any absolute mon-
arch who rules paternaUsticaliy, are said to be
CHAPTER 11: CITIZEN
221
governed for their own good. They are served,
not used, by their rulers; and to this extent
they have a degree of political liberty. But they
do not have the complete liberty which exists
only with self-government.
That occurs only under constitutional rule,
which for Aristotle has an imperfect analogue
in the family in the relation of husband and
wife. In the state, however, it is perfectly repre-
sented by the relation between the holders of
public office and other citizens. "In the consti-
tutional state," Aristotle says, "the citizens rule
and are ruled by turns; for the idea of a consti-
tutional state implies that the natures of the
citizens are equal, and do not differ at all." The
citizen, in other words, is one "who has the
power to take part in the deliberative or judi-
cial administration of the state." Rousseau
seems to have a similar conception of the citi-
zen as both ruling and ruled, though he uses
the word "subject" to designate the citizen as
ruled. "The people," he writes, "are called
citizens, as sharing in the sovereign power, and
subjects, as being under the laws of the State."
Because the man who holds office in a con-
stitutional government is first of all a citizen
himself, and only secondly an official vested
with the authority of a political office, the citi-
zen is a man ruled by his equals and ruled as an
equal. Observing these facts, Aristotle describes
citizenship as the one "indefinite office" set up
by a constitution. It is indefinite both in tenure
and by comparison with the various magistra-
cies or other offices which have more definitely
assigned functions. Since a citizen is ruled only
by other citizens, and since he has the oppor-
tunity of ruling others in turn, citizenship in-
volves political liberty in the fullest sense. This
does not mean freedom fiom government, but
freedom through self-government— d\ the free-
dom a man can have m society, liberty under
law and proportioned to justice.
Two of these three political conditions-
slavery and subjection— naturally receive fuller
treatment in the chapter on SLAVERY. The
discussion of the third, citizenship, belongs not
only to this chapter, but also to the chapter
on CONSTITUTION, and to other chapters which
deal with forms of constitutional government,
such as ARISTOCRACY, DEMOCRACY, and OLI-
GARCHY.
FOR THE SAME REASON that the revolutionists
against absolutism or despotism in the i8th cen-
tury use the phrase "free government" for re-
publican institutions, they also use "citizen** to
designate a free man, a man who possesses the
political liberty and equality which they re-
gard as the natural right of men because they
are men. In this respect they do not differ
substantially from their Greek or Roman an-
cestors who prize constitutional government
and citizenship as conditions of freedom and
equality.
Furthermore, like the constitutionalists of
antiquity, the republicans of the i8th century
arc, with few if any exceptions, not democrats
in the sense of extending the rights and privi-
leges of citizenship to all adults. In the i8th
century slavery still exists; and a large part even
of those who are not in economic bondage re-
mains outside the pale of citizenship, disqual-
ified by accidents of birth such as race or sex,
and by the lack of sufficient wealth or property
which makes it necessary for them to labor in
order to live. It is not only an ancient oligarch
like Aristotle who thinks that "the ruling class
should be the owners of property, for they are
citizens, and the citizens of a state should be in
good circumstances; whereas mechanics" should
have "no share in the state." In the i8th cen-
tury, as well as in ancient Greece, extending the
privileges of citizenship to indentured appren-
tices, day laborers, or journeymen, is a form of
radicalism known as "extreme democracy."
Kant may be taken as representative of an
enlightened point of view in the i8th century.
He finds that there are "three juridical attri-
butes" that belong by right to the citizens:
"i. constitutional freedom, as the right of
every citizen to have to obey no other law than
that to which he has given his consent or ap-
proval; 2. civil equality, as the right of the
citizen to recognize no one as a superior among
the people in relation to himself . . . and 3.
political independence, as the right to owe his
existence and continuance in society not to the
arbitrary will of another, but to his own rights
and powers as a member of the commonwealth."
The last attribute leads Kant to distinguish
between "active and passive citizenship." Al-
though he admits that this "appears to stand in
contradiction to the definition of a citizen as
222
THE GREAT IDEAS
such," he concludes that there are some in the
community not entitled to the full privileges
of citizenship. It is his contention, widely shared
in the 1 8th century, that suffrage, which "prop-
erly constitutes the political qualification of a
citizen/' presupposes the "independence or
self-sufficiency of the individual citizen among
the people."
Consequently he denies suffrage to "every-
one who is compelled to maintain himself not
according to his own industry, but as it is ar-
ranged by others." Such a restriction, he says,
includes "the apprentice of a merchant or
tradesman, a servant who is not in the employ
of the state, a minor" and "all women." They
are "passive parts" of the state and do not have
"the right to deal with the state as active mem-
bers of it, to reorganize it, or to take action by
way of introducing certain laws." Kant insists,
however, that "it must be made possible for
them to raise themselves from this passive con-
dition in the State, to the condition of active
citizenship."
THE FOREGOING DISCUSSION shows the connec-
tion between the idea of citizenship and the two
revolutionary movements which John Stuart
Mill notes in the history of political thought
and action. The first is the movement to obtain
"recognition of certain immunities, called po-
litical liberties or rights, which it was to be re-
garded as a breach of duty in the ruler to in-
fringe, and which if he did infringe, specific
resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be
justifiable." This is the revolutionary effort to
overthrow despotism and to establish constitu-
tional government, with the status of citizen-
ship for at least some part of the population —
frequently much less than half of the total.
The second revolutionary movement goes
further. It presupposes the existence of govern-
ment by law and aims to perfect it. It therefore
seeks to obtain "the establishment of constitu-
tional checks, by which the consent of the com-
munity, or of a body of some sort, supposed to
represent its interests, is made a necessary con-
dition to some of the more important acts of the
governing power." Since, according to Mill, it
aims to make the consent of the governed ef-
fective through an adequate representation of
their wishes, this movement inevitably leads to
the fight against franchise restrictions and for
universal suffrage, which would admit every
normal, adult human being to the freedom and
equality of citizenship.
The first revolution has a long history. It be-
gins with the Greek city-states which, having
won this victory against the Persians, lost it to
the Macedonian conquerors. It happens again
with the establishment of the Roman republic
after the expulsion of the Tarquins, and again it
is undone when the Caesars assume absolute
power. This part of the story is told with vary-
ing emotions by Plutarch and Polybius, Tacitus
and Gibbon. During the Middle Ages the same
struggle appears in the various efforts to estab-
lish the supremacy of law, particularly through
the development of customary and canon law.
The revolution still continues in the i7th and
1 8th centuries and the new heights it reaches
are reflected in the writings of a constitution-
alist like Locke and republicans like Rousseau,
Kant, and the American Federalists. The Dec-
laration of Independence and the Constitution
of the United States are perhaps the classic
documents of this historical phase.
The second revolution, particularly as iden-
tified with the fight for universal suffrage, is a
relatively recent event. Its roots may go back
as far as Cromwell's time to the activity of the
Levellers, and in the i8th century to the writ-
ings of John Cartwnght. But what is, perhaps,
its first full expression does not appear until
Mill's Representative Government. In that book,
Mill lays down the principles of the franchise
reforms which began in the ipth century, but
which, as in the case of woman suffrage or the
repeal of the poll tax, were carried through only
yesterday or are still in progress.
Yet the struggle for universal suffrage — or,
as Mill would say, against treating any human
being as a "political pariah" — does have an an-
cient parallel in the conflict between demo-
cratic and oligarchical constitutions in Greek
political life and thought. These two types of
constitution were opposed on the qualifications
for citizenship and public office, The oligarchi-
cal constitution restricted both to men of con-
siderable wealth. At the other extreme, as Aris-
totle observes, the most radical forms of Greek
democracy granted citizenship to the working
classes, and gave no advantage to the rich in
CHAPTER 1 1 : CITIZEN
223
filling the magistracies, for they selected offi-
cials from the whole citizenry by lot.
The parallelism goes no further than that.
Greek democracy, even when it denied special
privileges to the propertied classes, never con-
templated the abolition of slavery or the polit-
ical emancipation of women.
THERE ARE OTHER differences between ancient
and modern institutions which affect the char-
acter of citizenship. The problem of who shall
be admitted to citizenship is fundamental in
both epochs. Insofar as it connotes the condi-
tion of political liberty and equality, the status
of citizenship remains essentially the same. But
the rights and duties, the privileges and im-
munities, which belong to citizenship vary with
the difference between ancient and modern
constitutionalism.
Even if they had been written, the consti-
tutions of the ancient world would not have
declared the rights of man and the citizen,
nor would they have had bills of rights ap-
pended to them. The significance of these
modern innovations (which begin, perhaps, with
Magna Carta) lies, not in a new conception
of citizenship, but in the invention of juridical
means to endow the primary office of citizen-
ship with sufficient legal power to protect it
from invasion by government.
In The Federalist, Hamilton maintains that
"bills of rights are, in their origin, stipulations
between kings and their subjects, abridgments
of prerogative in favour of privilege, reserva-
tions of rights not surrendered to the prince."
Defending the absence of a special bill of rights
in the original Constitution, he insists that "the
Constitution is itself, in every rational sense,
and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights."
It declares and specifies "the political privileges
of the citizens in the structure and adminis-
tration of the government," and "defines cer-
tain immunities and modes of proceeding,
which arc relative to personal and private
concerns."
Nevertheless, the right of free speech and
free assembly and the right to trial by a jury
of peers, along with the immunity from unA
warranted searches and seizures or from ex post
facto laws and bills of attainder, provided by
the early amendments to the Constitution, do
give the citizen additional protection against
interference in the performance of his civic
duties, such as independent political thought
and action, or in the exercise of his human
privileges, such as freedom of religious worship.
The invention of these constitutional devices
sprang from the bitter experience of coercion
and intimidation under Star Chamber proceed-
ings, royal censorship, and unlimited police
power. A citizen who can be coerced or intim-
idated by his government differs only in name
from the subject of an absolute despot.
In addition to having these legal safeguards,
modern differs from ancient citizenship in the
way in which its rights and privileges are exer-
cised. The machinery of suffrage is not the same
when citizens act through elected representa-
tives and when they participate directly in the
deliberations and decisions of government, by
voting in the public forum.
THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATION for citizenship is
in some respects stated in almost identical terms
by such different political philosophers as Plato
and John Stuart Mill.
In both the Republic and the Laws, Plato
emphasizes that "education is the constraining
and directing of youth towards that right reason
which the law affirms." By this he means not
only that education will affect the laws, but
also that the laws themselves have an educa-
tional task to perform. The educational pro-
gram is thus planned and conducted by the
state. The guardians— the only citizens in the
Republic in the full sense of the term— are
trained for public life, first by the discipline of
their passions, and second by the cultivation of
their minds. Their passions are disciplined by
music and gymnastics, their minds cultivated
by the liberal arts and dialectic.
In the democracy which Mill contemplates as
an ideal, "the most important point of excel-
lence ... is to promote the virtue and intelli-
gence of the people themselves." He does not
outline a specific curriculum for the training of
citizens, but it is clear that he thinks their edu-
cation cannot be accomplished in the schools
alone. The superiority of democracy, according
to Mill, lies in the fact that it calls upon the
citizen "to weigh interests not his own; to be
guided, in case of conflicting claims, by another
224
THE GREAT IDEAS
rule than his private partialities; to apply at
every turn, principles and maxims which have
for their reason of existence the common good;
and he usually finds associated with him in the
same work minds more familiarized than his
own with these ideas and operations, whose
study it will be to supply reasons to his under-
standing, and stimulation to his feeling for the
general interest," In this "school of public
spirit" a man becomes a citizen by doing the
work of a citizen and so learning to act like one.
If the future citizen is to act like a free man,
must he not also be trained in youth to think
like one? Vocational training prepares a man
to be an artisan, not a citizen. Only liberal
education is adequate to the task of creating
the free and critical intelligence required for
citizenship. Hence in a state which rests on
universal suffrage, the educational problem be-
comes greatly enlarged in scope, if not in
intrinsic difficulty.
With the advent of universal suffrage, which
Mill advocates, the state must face the re-
sponsibility for making liberal education avail-
able to every future citizen. To say that all
normal children have enough intelligence to
become citizens, but to regard the native en-
dowment of a large number of them as in-
capable of liberal education, makes a travesty
of citizenship. Will the child who cannot profit
by liberal education be able to discharge the
duties of the office to which he will be ad-
mitted upon coming of age?
THE TRAINING OF CHARACTER is always more dif-
ficult than the training of mind. In education
for citizenship, the problem of moral training
involves the question — discussed in the chapter
on VIRTUE— whether the good man and the
good citizen are identical in virtue.
For Aristotle, and seemingly also for Mill,
the virtue of the good man under an ideal con-
stitution would be identical with that of the
good citizen. As both ruling and being ruled,
"the good citizen ought to be capable of both,"
Aristotle writes. "He should know how to gov-
ern like a freeman, and how to obey like a free-
man—these are the virtues of a citizen. And al-
though the temperance and justice of a ruler
are distinct from those of a subject, the virtue
of a good man will include both; for the virtue
of the good man who is free and also a subject,
e.g. his justice, will not be one but will comprise
distinct kinds, the one qualifying him to rule,
the other to obey."
The virtues of the citizen direct him pri-
marily in the performance of his obligations to
the state. But if the welfare of the state is not
the ultimate end of man, if there are higher
goods which command human loyalty, if man's
common humanity takes precedence over his
membership in a particular state, then civic
virtue does not exhaust human excellence. More
may be morally required of the good man than
of the good citizen. The virtues of the saint and
the patriot may be of a different order.
On this question, the great books reveal a
fundamental disagreement among moralists and
political philosophers, who differ as Plato and
Hegel differ from Augustine and Aquinas, or
from Locke and Mill, on the place of the state
in human life.
The ancients frequently appeal to a law high-
er than that of the state. Socrates forever stands
as the classic example of one who would rather
die than disobey his inner voice— the command
of his conscience. A Stoic like Marcus Aurelius
is willing to give unqualified allegiance to the
political community only when it is the ideal
city of man, embracing the whole human broth-
erhood. "My city and my country, so far as I
am Antoninus," he says, "is Rome, but so far as
I am a man"— whose "nature is rational and
social" — "it is the world."
For Christian theologians, membership in the
city of God is a higher vocation than citizen-
ship in any earthly community —even when
that is the city of man at its best. The city of
God demands a higher order of virtue than the
city of man. Referring to the earthly city, Au-
gustine says that "the things which this city de-
sires cannot justly be said to be evil, for it is it-
self, in its own kind, better than all other human
goods. For it desires earthly peace for the sake
of enjoying earthly goods." It is all right for
men to seek "these things" for they "are good
things, and without doubt the gifts of God,"
But, Augustine goes on to say, "if they neglect
the better things of the heavenly city, which
are secured by eternal victory and peace never-
ending, and so inordinately covet these present
good things that they believe them to be the
: CITIZEN
225
only desirable things," then, in Augustine's
opinion, they are misdirected in their love.
In giving precedence to the commandments
of God, the theologians do not deprecate the
commands of the state or the obligations of
citizenship. But those who belong to both cities
may find themselves faced with a conflict be-
tween the law of the state and the divine law.
In such circumstances, the faithful have no
choice. They must obey- God before man.
"Laws that are contrary to the commandments
of God," Aquinas holds, do not "bind a man
in conscience" and "should not be obeyed."
THIS CONFLICT BETWEEN human and divine law
finds expression in antiquity in the Antigone of
Sophocles. "It was not Zeus who had pub-
lished me that edict," Antigone says of the
human law she disobeys; "nor deemed I that
the decrees were of such force, that a mortal
could override the unwritten and unfailing
statutes of heaven. For their life is not of
to-day or yesterday, but from all time, and
no man knows when they were first put forth."
The problem which Antigone faces can occur
in as many other ways as there are possibilities
of tension between individual conscience or de-
sire and political obligation. Whatever form
this takes, the conflict confronts the political
philosopher with all the questions that consti-
tute the problem of the individual and society,
or man and the state.
To what extent and in what respects is the
individual's personality sacred and inviolable
by the state ? How much freedom from govern-
ment has the individual a right to demand?
How much individual sacrifice has the state a
right to expect ? Is the state merely a means in
the individual's pursuit of happiness, or the end
to which all other goods must be ordered ? Is
man made for the state, or the state for man ?
To questions of this sort, the answers range
from philosophical anarchism at one extreme to
equally philosophical totalitarianism at the
other, with all degrees of individualism and
communism m between. The general problem
of man and the state, with all its controversial
issues, runs through many other chapters— such
as CONSTITUTION, GOOD AND EVIL, LAW, LIB-
ERTY, and STATE— but we have placed its prin-
cipal formulation in this chapter because the
concept of citizenship signifies the ideal con-
dition of the human individual as a member
of the political community.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The individual in relation to the state
2. The conception of citizenship
2a. The status or office of citizenship in relation to the principle of constitutional
government
2b. The distinction between citizen and subject: the distinction between the sub-
jects of a constitutional monarchy and of a despotism
2c. The character and extent of citizenship under different types of constitutions
3. The qualifications for citizenship: extent of suffrage
4. The rights, duties, privileges, and immunities of citizenship
5. The virtues of the citizen and the virtues of the good man
6. Education for citizenship
7. Political citizenship and membership in the city of God
8. Hie idea of world citizenship: the political brotherhood of man
9. Historical episodes and stages in the struggle for citizenship
PAGE
226
227
228
229
230
231
226
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER* Iliad, BK n {265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS* When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 ]AMkS' Psychology, 116a-ll9b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in .he lower half of page 119 When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK 11 [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions diffei in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follo\vs, eg, OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7 45 — (D) II Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or moie especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously m the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the icferences, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance m the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The individual in relation to the state
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [366-401]
5c-6a / Seven Against Thebes [1005-1078] 38b-
39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES- Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1071-
1090] 152b; [1226-1263] 153c-154a / Philoctetes
182a-195a,c
5 EuRiPiDbs: lleracleidae [500-534] 252c-d /
Suppliants [338-364] 261 b-c / Phoenician
Maidens [991-1020] 387a-b; [1625-1682]
392b-d / Iphigema at Auhs 42Sa-439d esp
[1255-1275] 436c, [1368-1401] 437c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Achamians 455a-469a,c
6 HLRODOFUS: History, BK i, 6c-7a
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a; 402b-404a; BK vi, 511c-d
7 PLATO: Apology 200a-212a,c / Crtto 213a-
219a,c esp 216d-219a,c / Republic, BK iv,
342a-d; 350a-d; BK v, 365c-d; BK vi, 379d-
380c; BK vii, 390b-391b; 401a-b; BK vm
401d-416a esp 402b-c / Laws, BK HI, 672d-
676b; BK v, 692c-693c; BK vi, 707b-708a, BK
vn, 721d; BK ix, 754a-b; BK xi, 775d-778a;
BK XII, 791C
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [io94b5~io]
339c-d; BK v, CH n [1138*4-13] 386b-c /
Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*19-39] 446c-d; BK n,
CH i [i26ob37-i26ia7J 455b,d; CH 2 [1261*15-
30] 455d-456a; CH 5 [i264bi6~25] 459d-460a;
BK in, CH 6 [i278bi5-29] 475d-476a; BK vn,
CH 1-3 527a-530a; CH 9 [1329*22-24] 533c;
CH 13 [13 32*28-38] 537a, BK vm, CH i [1337*
27-32] 542b
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d, BK in [59-93] 30d-31b; [978-1002]
42d-43a; BK v [1105-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETVS- Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-126c;
BK n, CH 10 148c-150a; BK in, CH 22 195a-
201a
12 AURELIUS* Meditations, BK v, SECT 22 272b;
BK vii, SECT 5 280a-b; BK xi, SECT 21 305d-
306a
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK i [418-465] 114b-115b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45c / Numa Pom-
pilius, 51c-S2b / Solon, 71 b; 71d / Marcus
Cato, 284b / Lysander, 361a-d / Cato the
Younger, 626d-627b; 632b-c / Demosthenes,
699c-700a
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK xix, CH 5 513d-
514b; CH 17 522b-523a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 21,
A 3 718d-719c; A 4, REP 3 719d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 90,
AA 2-3 206b-207c; Q 92, A i, REP 3 213c-214c;
Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [52-
114] 77b-78a; PARADISE, via [115-148] 118b-c
1 tola
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b-c; PART n,
99a-b; 104a-d; 105c-d; 112b-117b; 153a-157c;
CONCLUSION, 279a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7a-d; 46d; 48a-51a pas-
sim; 381a-388c; 480b-482b; 486b-489b; 490c-
491d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT i, sc i [180-
206] 35c-d / Henry V, ACT i, sc n [174-220]
535d536b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i, sc
HI [78-134] 109a-c / Conolanus, ACT i, sc i
[67-167] 352a-353a, ACT in, sc i 369a-373b /
Henry VIII, ACT i, sc n [68-102] 553c-d *
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 68b-73a;
177a-b
30 BACON* Advancement of Learning, 71a-72c
31 DCSCARTES* Discourse, PART HI, 48b-49a
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; PROP 73 446c-447a
32 MILTON Samson Agonistes [843-902] 358a-
359a / Areopagitica, 398a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d / Civil Government, CH
n, SECT 9 27a-b; CH iv, SECT 21 29d; CH vi,
SECT 58-63 37b-38c; SECT 72-73 40d-41a;
CH vn, SECT 87 -CH viii, sic i 99 44a-47c; CH
VHI, SECT H3-CH ix, SECT i$i 51b-54d, CH xi
55b-58b; CH xn, sccr 145 58d-59a; CH xiv,
SECT 163-164 63a c; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b;
CH xvi, SECT 190-192 69b-d, CH xviii, SECT
208 73a-b; CH xix, SECT 243 81d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, P\RT i, 28b-29a; PART HI,
112a-115b
38 MONTESQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2d-3a;
BK v, 18d-19d; 31c; BK vin, 52a-b; BK xi,
69a-c; BK xir, 92b-c; BK xxrn, 199b-200a,c;
BK xxvi, 221c-222a, BK xxvn, 229a
38 ROUSSEAU Inequality, 323d / Political Econ-
omy, 368d-369c; 374a-375b; 376a-b / Social
Contract, BK i, 389d-390c; 391b-394d, BK n,
396d-399a; 406a-c, BK in, 407c-408b, BK iv,
425a-427a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 58d-61b esp
61b; 109d-110d, BK n, 140b
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 91 b
42 KANT. Science of Right, 436c-437c; 438d-441d
esp439a-b
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE* [7-15] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.' ARTICLE i, SECT 9
[267-272] 13d; [289-295] 14a; ARTICLE m,
SECT 3 [507-511] 16a; ARTICLE iv, SECT 2
16a-b; AMENDMENTS, i-x 17a-18a; xiv, SECT i
18d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 67d-68a; NUMBER
17, 69c; NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 45,
147c-148a
43 MILL: Liberty 267a-323a,c esp 271c-273d,
302d-312a, 322d-323a,c / Utilitarianism, 453a-
454a;460a-461c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 195c-d; 261c-d; 393a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par
142-157 55a-57d; par 184-185 64b-d; par 187
65a c; par 257-270 80b-89c; par 308 102c-103a;
par 323-324 107a-d; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b;
CHAPTER 11: CITIZEN
227
116-118 135c-136b; 158 142d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 164b; I70c-172b; 186b-c;
PART i, 211a-c; 222a-c; 251a*b; PART n, 271c-
d; PART HI, 289 b-d; 302d-303c; PART iv, 320c-
321a, 328b-330a; 365 b-c; 366c-367a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto^ 419a-
434d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 206d-207b;
216a; 233b 234a; BK vi, 260a-262a; BK ix,
343c-d; BK xi, 475b-476c; 505a-511b esp
509d-510a; BK xn, 537b-538a; BK xm, 577b-
c; BK xv, 634a-635a; EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c;
670d-671c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xn,
369a-370d
54FRFUD. War and Death, 757b-c; 761a-c /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-781a
2. The conception of citizenship
7 PLATO : Protagoras, 45d-46a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 1-5 471b,d-
475d; CH 13 [i283b27-i284^] 481d-482a
20AQUINA.S* Summa Fheologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 3, REP 2 316a-318b
21 DAN IE Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vin [115-
148] 118b-c
38 MONTLSQUILU* Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b
38RoussiAu: Political Economy, 368d-369c /
Social Contract, BK i, 391b-393b; BK in, 407b-
d; 420d
42 KANT- Science of Right, 436c-437c esp 436d;
449d-450a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.* AMENDMENTS,
xiv, SECT 1 18d
43 FEDER \LIST: NUMBER 42, 138d-139c passim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 349a-350a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 47
124a-b
2or. The status or office of citizenship in relation
to the principle of constitutional govern-
ment
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396c-
397c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 12 [i259b5-8]
454a; BK in, CH i [i275B22-b2i] 472a-c; CH 4
[1277*7-15] 474c-d
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A 2, ANS 309d-316a
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, BK iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2,
435d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-7c;
BK in, 9a-lla; BK v, 18b,d*25a; BK vin, 51a-
52b; BK xi, 68b,d-75a; BK xir, 84b,d-85a;
BK xix, 142a-143c; 145c-146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 358b-c / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 392a esp 392b [fn i]; BK HI, 424a-d;
BK iv, 425d-427a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a / Science of
Right, 401b-c; 436c-437c; 438d-439a / Judge-
ment, 586a-587a
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
xiv, SECT 1 18d
228
THE GREAT IDEAS
2bto 4
(2, The conception of citizenship. 2a. The status
or office of citizenship in relation to the
principle of constitutional government.)
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 52, 165a-c; NUMBER 84,
251a-253d
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-268c / Representative
Government, 344d-350a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 272a-d
2b. The distinction between citizen and subject:
the distinction between the subjects of a
constitutional monarchy and of a despot-
ism
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [338-456] 261b-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 233a-d; 238b~c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vrn, 733d-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*7-17]
445a-b; CH 7 [1255^*16-20] 449b; BK in, CH 5
475a-d passim; CH 6 [i278b30-i279*22] 476a-c;
CH 14 [1285*17-29] 483b-c; CH 15 [1286^-14]
484d-485a; CH 17 486c-487a; BK vn, CH 14
[,332bi4-27] 537b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 106a-d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH v 8a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 104d-106b; 113c-
115a; 150c-151a; 154b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 383c-d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 87-94
44a-46c; CH xi 55b-58b; CH xiv, SECT 163-164
63a-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, lla-13c;
BK iv, 13b,d-15c; BK v, 25d-26d; BK v~vi,
30c-34d; BK vi, 36a-b; BK vn, 47d-48a; BK
xn, 93c-96a,c; BK xix, 142a-146a,c passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 356b-d; 359a-b/Soaal
Contract, BK i, 392a csp 392b [fn ij; BK HI,
417c; 420d; BK iv, 426b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14a-15c passim;
16c-17b; 17d; 521a-523a,c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Pall, 81c-82a; 161c-162a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c; 450b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 138d-139c; NUMBER
43, 142b-c; NUMBER 54, 171a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-268c / Representative
Government, 339d-340c; 341d-344d passim;
348c-355b; 427a-b
46 HBOEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 155
142a-b / Philosophy of History, PART i, 213b;
PART n, 271c-d; PART iv, 356d
JU TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 384c-388a,c
passim
2c, The character and extent of citizenship un-
der different types of constitutions
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a; BK vi, 520b-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm-ix, 401d-420d /
Laws, BK viii, 733d-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin, CH n 413b-d pas-
sim / Politics, BK in, CH i 471b,d-472c; CH 5
475a-d; CH 13 [i283b44-n84*3] 482a; BK iv,
CH 3 488d 489b; CH 8-9 493c-494d ; BK v, CH i
[1301*25-1302*15] 502b-503b; BK vi, CH 4
[i3i9b2-32] 523a-b; CH 6 524b-c / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 8 [i365b29-i 366*3] 608a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, xxiia-d; BK n,
4a-7c; BK in, 9a-lla; BK v, 18b,d-25a; 31b-
33a,c passim; BK xi, 68b,d-75a; BK xn, 84b,d-
85c; BK XIH, 99b-100c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 271a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 223c-224a; 403b-
404d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
450b-d
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 10, 51c-52d passim;
NUMBER 14, 60b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 350a; 370b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 273d-
274a
3. The qualifications for citizenship: extent of
suffrage
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [686-705] 572a-b /
Lysistrata [575-580] 590c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 39b-c
7 PLATO- Republic, BK vni 401d-416a / States-
man, 605d-608d / Laws, BK v, 690d-691b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [1270*33-39]
466c; BK in, CH 1-5 471b,d-475d, BK vi, CH 4
[i3i9b2~32] 523a-b; CH 6 524b-c; BK vn, CH 4
Ji326a5~b25] 530a-d; CH 9 533a-d passim, esp
[1329*18-30] 533c-d / Athenian Constitution,
CH 21 562b-c; CH 26, par 3-4 565a; CH 42
572b-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i365b29~i366*3]
608a-b
14 PLUTARCH- Solon, 73d / Pericles, 139c-140a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 106a-d
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 105,
A 3, ANS and RFP 2 316a-318b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spint of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b;
BK xv, 114c-115b; BK xxni, 189a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 428a-432b
passim
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK HI, 168d-169a;
BK iv, 269d-271d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14a-d; 15c; 17a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c; 450d-
452a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 8
[204-205] 13bj AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 1-2
18d-19a;xvl9b;xixl9d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 138d-139c passim;
NUMBER 52, 165a-c; NUMBER 54, 171a-b;
NUMBER 57, 177a; 178c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 380c-389b;
395b-c
4. The rights, duties, privileges) and immuni-
ties of citizenship
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus \ 12:48-49; 22:21; 23:9
/ Leviticus, 19:33-34; 24:22 / Numbers, 35:30 /
Deuteronomy, 10:18-19; 17:6; 19:15; 20:1-9
4/o5
CHAPTER 11: CITIZEN
229
APOCRYPHA: Susanna esp 48— (D) OT, Daniel,
13:1-64 esp 13:48
NEW TESTAMENT: Mar\, 12:13-17 / Acts, 16:16-
39; 21:27-28:31 / Romans, 13:1-7 / Titus, 3*1
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [338-364] 261b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES : Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d esp
[730-876] 623c-625b
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK vn, 233c-d
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK 11, 395d-
399a; BK m, 425a-427c; 432b-c; BK vi, 520a-d
7 PLATO: Crtto 213a-219a,c / Gorgias, 287c-292a
/ Republic, BK vin, 409b-c / Statesman, 601b-c
/ Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c passim; BK VIH,
732b-735a; BK xn, 791c / Seventh Letter,
804a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK 11, CH 2 [1261*2 v-b6]
456a-b; CH 9 [1269*33-36] 465c; [1271*27-37]
467c; CH 10 [1272*13-17] 468b-c; BK in, CH 1-2
471b,d-472d; CH 5 475a-d; CH 12 [1282^5]-
CH 13 [1284*2] 480c-482a; BK vi, CH 2 520d-
521 b/ Athenian Constitution, CH 8, par 5 556c;
CH 42, par i 572b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22 195a-
201a
12 AURELKTS* Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
14 PLU PARCH Lycurgus, 44d-47a / Numa Pom-
pihus, 51c-52c / Solon, 71b; 71d / Crassus-
Nictas, 455d-456d / Cato the Younger 620a-
648a,c passim / Tiberius Gracchus, 675b-d
15 TACIIUS: Annals, BK i, 21b-d; BK xi, 106a~d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105
307c-321a passim
23 HOBBLS: Leviathan, PART n, 101a-104d; 113c-
116d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 381a-388c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus 351a-392a,c esp
ACT n, sc in [1-52] 366a-c, [165-272] 367d-
369a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 71a-75a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART n, 75 b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 4a-6b;
BK v-vi, 31b-35a; BK vi, 37c; BK vm, 51a-52c;
54b-c; BK xi, 68b,d-75a; BK xn, 84b,d-90c;
92b-c; BK xix, 142a-143c; 145c-146a,c; BK
xxvi, 221c-222a
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 323d-324a; 324c-325b,
358d-359a / Political Economy, 369b-c; 377c-d
/ Social Contract, BK i, 387b; 392a esp 392 b
[fn i); BK n, 396d-398b; BK in, 421b-423a;
424a-b; BK iv, 428a-432b passim
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 58d-61b esp
61b; BK v, 303b-304c; 395c-396a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b-c; 15c; 90d-92c
passim; 630b,d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b; 94c-95c; 96a-
d; 161c-d; 587a
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 389c-
390a,c / Science of Right, 400b,d-402a,c;
429a-c; 434a; 436c-437c; 439a-441d; 450d-
452a
43 ARTICLES OP CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36] 5b-
c; vi [87-93] 6b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 2
[5-16] lib; SECT 3 [67-72] 12a; SECT 9 [267-
272] 13d; [289-295] 14a; ARTICLE n, SECT i
[375-382] 14d; ARTICLE HI, SECT 3 15d-16a;
ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [519-521] 16aj AMEND-
MENTS, i-x 17a-18a; xni, SECT i-xiv, SECT 2
18c-19a; xv 19b; xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 138d~139c passim;
NUMBER 44, 144d-145a; NUMBER 52, 165c;
NUMBER 54, 171a-b; NUMBER 62, 188d-189a;
NUMBER 80, 236a-b; NUMBER 84, 251a-253d
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-268c; 271c-273d; 302d-
303a / Representative Government, 348c-350a;
392b-396d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 230
75c; par 261 83a-d; par 291 97d-98a; par 324-
326 107a-108a; ADDITIONS, 141 139c / Philos-
ophy of History, PART 11, 273c, PART iv, 365b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, lOa-b
54 FREUD: War and Death, 757b-c
5. The virtues of the citizen and the virtues of
the good man
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c esp
[1316-1408] 486a-487a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 175b; BK vn,
233a d; 258d
6 THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370a-
c; BK n, 395d-399a; 402b-404a; BK in, 425a-
427c passim; BK vi, 511c-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43b-47c / Meno, 174d-
176a esp 175d-176a / Apology 200a-212a,c /
Crito 213a-219a,c / Republic, BK iv, 346a-355a
/ Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK in, 669b-
670c; 672d-674d; BK v, 686d 691b; BK vr,
706b-c; BK vin, 740d-741a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99b29~32]
345b; BK in, CH 8 [1116*15^3] 362b-d; BK v,
CH i [ii29bi2-ii3o*i3]377a-c; CH 2 [ii3ob25~
29] 378b; BK vi, CH 8 [n 4^23-1 142*11] \390d-
391a; BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c / Politics, BK i,
CH 13 [i259b33-i26o*2o] 454b-d; BK in, CH 4
473c-475a; CH 5 [i278*4o-b5] 475d; CH 9
[i28ob3-n] 478a-b; CH 13 [i283b44-i284»3]
482a; CH 15 [i286*22-5b] 484c-d; CH 18 487a,c;
BK iv, CH 7 [i293b2-7] 493a-b; BK vn, CH 2
[i324ft24-b6] 528b-c; CH 3 529b-530a; CH 7
531d-532c; CH 9 [i328b3 3-1 329*2] 533b; CH 13
[1332*28-38] 537a; CH I4^[i332b42-n33*i6]
537d-538a; BK vin, CH i [1337*11-18] 542a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 [1366*33-1367*1 ] 608d-609c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 10 148c-
150a; BK in, CH 7 182b-184a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT r 256b,d;
BK in, SECT 4-5 260b-261a; BK iv, SECT 4
264a; SECT 29 266a; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d;
SECT 22 272b; BK vi, SECT 14 274d-275a; BK
vn, SECT 5 280a-b; SECT 13 280c; SECT 66
284b-c; BK ix, SECT 23 293c; BK x, SECT 6
297a-b; BK xi, SECT 8 303a-b; SECT 21 305d-
306a
230
THE GREAT IDEAS
6u>7
(5. The virtues of the citizen and the virtue* of
the good man.}
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 45b; 48b-c / Coriolanus,
174b,d-175a / Aristides, 263d / Lysander,
361a-d / Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a / Cleomenes,
659d 660a / Demosthenes, 699c-700a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 191c-d; BK iv, 267c-d
17 PLOTINUS: first Ennead, TR n 6b-10a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK 11, CH 21 161 b-
162d; BK xix, CH 17 522b-523a; CH 21 524a-
525a; CH 24-26 528b-529a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q (Ji,
A 5 58b-59d; Q 92, A i csp REP 3 213c-214c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vi [58-75] 9a;
xi [1-66] 15a-d; xv [55-78] 21d; xvi [64-78]
23a-b; xxxn [yol-xxxin [90] 48c-50c passim;
PURGATORY, vi [58-151] 61b-62c; xvii [91-123]
79b-d; PARADISE, xv [p7]-xvi [154] 129b-132a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, CONCLUSION, 279a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 48a-b; 381a-388c; 390c-
391c; 480b-482b; 486b-489b; 490c-491d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT v, sc v
[68-81] 596a,c
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 74b-c; 81d-
82 a; 94b-95b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 48b-49a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 73 446c-
447a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistcs [843-870] 358a b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 6 173a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d / Human Understand-
ing, BK i, CH ii, SECT 5-6 105a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART HI, 112a-115b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, xxiia-d; BK in,
9b-12a; BK iv, 13b,d-15a; 15c-16a; BK v, 18d-
19d; 21b 23a; 31b-c; BK vn, 44d-45c; BK vin,
51a-52c; 55c-d; BK xix, 137a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a; 360b,d
[fn i]; 366b-d / Political Economy, 369b-370a;
372a-377b / Social Contract, BK n, 402b-403a,
BK HI, 411a-c; 412a-b; BK iv, 428a*432b
passim; 434b-435a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337d-338c;
340c-343d; 346c-347d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 630b,d-631a; 644b-
645c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 55, 174c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government^ 329b-330a;
334b; 336c-341c passim, csp 337a-b; 346c-
350a passim
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 393a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 268
84c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-c;
PART n, 272a-d; PART iv, 365b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 314c-316a; 321b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d;
BK XH, 537b-538a; BK xv, 634a-635a; EPI-
LOGUE i, 668a-669c; EPILOGUE n, 686c-687a
6. Education for citizenship
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [1008-1098] 5?6b-577c
6 THUCYDIDBS: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370a-
c; BK n, 396c-397d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43a-47c / Crito 213a-219a,c
/ Republic, BK ii-in, 320c-339a; BK iv, 344b-
d; BK v, 366a-c; BK vi, 380d-381a / Statesman,
607b-608d / Laws, BK i-n 640a-663d esp BK
i, 644b-645c; BK vn 713c-731d; BK vin, 732b-
735a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [1094*28- bn]
339c-d; CH 9 [io99b29-32] 345b; BK v, CH 2
[ii3ob25-29] 378b; BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c /
Politics, BK n, CH 5 [i263b36-i264*i] 459a;
[i264»26-32] 459c; CH 7 [1266^7-35] 462b-c;
BK in, CH 4 [i277ai4-b29] 474a-475a; BK iv,
CH 9 [r294bi9-24J 494c; BK v, CH 9 [1310*13-
22] 512b-c; BK vn, CH 13 [i332a28-bio] 537a-b;
CH 14 [i332b42-i334aii] 537d-538d; CH 15
[i334b7-28] 539b-d; CH 17 541a-542a,c; BK
vni 542a-548a,c passim / Athenian Constitu-
tion, CH 42 572b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 33c-34a; 39a-45b /
Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon 64b,d-
77a,c passim / Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vni [115-
148] 118b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 114b-115a; 150c-
151a; PART iv, 273a-c; CONCLUSION, 282d-
283a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60c-62a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a; 79c-
80a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-4l2b csp 384b-
389a, 398a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv 13b,d-
18d
38 ROUSSEAU- Political Economy, 373c-377b /
Social Contract, BK n, 402b-403a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 303b-305c;
337d-343d; 347c-d
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 6b, 669a-b
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 317d-319b; 320a-c; 322d-
323a,c / Representative Government, 336c-341d
passim, esp 339a-340c; 349a-350a; 381b-387d
passim; 417c-418d; 424b-c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 187
65a-c; par 239 76d; par 315 104c; ADDITIONS,
98 133a; 147 140c; 166 145b-c; 183 148d-
149a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245c
54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children,
122a,c
7. Political citizenship and membership in the
city of God
OLD TESTAMENT: 7 Samuel, 8:9-18— (D) I Kings,
8:9-18 / Jeremiah, 29:4-7 csp 29:7— (D) Jerc-
mias, 29:4-7 csp 29:7
APOCRYPHA; i Maccabees, 1:41-2 70— (D) OT,
/ M&ckabees, 1:43-2:70 / // Maccabees, 6:8-
7:42— (D) OT, // Machabees, 6:8-7:42
8 to 9
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22:15-22 /
12:13-17 / Luke, 20:21-25 / Romans, 13:1-10 /
Ephesians, 2:19-22 / Titus, 3:17 Hebrews, 13:17
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 30 138a,c;
BK 11, CH 5, 143d-144a; BK iv, CH 3 224b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a-
b; SECT 13 262c; BK iv, SECT 23 265c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b/
City of God, BK i, PREF 129a-d; BK v, CH 15-16
220d-221b; BK xi, CH i 322b,d-323a; BK xiv,
CH 28-BK xv, CH 4 397a-400a; BK xvin, CH
1-2 472b-473d; CH 47 500d-501b; BK xix, CH
ii 516d-517b; CH 14 520a-d; CH 17 S22b-523a;
CH 21 524a-525a; CH 24-26 528b-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 21,
A 4, ANS and REP 3 719d-720a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xni
[79-96] 72d; xvi [85-114] 77d-78a; xix [127-
141] 82d 83a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 151a-c; PART in,
198d-199a; 240a-246a,c; PART iv, 275a-277d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xii [485-551] 329b-
331a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d; 16c-17b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv-xxvi,
200a-215a; BK xxvi, 218a-219d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327a-c; 358d-359a /
Social Contract, BK n, 401c-402a; BK iv, 435a-
439c esp 437d-438c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 193c-194a; 226a-b;
291d-292d; 299b-300d passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 444a-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE vi [591-
599] 16d; AMENDMENTS, i [615-617] 17a
43 MILL: Liberty, 279a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 270
84d-89c; ADDITIONS, 162 143b-144c / Philos-
ophy of History, INTRO, 205d-206a,c; PART i,
216b-217c; 245d-247b; PART HI, 308b-c;
309d-310a; 310d-311a; PART iv, 316a-d; 321b-
322a; 325d-326b; 331b-d; 333b-c; 336c-337d;
345c-346c; 350b-c; 351b-354a; 365b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 28d-
32a; BK v, 127b-137c passim
8. The idea of world citizenship: the political
brotherhood of man
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 9 114c-116b;
CH 13 120b-c; BK 11, CH 10 148c-150a; CH 20,
164d-165c; BK in, CH n 187a-b; CH 22, 199c-
d;cH24203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; SECT n 262a-b; BK iv, SECT 3-4 263b-
264a; BK vi, SECT 44 278b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [254-296] llOa-llla; BK
vi [845-853] 233b-234a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c;
CH 17, 522d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 471a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 31d-32a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c / Political
Economy, 369a-b; 373c / Social Contract, BK
iv, 437c
CHAPTER 1 1 : CITIZEN
231
42 KANT: Science of Right, 4S2c-d; 455a-458a,c /
Judgement, 586a-587a ,
43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-428a
passim, csp 426a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d;
BK x, 466b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
166c-167b
54 FREUD: War and Death, 755a-761c csp 755b-
75 7c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 785d-
788d
9. Historical episodes and stages in the struggle
for citizenship
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 104b-108d csp
107c-108c; BK iv, 152d-153b; BK v, 171c-175b;
BK vi, 193b-c; BK VH, 245b
6 THUG YDI DBS : Pcl&ponnesian War, BK iv, 468a-
469a; BK vi, 520a-d; 534b-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 672d-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 12 470b-471d;
BK in, CH 15 [i286b8-2i] 484d-485a; BK iv,
CH 13 [i297bi6-28] 498a; BK v, CH 4 [1304*18-
38] 505d-506a / Athenian Constitution, CH 1-41
553a-572a passim, csp CH 41 571c-572a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [756-853] 231a-234a;
BK vin [626-731] 275b-278b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9c-d / Romulus, 21a-27c
csp 22c / Poplicola, 79d-80a / Coriolanus
174b,d-193a,c esp 176b-184c / Tiberius
Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus
681b,d-689a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51b-52a; BK xi,
106a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus 351a-392a,c
32 MILTON: New Forcers of Conscience 68a-b /
Lord Gen. Cromwell 69a-b
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH vi, SECT 74-76
41b-42a; CH vn, SECT 94 46a-c, CH vm, SECT
100-1 1 1 47c-51a; CH xiv, SECT 162-166 63a-64a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 413b [fn i]
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 58d-61b esp
61b; BK in, 170c-173b; 176a-179a; BK iv,
269d-271d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 14a-d; 15c; 29c-d;
90d-92a; 521a-523a,c
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 202a-d; 215c-219a;
403b-404d esp 404c; 452d-453a,c; 562b-564b;
574b-582b; 586c-589a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: lla-20a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-268c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 263a-d;
275b-276a; PART in, 288c; 295d-296c; 299c-
300a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415b-
416c; 423d-425b; 431c-433d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, lOa-b; BK vi,
238c-243d
232 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other considerations of the issues involved in the relation between the individual and the
state, see GOOD AND EVIL 5d; HAPPINESS 50; JUSTICE icb; STATE 2f, 30, 3e, 8e.
The context of the concept of citizenship in the theory of constitutional government or
government by law rather than by men, see CONSTITUTION; LAW ya-yb; LIBERTY id, if-ig;
MONARCHY ia(i); TYRANNY 5~5d.
Other comparisons of citizens with subjects or slaves, see JUSTICE pd; SLAVERY 6a-6c.
The bearing of different types of constitution on the character of citizenship and especially
on the extent of the franchise, sec CONSTITUTION 5-5 b; DEMOCRACY 4-43(2), 5b(2);
OLIGARCHY 5-53.
The political machinery, such as elections and representation, by which the citizen exercises
his suffrage, see CONSTITUTION 9~o.b; DEMOCRACY 50-5^4); GOVERNMENT ih.
The consideration of civic virtue in relation to virtue generally, see VIRTUE AND VICE yb; and
for the problem of education for citizenship, see ARISTOCRACY 5; DEMOCRACY 6; EDUCA-
TION 8d; STATE yd; VIRTUE AND VICE 73.
Another discussion of the distinction between the city of man and the city of God, see
STATE 2g; and for matters relevant to the ideal of world citizenship, see LOVE 4c; STATE lof;
WAR AND PEACE i id.
Descriptions of the historical struggle for citizenship, and for the extension of the franchise,
see LABOR yd; LIBERTY 6b; SLAVERY 6c; TYRANNY 8.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
PAINE. Rights of Man
** GODWIN. An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice,
M ACHIAVELLI. The Discourses, BK i BK iv, CH 2, SECT i
MONTESQUIEU. Considerations on the Causes of the TOCQUEVILLE. Democracy in America
Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans THOREAU. Civil Disobedience
]. S. MILL. The Subjection of Women FUSTEL DE COULANGES. The Ancient City
T. H. GREEN. Principles of Political Obligation, (H)
"• SPENCER. The Man Versus the State
CICERO. De Officiis (On Duties), i IELLINEK, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and
BODIN. The Six Bootes of a Commonweale, BK i, Citizens
CH 6-7; BK in, CH 8 BOSANQUET. Science and Philosophy, 16
HOOKER. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity HOBHOUSE. The Metaphysical Theory of the State
PUFENDORF. DC Officio Homitus ct Civisjuxta Legem BRYCE. The Hindrances to Good Citizenship
Naturalcm (Of the Duties of Man and of the Citizen . Modern Democracies
According to Natural Law) G. NEWMAN. Citizenship and the Survival of Civili-
DIDEROT. Citoyen zation
MABLY. DCS droits et devoirs du 'citoyen MERRIAM. The Making of Citizens
CARTWRIGHT. Take Your Choice* TAWNEY. Equality
BURKE. Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol MARITAIN. The Eights of Man and Natural Law
. On the Reform of the Representation in the EWING. The Individual, the State and World
House of Commons Government
Chapter ir CONSTITUTION
INTRODUCTION
THE idea of a constitution as establishing
and organizing a political community; the
principle of constitutionality as determining a
generic form of government having many
varieties; and the nature of constitutional
government— these three problems are so inti-
mately connected that they must be treated
together. We have used the word "constitu-
tion" to express the root notion from which all
other matters considered in this chapter are
derived.
It is impossible to say precisely what a con-
stitution is in a way that will fit the political
reality of the Greek city-states, the Roman re-
public and its transformation into the empire,
mediaeval kingdoms and communes and their
gradual metamorphosis into the limited mon-
archies and republics of modern times. No defi-
nition can adequately comprehend all the vari-
ations of meaning to be found in the great
works of political theory and history. But there
are a number of related points in the various
meanings of "constitution" which indicate
what is common to the understanding of such
diverse thinkers as Plato and Locke, Aristotle
and Rousseau, Kant and Mill, Montesquieu
and Hegel, Aquinas, Hobbes, and the American
Federalists.
IT HAS BEEN SAID that the constitution is the
form of the state. This can be interpreted to
mean that the political, as opposed to the do-
mestic, community requires a constitution in
order to exist; just as a work of art has the very
principle of its being in the form which the
artist imposes upon matter. In the context of
his general theory of political association, Aris-
totle's remark that "the man who first founded
the state was the greatest of benefactors," may
imply that the idea of a constitution is the
creative principle by which the state was orig-
inally formed— or at least differentiated from
the tribe and family.
Kant gives explicit expression to the notion
that the invention of constitutions is coeval
with the formation of states. "The act by which
a People is represented as constituting itself in-
to a State," he writes, "is termed the Original
Contract" and this in turn signifies "the right-
fulness of the process of organizing the Consti-
tution."
In this sense, the constitution appears to be
identical with the organization of a state. It
would then seem to follow that every state, no
matter what its form of government, is consti-
tutional in character. But this would leave no
basis for the fundamental distinction between
constitutional and non-constitutional — or what
is usually called "absolute," "royal," or "des-
potic" — governmen t.
That basic distinction among forms of gov-
ernment is as old as Plato and Aristotle. It is
first made by Plato in the Statesman in terms
of the role of law in government. It occurs at
the very opening of Aristotle's Politics with
his insistence on the difference between the
king and the statesman, and between royal and
political government. But Locke seems to go
further than the ancients when he says that
"absolute monarchy ... is inconsistent with
civil society, and so can be no form of civil
government at all."
In addition to affirming the gravity of the
distinction between constitutional and non-
constitutional government, he seems to be
denying that the latter can constitute the form
of a truly cwil society, as opposed to a domestic
society or the primitive patriarchate of a tribe.
Yet Locke obviously docs not deny the his-
toric fact that there have been communities,
which otherwise appear to be states, that have
their character or form determined by absolute
233
234
THE GREAT IDEAS
government. His point, therefore, seems to be
that among types of government, absolute
monarchy does not fit the nature of civil
society.
If "constitution" is used merely as a syno-
nym for "form" or "type/* then even a state
under absolute monarchy or despotic govern-
ment can be said to have a constitution. Since
every state is of some type, it can be said that
it has a certain constitution, or that it is con-
stituted in a certain way. If, however, we use
the word "constitution" to conform to the dis-
tinction between constitutional and non-con-
stitutional government, we are compelled to
say that there are states which do not have
constitutions.
With this distinction in mind, the statement
that "the constitution is the form of the state"
takes on a different and more radical meaning.
It signifies that there are communities, larger
than and distinct from the family or the tribe,
which cannot be called "states" in the strict
sense because they do not have constitutions.
Hegel, for instance, points out that "it would
be contrary even to commonplace ideas to call
patriarchal conditions a 'constitution' or a
people under patriarchal government a 'state'
or its independence 'sovereignty.'" In such
conditions, what is lacking, he writes, is "the
objectivity of possessing in its own eyes and in
the eyes of others, a universal and universally
valid embodiment m laws." Without such an
"objective law and an explicitly established ra-
tional constitution, its autonomy is ... not
sovereignty."
From this it would appear that a despotically
governed community, such as ancient Persia,
is a political anomaly. It is intermediate be-
tween the family and the state, for it is like a
state in its extent and in the size and character
of its population, yet it is not a state in its po-
litical form. The truly political community is
constitutionally organized and governed. In
this sense, the English words "political" and
"constitutional" become almost interchange-
able, and we can understand how these two
English words translate a single word in Greek
political discourse.
As THE FORM of the state, the constitution is
the principle of its organization. Whether writ-
ten or unwritten, whether a product of custom
or explicit enactment, a constitution, Aristotle
writes, "is the organization of offices in a state,
and determines what is to be the governing
body, and what is the end of each community."
The idea of political office— of officials and
official status— is inseparable from the idea of
constitution. That is why the concept of citi-
zenship is also inseparable from constitution.
As the chapter on CITIZEN indicates, citizen-
ship is the primary or indefinite office set up by
a constitution. Citizenship is always the pre-
requisite for holding any other more definite
office in a constitutional government, from
juryman to chief magistrate. In specifying the
qualifications for citizenship, a constitution
sets the minimum qualifications for all other
offices which usually, though not always, de-
mand more than citizenship of the man who is
to fill them.
A political office represents a share of polit-
ical power and authority. "Those are to be
called offices," Aristotle explains, "to which
the duties are assigned of deliberating about
certain measures and of judging and command-
ing, especially the last; for to command is the
especial duty of a magistrate." As representing
a share of political power and authority, a
political office can be said to constitute a share
of sovereignty. That would not seem to be true,
however, for those who, like Rousseau, mam-
tain that "sovereignty is indivisible." Yet
Rousseau also admits that "each magistrate is
almost always charged with some governmental
function" and exercises a "function of sover-
eignty."
Since it is an arrangement of offices, a con-
stitution is, therefore, also a division or parti-
tion of the whole sovereignty of government—
or at least of the exercise of sovereignty — into
units which have certain functions to perform,
and which must be given the requisite power
and authority to perform them. These units are
political offices, defined according to their
functions, and vested with a certain power and
authority depending on their place and pur-
pose within the whole.
Hamilton's maxim that "every power ought
to be in proportion to its object" formulates
the equation by which the function of an office,
or its duties, determines its rights and powers,
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
235
privileges and immunities. And except for the
provision of a temporary dictatorship in the
early Roman constitution, or its modern con-
stitutional equivalent in emergency grants of
power, political offices under constitutional
government always represent limited amounts
of power and authority — limited in that each
is always only a part of the whole.
A CONSTITUTION defines and relates the various
political offices. It determines the qualifica-
tions of office-holders. But it does not name the
individuals who, from all those qualified, shall
be selected for any office. Because its provisions
have this sort of generality, a constitution has
the character of law. This is equally true of
written and unwritten constitutions, of those
shaped by custom and those enacted by con-
stituent assemblies.
Unlike all other man-made laws, a constitu-
tion is the law which creates and regulates
government itself, rather than the law which a
government creates and by which it regulates
the conduct of men, their relation to one an-
other and to the state. This is perhaps the basic
distinction with regard to the laws of the state.
"The fundamental law in every common-
wealth," says Hobbes, "is that which being
taken away the commonwealth faileth and is
utterly dissolved." Montesquieu distinguishes
what he calls "the law politic," which consti-
tutes the state, from ordinary legislation; and
Rousseau likewise divides the laws into the
"political" or "fundamental" laws and the
"civil laws" — those "which determine the
form of the government" and those which the
government, once it is constituted, enacts
and enforces.
In addition to being the source of all other
positive laws of the state— for it sets up the
very machinery of lawmakmg— a constitution
is fundamental law in that it establishes the
standard of legality by which all subsequent
laws are measured. Aristotle observes that "the
justice or injustice of laws varies of necessity
with constitutions." What may be a just enact-
ment in one state may be unjust in another
according to the difference of their consti-
tutions.
In American practice and that modeled upon
it, a law which violates the letter or spirit of the
constitution is judged to be unconstitutional
and is deprived thereby of the authority of law.
"Every act of a delegated authority," Hamil-
ton writes in The Federalist^ "contrary to the
tenor of the commission under which it is
exercised, is void. No legislative act, therefore,
contrary to the Constitution can be valid. To
deny this would be to affirm that the deputy is
greater than his principal; that the servant is
above his master; that the representatives of
the people are superior to the people them-
selves; that men acting by virtue of powers may
do not only what their powers do not authorize,
but what they forbid."
THE CONCEPTION of a constitution as a law or
set of laws antecedent to all acts of government
inevitably raises the question of how or by
whom constitutions are made. If the provisions
of a constitution were precepts of natural law,
they would, according to the theory of natural
law, be discovered by reason, not positively in-
stituted. But though constitutions have the
character of positive law, they cannot be made
as other positive laws are made— by legislators,
i.e., men holding that office under the consti-
tution.
The generally accepted answer is that a con-
stitution is made by the people who form the
political community. But, as Madison observes,
some evidence exists to the contrary. "It is not
a little remarkable," he writes, "that in every
case reported by ancient history, in which
government has been established with delibera-
tion and consent, the task of framing it has not
been committed to an assembly of men, but has
been performed by some individual citizen of
pre-eminent wisdom and approved integrity."
He cites many examples from Plutarch to sup-
port this observation, but he adds the comment
that it cannot be ascertained to what extent
these lawgivers were "clothed with the legiti-
mate authority of the people." In some cases,
however, he claims that "the proceeding was
strictly regular."
The writers of The Federalist are, of course,
primarily concerned with a constitution that is
not the work of one man but the enactment of
a constituent assembly or constitutional con-
vention. From their knowledge of British law,
they arc also well aware that a constitution may
236
THE GREAT IDEAS
sometimes be the product of custom, growing
and altering with change of custom. But how-
ever it is exercised, the constitutive power is
held by them to reside in the constituents of
the state, the sovereign people. This power may
be exercised through force of custom to pro-
duce an unwritten constitution, or through
deliberative processes to draft a written one;
but it can never be exercised by a government
except with popular consent^ since all the powers
of a duly constituted government derive from
its constitution. In the American if not the
British practice, the amendment of the con-
stitution also involves, at least indirectly, an
appeal to the people.
Rousseau assigns the constitutive power to a
mythical figure he calls "the legislator" or "the
law-giver," describing him as the man who
"sets up the Republic." Yet Rousseau says of
this special office that it "nowhere enters into
the constitution." He thus reaffirms the essen-
tial point that a constitution cannot create the
office of constitution-making.
These remarks in the Social Contract have
another significance. Rousseau tries to distin-
guish the formation of a government by the
constitution (the political or fundamental law
made by the legislator) from the formation of
the state by the social contract entered into by
the people in their original act of association.
But is not the constitution also a formative con-
tract or convention? If it is popular in origin,
either through custom or enactment, is there
more than a verbal difference between these
two contracts — the one which establishes a
political society and the one which establishes
its government ?
For Hobbes, and seemingly also for Locke,
the compact by which men abandon the state
of nature and establish a civil society results at
the same time in the establishment of a govern-
ment. It is, Hobbes writes, "as if every man
should say to every man, I authorize and give
my right of governing my self, to this Man or
to this Assembly of men, on this condition,
that thou give up thy right to him, and author-
ize all his actions in like manner." According to
Rousseau, "there is only one contract in the
State, and that is the [original] act of associa-
tion." For him, "the institution of government
is not a contract."
The reality and significance of the difference
between these three political philosophers
would seem to depend on the precise historical
meaning each gives to the hypothesis of men
living in a state of nature prior to political
association. If, prior to the state, men live in
non-political societies, and if the state, as op-
posed to the family or the despotically ruled
community, begins to exist only when it is
constituted, then the formation of the state
and the formation of its government would
seem to be the product of a single convention.
THE PRINCIPLE OF constitutionality is also
necessary in order to understand the familiar
distinction between government by laws and
government by men. Except for the divine
sort of government which is above both law
and lawlessness, Plato employs "the distinction
of ruling with law or without law" to divide the
various forms of government into two groups.
"The principle of law and the absence of law
will bisect them all," the Eleatic Stranger says
in the Statesman.
In the ordinary meaning of law as an instru-
ment of government, it is difficult to conceive
government by laws without men to make and
administer them, or government by men who
do not issue general directives which have the
character of law. Government always involves
both laws and men. But not all government
rests upon the supremacy of law, a supremacy
which consists in the equality of all before the
law and the predominance of regular law as
opposed to arbitrary decision. Nor is all govern-
ment based upon a law that regulates the offi-
cials of government as well as the citizens, and
determines the legality of official acts, legisla-
tive, judicial, or executive. That law is, of
course, the constitution.
Locke makes a distinction between govern-
ing by "absolute arbitrary power" and govern-
ing by "settled standing laws." It is his con-
tention that "whatever form the common-
wealth is under, the ruling power ought to
govern by declared and received laws, and not
by extemporary dictates and undetermined
resolutions, for then mankind will be in a far
worse condition than in a state of Nature. . . .
All the power the government has, being only
for the good of the society, as it ought not to
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
237
be arbitrary and at pleasure, so it ought to be
exercised by established and promulgated laws,
that both the people may know their duty,
and be safe and secure within the limits of the
law, and the rulers, too, kept within their due
bounds."
As Locke states the distinction between
government by laws and government by men,
it seems to be identical with the distinction be-
tween constitutional and non-constitutional
government. In the latter, an individual man
invests himself with sovereignty and, as sover-
eign, puts himself above all human law, being
both its source and the arbiter of its legality.
Such government is absolute, for nothing limits
the power the sovereign man exercises as a
prerogative vested in his person. In constitu-
tional government, men are not sovereigns but
office-holders, having only a share of the sov-
ereignty. They rule not through de facto pow-
er, but through the juridical power which is
vested in the office they hold. That power is
both created and limited by the law of the con-
stitution which defines the various offices of
government.
ALTHOUGH ABSTRACTLY or in theory absolute
and constitutional government are clearly dis-
tinct—more than that, opposed— political his-
tory contains the record of intermediate types.
These can be regarded as imperfect embodi-
ments of the principle of constitutionality, or
as attenuations of absolute rule by constitu-
tional encroachments. Despite their incompati-
bility in principle, historic circumstances have
managed to combine absolute with constitu-
tional government. It is this combination which
mediaeval jurists and philosophers call "the
mixed regime" or the regimen regale et politi-
cum, "royal and political government.*1
It may be thought that a foreshadowing of
the mediaeval mixed regime can be found in
Plato's Laws, in the passage in which the
Athenian Stranger says that monarchy and
democracy are the "two mother forms of states
from which the rest may be truly derived." He
then asserts that, to combine liberty with wis-
dom, "you must have both these forms of gov-
ernment in a measure." Since the Persian des-
potism is cited as the "highest form" of monar-
chy and the Athenian constitution as the arche-
type of democracy, the combination proposed
would seem to be a mixture of absolute with
constitutional government. But the Athenian
Stranger also says that "there ought to be no
great and unmixed powers" if the arbitrary is
to be avoided; and since the whole tenor of the
book, as indicated by its title, is to uphold the
supremacy of law, it is doubtful that a truly
mixed regime is intended— a government which
is partly absolute and partly constitutional.
Aristotle, furthermore, gives us reason to
think that such a mixture would be unthink-
able to a Greek. At least in his own vocabulary,
the terms roy0/and/>0////Vtf/are as contradictory
as round and square. Royal, or kingly, govern-
ment for Aristotle is "absolute monarchy, or
the arbitrary rule of a sovereign over all." In
royal government, there are no political offices,
and no citizens. The ruler is sovereign in his
own person and the ruled are subject to his
will, which is both the source of law and
exempt from all legal limitations.
To Aristotle, political government means
pure constitutionalism. It exists only where
"the citizens rule and are ruled in turn," for
"when the state is framed upon the principle of
equality and likeness, the citizens think they
ought to hold office by turns." To the generic
form of constitutional government, Aristotle
sometimes gives the name of "polity," though
he also uses this name for the mixed constitu-
tion which combines democratic with oligar-
chical criteria for citizenship and public office.
The mixed constitution is not to be confused
with the mixed regime, for it is a mixture of
different constitutional principles, not of con-
stitutionalism itself with absolute government.
When the word "polity" signifies constitutional
government generally, it has the meaning
which the Romans express by the word "re-
public" and which the constitutionalists of the
1 8th century call "free government."
The distinctive characteristics of such gov-
ernment— whether it is called political, repub-
lican, constitutional, or free— he in the fact
that the citizens are both rulers and ruled; that
no man, not even the chief magistrate, is above
the law; that all political power or authority is
derived from and limited by the constitution
which, being popular in origin, cannot be
changed except by the people as a whole.
238
THE GREAT IDEAS
It is perhaps only in the Middle Ages that
we find the mixed regime in actual existence.
"That rule is called politic and royal," Aquinas
writes, "by which a man rules over free sub-
jects who, though subject to the government of
the ruler, have nevertheless something of their
own, by reason of which they can resist the
oijders of him who commands." These words
seem to present an accurate picture of the pe-
culiarly mediaeval political formation which
resulted from the adaptation of Roman law (it-
self partly republican and partly imperial) to
feudal conditions under the influence of local
customs and the Christian religion.
Thrmediaeval mixed regime is not to be con-
fused with modern forms of constitutional
monarchy any more than with the mixed con-
stitution or polity of the Greeks. "The so-
called limited monarchy, or kingship according
to law," Aristotle remarks, "is not a distinct
form of government." The chapter on MON-
ARCHY deals with the nature of constitutional
monarchy and its difference from the mixed
regime as well as its relation to purely republi-
can government. The mediaeval king was not a
constitutional monarch, but a sovereign person,
in one sense above the law and in another
limited by it.
To the extent that he had powers and pre-
rogatives unlimited by law, the mediaeval king
was an absolute ruler. He was, as Aquinas says,
quoting the phrase of the Roman jurists, legibus
solutus— exempt from the force of all man-
made law. Aquinas also describes him as "above
the law" insofar as "when it is expedient, he
can change the law, and rule without it accord-
ing to time and place." Yet he was also bound
by his coronation oath to perform the duties of
his office, first among which was the mainte-
nance of the laws of the realm— the immemorial
customs of the people which define their
rights and liberties. The king's subjects could
be released from their oath of allegiance by his
malfeasance or dereliction in office.
To this extent, then, the mediaeval king was
a responsible ruler, and the mixed regime was
constitutional. Furthermore, the king did not
have jurisdiction over customary law; yet
where custom was silent, the king was free to
govern absolutely, to decree what he willed,
and even to innovate laws.
MEDIAEVAL IN ORIGIN, the institution of a
government both royal and political, or what
Fortescue, describing England in the I5th cen-
tury, called a "political kingdom," exerted
great influence on modern constitutional de-
velopments. As late as the end of the iyth cen-
tury, Locke's conception of the relation of king
and parliament, royal prerogative and legal
limitations, may emphasize the primacy of law,
but it does not entirely divest the king of per-
sonal sovereignty. Locke quotes with approval
the speech from the throne in 1609, in which
James I said that "the king binds himself by a
double oath, to the observation of the funda-
mental laws of his kingdom. Tacitly, as by
being a king, and so bound to protect as well
the people, as the laws of his kingdom, and ex-
pressly by his oath at his coronation." To this
extent the British kingdom is, as Fortescue had
said, "political." But the king also retains the
prerogative to dispense with law and to govern
in particular matters by decree apart from law,
and to this extent the government still remains
royal.
Locke recognizes the difficulty of combining
the absolute power of the king in administra-
tion with the limitations on that power repre-
sented by Parliament's jurisdiction over the
laws which bind the king. To the question,
Who shall be judge of the right use of the royal
prerogative ? he replies that "between an execu-
tive power in being, with such prerogative, and
a legislative that depends upon his will for their
convening, there can be no judge on earth . . .
The people have no other remedy ... but to
appeal to heaven."
Montesquieu as well as Locke can conceive
monarchy, as distinct from despotism, in no
other terms than those of the mixed regime.
He separates despotism as lawless, or arbitrary
and absolute, government from all forms of
government by law, and divides the latter into
monarchies and republics. Montesquieu insists
that the ancients had no notion of the kind
of monarchy which, while it is legal govern-
ment, is not purely constitutional in the sense of
being republican. He calls this kind of mon-
archy "Gothic government," and, as Hegel
later points out, it is clear that "by Monarchy'
he understands, not the patriarchal or any an-
cient type, nor on the other hand, the type or-
CHAWB* 12: CONSTITUTION
239
ganizcd into an objective constitution, but only
feudal monarchy."
It is not until the i8th century that the
slightest vestige of royal power comes to be re-
garded as inimical to law. For Rousseau "every
legitimate government is republican" ; for Kant,
"the only rightful Constitution ... is that of a
Pure Republic," which, in his view, "can only
be constituted by a representative system of the
people." The writers of The Federalist take the
same stand. They interpret the "aversion of the
people to monarchy" as signifying their espousal
of purely constitutional or republican govern-
ment. In the tradition of the great books, only
Hegel speaks thereafter in a contrary vein.
Constitutional monarchy represents for him
the essence of constitutionalism and the only
perfect expression of the idea of the state.
Because modern republics, and even modern
constitutional or limited monarchies, have de-
veloped gradually or by revolution out of nixed
regimes; and because this development came
as a reaction against the increasing absolutism
or despotism of kings, the principle of constitu-
tionality has been made more effective in mod-
ern practice than it was m the ancient world.
In addition to asserting limitations upon gov-
ernments, constitutions have also provided
means of controlling them. They have been
given the force, as well as the authority, of
positive law. They have made office-holders ac-
countable for their acts; and through such ju-
ridical processes as impeachment and such po-
litical devices as frequent elections and short
terms of office, they have brought the adminis-
tration of government within the purview of
the law.
Following Montesquieu, the Federalists rec-
ommend the separation of powers, with checks
and balances, as the essential means of enforc-
ing constitutional limitations of office and of pre-
venting one department of government from
usurping the power of another. The citizens are
further protected from the misuse of power by
constitutional declarations of their rights and
immunities; and constitutional government is
itself safeguarded from revolutionary violence
by such institutions as judicial review and by
the availability of the amending power as a
means of changing the constitution through
due process of law.
IN THE HISTORY of political change, it is neces-
sary to distinguish change from or to constitu-
tional government and, within the sphere of
constitutional government, the change of con-
stitutions.
Republics are set up and constitutions estab-
lished by the overthrow of despots or with their
abdication. Republics are destroyed and consti-
tutions overthrown by dictators who usurp the
powers of government. Violence, or the threat
of violence, usually attends these changes.
The other sort of change may take place in
two ways: either when one constitution re-
places another, as frequently occurs in the revo-
lutions of the Greek city-states; or when an
enduring constitution is modified by amend-
ment, as is customary in modern republics.
Every constitutional change is in a sense revo-
lutionary, but if it can be accomplished by due
process of law, violence can be avoided.
All the changes in which constitutional gov-
ernment or constitutions arc involved raise
fundamental questions of justice. Is republican
government always better than absolute mon-
archy and the mixed regime — better in the
sense of being more just, better because it gives
men the liberty and equality they justly de-
serve? Is it better relative to the nature and
condition of certain peoples but not all, or of a
people at a certain stage of their development,
but not always? In what respects does one con-
stitution embody more justice than another?
What sorts of amendment or reform can rectify
the injustice of a constitution? Without an-
swering such questions, we cannot discriminate
between progress and decline in the history of
constitutionalism.
Divergent answers will, of course, be found in
the great books. Among the political philoso-
phers, there are the defenders of absolutism
and those who think that royal government is
most like the divine; the exponents of the su-
premacy of the mixed regime; the republicans
who insist that nothing less than constitutional
government is fit for free men and equals. And
there are those who argue that the justice of
any form of government must be considered
relative to the condition of the people, so that
republican government may be better only in
some circumstances, not in all.
The issue arising fi">m these conflicting views
240
THE GREAT IDEAS
concerning constitutional and absolute govern-
ment is treated in the chapters on CITIZEN,
MONARCHY, and TYRANNY. But one other
issue remains to be discussed here. It concerns
the comparative justice of diverse constitutions.
Constitutions can differ from one another in the
way in which they plan the operations of gov-
ernment, or in the qualifications they set for
citizenship and public office. Usually only the
second mode of difference seriously affects
their justice.
In Greek political life, the issue of justice as
between the democratic and the oligarchical
constitution is a conflict between those who
think that all free men deserve the equality of
citizenship and the opportunity to hold office,
and those who think it is unjust to treat the
rich and the poor as equals. The latter insist
that citizenship should be restricted to the
wealthy and that the magistracies should be
reserved for men of considerable means.
Finding justice and injustice on both sides,
Aristotle favors what he calls "the mixed con-
stitution." This unites the justice of treating
free men alike so far as citizenship goes, with
the justice of discriminating between rich and
poor with respect to public office. Such a mix-
ture, he writes, "may be described generally as
a fusion of oligarchy and democracy," since it
attempts "to unite the freedom of the poor and
the wealth of the rich." The mixed constitution,
especially if accompanied by a numerical pre-
dominance of the middle class, seems to him to
have greater stability, as well as more justice,
than either of the pure types of constitution
which, oppressive to either poor or rich, pro-
voke revolution.
In modern political life, the issue between
oligarchy and democracy lends toward a differ-
ent resolution. The last defenders of the oligar-
chical constitution were men like Burke, Ham-
ilton, and John Adams in the i8th century.
Since then, the great constitutional reforms
have progressively extended the franchise al-
most to the point of universal suffrage. These
matters are, of course, further treated in the
chapters on DEMOCRACY and OLIGARCHY.
POLITICAL REPRESENTATION, with a system of
periodic elections, seems to be indispensable to
constitutional government under modern con-
ditions. The territorial extent and populousness
of the nation-state as compared with the an-
cient city-state makes impossible direct partici-
pation by the whole body of citizens in the
major functions of government.
Considering the ancient republics of Sparta,
Rome, and Carthage, the writers of The Fed-
eralist try to explain the sense in which the
principle of representation differentiates the
American republic from these ancient consti-
tutional governments. "The principle of repre-
sentation," they say, "was neither unknown to
the ancients nor wholly overlooked in their
political constitutions. The true distinction be
tween these and the American government lies
in the total exclusion of the people, in their collec-
tive capacity, from any share in the latter, and
not in the total exclusion of the representatives of
the people from the administration of the
former"
The Federalists then go on to say that "the
distinction . . . thus qualified must be admitted
to leave a most advantageous superiority in
favor of the United States. But to insure to
this advantage its full effect, we must be careful
not to separate it from the other advantage of
an extensive territory. For it cannot be be-
lieved that any form of representative govern-
ment could have succeeded within the narrow
limits occupied by the democracies of Greece."
In their opinion, representative government
is not merely necessitated by the conditions of
modern society, but also has the political ad-
vantage of safeguarding constitutional govern-
ment from the masses. As pointed out in the
chapter on ARISTOCRACY, where the theory of
representation is discussed, the officers of gov-
ernment chosen by the whole body of citizens
are supposed— at least on one conception of
representatives— to be more competent in the
business of government than their constituents.
It is in these terms that the Federalists advo-
cate what they call "republican government"
as opposed to "pure democracy."
Like the idea of political offices, the prin-
ciple of representation seems to be inseparable
from constitutionalism and constitutional gov-
ernment. Though the principle appears to a
certain extent in ancient republics — whether
oligarchies or democracies— ancient political
writing does not contain a formal discussion of
CHAPTER 12: CONSnTUHON 241
the theory of representation. That begins in representative assemblies — that the idea of rep-
mediaeval treatises which recognize the consult- resentation and the theory of its practice as-
ative or advisory function of those who repre- sume a place of such importance that a political
sent the nobles and the commons at the king's philosopher like Mill does not hesitate to iden-
court. But it is only in recent centuries— when tify representative with constitutional govern-
legislation has become the exclusive function of ment.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The difference between government by law and government by men: the nature of
constitutional government 242
2. The notion of a constitution 243
2a. The constitution as the form or organization of a political community: arrange-
ment of offices; division of functions
2b. The constitution as the fundamental law: its relation to other laws, as a source or
measure of legality or justice
3. The relation of constitutional government to other forms of government
30. The combination of constitutional with absolute government: the mixed regime;
constitutional or limited monarchy
3& The merits of constitutional government compared with royal government and
the mixed regime 244
4. The constitutional conception of political office: the qualifications and duties of
public officials
5. The diversity of constitutions among the forms of government 245
5a. The justice of different constitutions: the extent and character of citizenship
under each
5#. The mixed constitution: its advantages
6. The origin of constitutions: the lawgiver, the social contract, the constituent assembly 246
7. The preservation of constitutions: factors tending toward their dissolution
ya. The relative stability of different types of constitutions 247
7^. The safeguards of constitutional government: bills of rights; separation of powers;
impeachment
8. The change of constitutions
80. Methods of changing a constitution: revolution, amendment
8£. The violation and overthrow of constitutional government 248
9. The theory of representation
90. The functions and duties of representatives: their relation to their constituent!
gb. Types of representation: diverse methods of selecting representatives 249
i p. The origin, growth, and vicissitudes of constitutional government
242
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER. Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGF SECTIONS' When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 1 16 and ends in the lower half of page 1 19 When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
nancl side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS* One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cei-
tain cases; eg., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT. Nehemtah, 7.45— (D) II Esdras, 7.46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The difference between government by law
and government by men: the nature of
constitutional government
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumemdes [681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES* Oedipus at Colonus [904-931]
122d-123a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps [463-507] 512d-513c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c; BK
vii, 233a-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnestan War, BK i, 368c-
d; BK in, 425a-c; 438a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 369c-d; BK vi, 380b-c
/ Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 667c-
676b esp 671c; BK iv, 681b-682c; BK vm,
733d-734a; BK ix, 745c-746a; 754a-b /
Seventh letter, 80Sd; 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34*24-bi7]
382a-c esp [1134*35-37] 382b; BK x, CH 9
[1180*14-24] 434d-435a / Politics, BK i, CH i
[1252*13-17] 445a-b; CH 5 [i254*34-b9] 448a;
CH 7 [i255bi5-2o] 449b; CH 12 453d-454a;
BK n, CH 10 [i272*35-bio] 468d-469a; BK in,
CH 10 [1281*29-39] 479a; CH n [i282bi-i3J
480b-c; CH 15-17 484b-487a; BK iv, CH 4
[I29ib30-i292a37] 491a-d; CH 6 492b<493a;
BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36] 512c; BK VH, CH 2
-4o] 528d-S29a
12 AURELIUS Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
14 PLUTARCH. Caesar, 591d / Cato the Younger,
635a-b, 638b-639a/ Tiberius Gracchus, 67 8b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2b; BK in, 51b-c;
61c-62a
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i, REP 3 205b-206b; A 3 207a-c; Q 95, A i
esp REP 2 226c-227c; Q 96, A 5, REP 3 233d-
234d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PARTII, 104d-106d; 114b-
115a; 131d-132a; 138b-c; 149b-151a; PART iv,
272c; 273a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT n, sc HI
[1-15] 44c-d; ACT in, sc i [223-242] 49c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Henry VIII, ACT i, sc n [91-
101] 553d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xii [63-110] 320b-
321b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government 25a-81d esp CH iv,
SECT 21 29d, CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b, CH vii,
SECT 87-94 44a-46c, CH xi 55b-58b, CH xiv
62b-64c, CH XVHI, SECT 199-202 71a-72a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a; 7c-
9a,c; BK in, 12a-13c; BK iv, 15a-c; BK v, 25d-
31a; BK vi, 33a-35a; 36a-b; BK vin, 54a-b;
2to3a
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
243
57c-58d; BK xi, 69a-c; BK xix, 137c-d; BK
xxv, 211c-d; BK xxvi, 223c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d-324a; 357b-c;
358b-d; 361c-362a / Political Economy, 370b-
371a / Social Contract, BK i, 387b,d-391b;
BK n, 400a; 406a-b; BK in, 408c; 419a-c; BK
iv, 433a-434b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-28b passim;
51b-d; 154a-c; 342a-c; 592a
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 73d-75a; 96d;
125a; 161c-162a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a / Science of
Right, 435c-437c; 450d-452a / Judgement,
586a-587a
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 68b-c; NUMBER 33
107b-109b passim; NUMBER 44, 146d-147a;
NUMBER 47, 153c-154d; NUMBER 53, 167d-
168b; NUMBER 55, 174c-d; NUMBER 57, 176d-
178a; NUMBER 75, 223c-d passim; NUMBER 78,
230d-232a; NUMBER 81, 237d-238b
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b / Representative
Government, 327b,d-355b passim
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 203d-205d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 260-
265 82a-84b, par 278 92c-93a; par 286 96c-
97a; par 298-299 99c-100b; ADDIIIONS, 132
137d-138b; 171 146b-c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 198b-199c; PART i, 207d-208c, 213b-
214d; PART n, 261d-262c; 271d-272a; PART
in, 301c-302d; PART iv, 327a-328a; 342a-d;
363c-365c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-d
2. The notion of a constitution
2a. The constitution as the form or organiza-
tion of a political community: arrange-
ment of offices; division of functions
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c esp 697a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH i [1274^6-37]
471b; CH 3 [i276*35-bi4] 473b-c; CH 6 [i278b
10-14] 475d; CH 7 476c-477a passim, esp
[1279*25-27] 476c; BK iv, CH i [1289*15-17]
488a; CH 3 [1290*8-12] 489a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 105,
Ai,ANs307d-309d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, en x-xw 55a-64c
passim; CH xvn, SECT 198 70d-71a; CH xix,
SECT 212-220 74a-75d
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69d-75a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK m, 406b,d-
410a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, la; 521c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 562b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-439a; 450d-452a
/ Judgement, 557d [fn 2]
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: lla-20a,c esp
ARTICLE i-in lla~16a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39 125a-128b passim;
NUMBER 47-83 153c 251a passim
43 MILL: Liberty, 321b-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 327b,d-332d passim; 355b-356a; 40 Id-
402a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 267
84b; par 269 84d; par 271-273 89c-92a; par
290 97d; ADDITIONS, 161 143a-b; 164 144c-
14Sa / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-
175c
2b. The constitution as the fundamental law:
its relation to other laws, as a source or
measure of legality or justice
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 380b-c / Laws, BK iv,
681b-682c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 3 [i276bi-i5]
473b-c; CH n [i282bi-i3] 480b-c; BK iv, CH i
[1289*13-25] 488a-b; CH n [1295*40^1] 495c;
BK v, CH 9 [1310*12-35] 512b-c; BK vm, CH i
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 101a-104d;
138b-c
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 212
74a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK i-n, 2d-6b;
BK v, 18b,d-25c; BK xxvi, 214b,d; BK xxix,
265d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 358b-d / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 405d-406d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a esp 114b-d /
Science of Right, 435a-441d esp 435c-436b,
437c-d, 438d-441d; 450d-452a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDLRAIION: XIII-CONCLU-
SION 9c-d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECTS
13a-d esp [254-259] 13c-d; ARTICLE vi [583-
590] 16d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33 107b-109b; NUMBER
44, 146d-147a; NUMBER 53, 167d-168b; NUM-
BER 78 229d-233c; NUMBER 80, 236d-237a;
NUMBER 81, 237d-238b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 430a-431a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 260-
269 82a-84d; par 274 92a; par 298 99c; par
349 llld-112a; ADDITIONS, 166 145b-c / Phi-
losophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART iv,
364b
3. The relation of constitutional government
to other forms of government
3<*. The combination of constitutional with ab-
solute government: the mixed regime;
constitutional or limited monarchy
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [359-422] 5b-
6b; [600-624] 8d-9a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [339-358] 261 b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 152d-153b
7 PLATO: Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK HI,
667a-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 14 483a-484a;
CH 15-16 484b-486c esp CH 15 [i286b3i]-cn 16
[1287*8] 485b-c; BK v, CH n [1313*18-33]
244
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The relation of constitutional government to
other forms of government. 3a. The com-
bination of constitutional with absolute gov-
ernment; the mixed regime; constitutional
or limited monarchy)
515d-516a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i365b39~
1 366*2] 608b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34b-35d / Dion, 800c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 59d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH iv 7a-8a; CH xix,
27a-b;29c-d
23 HOB BBS : Leviathan, PART H, 103d-104b; 106d-
107c; 151c-152a; PART in, 228a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 94
46a-c; CH x, SECT 132 55a-b; CH xi 55b-58b;
CH xin 59b-62b passim; CH xiv 62b-64c;
CH xvin, SECT 199-206 71a-72c; CH xix 73d-
81d passim, csp SECT 213 74b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 266d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 7c-8c;
BK in, llc-12b; 13c; BK vi, 36a-b; BK ix,
58b,d-60a; BK xi, 69a-77b csp 69d-75a; BK
xix, 142a-146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357b-c / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 414d-415b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 26d-28b; 622d-
623a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439c-440a; 441b-c;
450a-452a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125c; NUMBER 43,
141a-d; NUMBER 47, 154a-c; NUMBER 69 207a-
210c passim; NUMBER 70, 213b-c; NUMBER 71,
216a-b; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL- Liberty, 267d-268c / Representative
Government, 343c-344a; 351a-c; 353d-354b;
401d-402b
44 fto&w ELL: Johnson, 178a-b; 255a-d; 390a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273
90c-92a; par 275-286 92a-97a; ADDITIONS,
170-172 145d-146d / Philosophy of History,
PART i, 208b-c; PART iv, 342b-d; 368c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
BK ix, 384c-388a,c passim
)b. The merits of constitutional government
compared with royal government and
the mixed regime
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [391-460] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK HI,
672c-676c; BK iv, 681d-682c; BK ix, 754a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6
382a-c / Politics, BK i, CH 5
447d-448b; CH 7 [i255bi6-2o] 449b; CH 13
[i259b32-i26ob7] 454b-455a,c; BK in, CH 7
476c-477a; CH 15-17 484b-487a; BK iv, CH 2
[i289*26-bio] 488b-c; CH 10-11 495a-496d;
BK v, CH 8 [i3o8bio-3o] 510d-511a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 151c-152a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 13 28a-
b; CH vii, SECT 87-94 44a-46c; CH xi 55b-58b;
CH xiv, SECT 162-163 63a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 7c-9a,c;
BK in, 12a-13c; BK iv, 13b,d-15c; BK v, 25d-
31b; BK vi, 33a-35a; 36a-b; 37d-38c; BK vn,
45c-46a; 47d-48a; BK xi, 69a-75d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 356b-359c / Social
Contract, BK i, 387b,d-391b; BK in, 408b-c;
412c-414d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b; 32b-34a,c;
68b,d-69b; 521d; 522c-523a,c; 523d-524a
42 KANT- Science of Right, 439c-440a; 450a-452a
/Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST' NUMBER 6, 40a-41a; NUMBER 69
207a-210c passim
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269a / Representative
Government, 338d-340d; 341d-350a; 351a-
354a; 363b-366a; 436b-437a
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 301,
lOla; ADDITIONS, 180 148b / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 213b-214d; PART iv, 359b
4. The constitutional conception of political
office: the qualifications and duties of
public officials
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 12 [i259b4~9]
454a; BK n, CH 9 [i270b7~i27iai8] 466d-467b;
CH 10 [i272a35-bio] 468d-469a; BK in, CH 6
[I278b3o-i279a22] 476a-c; CH n 479b-480c
passim; CH 12 [i282bi5]-cH 13 [1284*2] 480c-
482a; BK iv, CH 3 [1290*5-13] 489a; CH 14-16
498b-502a,c; BK v, CH 9 [i309*33~bi4] 511c-d;
BK vi, CH 4 [I3i8b2i-i3i9a4] 522b-c / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 8 [i365b3i-36] 608a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 45c / Cato the Younger,
625b-627b / Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 105d-107b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3 207a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 122b-124b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT n, sc n-m
364a-369a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 94
46a-c; CH ix, SECT 131 54d; CH xn, SECT
143 58c-d; CH xin 59b-62b; CH xvn, SECT 198
70d-71a; CH xix, SECT 221-222 75d-76c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28b-29b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 71a-
72a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324d-325b; 356a-c;
358b-d / Social Contract, BK in, 423c-424d;
BK iv, 427a-428a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 26d-27a; 27d-28a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d; 94c-95c;
563d-564b; 586c-587a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v 5d-6a; ix
[299-310] 8b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
2-6 llb-12d; ARTICLE ii-in, SECT i 14b-15c;
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
ARTICLE VI [583-599] 16dj AMENDMENTS, XII
18a-c; xiv, SECT 2-3 18d-19a; xx-xxi 19d-
20a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125c-126b; NUMBER
52-80 165a-237d passim, esp NUMBER 57,
176d-177a
43 MILL: Liberty, 268b-c; 320c-323a,c / Repre-
sentative Government, 354b-362c; 363a-b;
365b-366a; 398d-406a; 409d-417c passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 277
92b-c; par 293-297 98b-99b; ADDITIONS, 169
145d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 241c 242b
5. The diversity of constitutions among the
forms of government
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK in, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin-ix, 401d-421a /
Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK iv, 679c-
682c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin, CH 10 [1160*31-
b22] 412c-413a / Politics, BK H, CH 7-11 461d-
470b, BK in, CH 5 [1278*3-33] 475a-c; CH 6-9
475d-478d esp CH 8 [i279bi7J-cH 9 [1280*33]
477a-d; BK iv, CH 2 [i289bi3]-cn 9 [i294bii]
488c-494c; CH 11-12 495b-497b; CH 14 [i297b
37~i298b4o] 498b-499c; BK v, CH i [1301*25-
35] 502b; BK vi 520a-526d; BK vn, CH 8-10
532c 534d / Athenian Constitution, CH 41
571c-572a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 608a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 105,
A i, ANS 307c-309d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 104d-108a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 4a-8c;
BK in, 9a-12a; BK v, 18d-19d; 23a-c; BK xi,
75d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-d / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 419b-c; BK iv, 427a-428a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51c-52d passim;
NUMBER 14, 60b-d; NUMBER 39, 125b c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-356b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273-
274, 90d-92a; ADDITIONS, 166 145b-c / Philos-
ophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART iv,
367c-368b
5a. The justice of different constitutions: the
extent and character of citizenship under
each
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a; BK vi, 520b-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin-ix, 401d-421a /
Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 667c-
. 676b; BK iv, 679c-680d; BK vin, 733d-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 3 [1131*24-29]
378d; CH 7 [1135*2-4] 382d; BK vin, CH 10-11
412c-413d/P0/;//rj,BKin,CHi-2471b,d:472d;
CH 5 475a-d; CH 9 477c-478d; CH 13 [i283b44~
245
1284*3) 482aJ BK Iv» CH 3 488d-489b; CH 8-9
493c-494d; BK v, CH i [1301*25-1302*15] 502b-
503b; CH 3 [1303^-8] 505a; BK vi, CH 3
521c-522a; CH 4 [i3i9b2~32] 523a-b; CH 6
524b-c / Athenian Constitution, CH 2 553a-c;
CH 12 557b-558a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 |
31-1366*6] 608a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 105,
A i, ANS 307d-309d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 4a-8c;
BK in, 9a-lla; BK v, 18b,d-25a; 31b-33a,c
passim; BK vi 33a-43d; BK xi, 68b,d-75a; BK
xn, 84b,d-85c; BK xin, 99b-100c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 405a-
406a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 271a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 616d-617d
41 GIBBON. Decline and Pall, 81d-82a; 223c-
224a;403b-404d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
401b-402a; 436d-437c; 450b-451d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51c-52d; NUMBER
57 176d-179b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 350a; 370a-
372b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 274
92a; ADDITIONS, 166 145b-c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART n, 272a-d;
273d-274a; 275b-276a; PART iv, 367c-368b
5b. The mixed constitution: its advantages
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vin,
590a-b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 667a-676b; BK iv, 680d-
681a;BKVi, 699d-700b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 6 [i265b25-
1266*30] 461 b-d esp [1265^3-39] 461b; CH n
[i272b24]-CH 12 [1274*13] 469b-470d; BK iv,
CH 8-9 493c-494d; CH 11-12 495b-497b; DK v,
CH 7 [1307*5-28] 509a-b; CH 8 [i3o8bio-
1 309*32] 510d-511c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35d / Dion, 800c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 72a; BK vi, 97b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-309d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xix, 27a-b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART in, 228a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ix, 58b,d-
60a; BK xi 68b,d-84d esp 69d-75a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 410c; 414d-
415b; BK iv, 427a-c
40 GIBBON; Decline and Fall, 24b; 630b,d-
631a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d; 81c-d; 218c-
219a; 403c-d; 404c-d; 428a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-356b;
401d-402b
246
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 7
6. The origin of constitutions: the lawgiver,
the social contract, the constituent as-
sembly
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 14a-c; BK iv, 152d-
153b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 311b-c / Statesman,
603c / Laws, BK in, 664a-667d / Seventh
Letter, 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 445b-446d csp
[1253*30] 446d; BK n, CH 12 470b-471d; BK
in, CH 15 [u86b8-22] 484d-485a; BK iv, CH 13
[i297bi6-28] 498a / Athenian Constitution
553a-584a,c csp CH 5-12 554d-558a, CH 29-31
566b-567d, CH 41 571c-572a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
1027] 74b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Romulus, 20c-28a
/ Lycurgus 32a-48d csp 33c-35d, 47a-c /
Solon, 68a-74b / Poplicola- Solon, 86a-87b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 51b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 84c-90d; 97c-d;
PART n, 99a-104d; 109b-c; 133b; PART in,
200a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 462d-463b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government,
CH vt, SECT 76 42a; CH vii, SECT 87 44a-b;
CH vin 46c-53c esp SECT 96-97 47a-b; CH x,
SECT 132 55a-b; CH xi, SECT 141 58a-b;
CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b; CH xvi, SECT
175 65d; CH xix, SECT 220 75c-d; SECT 243
81d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b; 262a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ix, 58b,d-
60a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353c-355b; 358b-d /
Political Economy, 370b-d / Social Contract,
BK i, 391a-393c; BK n, 400a-402a; BK m,423a-
424d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 71d-72d; 403b-c;
562b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 434b-c; 435a-436c;
437c-d; 439a-441d; 450d-452a csp 450d-
45lc
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: [7-28] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE vii [604-610] 17a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29a-b; NUMBER 2,
32a-33b; NUMBER 22, 84d-85a; NUMBER 37-
38, 117d-124a; NUMBER 40 128b-132a; NUM-
BER 49, 159b-c; NUMBER 53, 167d-168b;
NUMBER 78, 232a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative
Government, 327b,d-332d passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 258,
80d-81b; par 273, 91d-92a; ADDITIONS, 116
135c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-
175c; PART iv, 365c-366b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
684a
7. The preservation of constitutions: factors
tending toward their dissolution
<>THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 380b-c; BK vm-ix,
401d-421a csp BK vin, 403a-404a, 405c-406a,
408b-409b, 411d-414b / Laws, BK in, 667c-
676b; BK xn, 786c-787d; 794a-799a,c /
Seventh Letter, 801b-c; 806d-807b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [1270^-26]
466d-467a; CH 10 [i272a35-bn] 468d-469a;
BK iv, CH n-i2 495b~497b; BK v 502a-519d
passim, esp CH 7-9 508c-512d,CH ii515d-518c;
BK vi, CH 5 [i3i9b33-i32o*4] 523b-c; BK VH,
CH 9 [1329*3-12] 533b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4
[1360*2 0-2 9] 600c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 35c-d; 47a-48a / Cori-
olanus, 180b-d / Lysander, 361a-d / Agesilaus,
482a-c; 495c-d / Agis, 649b-c
15 TACITUS. Histories, BK i, 210d-212d
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 97,
AA 2-3 236d-238b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 148c-153a;
154b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47a-51a; 318c-319b;
462c-465c; 504c-506a
26 SHAKESPEARE- Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 90, 125a /
New Atlantis, 205d-207b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vin, SECT 97-
98 47a-c; CH xni, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH
xiv, SECT 162-168 63a-64c; CH xvin, SECT
203-210 72a-73c; CH xix, SECT 223-225 76c-
77a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK HI, 9b-10c;
BK iv, 15d-16a; BK v, 21d-22b; BK vii, 44d-
45b; BK vin, 51a-57a; BK x, 63b-c; BK xi,
74c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 361a-362a / Social
Contract, BK n, 403a-404a; 405d-406a; BK in,
408b-c;418a-421c; BK iv, 432b-435a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 622d-623a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 441b-c; 450d-452a esp
450d-451a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45a-47a; NUMBER 10
49c-53a; NUMBER 15-16, 64b-68d; NUMBER
18-22 71a-85a esp NUMBER 20, 77c; NUMBER
25, 91b-d; NUMBER 27-28 94d-98b passim;
NUMBER 41, 133a-134c; NUMBER 43, 141a-
142d; NUMBER 44, 147a-b; NUMBER 71, 2l5b-
c; NUMBER 78 229d-233c
43 MILL: Liberty, 320a-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 327b,d-332d; 350b-356b; 401d-402b;
413c-414d;425b-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 120a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273,
91d-92a / Philosophy of History, PART n, 272c-
273a; PART iv, 365c-d; 367c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 668a-
669c
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
247
la. The relative stability of different types of
constitutions
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in» 107c-108c
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vm,
587a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm-ix, 401d-421a esp BK
vm, 403a-404a, 405c-406a, 408b-409b, 411d-
414b / Laws, BK in, 667c-676b / Seventh
Letter, 801 b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK xi, CH o-n 465b-470b
passim; BK in, CH 13 [1284*3-^34] 482a-483a;
BK iv, CH ii [i295b35-i296b2] 496a-c; CH 12
496d-497b; BK v 502a-519d csp CH i [i30ib5-
1302*16] 502d-503b, CH 3 [i3<>2b34-i303bi8]
504b-505a, CH 4 [i304ai8~bi8] 505d-506b, CH
7 [I3°7ft5-27l 509a-b, CH 12 [i3i5bn~39] 518c-
d; BK vi, CH 5 [I3i9b33-i32o*3] 523b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 72a-b / Histories, BK
n, 224d-225a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H,Q 105,
A i, ANS 307d-309d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 105c-106d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, lOc-d;
BK vm, 51a-54b; 57b-c; BK xv, 112c-114a; BK
xix, 142a-143c; 145d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 411b-c;
413d-414c
40 GIBBON: Decltne and Fall, 48d-49a; 522d-
523a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51c-53a; NUMBER
27, 96b; NUMBER 48, 157b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 321b-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 355b-356b; 401d-402b
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 195c-d; 390a-b
7b. The safeguards of constitutional govern-
ment: bills of rights; separation of pow-
ers; impeachment
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35d / Solon, 70c-
71c / Conolanus, 179c-184c / Tiberius Grac-
chus, 678b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51 b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103d-104a; 150b;
151d-152a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vni, SECT 107
49b-d; CH xi, SECT i34~cH xn, SECT 143
55b-58d; CH xm 59b-62b; CH xvn, SECT 198
70d-71a; CH xix 73d-81d passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 7c-8c;
BK v, 29a; 31d; BK vi, 33a-35a; BK vm, 54b-c;
BK xi, 68b,d-75a; 82c-83a; BK xn, 84b,d-85c;
BK xix, 142a-143c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 370b-377b /
Social Contract, BK HI, 407d-408a; 410d-411a;
414d-415b; 423a; 424a-d; BK iv, 432b-433a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b; 25a; 27a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 81c-d; 93a-c; 94c-
95c; 96c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435c-441d passim;
450d-452a csp 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: [7-28] la-
b; [52-55] 2a; [66-67] [70-71] 2b; [95-105}
3a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v [74j~vi [93]
6a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE I, SECT 2 [45-47] lid? SECT 3 [81-95]
12a-b; SECT 6 [i43)-sECT 7 [169] 12c-d; SECT 9
[267-275] 13d; [283-295] 13d-14a; SECT 10
[300-303] 14a; ARTICLE ii, SECT i [331-334]
14b; SECT 4 15c; ARTICLE HI, SECT 2 [493]-
SBCT 3 [511] 15d-16a; ARTICLE iv, SECT 4
16b-c; ARTICLE vi [583-599] 16d; AMEND-
MENTS, i-x 17a-18a; xin, SECT i-xiv, SECT i
18c-d;xvl9b;xixl9d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 46c-d; NUMBER 9-10
47a-53a; NUMBER 21, 78d-79b; NUMBER 25,
90a-b; NUMBER 26-28 92a-98b passim; NUM-
BER 41, 133a-134c; NUMBER 43, 140c-142d;
NUMBER 44, 144d-145a; 146c-d; NUMBER 46-
51, 151a-165a; NUMBER 53, 167b-168b; NUM-
BER 55, 173b-174c; NUMBER 57, 176d-178b
passim; NUMBER 58, 180d; NUMBER 62, 189d-
191c; NUMBER 63, 192c-193c; NUMBER 65-^6
198a-203a; NUMBER 68, 205d-206a; NUMBER
69, 207b-d; NUMBER 7^ 218d-221c; NUMBER
76, 226a-227b; NUMBER 78 229d-233c; NUM-
BER 80, 236a-b; NUMBER 81, 237d-239c;
NUMBER 83-84 244b-256a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b; 269a-c / Repre-
sentative Government, 355b-356b; 361b; 365b-
366a; 369b-389b; 392b-401a; 401d-402b;
406c-407d; 412b-c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 195c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophv of Right, PART m, par 272
89d-90c; par 286 96c-97a; ADDITIONS, 164
144c-145a; 184 149a / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 368c-d
8. The change of constitutions
8a. Methods of changing a constitution: rev-
olution, amendment
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK vni,
575c-577d
1l PLATO: Republic, BK vn, 401c-d; BK vni-ix,
401d-421a csp BK vm, 403a-404a, 405c-406a,
408b-409b, 411d-414b / Seventh Letter, 800b-
801b; 804a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics,** vm, CH 10 [n6o*3i-b22]
412c-413a / Politics, BK n, CH 12 [i273b36-
1274*22] 470c-d; BK in, CH 3 [i276*35-bi5]
473b-c; BK iv, CH i [i288b43-i289»8J 487d-
488a; CH 5 [i292bi2-22] 492a; BK v, CH 1-2
502a-503d; CH 3 [1303*14-24] 504c-d; CH 4
[i304b8]-CH 7 [i3<>7b25] 506b-509d / Athenian
Constitution, CH 5 554d-555a; CH 29 566b-d;
CH 33-34 568b-569a; CH 38 570a-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 6a-b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 97,
A 3 237b-238b
248
THE GREAT IDEAS
8£ to 9a
(8. The change of constitutions. Ba. Methods of
changing a constitution: revolution, amend"
ment.)
23 HOBBES • leviathan, PART n, 150c-151a; CON-
CLUSION, 280c-281a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47a-51a; 462c-465c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix 73d-81d
passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi,77a; 77d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 424a-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 441b-c; 450d-451a
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: [7-28] la-
b; [95-108] 3a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: xni 9c
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: ARTICLE v 16c;
AMENDMENTS, XVIII, SECT 3 19dj XX, SECT 6,
XXI, SECT 3 20C
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 14, 62a-d; NUMBER 21,
78d-79b; NUMBER 39-40, 127d-132a; NUMBER
43, 143a-b; NUMBER 49-50 159b-162c; NUM-
BER 5}, 167d-168b; NUMBER 78, 232a-c;
NUMBER 85, 257a-259a
43 MILL: Liberty, 321a-b / Representative Govern-
ment, 327b,d-332d
46 HEGLL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273-
274, 91d-92a; ADDITIONS, 161 143a-b; 166
145b-c; 176 147c-d / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 364a-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 424c-
d; 42Sb-c; 432b-c
8b. The violation and overthrow of constitu-
tional government
6THUCYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
438a-b; BK vni, 579c-583c; 585d<586b; 587a-
589a; 590a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [1292*5-37]
491b-d; CH 5 [i292b6-n] 492a; CH 6 [1293*1-
10] 492c; [1293*27-34] 492d-493a; BK v, CH
5-7 506b-509d; BK vi, CH 4 [i3i9b2-3i] 523a-
b; CH 6 [i32ob29~37] 524c / Athenian Consti-
tution, CH 14-19 558d-561d / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 4 [1360*17-29] 600c
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 180b-d / Lysander,
361a-362a /Agesilaus, 482a-c ; 495c-d / Pompey
499a-538a,c / Caesar 577a-604d esp 578b-c /
Cato the Younger, 629d-639c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a; 3a-b; 23c /
Histories, BK i, 210d-212d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47a-51a; 318c-319b;
462c-465c; 504c-506a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xni, SECT 149
59b-d; SECT 155 60d-61a; CH xvi-xix65d-81d
passim
38 MONIESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vin, 51a-
52c; 53c-d; BK xi, 82c-83a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 358b 359d / Social
Contract, BK in, 407c; 408b-c; 418a-419c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-28b; 51c*d;
153c-154b; 592a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 74b-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450d-451a
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 68a-c; NUMBER 20,
77c; NUMBER 21, 78d-79b; NUMBER 25, 91b-d;
NUMBER 26, 93c-94d; NUMBER 28 96c-98b;
NUMBER 44, 146c-d; NUMBER 47-48 153c-159a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 350c-35lc
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 176a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 300b-
301c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 8d-10d
9. The theory of representation
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 8 [1294*9-15]
493d-494a; CH 14 498b-499c passim, esp
[i298b2i-22] 499b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 207a-c; Q 97, A 3, REP 3
237b-238b
23 HOBBLS: Leviathan, PART i,96c-98a,c; PART n,
lOla-b; 105a-c; 117b-121a; 153a-159c
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH vn, SKCT 88-89
44c-d; CH xi, SECT 140 58a; CH xix, SECT 222
75d-76c; SECT 240 81b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 4c-5a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 396b-d;
BK in, 421c-423a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271d
42 KANT- Science of Right, 451c-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCL: [41-47] 2a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i lla-
14b passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51d~53a esp 51d-
52a; NUMBER 14, 60a-61b; NUMBER 35, 113a-
114b; NUMBER 52-66 165a-203a passim, esp
NUMBER 57, 176d-178b, NUMBER 63, 193c-
194a; NUMBER 76, 227a; NUMBER 78, 231a-c
43 MILL- Liberty, 268b-c / Representative Govern-
w<?«/327a-442d passim, esp338a-b,355b-362c,
370a-372b, 401a-406a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
301-303 100b-102a; par 308-311 102c-104a;
ADDITIONS, 182 148c-d / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 175b-c
9a. The functions and duties of representatives:
their relation to their constituents
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 97c-98a,c; PART
n, 105a-c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xn, SECT 143
58c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73a-74b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 71a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 421c-
423a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 522c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 438d-439a; 441b-c;
450a-b; 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [35-47]
lb-2a; [109-121] 3a-b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v [49-58] 5d;
ix-x 7a-9a; CONCLUSION 9c-d
94 to 10
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
249
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i Ila-
14b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51d-52c; NUMBER
28, 97b-d; NUMBER 35-36, 113a-115a; NUMBER
44, 146c-d; NUMBER 48, 157c; NUMBER 49,
160c-d; NUMBER 52-66 165a-203a passim, esp
NUMBER 53, 168b-169d, NUMBER 62, 190a-b,
NUMBER 63, 192b-193a; NUMBER 78, 231a c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 351a-c;
353b; 355b-362c; 400a-406a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 86a-b; 176a-b
9b. Types of representation: diverse methods
of selecting representatives
7 PLATO- Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c; BK xn, 786b-
787b
9 ARISTOTLE- Politics, BK in, CH 10 478d-479a;
CH 13 [i283*2i-b34) 481b-d; BK iv, CH 9
[i294b6-i3J 494c; CH 14 498b-499c; CH 15
[i300B9~b4] 500d-501b; BK vi, CH 2 [i3i7b2-
16] 520d; CH 3 [i3i8»i9-b5] 521c-522a; CH 4
[i3i8b2i-26] 522b
14 PLUTARCH. Lycurgus, 45c-46a
27 SHAKESPEARE. Coriolanus, ACT n 361a*369a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH vin, SECT 95-99
46c-47c; CH xm, SECT 154-158 60c-62b; CH
xix, SECT 216 74d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART 11, 73a-74b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptrit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6d;
BK xi, 71a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality , 324c-325b / Social
Contract, BK i, 391 b; BK iv, 425d-428a esp
426d427a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v [49-73] 5d-
6a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLF i, SECT 2
[5]-sECT4 [io2]llb-12b;sEci5 [107-115] 12b;
AMENDMENTS, xn 18a-c; xiv, SECT 2 18d-19a;
xvn 19b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 22, 82a-c; NUMBER 35,
113a-114b, NUMBER 52-63 165a-195b passim,
esp NUMBER 54 170a-172b, NUMBER 62 188d-
191c; NUMBER 68 205b-207a
43 MILL- Representative Government, 369b-399d;
407d-409c;412a-414d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 176a-b; 251a; 261c-d
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, P\RT HI, par
311-313 103d-104b / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 172d-173c; PART n, 277c-d; PART iv,
365a; 368a-b
10. The origin, growth, and vicissitudes of con-
stitutional government
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 152d-153b
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnestan War, BK n, 396b-
397d; BK in, 432b-c; 438a-b; BK vin, 575c-
576c; 579c-583c; 585d-586b; 587a-589a;
590a-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK m, 667c-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [1181*13-24]
436c / Politics, BK n, CH 12 470b-471d; BK in,
CH i«> [i286b8-2i] 484d-485a; BK iv, CH 13
[1297^16-28] 498a; BK v, CH 4 [1304*18-38]
505d-506a; CH 5-7 506b-509d / Athenian
Constitution, CH 1-41 553a-572a passim, esp
CH 41 571c-572a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Romulus, 20c-28a/
Lycurgus 32a-48d / Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Popli-
cola, 77a-82a / Pophcola- Solon, 86a-87b /
Coriolanus 174b,d-193a,c esp 176b-184c /
Lysandcr, 365a-368a,c / Cato the Younger
620a-648a,c / Agis 648b,d-656d / Cleomenes,
657a-663c / Tibenus Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c /
Caius Gracchus 681b,d-689a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a; 3a-b; 21b-22d;
BK m, Slb-c; BK iv, 72a-b; BK vi, 97b /
Histories, BK i, 210d-212d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A i, ANS 307d-309d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus 351a~392a,c
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xn 65a*b / Lord Gen. Fair-
fax 68b-69a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 94
46a-c; CH vin, SECT 100-111 47c-51a passim;
CH xiv, SECT 162-166 63a-64a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 74a-76b; PART HI,
120a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi 68b,d~
84d
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 356a-b; 357b-c / Social
Contract, BK in, 420a-c; BK iv, 428a-434b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, la, 24b,d-28a; 51a-
d; 153c-154b; 241b-244a passim, 521a-523a,c;
622d-623c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-75b esp 71d-
72a, 73b-c; 202a-d, 217a-b; 403b-404d;
562b-565a, 574b-582b; 586c-589a esp 587a
42 KANT. Science of Right, 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 5a-9d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: lla-20a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2 31a-33b; NUMBER 9,
47a-d; NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b passim; NUM-
BER 37-38 H7d-125a; NUMBER 40 128b-132a;
NUMBER 48 156d-159a; NUMBER 52, 165d-
167b; NUMBER 63 191d-195b passim; NUMBER
85 256a-259a,c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-268c
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 176a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 176
147c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 192d-
193a; PART n, 275b-276a; PART in, 295d-
296c; PART iv, 335a-336c; 362b-368d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
260b-c; EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c
250 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other considerations of the distinction between government by law and government by men,
and for the comparison of constitutional government with other forms of government, see
ARISTOCRACY 4; LAW 6b, ya^b; LIBERTY id, if; MONARCHY ia-ia(2), 4^46(4);
TYRANNY 5-^.
The exposition of different types of constitutions and different forms of constitutional govern-
ment in themselves and in relation to one another, see ARISTOCRACY i-2e; CITIZEN 2c~3;
DEMOCRACY 3~3c, 4a(i)~4a(2), 4d; OLIGARCHY 1-2, 4, 5a.
Other discussions of the mixed regime and the mixed constitution, see ARISTOCRACY 2b;
DEMOCRACY 3a~3b; GOVERNMENT 2b; MONARCHY ib(i)— ib(2).
The idea of citizenship in relation to constitutional government, see CITIZEN 2a-2b; and for
the conception of the statesman as a constitutional office-holder, see STATE 8.
The conception of constitutional law and its relation to other bodies of law and legal justice,
see JUSTICE pc, loa; LAW 73.
Matters relevant to the conventional character of constitutions and the relation of the idea of
a constitution to the theory of the social contract, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 6a; LAW
yc; NATURE 2b; STATE 3d.
Constitutional government in relation to the theory of sovereignty, see DEMOCRACY 4b;
GOVLRNMENT IgO)"1^)* ^AW 6bj MONARCHY ^($)\ STATE 2CJ TYRANNY $€.
Other discussions of the safeguards of constitutional government and of the theory and
machinery of representation, see ARISTOCRACY 6; DEMOCRACY 40, 5-^c; GOVERNMENT ih;
LIBERTY ig.
The problem of constitutional change and the stability of different types of constitution, see
ARISTOCRACY 3; DEMOCRACY 7-73; REVOLUTION 2a, 30(2); STATS ^g.
The issues involved in the development of constitutional government and the establishment
of liberty under law, see GOVERNMENT 6; LIBERTY 6b; MONARCHY 4e(2); PROGRESS 43;
REVOLUTION 33; TYRANNY 4b, 8.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented m this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
FORTESCUE. Governance of England.
GUICCIARDINI. Dialogo e dtscorsi del reggimento di
MACHIAVELLI. The Discourses, BK i Firenze
MILTON. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates BODIN. The Six Bootes of a Commonweale
HUME. Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth BELLARMINE. The Treatise on Civil Government (De
Laicts)
lla HOOKER. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
POLYBIUS. Histories, VOL i, BK vi BOLINGBROKE. Dissertation upon Parties, LETTER 18
CICERO. De Republica (The Republic] VATTEL. The Law of Nations, BK i, CH 3
MARSILIUS OF PADUA. Defensor Pacts J. WILSON. Worfa PART i, CH n, v, x-xi; PART 11
CHAPTER 12: CONSTITUTION
251
BENTHAM. Fragment on Government, CH i (36-48), 3
J. ADAMS. A Defense of the Constitutions of Govern-
ment of the United States of America
PAINE. Rights of Man
BURKE. Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol
. On the Reform of the Representation in the
House of Commons
. An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs
. Letter to Sir Hercules Langnshe
GODWIN An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, BK
vi, CH 7
SIEVES. Discours dans les debats constitutionels de Van
III
JEFFERSON. Notes on the State of Virginia
. Democracy, CH 3
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK v, en 4-5
CALHOUN. A Disquisition on Government
. A Discourse on the Constitution and Govern-
ment of the United States
TOCQUEVILLF. Democracy in America
. Vancien rtgime {Ancient Regime)
BAGEHOT. The English Constitution
DICEY. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the
Constitution
MOSCA. The Ruling Class
JELLINEK. Allgememe Staatslehre
BRYCE The American Commonwealth
. Studies in History and Jurisprudence
BEARD. The Supreme Court and the Constitution
DUGUIT. Law in the Modem State
FARRAND, The Framing of the Constitution of the
United States
J. DICKINSON. Administrative Justice and the Su-
premacy of Law in the Vmted States
MERRIAM. The Written Constitution and the Unwrit-
ten Attitude
MclLWAiN. The Fundamental Law Behind the
Constitution
. Constitutionalism and the Changing World
. Constitutionalism, Ancient and Modern
KELSEN. General Theory of Law and State
ROSSITER. Constitutional Dictatorship
BORGESE et al Preliminary Draft of a World
Constitution
Chapter 13: COURAGE
INTRODUCTION
'"TT'HE heroes of history and poetry may be
JL cruel, violent, self-seeking, ruthless, intem-
perate, and unjust, but they are never cowards.
They do not falter or give way. They do not
despair in the face of almost hopeless odds. They
have the strength and stamina to achieve what-
ever they set their minds and wills to do. They
would not be heroes if they were not men of
courage.
This is the very meaning of heroism which
gives the legendary heroes almost the stature
of gods. In the Homeric age they do in fact con-
tend with gods as well as men. The two Homeric
epics, especially the Iliad, are peopled with men
who cannot be dared or daunted. In Tenny-
son's poem, Ulysses, now restive in Ithaca,
remembering the years at Troy and the long
voyage home, says to his companions,
Some work of noble note may yet be done
Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods
and though
We are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are:
One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.
In the Iliad, courage is the quality above all
others which characterizes the great figures of
Achilles and Hector, Ajax, Patroclus, and Dio-
medcs, Agamemnon and Menelaus. The only
other quality which seems to be equally prized,
and made the subject of rivalry and boast, is
cunning— the craft of Odysseus, that man of
many devices, and the cleverness in speech of
Nestor. Yet the best speech is only the prelude
to action, and except for the night expedition
of Odysseus and Diomcdes into the Trojan
camp, the great actions of the Iliad are un-
planned deeds of prowess — stark, not stealthy.
The heroes have boundless passions, and fear
is among them. When they are called fearless,
it is not because nothing affrights them or turns
their blood cold. Fear seizes them, as does anger,
with all its bodily force. They are fearless only
in the sense that they do not act afraid or fail
to act. Their courage is always equal to the
peril sensed or felt, so that they can perform
what must be done as if they had no fear of pain
or death.
Yet brave men often speak of courage as if it
were fearlessness and mark the coward as one
who is undone by fear. An ambush, Indomen-
eus says in the Iliad* will show "who is coward-
ly and who is brave; the coward will change
color at every touch and turn; he is full of fears,
and keeps shifting his weight first on one knee
and then on the other; his heart beats fast as he
thinks of death, and one can hear the chatter-
ing of his teeth." The brave man, mastering
fear, will appear to be fearless.
This is the courage of men of action, men in
war, found not only in the heroes of Troy's
siege, but in the stalwarts of all other battles—
Leomdas at Thermopylae, Aeneas and Turnus
engaged in single combat, the conquerors in
Plutarch, the warrior-nobility in Shakespeare,
the civilized Prince Andrew and young Rostov
in War and Peace. It is the sort of courage which
goes with physical strength, with feats of en-
durance; and, as signified by the root-meaning
of "fortitude," which is a synonym for courage,
it is a reservoir of moral or spiritual strength to
sustain action even when flesh and blood can
carry on no further. Such courage is a virtue in
the primary sense of the Latin word virtus —
manliness, the spirit, or strength of spirit, re-
quired to be a man.
THERE ARE OTHER sorts of courage. The courage
of the tragic hero, of Oedipus and Antigone,
goes with strength of mind, not body. This,
perhaps even more than being lion-hearted, is
252
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
253
a specifically human strength. Courage does not
consist only in conquering fear and in with-
holding the body from flight no matter what
the risk of pain. It consists at least as much in
steeling the will, reinforcing its resolutions, and
turning the mind relentlessly to seek or face
the truth.
Civil no less than martial action requires cour-
age. Weary of empire, Marcus Aurehus sum-
mons courage each day for the performance of
an endless round of duties. "In the morning
when thou nsest unwilling," he reminds him-
self, "let this thought be present— I am rising
to the work of a human being." How he con-
ceives the work of an emperor, he makes plain.
"Let the deity which is in thee be the guardian
of a living being, manly and of ripe age, and en-
gaged in matter political, and a Roman, and a
ruler, who has taken his post like a man waiting
for the signal which summons him from life,
and ready to go, having need neither of oath
nor of any man's testimony." The burdens are
heavy, the task difficult but not impossible, for
a man "can live well even in a palace."
Civil courage is as necessary for the citizen as
for the ruler. This virtue, in Mill's opinion, is
especially necessary for citizens of a free gov-
ernment. "A people may prefer a free govern-
ment," he writes, "but if, from indolence, or
carelessness, or cowardice, or want of public
spirit, they are unequal to the exertions neces-
sary for preserving it; if they will not fight for
it when it is directly attacked; if they can be
deluded by the artifices used to cheat them out
of it; if by momentary discouragement, or tem-
porary panic, or a fit of enthusiasm for an in-
dividual, they can be induced to lay their liber-
ties at the feet even of a great man, or trust him
with powers which enable him to subvert their
institutions; in all these cases they are more or
less unfit for liberty: and though it may be for
their .good to have had it even for a short time,
they are unlikely long to enjoy it."
The courage or pusillanimity of a people is
sometimes regarded as the cause, and sometimes
as the effect, of their political institutions. "The
inhabitants of Europe," Hippocrates writes, are
"more courageous than those of Asia; for a
climate which is always the same induces indo-
lence, but a changeable climate, laborious exer-
tions, both of body and mind; and from rest
and indolence cowardice is engendered, and
from laborious exertions and pains, courage."
This, according to Hippocrates, partly explains
why the Asiatics readily submit to despotism and
why the Europeans fight for political liberty.
But the character of the Europeans, he adds, is
also the result of "their institutions, because
they are not governed by kings ... for where
men are governed by kings, there they must be
very cowardly . . . and they will not readily
undergo dangers in order to promote the power
of another; but those that are free undertake
dangers on their own account . . . and thus
their institutions contribute not a little to their
courage."
For Hegel, on the contrary, civic courage
consists in undertaking dangers, even to the
point of sacrifice, for the state. Moreover, for
him true courage is entirely a civic virtue. "The
intrinsic worth of courage as a disposition of the
mind," he writes, "is to be found in the gen-
uine, absolute, final end, the sovereignty of the
stale. The work of courage is to actualize this
final end, and the means to this end is the sacri-
fice of personal actuality," Though he admits
that courage "is multiform," he insists that
"the mettle of an animal or a brigand, courage
for the sake of honor, the courage of a knight,
these are not true forms of courage. The true
courage of civilized nations is readiness for sac-
rifice in the service of the state, so that the
individual counts as only one amongst many."
THE WORK OF MAN is learning as well as ac-
tion. Man has a duty to the truth as well as to
the state. The ability to face without flinching
the hard questions reality can put constitutes
the temper of a courageous mind. "Tht huge
world that girdles us about," William James
writes, "puts all sorts of questions to us, and
tests us in all sorts of ways. Some of the tests we
meet by actions that are easy, and some of the
questions we answer in articulately formulated
words. But the deepest question that is ever
asked admits of no reply but the dumb turning
of the will and tightening of our heart-strings
as we say, Tes, I will even have it sol' When a
dreadful object is presented, or when life as a
whole turns up its dark abysses to our view,
then the worthless ones among us lose their hold
on the situation altogether . . . But the heroic
254
THE GREAT IDEAS
mind docs differently ... It can fact them if
necessary, without for that losing its hold upon
the rest of life. The world thus finds in the
heroic man its worthy match and mate ... He
can stand this Universe."
Not only in answering questions, but in ask-
ing them, courage is required. The story which
St. Augustine tells in the Confessions, of his per-
sistent questioning of doctrines and dogmas, his
refusal to rest in any creed which did not
wholly satisfy his mind, is a story of speculative
courage, capped by the fortitude with which he
bore the agony of irresolution and doubt.
Learning is never an easy enterprise, nor
truth an easy master. The great scientists and
philosophers have shown the patience and per-
severance of courage in surmounting the social
hardships of opposition and distrust, as well as
the intellectual difficulties which might discour-
age men less resolved to seek and find the truth.
The great religious martyrs, as indomitable in
their humility as soldiers are in daring, have
been as resolute—never yielding to a despair
which would have dishonored their faith.
In all these types of fortitude, different mo-
tivations are apparent, as diverse as the forms
which courage takes under the various demands
of life. Not all the forms of courage may be
equally admirable, partly because they are un-
equal in degree, but also partly because the
courageous acts themselves, or the purposes for
which fortitude is needed, are not of equal
moral worth. Yet the essence of courage seems
to be the same throughout. It sustains the honor
of Don Quixote and in some sense even of Sir
John Falstaff; it burnishes the fame of Alexan-
der and Caesar; it fortifies Socrates and Galileo
to withstand their trials. Whether in the dis-
charge of duty or in the pursuit of happiness,
courage confirms a man in the hard choices he
has been forced to make.
As THE CHAPTER on VIRTUE indicates, the tra-
ditional theory of the moral qualities places
courage or fortitude among the four principal
virtues. The other three are temperance, jus-
tice, and either wisdom or prudence, according
to the enumeration of different writers.
Plato names these virtues when, in the Re-
public, he compares the parts of the state with
the parts of the soul. "The same principles
which exist in the State exist also in the individ-
ual," Socrates says, and "they are three in num-
ber." There is one "with which a man reasons
... the rational part of the soul, another with
which he loves and hungers and thirsts and feels
the flutterings of any other desire—the irra-
tional or appetitive, the ally of sundry pleas-
ures and satisfactions." The third part is "pas-
sion or spirit" which "when not corrupted by
bad education is the natural auxiliary of reason. "
Corresponding to these three parts of the
soul, there are, or should be, according to Plato,
three classes in the state: the guardians or rulers,
the husbandmen and artisans, or the workers,
and the auxiliaries or the soldiers.
The virtues which belong to the several parts
of the soul also belong to the corresponding
parts of the state. Wise is the man, Socrates de-
clares, "who has in him that little part which
rules, and which proclaims commands, that
part too being supposed to have a knowledge of
what is for the interest of each of the three
parts and of the whole." Courageous is he
"whose spirit retains in pleasure and in pain the
commands of reason about what he ought or
ought not to fear."
Temperance, however, instead of being ex-
clusively the perfection of one part, pervades
the whole, and is found, according to Socrates,
in the man "who has these same elements in
friendly harmony, in which the one ruling prin-
ciple of reason, and the two subject ones of
spirit and desire are equally agreed that reason
ought to rule." Justice— "the only virtue which
remains . . . when the other virtues of temper-
ance and courage and wisdom are abstracted" —
"is the ultimate cause and condition of the ex-
istence of all of them, and while remaining in
them is also their preservative." It is the virtue
which "does not permit the several elements
within a man to interfere with one another, or
any of them to do the work of others."
The political analogy finds justice in the well-
ordered state, where wisdom rules, courage de-
fends the laws and peace, and temperance bal-
ances the economy. Wisdom would belong most
properly to the guardians, courage to the aux-
iliaries, while all three classes would need tem-
perance. Hegel also associates courage with 41the
military class"— Mthat universal class which is
charged with the defence of the state" and
CHAFFER 13: COURAGE
255
whose duty it is "to make real the ideality im-
plicit within itself, i.e., to sacrifice itself." But
whereas for Hegel courage seems to be the fore-
most political virtue, Plato puts it last in the
order of goods, "Wisdom is chief," the Athe-
nian Stranger says in the Laws; "next follows
temperance; and from the union of these two
with courage springs justice, and fourth in the
scale of virtue is courage."
In the context of a different psychological
analysis, and a theory of the virtues which con-
siders them primarily as habits, Aristotle's con-
ception of courage differs from Plato's in a
number of respects. It is most closely allied
with temperance. These two virtues together
belong to the irrational part of the soul — the
passions or appetites— and are concerned with
our attitude toward pleasure and pain. They
discipline us, both in feeling and action, with
regard to the pleasurable objects of desire and
the painful objects of fear or aversion. Aris-
totle seems to think courage more praiseworthy
than temperance, "for it is harder to face what
is painful than to abstain from what is pleasant."
Just as the temperate man is one who habit-
ually forgoes certain pleasures and seeks other
pleasures moderately for the sake of achieving
some greater good, so the courageous man is one
who can at any time endure pain and hardship,
or overcome fear of danger and death, in order
to achieve a paramount end. Since death is "the
most terrible of all things," Aristotle declares
that "properly, he will be called brave who is
fearless in face of a noble death, and of all
emergencies that involve death." But it must
be "for a noble end that the brave man endures
and acts as courage directs."
The paramount end, the greatest good, which
the moderation of temperance and the endur-
ance of courage serve, is for Aristotle happi-
ness. Yet through their relation to justice,
which concerns the good of others and the wel-
fare of the state, temperance and courage help
a man to perform his social duties, whether
as ruler or citizen, in peace or war. The man
who acts lawfully will not only be just, but also
courageous and temperate, for, in Aristotle's
view, "the law bids us do both the acts of a
brave man, e.g., not to desert our post nor take
to flight nor throw away our arms, and those of
a temperate man, e.g., not to commit adultery
nor to gratify one's lust." Not only may the
law-abiding man be called upon to be coura-
geous in the respects which Aristotle indicates,
but it may sometimes take great courage to up*
hold the law itself against many temptations to
the contrary. "After the death of Moses ... the
Lord spake unto Joshua," and said unto him:
"Be thou strong and very courageous, that
thou nwyest observe to do according to all the
law which Moses my servant commanded thee:
turn not from it to the right hand or to the
left."
The fourth virtue with which courage, tem-
perance, and justice are associated in the con-
duct of private or public life is prudence, or
"practical wisdom." Though Aristotle classifies
prudence as an intellectual virtue, consisting in
the capacity for making a right judgment about
things to be done, he also regards prudence as
inseparable in origin and exercise from these
other three virtues which he calls "moral"
rather than "intellectual." Later writers call
the four virtues taken together— courage, tem-
perance, justice, and prudence — the "cardinal"
virtues in order to signify, as Aquinas explains,
that the whole of moral life "hinges" upon them.
The theory of the cardinal virtues, and of
their connection with one another in such wise
that none can be perfect in the absence of the
others, is treated in the chapter on VIRTUE.
The chapters on JUSTICE, TEMPERANCE, and
PRUDENCE discuss the doctrine that each of
these virtues is only a part of virtue, which
must be integrated with the other parts. The
special role which prudence plays in relation to
virtues like courage and temperance— at least
according to Aristotle's view that "it is not pos-
sible to be good in the strict sense without prac-
tical wisdom, nor practically wise without moral
virtue"— must be reserved for the chapter deal-
ing with that virtue. Nevertheless, it is neces-
sary to consider here how its dependence on
prudence may qualify the meaning or nature of
courage.
»
THE CONNECTION which some writers see be-
tween courage and prudence affects the defini-
tion of courage in two ways. The first involves
the doctrine of the mean which enters into the
consideration of all the moral virtues, but espe-
cially courage and temperance.
256
THE GREAT IDEAS
Aristotle originates the analysi; of virtue as
"a mean between two vices . . : because the
vices respectively fall short of or exceed what is
right in both passions and actions." It requires
prudence to decide what things should be feared,
when they should be feared, and how much;
and so a prudent judgment is involved in fear-
ing the right things at the right time and in the
right manner — neither too much nor too little.
"The coward, the rash man, and th£ brave
man," Aristotle writes, "are concerned wath the
same objects but are differently disposed to
them; for the first two exceed and fall short,
while the third holds the middle, which is the
right, position; and rash men are precipitate
and wish for dangers beforehand but draw back
when they are in them, while brave men are
keen in the moment of action, but quiet before-
hand."
Aristotle is not the only one to define cour-
age as a midd leg round between contrary ex-
tremes. Most writers who devote any attention
to the nature of courage come to somewhat the
same conclusion. Epictetus, for example, in de-
claring that we should "combine confidence
with caution in everything we do," seems also
to make courage a mean. He points out that
such a combination at first "may appear a para-
dox" since "caution seems to be contrary to
confidence, and contraries are by no means
compatible." But this, he says, is only due to
"confusion." There would be a paradox "if we
really called upon a man to use caution and con-
fidence in regard to the same things ... as unit-
ing qualities which cannot be united." But, as
Epictetus explains, caution and confidence can
be united because they concern different ob-
jects.
The difference in objects which he has in
mind becomes clear in the light of the Stoic
maxim, "Be confident in all that lies beyond
the will's control, be cautious in all that is de-
pendent on the will." Sharply distinguishing
between what does and does not lie within our
control, Epicfetus tells us to look with care and
caution only to those things in which we can do
evil by making an evil choice. "In such matters
of will it is right to use caution." But in other
matters, "in things outside the will's control,
which do not depend on us ... we should use
confidence."
By uniting caution and confidence, we avoid
the extremes of foolhardiness and cowardice
and achieve the mean in which Aristotle says
courage consists. Both are necessary. Coward-
ice is not the only vice opposed to courage. The
man who acts without caution in the face of
danger, recklessly disregarding what might be
reasonably feared, is foolhardy rather than cou-
rageous; even as the coward is held back by fears
which his reason tells him should be overcome.
Because he agrees that courage consists in
avoiding both extremes, Spinoza writes that
"flight at the proper time, just as well as fight-
ing, is to be reckoned as showing strength of
mind." These two acts are allied, since it is by
"the same virtue of the mind" that a man
"avoids danger . . . and seeks to overcome it."
To determine at a given moment whether to
flee or to fight, so as to avoid either foolhardi-
ness or cowardice, obviously involves a decision
of reason. Such a decision, according to Spinoza,
demands "strength of mind," by which he
means "the desire by which each person en-
deavours from the dictates of reason alone to
preserve his own being." Without rational di-
rection or, as Aristotle would say, without
prudence, one may be fearless but not cou-
rageous.
Those who, like Hobbes, do not include rea-
son or prudence as an essential element in their
conception of courage, treat courage as an emo-
tion rather than a virtue, and tend to identify
it with fearlessness, making its opposite the
condition of being over-fearful. "Amongst the
passions," writes Hobbes, "courage (by which I
mean the contempt of wounds and violent
death) inclines men to private revenges, and
sometimes to endeavor the unsettling of the
public peace; and timorousness many times dis-
poses to the desertion of the public defense."
As Hobbes describes courage, it may be of
doubtful value to the individual or to the state.
Melville seems to have this meaning of courage
in mind when he says that "the most reliable
and useful courage is that which arises from the
fair estimation of the encountered peril" — the
lack of which makes "an utterly fearless man
... a far more dangerous companion than a
coward."
If apparent fearlessness were courage, then
certain animals might be called "courageous,"
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
257
and men of sanguine temperament, extremely
self-confident or at least free from fear, would
be as courageous as those who succeed in mas-
tering their fears in order to do what is expected
of them. But, as Aristotle observes, drunken
men often behave fearlessly and we do not
praise them for their courage. Plato likewise
presents a view of courage which requires fore-
thought and a genuine concern for danger.
"I do not call animals . . . which have no fear
of dangers, because they are ignorant of them,
courageous," says Nicias in the Laches. They
are "only fearless and senseless . . . There is a
difference to my way of thinking," he goes on,
"between fearlessness and courage. I am of the
opinion that thoughtful courage is a quality
possessed by very few, but that rashness and
boldness, and fearlessness, which has no fore-
thought, are very common qualities possessed
by many men, many women, many children,
and many animals." According to this concep-
tion of courage, "courageous actions," Nicias
says, "are wise actions."
IN LINE WITH these considerations, the defini-
tion of courage would involve a reasonable, a
wise or prudent, discrimination between what
should be feared and what should be under-
taken in spite of peril or pain. As the Parson
declares, in his discourse on the Seven Deadly
Sins in the Canterbury Tales, "this virtue is so
mighty and so vigorous that it dares to with-
stand sturdily, and wisely to keep itself from
dangers that are wicked, and to wrestle against
the assaults of the Devil. For it enhances and
strengthens the soul ... It can endure, by long
suffering, the toils that are fitting."
To be able to make decisions of this sort in
particular cases, a man must have some view of
the order of goods and the end of life. For a
man to act habitually in a courageous manner,
he must be generally disposed to value certain
things as more important than others, so that
he is willing to take risks and endure hardships
for their sake.
Freud seems to be skeptical of what he calls
"the rational explanation for heroism," accord-
ing to which "it consists in the decision that the
personal life cannot be so precious as certain
abstract general ideals." More frequent, in his
opinion, "is that instinctive and impulsive hero-
ism which knows no such motivation and flouts
danger in the spirit of Anzengruber's Hans the
Road-Mender: 'Nothing can happen to me? "
But Aquinas, who emphasizes rational motiva-
tion as much as Freud discounts it, insists that
courageous men "face the danger on account of
the good of virtue, which is the abiding object
of their will, however great the danger be."
Courage as Aquinas conceives it, though only
a part of virtue in the sense of being one virtue
among many, nevertheless represents the whole
moral life from one point of view. The quality
of courage, he points out, "overflows into the
rest" of the virtues, as these in turn enter into
courage. "Whoever can curb his desires for the
pleasures of touch," Aquinas writes, "so that
they keep within bounds, which is a very hard
thing to do, for this very reason is more able to
check his daring in dangers of death, so as not
to go too far, which is much easier; and in this
sense fortitude is said to be temperate.
"Again," he continues, "temperance is said
to be brave because fortitude overflows into
temperance. This is true in so far as he whose
soul is strengthened by fortitude against dan-
gers of death, which is a matter of very great
difficulty, is more able to remain firm against
the onslaught of pleasures; for, as Cicero says,
// would be inconsistent for a man to be unbroken
by fear, and yet vanquished by cupidity, or that he
should be conquered by lust, after showing himself
to be unconquered by toil"
As the man who is temperate because he has
rationally ordered his actions to a certain end
can be expected to be courageous for the same
reason, so, according to Aquinas, he will also be
prudent, since both his temperance and his
courage result from a prudent or rational choice
of means to the end he pursues.
Writing as a theologian, Aquinas distinguishes
what he calls "the perfecting virtues" of the
religious life from "the social virtues" of the
political life— the virtues with which the moral
philosopher is concerned. He holds courage to
be inseparable from the other virtues on either
plane— whether directed to a natural or super-
natural end— because it is the sameness of the
end in each case which binds the virtues to-
gether. "Thus prudence by contemplating the
things of God," he explains, "counts as nothing
all the thingsof this world" and "temperance, so
258
THE GREAT IDEAS
far as nature allows, neglects the needs of the
body; fortitude prevents the soul from being
afraid of neglecting the body and rising to
heavenly things; and justice consists in the
soul's giving a whole-hearted consent to follow
the way thus proposed."
WE ARE THUS brought to the second qualifica-
tion upon courage which arises from its connec-
tion with prudence, and through prudence with
the other virtues. Does it make any difference
whether the end for which a man strives val-
iantly is itself something commendable rather
than despicable ? If not, then the thief can have
courage just as truly as the man who fears dis-
honor more than death; the tyrant can be cou-
rageous no less and no differently than the law-
abiding citizen.
In his advice to the prince, Machiavelli seems
to consider only the utility of courage. Refer-
ring to the end which he says "every man has
before him, namely glory and riches," he points
out that men proceed in various ways: "one
with caution, another with haste; one by force,
another by skill; one by patience, another by
its opposite; and each one succeeds in reaching
the goal by a different method." Fortune, he
thinks, plays a large part in their success, and
for that reason he holds no method certain.
Any method requires us to use fortune to the
best advantage. This demands courage and even
audacity.
"It is better to be adventurous than cau-
tious," he writes, "because fortune is a woman,
and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary
to beat and ill-use her; and it is seen that she
allows herself to be mastered by the adven-
turous rather than by those who go to work
more coldly. She is, therefore, always woman-
like, a lover of young men, because they are
less cautious, more violent, and with more
audacity command her."
It would appear that Machiavelli recommends
courage, or at least daring, to those who wish to
succeed in great undertakings, whether the end
in view is commendable or not. In either case,
courage may improve the chances of success,
and it is success that counts. According to their
notions of courage as a virtue, Plato, Aristotle,
and Aquinas sharply disagree with this, as we
have already seen. So do Kant and Hegel.
"It is the positive aspect, the end and con-
tent," Hegel writes, which "gives significance
to thespiritedness"of courageous actions. "Rob-
bers and murderers bent on crime as their end,
adventurers pursuing ends planned to suit their
own whims, etc., these too have spirit enough
to risk their lives." Because their ends are
either malicious or unworthy, the mettle of
a brigand and even the courage of a knight
do not seem to Hegel to be true forms of
courage.
According to Kant, "intelligence, wit, judge-
ment, and other talents of the mind, however
they be named, or courage, resolution, perse-
verance, as qualities of temperament, are un-
doubtedly good and desirable in many respects;
but these gifts of nature may also become ex-
tremely bad and mischievous if the will which
is to make use of them, and which, therefore,
constitutes what is called character •, is not good."
If a good will is necessary to make courage vir-
tuous, then the behavior of a scoundrel may
look courageous, but it can only be a counter-
feit. "Without the principles of a good will,"
such things as the ability to face dangers or to
bear hardships, Kant thinks, "may become ex-
tremely bad . . . The coolness of a villain," he
adds, "not only makes him far more dangerous,
but also makes him more abominable in our
eyes than he would have been without it."
It may still remain true that courage can
take many forms according to the variety of
objects which inspire fear, or according to the
types of action which men find burdensome or
painful. But if the truly courageous man must
always be generally virtuous as well, then many
of the appearances of courage do not spring
from genuine virtue. The conception of virtue
as a habit adds the criterion of a settled disposi-
tion: even the habitual coward may perform a
single courageous act. Nor should courage be
attributed to those who by freak of tempera-
ment are utterly fearless. The merit of virtue —
overcoming fear— cannot be claimed by them.
IN THE GREAT political books, especially those
of antiquity, the place of courage in the state
and in the training of citizens receives particular
attention. The constitutions of Crete and Sparta
seem to make courage the only essential virtue
for the citizen.
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
259
Plutarch, in his life of Lycurgus, shows how
"the city was a sort of camp.'* The training and
education of all was directed to military valor.
"Their very songs had a life and spirit in them
that inflamed and possessed men's minds with
an enthusiasm and ardour for action . . . The
subject always serious and moral; most usually,
it was in praise of such men as had died in de-
fence of their country, or in derision of those
that had been cowards; the former they de-
clared happy and glorified; the life of the latter
they described as most miserable and abject."
The result was, according to Plutarch, that
"they were the only people in the world to
whom war gave repose."
Both Plato and Aristotle criticize the con-
stitutions of Crete and Sparta for making war
the end of the state and exalting courage, which
is only a part, above "the whole of virtue."
Courage must be joined with the other virtues to
make a man good, not only as a citizen but as a
man. "Justice, temperance, and wisdom," says
the Athenian Stranger in the Latvsy "when
united with courage are better than courage
only."
Furthermore, military courage is not even
the whole of courage. While recognizing the
need for it, Plato thinks that a wise statesman
would put it in its proper place, if men are to be
trained to be good citizens, not merely good
soldiers. Arguing that no sound legislator would
order "peace for the sake of war, and not war
for the sake of peace,1' the Athenian Stranger
suggests that a broader conception of courage
than the Cretans and Spartans seem to have
would recognize its use, not only in external
warfare, but in the tasks of peace — in the strug-
gle to lead a good life and build a good society.
"What is there," he asks Megillus the Spartan
and Cleinias the Cretan, "which makes your
citizens equally brave against pleasure and pain,
conquering what they ought to conquer, and
superior to the enemies who are most dangerous
and nearest home ?"
Nevertheless, through the centuries the type
of courage which the poets and historians cele-
brate has been the bravery of men who put
their very lives in jeopardy for their fellow
men— the courage of the citizen doing his duty,
or, what is still more spectacular, of the soldier
confronting the enemy. This fact among others
is one reason why many writers, from the Greeks
to Hegel, have found a moral stimulus in war;
or, like William James, have sought for its moral
equivalent. On this point they are answered
not merely by those who see only degradation
in war, but also by the many expressions of the
insight that peace can have its heroes too.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The nature of courage 260
2. The vices opposed to courage: cowardice, foolhardiness 261
3. The passions in the sphere of courage: fear, daring, anger, hope, despair
4. The relation and comparison of courage with other virtues 262
5. The motivations of courage: fame or honor, happiness, love, duty, religious faith 263
6. The formation or training of the courageous man 264
7. The political or civic significance of courage 265
ja. The courage required of citizens and statesmen: the political recognition of
courage
7^. Courage in relation to law and liberty
jc. Courage in war 266
260
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of pace 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesof the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehcmiah, 7.45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, sec the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
.. The nature of courage
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xn [310-328] 85b-c; BK xin
[266-294] 91a-b; BK xvi [493-501] 117c
5 EURIPIDES. Heracles Mad [140-160] 366b-c
6 THUCYDIDES Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396d-
398c passim
7 PLATO: Laches 26a-37d esp 32a-37d / Protag-
oras, 57d-64d / Cratylus, lOOc / Apology,
205d-206d / Phacdo, 225b-226c/ Republic, BK
iv, 346a-355a esp 347a-d / Statesman, 605d-
608d / Laws, BK i, 644c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK iv, CH 5 [i25b2o-27]
174d-175a; BK vi, CH 13 [151*3-13] 205d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 3 [no4b4-3]
350a; CH 6 [1107*9]-^ 7 [iio7b3] 352c-353a;
BK in, CH 6-9 361a-364b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9
[i366'33-bi4] 608d-609a
12EpicTETus: Discourses, BK n, CH i 138b,d-
140c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 18 304b-
305b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK x [466-472] 315a
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 50c / Pelopidas,
232a-233a / Cleomenes, 659d-660a
15 TACITUS Histories, BK n, 227a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59,
A 4, REP 3 309a-310a; PART l-n, Q 45, A 4,
ANS 8l2b-813a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
AA 2-4 55c-58b; Q 66, A 4, ANS and REP 2 78c-
79b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xiv [67]-
xvin [51] 127c-134a
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 60-61 529b-
530a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62d; 75b, CON-
CLUSION, 279b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 20d-22a; 96b-c; 115b-
121c esp 117d-119d; 167a-170a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc n
[32-37] 578c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i, sc
HI [45-54] 108c / Coriolanus, ACT iv, sc i [i-n]
377a / Timon of Athens, ACT HI, sc v [24-58]
407a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 256c-d;
291d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 59, SCHOL
415d-416b; PART iv, PROP 69, COROL and
SCHOL 445c; PROP 72-73 446b-447a
32 MILTON: Samson Agontstes [652-666] 353b-
354a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 70a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 159a
42 KANT: Fund, Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b
I to 3
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
261
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 327-
328 108a-c; ADDITIONS, 189 149d / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 195c-d; PART i, 243d-244c;
PART iv, 343d-344a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 83a-86b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK H, 77d-78a; BK
ix, 369c-d; BK xi, 480a-482b csp 481d-482a;
BK xm, 577a-578b; BK xiv, 589c-590c esp
590a; 605b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 826a-827a
2. The vices opposed to courage: cowardice,
foolhardioess
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 14:9-14 / Leviticust
26:32-40 / Deuteronomy, 20:8 / 7 Samuel, 17
esp 17*11, 17:24— (D) / Kings, 17 csp 17-11,
17.24 / Proverbs, 28.1 / Isaiah, 30:15-18— (D)
Isaias, 30-15-18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 3:26— (D) OT, Eccle-
siasticus, 3:27
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 26.56,69-75 / MarJ(,
14:50,66-72 / Luty, 22:55-61 / John, 7:13;
18:15-18,25-27
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK in 19a-23d; BK xm [266-
294] 91a-b; BK xxn [1-366] 155a-159a /
Odyssey, BK ix [461-542] 234a-d; BK xn [m-
i26]251b
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [631-723]
34a-35a
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [733-783] 149b-d / Electra
[947-1057] 163d-164d
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [473-510] 262c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES. Frogs [277-311] 567c-d; [460-
674] 569c-571d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 120d-121b; BK
vn, 216b-218b; 225c-d; BK ix, 303c-304a
6 THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370a-
c; BK n, 389d-390b; BK iv, 462d-463a, BK v,
484a-c
7 PLATO: Laches, 35c-d / Protagoras, 58a-59a,
63a-d / Phaedo, 225d-226b / Republic, BK v,
366c-d / Ttmaeus, 474b-d / Theaetetus, 513b /
Sophist, 557b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 2 [ii04Ri9]-cH 3
[no4bi3] 349c-350a; CH 7 [no7B32-b3] 353a;
CH 8 354a-d; BK m, CH 6 [n 15*10-24] 361a-b;
CH 7 361c-362b; CH 8 [11 i6bi5-22] 363a; CH 12
[1119*21-34] 365d-366a; BK v, CH 2 [1130*13-
b8]377c-378a passim; BK vn, CH 5 [1149*5-8]
399c / Politics, BK vin, CH 4 [i338b8-38] 544a-
b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 [i366bii-i4] 609a; BK
n, CH 13 [i389b29-i39o*6] 637b; CH 14 [1390*
28-b9] 637d-638a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH i 138b,d-
140c; CH 7 145b-146a; BK iv, CH 7 232c-235a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK xi [336-444] 337a-340a
14 PLUTARCH: Aemihus Paulus, 219d-229c /
Pelopidas, 232a-233a; 244c-245d / Marcellus-
Pelopidas 261a-262d / Nicias 423a-438d /
Demosthenes, 695d-703b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 8, 86d-
87b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 44,
A 4, ANS 809c-810a; Q 45, A 4, ANS 812b-813a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A 3, REP 5-6 316a-318b
21 DANTE :^ Divine Comedy, HELL, I-H Ja-4a; in
[22-69] 4b-d; vin [67]-ix [105] llc-13b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xii-xm 17d-21a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 115d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
264c-265a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 22d-24a; 25c-26d; 115b-
119d; 167a-170a; 334b-335a; 337b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc i [9-
47] 20a-b / 1st Henry IV, ACT n, sc iv [126-
312] 445c-447b; ACT iv, sc in [1-29] 459b-c /
Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc n [32-37] 578c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [575-633]
46b-d; ACT iv, sc iv [31-66] 59a-c / Macbeth,
ACT i, sc vn [29-82] 289c-290b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 256c-d;
291c-d
32 MILTON • Paradise Lost, BK n [204-208] 115b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 272b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXVIH,
239d-240a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 392b-c
47 GOFTHE: Faust, PART n [97 11-9904] 235b-240b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl(, 305a-307a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 16a-18b; BK n,
80d-81b; 102a-c; BK v, 203c-d; BK vin, 330d-
332a; BK ix, 344b-346a; 366d-367b; BK x,
419b-420d; 426b; BK xi, 475b-476c; 480a-
482b; BK xm, 569d-570a; BK xiv, 596c-d;
603a-604b; 610c-611c; BK xv, 618d-619d;
EPILOGUE I, 648b-C
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
273a-d
3. The passions in the sphere of courage: fear,
daring, anger, hope, despair
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 23:27 / Leviticus,
26:36-38 / Numbers, 13:16-14:10— (D) Num-
bers, 13:17-14:10 / Deuteronomy, 11:23-25;
20:1-9 / Joshua, 2:8-11,23-24— (D) Josue,
2.8-11,23-24 /Judges, 14:19 / Psalms, 31:24—
(D) Psalms, 30:25 / Proverbs, 29:25
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 17— (D) OT,
BooJ( of Wisdom, 17 / Ecclesiasticus, 22:16-18;
40:1-7— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 22:19-23;
40:1-7
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:1-5 / // Corinthians,
i :8-io / // Timothy, 1 7 / I John, 4:18
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK in 19a-23d; BK xxn [1-366]
155a-159a / Odyssey, BK ix [461-542] 234a-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound 40a-51d esp
[944-1093] 50b-51d
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra [949-1195] 163d-166a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [473-510] 262c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [277-311] 567c-d; [460-
674] 569c-571d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK ix, 303c-304a; 309d-
310a
262
THE GREAT IDEAS
3/04
(3. The passions in the sphere of courage: fear,
daring, anger, hope, despair.)
6 THUCYDIDES' Peloponnesian War, BK n, 402c-
404a; BK iv, 460c~d; BK vn, 555b-557b; 559b-
560b
7 PLATO: Laches, 36b-c / Phaedo, 225d-226b /
Republic, BK iv, 346a-355a csp 347a-d /
Timaeus, 466a-c / Laws, BK i, 651a-c; BK HI,
675a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK iv, CH 5 [i25b20-27J
174d-175a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK HI, CH 6-9 361a-364b /
Politics, BK vm, CH 4 [i338b8-38] 544a-b /
Rhetoric, BK n, CH 5 628b-629d; CH 13
[i38o.b29-i390*n] 637b-c
12 LUCRETIUS' Nature of Things, BK i [62-158]
ld-3a; BK n [1-61] 15a-d; BK in [1-93] 30a-
31b; [830-1094] 40c-44a,c; BK v [1194-1240]
76d-77b; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 18 304b-
305b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [194-209] 108a-b; [450-
465] 115b; BK vii [445-474] 248b-249a; BK ix
[123-158] 282a-283a; BK xii [593-611] 370a;
[650-696] 371b-372b
14 PLUTARCH: Aemihus Paulus, 224d-229c /
Pelopidas, 232a-233a; 244c-245d / Caesar,
583b-585d / Cleomenes, 659d-660a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 49d-50a / Histories,
BK n, 226b-227a; 235a; BK in, 249a; 265b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 13 39a-c /
City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-289a; BK xix,
CH 4 511a-513c csp 512b-513c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59,
A 4, REP 3 309a-310a; PART I-H, Q 35, A 6,
REP 3 777b-778c; QQ 40-48 792d-826a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 60,
A 4, ANS 52b-53a; A 5, ANS and REP 4 53a-54d;
Q 61, AA 2-3 55c-57a; A 4, ANS and REP 1-2
57a-58b; A 5, ANS and REP 1-2 58b-59d; Q 66,
A 4, ANS and REP 2 78c-79b; PART in SUPPL,
Q 96, A 6 1058a-1061b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i-n la-4a;
vm [67]-ix [105] llc-13b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
68-70 lOa; STANZA 80-8 r lib; BK in, STANZA
129 71a-b; BK iv, STANZA 89 lOOa; BK v,
STANZA 258 154a / Nun's Priest's Tak [14,914-
928] 451b / Parson's Tale, par 60-61 529b-
530a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVH, 24a-b; CH xix,
26c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62c-63a csp 62d;
68d; 77d; 79b-d; 96b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagrucl, BK iv,
261a-266c; 297b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 20d-22a; 25c-26d; 53c-
55d; 115b-119d; 167a-170a; 334b-335a; 337b-
c; 342a-d; 435a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc in
437d-440d; ACT n, sc in 443b-444b; ACT iv,
sc in [1-29] 459b-c / Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc
ii [34-37] 578c; ACT iv, sc in [145-195] 589d-
590c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT i, sc vii 289b-
290b / Coriolanus, ACT iv, sc i [1-33] 377a-b /
Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc v [24-58] 407a-c /
Henry VIII, ACT i, sc n [68-88] 553c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, PROP 51, SCHOL
411d-412a; THE AFFECTS, DBF 39-41 420d;
PART iv, PROP 69, COROL and SCHOL 445c
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 215 212a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 9-12 177b-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 52a-53b;69a-70c;llld-
112b; 234a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335c-d
42 KANT: Judgement, 502d-503d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 394a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 11 [5407-5456] 133b-
134b; [9711-9904] 235b-240b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtcl(, 83a-85a; 90b; 118a-
131a; 417b-418a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 17b-18a; 48c;
BK 11, 77c-81b; 95a-c; 97c~106d; BK HI, 134a-
135c; 150a-164a,c; BK iv, 173d-177a; 188a-
190c; BK v, 203c-d; BK ix, 369a-372a; BK x,
419b420c; 451c-456a; 457a-c; 461d-463c;
467a-468a,c; BK xif 480a-482b; 513d-515a esp
514c-d; 527b-532a,c; BK xn, 549d-551c;
560a-562d; BK xm, 569d-570a; 586d^587c;
BK xv, 614a-618b; 627a-c; EPILOGUE i, 648b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
155d-157b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 826a-b
54 FREUD: Gener al Introduction, 607 d-608c; 613d-
614a / War and Death, 762b-c; 765a-b
4. The relation and comparison of courage with
other virtues
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra [947-1057] 163d-164d
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [697-747]
384a-d
6 TnucYDWESiPeloponnesian War, BK i,370a-c;
BK ii, 402d-403b; 411b-c; BK vn, 555b-557b
7 PLATO: Laches, 31d-37d / Protagoras, 57d-64d
csp 58a-c, 63a-64a / Cratylus, lOOc / Meno,
183d-184c / Phaedo, 225d-226b / Gorgias,
284a-c / Republic, BK iv, 346a-350a; BK vni,
404a-405c / Timaeus, 466a-c / Sophist, 557b-d
/ Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK i, 643a-d;
644b-645c; 651a-c; BK in, 673d-674a; 675a-c;
BK xii, 795c-796b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK HI, CH 2 [ii7*35-b2]
164a; [118*16-17] 165a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 2 [ii04*i9]-cH 3
[no4bi3]349c-350a;cH8354a*d; BKIII, CH n
[m8b28-34] 365b-c; CH 12 [111^21-^] 365d-
366a; BK v, CH 2 {i 130*1 3~b8] 377c-378a pas-
sim; BK vi, CH 13 [ii44bi-ii45a5] 394a-d; BK
ix, CH 4 [i i66b8~i2] 419d; BK x, CH 7 [1177*28-
b25] 432a-e / Politics, BK vn, CH i [1323*22-34]
527a-b; CH 2 [1324*23-1325*15] 528b-529a
passim; CH 7 531d-532c; CH 15 [i334*n-b8)
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
263
539a-c; BK vin, CH 4 [^S^S] 544a-b /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 [i366*33~bi4] 608d-609a;
BK n, CH 14 637d-638a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH i 138b,d-
140c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 18 304b-
305b
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 175b / Cato the
Younger, 637b-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 211c-212b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 8, 86d-87b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 4, Slld-
513c; CH 20 523d-524a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 35,
A 6, REP 3 777b-778c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A 4-cj 61, A 5 52b-59d; Q 65, AA 1-3 70b-73d;
Q 66, AA 1-4 75b-79b; PART in SUPPL, Q 96,
A 6, ANS and REP 3-4,8-9 1058a-1061b; A 12
1064d-1065b
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 60-6 1 529b-530a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62c-63a; CONCLU-
SION, 279c
24 RABELAIS* Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
133b-134d
25 MONTAIGNE* Essays, 183a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc in
[145-195] 589d-590c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus, ACT n, sc n [86-
91] 365a / Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc v [24-
58] 407a-c
29 CERVANTES* Don Quixote, PART n, 256c-d;
291d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80a-81a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 51, SCHOL
411d-412a; PART iv, PROP 73, SCHOL 446d-
447a
32 MILTON: Samson Agomstes [38-59] 340b;
[652-666] 353b-354a
42 KANT. Fund. Pnn. Metaphvsic of Morals, 256a-
b / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 377d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 251a; 539b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 343d-
344a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 45a-46a; 83a-85a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 315b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 440d-442a; BK
xi, 481a-482a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
155d-157b
5. The motivations of courage: fame or honor,
happiness, love, duty, religious faith
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 22:1-14 / Numbers,
13:16-14:10 — (D) Numbers, 13:17-14:10 /
Deuteronomy, 7 116-24 ; 20 :i~9 ; 3 1 :6-8 /Joshua,
1:5-9; 23:6-11— (D) Josue, 1:5-9; 23:6-11 /
Judges, 7/7 Samuel, 17; 20— (D) / Kings,
17; 20/7 Chronicles, 22:12-13; 28:20— (D)
I Paralipomenon, 22:12-13; 218:20 / Esther, 4:1-
5:8 / Psalms, 27; 46; 56:4; 91; 118— (£>)
Psalms, 26; 45; 55:5; 90; 117 / Proverbs, 28:1;
2925 / Isaiah, 12:2; 35:4; 41:10-16; 43:1-7;
51:7-13— (D) Isaias, 12:2; 35:4; 41:10-16;
43:1-7; 51 7-13 f Daniel, r, 3:1-4:3; 6:1-22—
(D) Daniel, i; 3:1-23,91-100; 6:1-22
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 8-13— (D) OT, Judith, 8:1-
13:26 / Song of Three Children— (D) OT,
Daniel, 3:24-90 / Susanna-* (D) OT, Daniel,
13:1-64 / I Maccabees, 2:49-64; 6:43-46; 9:7-
10; 13:1-6— (D) OT, 7 Machabees, 2:49-64;
6:43-46; 9:7-10; 13:1-6 / 77 Maccabees, 6:18-
7:42; 8:12-22; 11:7-11; 13:10-15; 14:37-46;
15:7-27— (7)) OT, 77 Machabees, 6:18-7:42;
8:12-22; 11:7-11; 13:10-15; 14:37-46; 15:7-27
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:10-12; 10:26-31 /
Lu^e, 1:70-75; 12:32 / John, 15:13 / Acts csp
4:1-30, 5:40-41, 6:8-7:60, 16:1-40, 19:1-41,
20,22-24— (D) Acts csp 4:1-30, 5:40-41,
6:8-7:59, 16:1-40, 19:1-40, 20:22 -24 /Romans,
8:31-39 / 77 Corinthians, 1:1-12; 6:4-10; n '23-
30 / Philippians, 1:27-28; 2:29-30 / 77 Thes-
salonians, 1:4-5 / Hebrews, n; 13:6 / 7 Peter,
3:8-22
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK v [520-532] 35c; BK vi
[369-502] 43d-45a; BK vin [130-156] 52c; BK
xn [310-328] 85b-c; BK xni [206-294] 90b-
91b; BK xvi [493-501] 117c; BK xxn [77-130]
156a-c; [289-305] 158b
5 AESCHYLUS. Seven Against Thebes [630-723]
34a-35a / Prometheus flo«m/40a-51d\
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d / AjffK [430-
480] 146d-147b / Electra [949-1195] 163d-166a
5 EURIPIDES: Heracleidae [484-573] 252c-253a /
Suppliants [297-356] 261a-c / Hecuba [343-
383] 355d-356a; [482-603] 357a-358a / Her-
acles Mad [275-311] 367c-d / Phoenician
Maidens [991-1030] 387a-b / Iphigenia at Aulis
[1375-1565] 437c-439b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [565-580] 477a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 126a b; BK vn,
216b-220b; 226b-c; 233a-234b; 255c-d; BK
vin, 264c; 274d; BK ix, 291c-292a;303c-304a;
309d-310a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370a-
c; BK n, 396b-399a esp 397d-398c; 402c-404a;
BK v, 484a-c; 501a-b; BK vi, 527b-d; BK vn,
542b-c; 555b-557b; 559d-560b
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-153b; 160c / Phaedo,
225b-226c / Republic, BK v, 366c-367b / Laws,
BK i, 651a-652a; BK in, 675a-c / Seventh Letter,
800c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 6-9 361a-364b;
BK iv, CH 3 [ii24b7~9] 371b-c / Politics, BK v,
CH 10 [1312*24-39] 514d; BK vn, CH 2 [ij24b
10-23] 528c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 [1366^11-
14] 609a
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Waters, Places, par 16 15d-
16a; par 23 18a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22 195a-
201a; CH 24 203c-210a
13 VIRGIL: Aencid, BK I [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
vin [520-540] 273a-b; BK x [276-286] 309b-
310a; [466-472] 315a; BK xi (376-444] 338b-
340a; BK xn (53-80) 355b-356a; [650-696]
371b-372b
264
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The motivations of courage: fame or honor,
happiness, love, duty, religious faith.)
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 2c-9acsp3a-d /Romulus-
Theseus, 30a-b / Coriolanus, 175d 176b /
Aemihus Paulus, 224d-229c / Pelopidas, 232a-
233a; 238b-239c / Flamminus, 302b / Alex-
ander, 542a-d / Caesar, 583b-585d; 599b-c /
Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c / Cleomenes,
659d-660a / Aratus, 826c-836d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lla-b; BK HI, 49d-50a;
BK xv, 171d; BK xvi, 180d-184a / Histories,
BK i, 195a-b; 200b-c; 211c-212b; BK n, 217d-
218a; 226d 228a; 234b 235c; BK in, 248b-c,
249a; 256b-c; 259c-260a; 265b-c; BK iv, 266d;
267b-c
17 PLOHNUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 4-16 14a-
19b passim
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4 287a-
288 b; BK x, CH 21 311c-312a; BK xix, CH 4
511a-513cesp512b-513c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 45,
A 4, ANS 812b-813a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theohgica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 96, A 6 1058a-1061b
21 DANTE: Dwme Comedy, HELL, i-n la-4a;
in [22-69] 4b-d; vin [67J-ix [105] llc-13b;
xxvi [85-i4z]39a-c; PARADISE, xvn [106-142]
133b-c
22 CHAUCER- Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
68-70 lOa; STANZA 80-81 lib; BK iv, STANZA
89 lOOa; BK v, STANZA 258 154a / Knight's Tale
[850-1029] 174a-177a / Tale of Man of Law
236b-255b / Clerks Tale 296a-318a / Physi-
cian's Tale 366a-371a esp [12,147-191] 369b-
370b / Prioress's Tale [13,418-620] 392a 395b
/ Second Nun's Tale 463b-471b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH x, 16c-d; CH xix
26a-30a; CH xxvi 36b-37d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 74c-d; PART in,
210b~211a
24 RABELAIS: Garganfua and Pantagruel, BK i,
32c-35a; BK iv, 265b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 23b-24a; 115b-119d;
340a-343b passim; 494 b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT v, sc in [237-
270] 146b-c / 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc in 437d-
440d; ACT n, sc in 443b-444b; ACT iv, sc in
[1-29] 459b-c; ACT v, sc i [127-143] 462a-b /
Henry V, ACT HI, sc i 543d-544b; ACT iv, sc
in [1-78] 555c-556cr sc v 558a-b / Julius
Caesar, ACT i, sc n [84-96] 570b; ACT v, sc v
[68-81] 596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [575-633]
46b-d; ACT iv, sc iv [39-66] 59b-c / Troilus
and Cressida, ACT n, sc n 113c-115d / Mac-
beth, ACT i, sc vii 289b-290b / Timon of
Athens, ACT in, sc v 406d-408a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART i, 41b-c,
147b-d, PART n, 203a-b, 227c-228d, 256a-d,
280b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [856-1016] 266a-
269b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 153 201b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 36a-38b esp 38b; 94b-
95a; 142 b-c; 146b-147a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b,d-
14a; 14d-15a; BK xxvm, 239d-240a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92a-93b; 93d-94b;
217d-220d esp 219c-220b; 370b-d; 376a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 159a; 224a; 238c;
324c-325a; 385a-386b
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. MetaphysicofMorals,2S9d-
260b [fn 2] / Practical Reason, 326b-327d /
Science of Right, 448d-449c / Judgement, 504b-
505a
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 452c-453a
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 384 b-c; 394a-c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 327
108a-b; ADDITIONS, 189 149d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 166b-168a; 184b-d; PART i,
224d-225a; PART HI, 308b-c; PART iv, 322c;
341a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [884-902] 23a; PART n
[9855-9862] 239b, [10,407-422] 253b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc(, 45b-46a; 118a-122b;
174a-b, 349a-350a
49 DARWIN D^<f^o/Mtf«,311a-d,316a-c,322c
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK i, 21d-22b; BK
n, 77c-81b, 89b-d; 97c-106d; BK HI, 135c-137c
esp 136b-137c; 142b-d; 146d-147c; 149a-
164a,c; BK iv, 173d-179b; BK VIH, 330d-332a;
BK ix, 366d-367b; 370a-372a; BK x, 437c-d;
445c, 448a-b, 451c-456a; 457a-c; 467a-c; BK
xi, 481a-d, 514c-d, 527b-528b; BK xii, 560a-
562d; BK xiii, 569d-570a; 586d-587c; BK xiv
596c-600d; 605b-d, BK xv, 618d-619d; 627a-'
c; EPILOGUE i, 673d-674a,c
52 DOSIOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
155d-157b; BK x, 273a-d
54 FREUD: War and Death, 765a-b
6. The formation or training of the courageous
man
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b /
Hecuba [530-603] 357b-358a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d esp [882-
iio4]499b-502a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d; BK v, 175b;
BK vn, 233a-d; BK ix, 314a,c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396d-
397a; BK v, 501a-b
7 PLATO: Laches, 26a-32a / Symposium, 152b-
153b / Republic, BK ii-ni, 320c-339a / Laws,
BK i 640a-652d; BK vm, 732d-733b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i [no3bi4-26]
349a-b; CH 2 [no4ai9]-CH 3 [no4bi3] 349c-
350a / Politics, BK vii, CH 2 [1324^-23] 528c-
d; BK vin, CH 3 [i337b24-27] 542d-543a; CH 4
[I338b8-38]544a-b
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Waters, Places, par 16
15d-16a; par 23 18a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 2 106d-108b;
BK ii, CH i 138b,d-140c; BK HI, CH 3 178d-
180a; BK iv, CH i 213a-223d
7 to 7b
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
265
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vm [494-520] 272a-273a;
BK ix [590-620] 295a-b; BK xn [425-440] 365b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-45c / Coriolanus,
17Sb / Pelopidas, 238b-239c / Cleomenes, 661a-
663c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
28a-29b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 331a-332a; 336c-337b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 303b-305c;
337d-338a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Rail, 93d-94b; 644b-
645d csp 645a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 223a; 224a
42 KANT- Practical Reason, 325d-327d / Judge-
ment, 504a-b
43 MILL- Liberty, 282b-283a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 175a-b; BK
ix, 369c-d; BK xi, 481a-482a; BK xiv, 605b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 82b-83a
7. The political or civic significance of courage
la. The courage required of citizens and states-
men: the political recognition of courage
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xn [310-328] 85b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1264-1363] 154a-d / Phil-
octetes [1418-1433] 195a
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [150-202] 204c-205a /
Heradeidae [489-573] 252c-253a / Suppliants
[297-356] 261a-c / Hecuba [300-330] 355b-c /
Phoenician Maidens [991-1018] 387a-b / Ipht-
genia at Auhs [1368-1562] 437c-439b
5 ARISIOPHANES: Knights [565-580] 477a-b /
Wasps [1060-1121] 520c-521b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 225c-d; 226b-c;
233a-234b; 239a-c; 256d-257c; BK vm, 282c-
283a; BK ix, 291c-292a; 293c-294d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396b-
399a, 402c-404a; BK vn, 555b-557b; 559d-
560b
7 PLATO- Apology, 207b-d / Cnto, 217b-c /
Republic, BK ii, 319c-320c; BK iv, 347a-d; BK
v, 366c-367b / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws,
BK i, 644a-645c; BK xn, 784d-786b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 8 [in6fti5-b3]
362b-d; BKV, CHI [ii29bi9-24]377a/ Politics,
BK in, CH 4 [i277a8-25] 474a-b; CH 12 [1283*
18-20] 481b; BKVII, CH2 [1324^-23] 528c-d;
CH 7 531d-532c; CH 15 [i334an-b6] 539a-b;
BK vm, CH 4 [i338b8-38] 544a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK H, CH 10 148c-
150a; BK in, CH 24 203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 5 261a;
BK v, SECT i 268b,d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [781-807] 232a-b; BK
xi [225-444] 334a-340a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 40c-45c / Poplicola,
83b-84a / Coriolanus, 177b-179a; 180d-181b
/ Aemilius Paulus, 226c-229c / Pyrrhus, 328c-
330a / Nicias, 423a-430d / Cato the Younger
620a-648a,c / Clcomenes, 659d-660a / Demos-
thenes, 695d-703b / Aratus, 835b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 16d-17a; BK xii, 117a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 8, 86d-87b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 105,
A 3, ANS and REP 5-6 316a-318b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH m, 5c; CH vi, 9b-c;
CH vm, 14b-c; CH ix, 15a-b; CH x, 16b-c;
CH xvn 23d-24d; CH xix 26a-30a; CH xxi,
32a-d; CH xxiv-xxvi, 34d-37d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, U5d; CONCLU-
SION, 279b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 53c-55d; 181d-183c;
327d-329d; 331a-332a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT v, sc m [237-
341] 146b-147c / Henry V, ACT in, sc i 543d-
544b; ACT iv, sc m [1-78] 555c-556c; sc v
558a-b / Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c csp ACT i,
sc ii [84-96] 570b, ACT v, sc v [68-8 1] 596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE- Trotlus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [33-54] 108c / Coriolanus, ACT n, sc 11
[86-138] 365a-c; ACT iv, sc i [i-n] 377a /
Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc v 406d-408a /
Cymbehne, ACT v, sc in 479d-480d / Henry
Vlll, ACT i, sc ii [68-88] 553c-d
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART i, 40d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 72-73 446b-
447a
32 MILTON: Lord Gen, Cromwell 69a-b / Sr Henry
Vane 69b / Paradise Lost, BK ii [430-456] 120b-
121a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spint of Laws, BK in, 12b-c;
BK iv, 15a-c; BK xiv, 107b-d, BK xxx, 281a
38 ROUSSEAU. Political Economy, 375a / Social
Contract, BK in, 411b-c; BK iv, 437d-438c
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 23c, 369d-370c;
427a-c; 630b,d-631a; 644d-645c
43 MILL Representative Government, 329b-c;
334b-c; 392b-c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 325
107d; par 328 108b-c; ADDIIIONS, 189 149d /
Philosophy of History, PART i, 213d-214a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 315b-c; 321b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 9c-10d; BK in,
149d-150a; BK x, 445c; BK xi, 475b-476c;
513d-515a; BK xn, 537b-538a; BK xiv, 610c-
611c; EPILOGUE i, 648b-c; 668a-669c
ib. Courage in relation to law and liberty
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 175b; BK vn,
232c-233d; 238a-c; 239a-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396b-
399a; 402c-404a; BK iv, 469d-470b; 478d-
479b; BK v, 484a-c; BK vn, 555b-557b
7 PLATO: Apology 200a-212a,c / Crito 213a-
219a,c / Laws, BK i, 644a-645c; BK in, 675a-c;
BK xn, 784d-786b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 8 [m6*i5-b24]
362b-363a / Politics, BK v, CH 10 [1312*18-39]
514d; CH n [i3i3*34-bio] 516a-b; BK vn, CH 7
531d-532c; CH 15 [1334*19-22] 539a / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 9 [1366*1-14] 608d-609a
10 HIPPOCRATES : Atrs, Waters^ Placet^ par 16 15d-
16a; par 23 18a-c
266
THE GREAT IDEAS
7c
(7. The political or civic significance of courage.
Ib. Courage in relation to law and liberty.)
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c esp
643a-644b / Cleomenes, 659d-660a / Aratus,
826c-836d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK xn, 117a; BK xvi, 180d-
184a / Histories, BK iv, 271 b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR 11, CH 8, 86d-
87b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A 3, ANS and REP 5-6 316a~318b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Pr/«re, CH v 8a-c; CH x, 16b-d;
CH xxvi 36b-37d
23 HOBBFS: leviathan, PART n, 113b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 23b 24a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 72-73 446b-
447a
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Samson
Agomstes [888-902] 359a
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK in, 12b-c;
BK iv, 15a-c; BK xiv, 107b-d; BK XVH, 122a-b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 324c / Social Contract,
BK i, 388c; BK in, 411b-c; BK iv, 437d-438c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23c; 523d-524a
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 223a; 224a; 324c-
325a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 448d-449c
43 MILL: Liberty, 282b-283a / Representative
Government, 329b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 324,
107c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [9855-9862] 239b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 513d-515a;
EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c
7c. Courage in war
OLD TLSTAMFNT: Deuteronomy, 20-1-4,8 /
Judges, 14-16 / / Samuel, 14:4-13; 17— (D)
I Kings, 14:4-13; 17
APOCRYPHA : Judith, 8-i3~-(D) OT, Judith, 8:1-
13*26 / / Maccabees, 6 -43-46; 9-1-22— (D)
OT, / Machabees, 6:43-46; 9.1-22
4 HOMLR- ///W3a-I79d esp BK in 19a-23d, BK
vi [369-502] 43d-45a, BK xn [310-328] 85b-c,
BK xin [206-294] 90b-91b, BK xvi [493-501]
117c, BK xxn [77-130] 156a-c, BK xxin [i-
367] 161a-165a
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians 15a-26d esp [331-432]
18d-19d / Seven Against Thebes [630-723] 34a-
35a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b /
Phoenician Maidens [697-747] 384a-d; [991-
1030] 387a-b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [565-580] 477a-b /
Wasps [1060-1121] 520c-521b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 233a-d; 239a-c;
252a-259a esp 256d-257c; BK ix, 291c-292a;
298c-304c; 309d-310a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK i, 367c-
368a; 370a-c; BK u, 389d-390b; 396b-399a;
402c-404a; 411b-412c; BK iv, 457b-c; 460c-d;
469d-470b; 478d-479b; BK v, 484a-c; 491b-c;
501a-b; BK vi, 522b c; 527b-c; BK vn, 555b-
557b; 559b-560b; 561a-b
7 PLATO: Laches, 32a-c / Symposium, 172a-b /
Apology, 205d-206a / Cnio, 217b-c / Republic,
BK in, 324c-325b; BK iv, 347a-d; BK v, 366c-
367b / Ttmaeus, 445d-446b/L<™*, BK i,642b-
643a; BK xn, 784d-786b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 13 [i5ift3-i3]
205d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 6 [1115*24-35]
361b-c; CH 8 [m6ai5-b24] 362b-363a; BK v,
CH i [ii29bi9~24] 377a / Politics, BK 11, CH 9
[i269b34-39] 466a; BK in, CH 7 [i279*4o-b3]
476d; BK v, CH 10 [1312*25-39] 514d; BK vn,
CH n [i330b32-i33i*8] 535c; BK vin, CH 4
U338b8-38] 544a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9
[i366bi-i4] 608d-609a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 16
15d-16a; par 23 18a-c
13 VIRGIL* Aeneid, BK n 124a-146b; BK ix-xn
279a-379b
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 40c-45c / Pophcola,
83b-84a / Conolanus, 177b-179a / Aemihus
Paulus, 219d-229c / Pelopidas, 232a-233a;
238b-239c/ Afara//^ 246b,d-261a,c / Marcel-
lus-Pelopidas 261a-262d / Philopoemen 293a-
302a,c / Pyrrhus, 328c-330a / Nicias 423a-438d
/ Caesar, 583b-585d / Cleomenes, 659d-660a;
661a-663c / Demosthenes, 695d-703b / Aratus,
826c-836d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK n, 44d-45a; BK in, 49d-
50a; BK xii, 117a-b / Histories, BK i, 210c;
211c-212b, BK n, 226d-227a, 232d-233a; BK
in, 246b-c; 248b-c; 249a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A 3, ANS and REP 5-6 316a-318b
22 CHAUCER • Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
68-70 lOa; BK n, STANZA 88-93 33a-b; BK v,
STANZA 258 154a
23 MACHIAVELLI. Prince, CH x, 16c-d; CH xii-
xni 17d-21a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART 11, 115d
24 RABELAIS Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
32c-35a, BK iv, 297b-d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 3a-5a; 20d-22a; 22d-
24a; 25c-26d; 53c-55d; 95d-97b; 302b-306a;
327d-329d; 336c-337a; 532d-533a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc v-vi
23d-25a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT v, sc iv [1-59]
lOla-c / Richard III, ACT v, sc in [237-341]
146b-147c / King John, ACT v, sc i [44-79] 399d-
400a / 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc in 437d-440d;
ACT n, sc in 443b-444b; ACT iv, sc in [i-
29] 459b-c / Henry V, ACT HI, sc i 543d-
544b; ACT iv, sc in [1-78] 555c-556c; sc v
558ab
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT iv, sc iv [46-66]
59b-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n 113c-
115d / Conolanus, ACT i, sc iv [8-63] 356c-
357c; sc vi [55-87] 358d-359a; ACT n, sc n
[86-135] 365a-c / Timon of Athens, ACT m,
sc v 406d-408a / Cymbehne% ACT v, sc HI
479d-480d
Ic
CHAPTER 13: COURAGE
267
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 147b-d;
PART ii, 203a-b; 280b-c
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Para-
dise Lost, BK ii [430-466] 120b-121a
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK xiv,
102b,d-103a; BK xxvm, 239d-240a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-
438c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93d-94b; 94d;
369d-376a esp 370a-c, 375b-c; 427a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 19d-20a; 238c;
324c-325a; 357c-359c; 534b-536d passim;
543a-551a passim, csp 543d-544a, 549c-550c
42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 384b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 189
149d / Philosophy of History, PART i, 242d-
243b; PART ii, 274a-275a; PART iv, 343d-344a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n (9435^9505] 228b-
230b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 321c
Si TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK n, 77c-81b;
95a-c; 97c-106d; BK in, 134a-135c; 149a-
164a,c; BK ix, 344b-346a; 366d-367b; 369a-
372a; BK x, 426b; 441d-442c; 445c; 451c-
456a; 457a-c; 461d-463c; 467a-468a,c; BK xi,
475b-476c; 480a-482b, 517d-518a; BK XH,
537b-538a, BK xin, 569d-570a; 586d-587c;
BK xiv, 589c-590c; 590d-604b passim; 610c-
611c; 6l3a-c; BK xv, 627a-c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general theory of virtue and the virtues, see VIRTUE AND VICE.
The virtues most closely related to courage, see JUSTICE; PRUDENCF; TEMPERANCE.
The relation of these other virtues to courage, see PRUDENCE 33-3)3, $e; TEMPERANCE ra;
VIRTUE AND VICE 2-30.
Courage and oilier virtues in relation to happiness and duty, see HAPPINESS 20(3); VIRTUE
AND VICE id, 6a.
Matters relevant to the emotional aspects of courage, see EMOTION 40(1); PLEASURE AND
PAIN 8a; VIRTUE AND VICE 53.
The general consideration of moral training, see EDUCATION 4~4d; VIRTUE AND VICE 4-40(3).
The general consideration of civic virtue, see CITIZEN 5; STATE 8b-8c; VIRTUE AND VICE
7~7d; and for courage as a military virtue, sec WAR AND PEACE ice.
The analysis of the heroic and the conception of the hero, see HONOR 5-53, 5c.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-n, QQ 123-140
F. BACON. "Of Boldness," in Essays
MILTON. The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a
Free Commonwealth
DOSTOEVSKY. The Idiot
II.
THEOPHRASTUS. The Characters
CICERO. De Officiis (On Duties), in
SENECA. De Constantia Saptentts (On the Firmness of
the Wise Man)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
P. SIDNEY. The Countess of Pembroke* s Arcadia
CORNEILLE. Polyeucte
VAUVENARGUES. Introduction a la connatssance de
Vespnt humain, PART i, en i
MORGANN. Essay on the Dramatic Character of Sir
John Falstaff
LEOPARDI. Essays, Dialogues, and Thoughts
STENDHAL. The Charterhouse of Parma
T. CARLYLE. On Heroes, Hero- Worship and the He-
rote in History
EMERSON. "Courage," in Society and Solitude
T. H. GREEN. Prolegomena to Ethics, iv
CRANE. The Red Badge of Courage
ROSTAND. Cyrano de Bergerac
RANK. The Myth of the Birth of the Hero
G. W. RUSSELL. The Hero in Man
ROUTH. God, Man, and Epic Poetry
RAGI.AN. The Hero
Chapter 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
INTRODUCTION
'HE contrast between the artificial and the
JL natural is generally understood in terms of
the contribution which man does or does not
make to the origin or character of a thing. Works
of art are man-made. The artificial is somehow
humanly caused or contrived. The contrast be-
tween the natural and the conventional or cus-
tomary invplves the same point of difference.
Though customs are not, in the strict sense,
made by man, as are works of art, they do grow
only as the result of the kind of acts which men
perform voluntarily rather than instinctively.
Similarly, conventions, like contracts, are so-
cial arrangements or agreements into which
men enter voluntarily.
The fundamental notions with which this
chapter deals are thus seen to be closely related
to ideas and distinctions treated in the chapters
on ART and NATURE. For example, the distinc-
tion between human action and production, or
doing and making, helps us to understand how
the conventional and the artificial differ from
one another as opposites of the natural. Art in-
volves voluntary making. Customs result from
voluntary doing. In both cases, the distinction
between the voluntary and the instinctive —
the latter representing the natural — seems to
be presupposed.
A third term — habit — is traditionally associ-
ated with the consideration of the voluntary
and the instinctive. Like these others, it seems
to have a critical bearing on the discussion of
custom and art. Aristotle, for example, con-
ceives art as an intellectual virtue, that is, a
habit of mind, an acquired skill. For Hume
the customary and the habitual are almost
the same. Whether they are to be identified
or are only connected causally, the relation of
habit to custom not only throws some light
on the nature of custom, but also calls our at-
tention to the fact that the words "custom"
and "convention" cannot be treated simply
as synonyms.
In the tradition of the great books, the word
"convention" has at least two meanings, in
only one of which is it synonymous with "cus-
tom." When "convention" is used to signify
habitual social practices it is, for the most part,
interchangeable with "custom." In this signif-
icance, the notion of convention, like that of
custom, is an extension of the idea of habit.
What habit is in the behavior of the individual,
customary or conventional conduct is in the be-
havior of the social group.
The other meaning of "convention" does not
connote the habitual in social behavior, but
stresses rather the voluntary as opposed to the
instinctive origin of social institutions, arrange-
ments, or practices. For example, different sorts
of family organization are conventional in the
sense that at different times or in different com-
munities men have set up their domestic ar-
rangements in different ways. In each case they
tend to perpetuate the particular institutions
which they or their ancestors originated. What-
ever is conventional about social institutions
might have been otherwise, if men had seen fit
to invent and adopt different schemes for the
organization of their social life. This indicates
the connection between the two senses of the
word "convention," for all customs are con-
ventional in origin, and all conventions become
customary when perpetuated.
THE FACT THAT men can depart from, as well as
abide by, their conventions — that they can
transgress as well as conform to custom— seems
to indicate that custom and convention belong
to the sphere of human freedom. Yet there is
also a sense in which custom is a constraining
force, which reduces the tendency of individ-
uals to differ from one another, and which has
268
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
269
the effect of moulding them alike and regi-
menting their lives.
The repressive effect of custom can be seen,
according to Freud, in the neurotic disorders
from which men surfer when their instinctive
impulses come into conflict with "accepted cus-
tom." Discussing the influence of custom upon
the developing individual, he says that "its or-
dinances, frequently too stringent, exact a great
deal from him, much self-restraint, much re-
nunciation of instinctual gratification." It be-
comes, therefore, one of the aims of psychoan-
alytic therapy to release the individual from
his bondage to custom, or at least to make him
conscious of the way in which certain desires
have been submerged or distorted, and his
whole personality shaped, by the constraints
which the mores and taboos of the tribe have
imposed upon him.
Considered m relation to society, custom also
seems to exercise a conservative, if not repres-
sive effect. Established customs tend to resist
change. They are sometimes thought to impede
progress. But to the extent that they conserve
the achievements of the past, they may be in-
dispensable to progress because they provide
the substance of what we call "tradition." A
passage in Bacon's Advancement of Learning il-
lustrates these apparently contrary effects of
custom.
Over-emphasis upon either antiquity or nov-
elty seems to Bacon a disease of learning, or an
obstacle to its advancement. "Antiquity en-
vieth there should be new additions," he writes,
"and novelty cannot be content to add but it
must deface." If custom tends to support an-
tiquity against novelty, it may also encourage
inventions or discoveries which genuinely en-
hance the tradition without defacing it. "An-
tiquity deserveth that reverence," Bacon says,
"that men should make a stand thereupon and
discover what is the best way; but when the
discovery is well taken, then to make progres-
sion." As the preserver of antiquity, custom
thus appears to afford a basis for progress.
One other fact about customs which most
commentators from Herodotus to Montaigne
and Freud have observed is their variety and
variability. Customs differ from time to time,
and from place to place. But this diversity and
variation in custom does not necessarily mean
that no uniformity at all exists in the actions of
men. "Were there no uniformity in human ac-
tions," Hume points out, it would be impossible
"to collect any general observations concerning
mankind." At least enough uniformity is found,
in his opinion, for it to be "universally acknowl-
edged that human nature remains still the
same." To whatever extent human behavior is
purely natural or instinctive, it is common to
all members of the species, and does not, like
customary conduct, vary remarkably from one
part of the human race to another, or from
generation to generation.
The diversity and vanation of customs seems
therefore to be of their essence and to show that
they are both man-made and voluntary in or-
igin. "If they were not devices of men," Augus-
tine writes, "they would not be different in dif-
ferent nations, and could not be changed among
particular nations." The distinction between
nature and convention can be formulated,
therefore, partly in terms of the contrast be-
tween the constant and the variable, and partly
in terms of the difference between the instinc-
tive and the voluntary.
The early Greeks had an apt way of express-
ing this. As Aristotle phrases their insight, they
referred to the natural as "that which every-
where has the same force and does not exist by
people's thinking this or that," as, for example,
"fire burns both here and in Persia." The con-
ventional and those things which are "not by
nature but by human enactment are not every-
where the same." The laws of Persia differ from
the laws of Greece, and in Greece or in Persia,
they change from time to time.
THE VARIABILITY of custom in contrast to the
constancy or uniformity of nature puts the dis-
tinction between nature and convention at the
service of the skeptic. One form of the skeptical
attack upon natural law, universal moral stand-
ards, and the objectivity of truth or beauty
consists in making custom the only measure of
the acceptability of human actions or judg-
ments. To say, for example, as Hume does, that
the connection which the mind seems to make
between cause and effect is based on custom
rather than reason, has the skeptical effect which
Hume intends. It substitutes the arbitrary for
the rational. It dispossesses reason as a source of
270
THE GREAT IDEAS
either the validity or the intelligibility of our
conclusions concerning cause and effect.
As the chapters on KNOWLEDGE and OPINION
indicate, the skeptical argument takes other
forms. The reduction of all human judgments
to opinion makes the differences between men,
in either action or thought, unresolvablc by ar-
gument or debate. One opinion can predomi-
nate over another only by force or by the weight
of numbers. When it predominates by weight
of numbers, it prevails by custom or conven-
tion. It is the opinion which the majority have
agreed upon at a given time or place. To settle
every controversy about what men should think
or do by counting heads is to hold that every-
thing is a matter of opinion and purely conven-
tional.
Whether the skeptic reduces everything to
opinion or to convention, he achieves the same
effect. What he means by calling everything an
"opinion'* or a "convention" is equally inimical
to reason. In either case, the willful or arbitrary
is enthroned in reason's place and only force can
be finally decisive. The two ideas—opinion and
convention— seem to be corollaries of one
another. Both imply a kind of relativity. Opin-
ion normally suggests relativity to the individ-
ual, custom or convention relativity to the so-
cial group. Either may be involved in the or-
igin of the other. The individual may form his
opinions under the pressure of prevailing cus-
toms of thought or action; the customary be-
liefs or practices of a society or culture may, and
usually do, result from opinions which have
come to prevail.
The Greek sophists, we learn from the dia-
logues of Plato, appealed to the distinction be-
tween nature and convention and to the distinc-
tion between knowledge and opinion in exactly
the same way. They used the notions of opinion
and convention with equal force in their efforts
to question absolute standards of conduct and
the objectivity or universality of truth. The
most familiar of ail the sophistical sayings—the
remark attributed to Protagoras that "man is
the measure of all things"— is interpreted by
both Plato and Aristotle to mean that what men
wish to think or do determines for than what is
true or right. Man's will governs his reason, and
.convention, or the agreement of individual
wills, decides what is acceptable to the group.
In the Gorgtas, which is named after another
of the leading sophists of the day, Plato puts
into the mouth of Calhcles the sophistic posi-
tion that there is no law or standard of justice
except the rule of the stronger. Insisting that
"convention and nature are generally at vari-
ance with one another," Calhcles attempts to
show that all of Socrates' efforts to discover an
absolute standard of justice come to naught, be-
cause he cannot help but resort "to the popular
and vulgar notions of right, which are not natu-
ral, but conventional."
As they appear in Plato's dialogues, the soph-
ists arc obviously impressed by the kind of in-
formation which fills the History of Herodotus
—information about the great diversity of hu-
man beliefs and practices which anyone could
discover for himself if he traveled, as Herodotus
did, from people to people, obsetvmg their in-
stitutions and collecting their legends. Herodo-
tus himself does not explicitly draw the skep-
tical conclusion, yet his own suspended judg-
ment on many matters betokens a turn of mind
made cautious by the impact of contrary opin-
ions and conflicting customs.
In the Hellenistic period when the main stream
of Greek philosophy divides into a number of
Roman schools of thought, the skeptical posi-
tion receives what is perhaps its fullest and most
explicit statement. But in the writings of Lu-
cian and Pyrrho, to take two examples, it is not
so much the conflict of customs as it is what
Lucian calls "the warfare of creeds," which oc-
casions universal doubt. Yet whatever the
source of doubt, Pyrrhonism states the tradi-
tional denials of the skeptic in their most ex-
treme form. The senses are entirely untrust-
worthy. Reason is both impotent and self-de-
ceiving. Men possess no knowledge or science.
No truth is self-evident; none can be demon-
strated.
THB CRITICAL TEMPER of the Greek sophists,
and of an observer of men and manners like
Herodotus, reappears later in the questionings
of Montaigne — sharpened somewhat, perhaps,
by his acquaintance with the Roman skeptics.
In his case, perhaps more than any other, it is
the implication! pf custom which, everywhere
expatiated on in his Essays, give them their
skeptical tone* Not himself a traveler in distant
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
parts, Montaigne traverses the world of time
and space by reading. He becomes conversant
with the strange customs of the aborigines and
of the Orient through the reports of returned
explorers. He culls from the historians and ge-
ographers of antiquity every difference in cus-
tom which their books set forth as fact or fable.
Montaigne's insatiable appetite for collecting
and comparing customs is not an aimless fascina-
tion on his part with the spectacle of human va-
riety. It steadfastly leads him to the conclusion
which is for htm the only one possible. Since
every belief or practice can be paired with its
opposite in the customs of some other time or
place, no belief or practice can demand unquali-
fied or universal assent. "There is nothing," he
writes, "which custom does not, or may not do;
and therefore, with every good reason it is that
Pindar calls her the ruler of the world."
To say, as Montaigne does, that "the taste for
good and evil depends in good part upon the
opinion we have of them" and that "everyone
is well or ill at ease, according as he so finds him-
self," amounts to saying that all moral judg-
ments are matters of opinion, either individual
or customary in origin. Beauty, too, is a matter
of taste. "We fancy its forms," Montaigne
thinks, "according to our own appetite and lik-
ing/' As may be seen in the chapter on BEAUTY,
Montaigne assembles an abundance of evidence
to show that standards of beauty vary with dif-
ferent peoples. The tastes or preferences of one
group are as unaccountable as they are frequent-
ly revolting to another.
Even in the field of speculative thought about
the nature of things, Montaigne regards the
things men hold to be true as nothing more than
prevailing opinions — the cultural conventions
of a time or place. "We have no other level of
truth and reason," he declares, "than the exam-
ple and idea of the opinions and customs of the
place wherein we live: there is always the per-
fect religion, there the most perfect govern-
ment, there the most exact and accomplished
usage of all things."
Of all human deceptions or impostures, none
is worse than that which flows from a man's un-
willingness to qualify every remark with the ad-
mission that this is the way it seems to me. In
Montaigne's eyes, " there is no greater folly in
the world" than the failure to recognize that
we reduce truth and falsity "to the measure of
our capacity and the bounds of our sufficiency."
When new ideas or the strange beliefs of others
at first seem incredible simply because they arc
not our own, "we shall find that it is rather cus-
tom than knowledge that takes away their
strangeness." For his own part, Montaigne
makes his "emblem" the question, "What do I
know?" This, he says, sums up his Pyrrhonian
philosophy.
ACCORDING TO the modern social scientist who
claims that custom is the ultimate standard of
conduct and that it provides the only criterion
of moral judgment, no questions can be raised
about the goodness or evil of particular cus-
toms. The customs of one people cannot be
judged by another, at least not objectively or
impartially, for those who judge must do so on
the basis of their own customs. Since there is no
arbiter above conflicting customs to say which
is right, a particular custom has validity only
for the group in which it prevails. Within that
social group the character or conduct of its in-
dividual members is measured by conformity
to the prevailing customs.
The descriptive science of sociology or com-
parative ethnology thus tends to replace the
normative science of ethics— or moral philoso-
phy. The only scientifically answerable questions
about human conduct take the form of "How do
men behave ?" 6r "How have they acted individ-
ually or in groups ?" but not "How should they ?"
The study of morality, as in Sumner's Folkways^
becomes a study of the mores— how the customs
which measure conduct develop and dominate;
or, as in the writings of Freud, it becomes a
study of how the individual is psychologically
formed or deformed by the mores of his tribe
and culture, according to the way in which the
growing child reacts to the pressures which the
community imposes through parental discipline.
With these views, many philosophers and the-
ologians, both ancient and modern, take issue.
But their opposing doctrine seldom goes so far
as to deny that morality has certain conven-
tional aspects. In arguing that there arc "no in-
nate practical principles," Locke, for example,
like Montaigne, cites instances of contradictory
customs to show that " there is scarce that prin-
ciple of morality to be named, or rule of virtue
272
THE GREAT IDEAS
to be thought on , . . which is not, somewhere or
other, slighted and condemned by the general
fashion of whole societies of men, governed by
practical opinions and rules of living quite op-
posite toothers."
But Locke does not leave this observation of
the diversity of customs unqualified. He goes on
to assert that "though perhaps, by the different
temper, education, fashion, maxims, or interest
of different sorts of men, it fell out, that what
was thought praiseworthy in one place, escaped
not censure in another; and so in different soci-
eties, virtues and vices were changed: yet, as to
the main, they for the most part kept the same
everywhere. For, since nothing can be more nat-
ural than to encourage with esteem and reputa-
tion that wherein every one finds his advantage,
and to blame and discountenance the contrary;
it is no wonder that esteem and discredit, vir-
tue and vice, should, in a great measure, every-
where correspond with the unchangeable rule of
right and wrong, which the law of God hath es-
tablished. . . . Even in the corruption of man-
ners, the true boundaries of the law of nature,
which ought to be the rule of virtue and vice,
were pretty well preferred."
For Ix)cke, then, as for many others, there ap-
pear to be, underlying the variety of customs,
moral principles of universal validity that draw
their truth from the nature of man which rep-
resents a constant and common factor through-
out the diversity of cultures. Accordingly, it
would seem to follow that just as habits are
modifications of instinct or developments of the
individual's native capacities for action, so cus-
toms are conventional elaborations of what is
natural to man as a social animal. On this
theory, the conventional cannot be understood
except by reference to the natural, />., the
nature of man or society.
THE VIEW THAT conventions have a natural
basis is most readily exemplified by Aristotle's
theory of natural and legal (or conventional)
justice, and by the teaching of Aquinas concern-
ing natural and positive law. For the Greeks the
legal and the conventional are almost identical,
so that it is a kind of justice rather than a kind
of law which Aristotle calls "natural." Roman
philosophers like Cicero, and Roman jurists like
Gaius and Ulpian, make what seems to be an
equivalent d«».*vtion in terms of law rather than
justice. In his analysis, Aquinas follows the Lat-
in, not the Greek vocabulary.
The Roman system of jurisprudence, Gibbon
tells us, distinguished between those laws which
are "positive institutions" and those which "rea-
son prescribes, the laws of nature and nations."
The former are man-made— the "result of cus-
tom and prejudice." This holds true of both
written and unwritten laws, although only the
unwritten precepts are now usually called "cus-
tomary laws." These customary laws are positive
in the sense that they are humanly instituted or
enacted— posited by the will of the legislator
rather than merely discovered by the reason of
the philosopher. They are conventional in the
sense that they represent some voluntary agree-
ment on the part of the members of the com-
munity they govern, whether that consist in
obeying the edicts of the emperor or in giving
consent to the enactments of the senate.
So far as it is conventional, the law of one
community differs from another; and within the
history of a single community, the positive law
changes from time to time. But such bodies of
law, "however modified by accident or custom,"
the Roman jurists, Gibbon says, conceived as
"drawn from the rule of right." The fact that
"reason prescribes" this rule was their explana-
tion of certain common elements which all bod-
ies of positive law seem to contain.
The principles underlying all codes of civil
law, whether discovered directly by reason or
drawn inductively, as Grotius later suggests,
from the comparative study of diverse legal sys-
tems, comprise the precepts of what the Ro-
mans, and later Aquinas, call "natural law."
Thus these writers seem to re-affirm, though in
somewhat different language, Aristotle's point
that what is naturally just is the same for all
men everywhere and always, while the laws of
Greece and Persia represent diverse convention-
al determinations of the universal principles of
justice.
The theory of natural right and natural law,
as expressed in the writings of Hobbes, Locke,
and Kant, as well as in the ancient and mediae-
val tradition, is, of course, more fully treated in
the chapters on JUSTICE and LAW. But one ex-
ample of the distinction between natural and
conventional justice may be instructive here.
CHAFFER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
273
Aquinas conceives positive rules as "deter-
minations" of, rather than "deductions" from,
natural law. He treats such precepts as "Thou
shah not kill" and "Thou shalt not steal" as
conclusions that reason can draw deductively
from the first principle of natural law, which is
sometimes stated in the form of the command:
Do good, harm no one, and render to each his oum.
Because these precepts are the prescriptions of
reason rather than enactments of the state, they
can be interpreted as declaring that murder and
larceny are always and everywhere unjust. But
what sort of killing and taking of what is not
one's own shall be defined as murder and theft;
and how offenders shall be tried, judged, and
punished — these are matters which natural jus-
tice or the precepts of natural law leave open for
determination by the positive laws of each com-
munity, according to its own constitution and
its local customs.
The theory thus exemplified, of the relation
between conventional and natural justice, or be-
tween positive and natural law, applies to moral
rules and ethical standards generally. For the
same reason that a positive law which violates
natural justice cannot be called "just" even
though it is harmonious with the customs of the
community, so no rule of conduct, however
much it represents prevailing custom, can be
approved as morally right if it violates the right
as reason sees it. The defenders of natural law,
which is also sometimes called "the law of rea-
son," proclaim the existence of an absolute
standard, above the diversity and conflict of
customs, by which their soundness is measured.
Conflicting ethical doctrines raise many is-
sues concerning what it is right for men to do or
good for them to seek; but the moralists at
least agree that morality is based on reason or
nature. For them the facts of human nature or
the intuitions of reason will ultimately decide
the points in issue. However for apart Plato
and Aristotle, Aquinas and Hegel, Kant and
Mill may be in their conceptions or analyses
of the right and the good, they stand together,
at least negatively, on the question of how their
disputes can be resolved: not by appealing to
the mores of the tribe, not by looking to the
conventions of the community as a measure,
not by letting the customs of the majority
decide.
The deepest of all moral issues therefore ex-
ists between those who think that morality some-
how derives from nature or reason and those
who, like the ancient sophists or Montaigne or
Freud, find its source in custom and convention.
According to the side a man takes on this issue,
he does or does not believe it possible to discover
standards independent of custom, thereby to
judge whether customs are good, bad, or indif-
ferent. On one belief, public manners are con-
ventional determinations of moral principles or
they are sometimes violations of them, just as
positive laws are either determinations or vio-
lations of natural law. On the other belief, the
individual may be approved or condemned for
conforming to or transgressing the manners or
mores of his group; but those manners or mores,
whether they are liked or disliked by the in-
dividual, are above any tenable, objective criti-
cism.
The controversy in jurisprudence and moral-
ity between the naturalists or rationalists who
appeal to man's nature or reason, and the posi-
tivists who hold that human customs cannot be
appealed from, parallels a controversy in the
theory of knowledge or science. The parallel is-
sue, considered at greater length in the chapters
on HYPOTHESIS and PRINCIPLE, can be stated by
the question whether the foundation of science
—even of such sciences as logic and mathemat-
ics— consists of postulates or axioms.
Axioms, like the precepts of natural law, are
supposed to have a universality derived from
the nature of human reason. They are self-evi-
dent truths, compelling assent. Postulates, on
the contrary, are like rules of positive law— vol-
untarily accepted assumptions which, when
agreed upon by the experts in a certain science,
become its conventional basis. In science as in
law, the positivists recognize nothing beyond
the agreement of men to determine what shall
be ta^en for granted as true or just.
THE DIFFERENCE between nature and conven-
tion also enters into the traditional discussion of
two of the most characteristic activities of man:
speech and political association.
No one disputes whether the faculty of speech
is natural to man. It is as natural for man to
speak as for dogs to bark or birds to sing. But
the question is whether any human language,
274
THE GREAT IDEAS
having a certain vocabulary and syntax, is nat-
ural or conventional. The answer seems to be
dictated at once by the facts of the matter.
Human languages exist or have existed in
great number and diversity, and those which
still endure have gradually developed and are
undoubtedly subject to further change. Hence,
according to the traditional understanding of
the natural and the conventional, these various
tongues must represent conventional languages
—originally invented by this human group or
that, perpetuated by custom, altered by the
conventions of usage. In contrast, the expres-
sive sounds instinctively made by other ani-
mals show themselves to be natural by the fact
that they are common to all members of a spe-
cies and do not change as long as the species
endures.
Nevertheless, as the chapter on LANGUAGE in-
dicates, the writers of rhc great hooks consider
the hypothesis of a natural human language.
The Old Testament story of the Tower of Ba-
bel is sometimes interpreted as implying the ex-
istence of one language for all men before God
confounded their speech and diversified their
tongues. The story of Adam's giving names to
the various species of plants and animals in the
Garden of Eden is also cited by those who think
there can be natural as well as conventional
signs. In Plato's Cratylus the attempt is made to
discover the natural names for things, or at least
to discern some natural basis for the words of a
conventional language like Greek.
These who reject the hypothesis of a single
human language from which all others have de-
veloped bydiversification,orwhoregardapurely
natural language as impossible in the very na-
ture of the case, sometimes acknowledge the
possibility of certain common elements — prin-
ciples of syntax, if not words — present in all hu-
man languages. The discovery of the common
rules of speech was the object of the speculative
grammarians in the Middle Ages, and of those
who, like Arnauld and others, later tried to
formulate a "universal grammar." On their
view, all languages, even if they are convention-
al as written or spoken, may have the same nat-
ural basis in the fact that they are all used to
express what men can naturally perceive or
think*
As in the case of language, so in the case of so-
ciety, the question is whether the family and
the state are wholly natural, wholly convention-
al, or partly one and partly the other-— their in-
stitutions being erected by choice and custom
upon a natural basis. And as in the case of lan-
guage, here too the great books do not, for the
most part, give either of the extreme answers.
They do not say that the state is entirely natu-
ral, that it is the expression of human instinct
as the bee-hive and the ant-mound are instinc-
tive formations. Nor do they say that the state
is completely conventional, that it comes into
existence only as the result of voluntary associa-
tion on the part of men contracting to live to-
gether in a political community.
While Aristotle says that "man is by nature a
political animal," and that the state is, there-
fore, "a creation of nature, "he also distinguishes
between the ways in which men and other ani-
mals are gregarious. Unlike the association of
animals, which he attributes to instinct, the so-
ciety of men rests on reason and speech. "Man
is the only animal," he writes, "endowed with
the gift of speech . . . intended to set forth the
expedient and the inexpedient, and therefore
likewise the just and the unjust." Because of
these things, cities differ from one another, as
bee-hives or ant-mounds do not.
The diveisity of states rep resents for Aristotle
a deliberate inventiveness on the part of reason
and an exercise of free choice — certainly inso-
far as states are politically constituted, each with
its own constitution. Aristotle's remark that
while "a social impulse is implanted in all men
by nature," yet "he who first founded the state
was the greatest of benefactors," may look self-
contradictory; but its two parts can be read as
quite consistent with one another, if the first is
taken as signifying the natural basis of the state
(in a social impulse), and the second as saying
that a certain convention (a constitution) is re-
quired to shape that impulse before any state is
actually established.
As Aristotle is sometimes interpreted to up-
hold the theory that the state is entirely natu-
ral, so Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau are often
read as maintaining the opposite extreme — that
it is entirely conventional. The extreme inter-
pretation is based on the sharpness with which
each of them distinguishes between men living
in a state of nature and in a state of civil society.
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
275
Though they differ among themselves in their
exposition of these two conditions of man, they
seem to agree that for men to pass from a state
of nature, whether hypothetical or historical, in
which men live in anarchy or at least in isola-
tion, it is necessary for them to enter into a
contract or compact with one another. Since
this social contract is the original, or origi-
nating, convention by which the common-
wealth or civil society is established, it would
seem to follow that, on their view, the state is
entirely a product of convention, and in no
way natural.
Yet Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, each in
his own way, add a qualification in favor of the
naturalness of the state, just as Aristotle qualifies
his remark that "the state is a creation of na-
ture" by piaismg the man "who first founded
the state." The exponents of the social contract
theory of the state's origin find m the nature of
man or in his reason an instinct, a need, or a law
which impels or bids him to seek association
with others for the sake of advantages which he
cannot enjoy apart from civil society. This suf-
fices to affirm the existence of a natural basis
for the convention or contract which establishes
the state.
These appaiently opposed theories of what is
natural and what conventional about the state
thus appear to approach each other, though one
starts from an emphasis on the state's natural-
ness, the other from its conventional origin. The
whole problem is, of course, further treated in
the chapters on FAMILY and STATE; but one
point which the foregoing discussion suggests
receives special consideration in still another
chapter. The point concerns the relation be-
tween the idea of a constitution and the idea of
a social contract. Both are conceived as the
basic or primary convention which establishes
the state. The question whether the two ideas
are interchangeable or only analogous is exam-
ined in the chapter on CONSTITUTION.
CUSTOM is BOTH a cause and an effect of habit.
The habits of the individual certainly reflect the
customs of the community in which he lives;
and in turn, the living customs of any social
group get their vitality from the habits of its
members. A custom which does not command
general compliance is as dead as a language no
longer spoken or a law no longer observed. This
general compliance consists in nothing more
than a certain conformity among the habits of
individuals.
The continuity between custom and statute
as parts or phases of the positive law rests upon
the relation of both to habit. "Custom," accord-
ing to Aquinas, "has the force of a law, abolishes
law, and is the interpreter of law" precisely be-
cause it operates through the habits of the peo-
ple. "By repeated external actions," such as
produce a custom, "the inward movement of
the will and the conceptions of the reason are
most reveahngly declared," and, according to
Aquinas, "all law proceeds from the reason and
will of the lawgiver." The law which a prince or
a people enacts, to become effective as social
regulation, must develop a particular habit of
conduct in many individuals. Then and only
then does a new enactment obtain the full force
of law. To remain effective it must continue to
have the support of "the customs of the coun-
try."
Without that support it may be a law on the
books but not m practice, for the authority of a
law cannot long prevail against a contrary cus-
tom, except through a degree of coercion so op-
pressive as to produce rebellion. That is also
why the customary or unwritten rule— usually
the primitive form of positive law— is less flex-
ible, less amenable to change or modification.
Custom is a conservative factor. "There is
nothing more difficult to take in hand," writes
Machiavelli, nothing "more perilous to con-
duct, or more uncertain m its success, than to
take the lead in the introduction of a new order
of things. The innovator has for enemies all
those who have done well under the old con-
ditions, and lukewarm defenders in those who
may do well under the new."
Just as custom may either support the written
law or render it ineffective, so custom works in
opposite directions as a social force. It is both a
factor of cohesion and of division among men —
a cause of what is called "social solidarity" and a
barrier separating peoples from one another.
When the Athenians refuse to ally themselves
with the Persians, they chide the Spartans, ac-
cording to Herodotus, for fearing that they
"might make terms with the barbarian." For
all the gold on earth, they tell the Spartan
276 THE GREAT IDEAS
envoys, they could not "take part with the The Federalists, advocating the political union
Medes." To do so would betray "our common of the thirteen American states, could urge its
brotherhood with the Greeks, our common feasibility on the ground that a social union al-
language, the altars and sacrifices of which we ready existed. "Providence has been pleased to
all partake, and the common character which give this one connected country," Jay writes,
we bear.'* "toone united people— a people descended from
The barbarians or the gentiles — to use the the same ancestors, speaking the same language,
traditional names for aliens or foreigners— are professing the same religion, attached to the
excluded by a social, not a geographic, bound- same principles of government, very similar in
ary line, the line drawn between those who their manners and customs.'*
share a set of customs and all outsiders. When the Those who today advocate world federal
stranger is assimilated, the group does not adopt union cannot similarly point to a world society
him; he adopts the customs of the community, already in existence. They can only hope that
The very word "community" implies a multi- if the separate states were to unite politically,
tudc having much in common. More important the social cohesion of the world's people might
than the land they occupy are the customs they subsequently develop as a result of the fostering
share. of universal customs by universal law.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1. The distinction between nature and convention: its application to the origin of the
state and of language 277
2. The origin, development, and transmission of customs 278
3. The conflict of customs: their variation from place to place
4. The change of customs: their variation from time to time 279
5. Custom and convention in the moral order
50. The conventional determination of moral judgments: the moral evaluation of
conventions
5#. The effect of custom on the training and character of men 280
6. Custom" in relation to law
6a. Constitutions, social contracts, positive laws, and manners as conventions
6£. The force of custom with respect to law 281
7. Custom in social life
70. Custom as unifying a community
7& Custom as a barrier between communities 282
7^. Custom as determining economic needs or standards
jd. The influence of custom on the liberty of the individual
8. Custom in relation to order and progress: the factors of tradition and invention 283
9. The bearing of custom on thought
90. Custom as a source of opinion and belief: its influence on judgments of beauty
gb. The conventionality of truth: postulation, choice among hypotheses 284
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
277
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK u [265-283] 12d» the
number 4 is the number of the volume m the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES '.Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, theletters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES. The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King fames
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT. Nehemiah, 7.45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The distinction between nature and conven-
tion: its application to the origin of the
state and of language
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 49a-c
7 PLATO- Protagoras, 52b / Cratylus 85a-114a,c
esp 104d-105a, 106b-c, HOc-lllc / Gorgias,
271b-272b / Republic, BK n, 311b-c / Theaete-
tus, 528b-c / Laws, BK in, 663d-666c; BK x,
760a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[I73a7-3o] 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [ii34bi8-ii35a
7] 382c-383a / Politics, BK i, CH 2 445b-446d
esp [i253a2-3i] 446b-d; CH 6 448c-449b /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i7l 617c-d; CH 15
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 14
15a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [823-857]
55a-b; BK v [925-1090] 73b-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 19-27 646b-650a
passim, esp CH 24 648d-649a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 2 227c-228c; A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, A 2,
ANS 231c-232b; Q 97, A 3, REP i 237b-238b
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, PARADISE, xxvi [70-
142] 146c-147b esp [124-138] 147a-b
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART i,
84c-87b; 91a-b; 94b-c; 95a; PART n, 99a-101a
esp lOOc; 113c; 131a-c; 136d-137a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
lld-14b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-47c; 63d-64b; 93b-
94a; 102a-103a; 218a-c; 278a-279a; 424d-
426b; 489b-490c
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT i, sc 11 [1-22]
247d-248a; ACT n, sc iv [267-274] 261c
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 20c-d; 94d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 89-98 189b-190b; 294 225b-
226b; 306 228a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government,
CH i-ix 25a-54d passim; CH xix, SECT 211,
73d / Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvin,
SECT 2-3 228c-229b; BK HI, CH i, SECT 5
252b-c; CH n, SECT i 252d-253a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
2b-3a; BK vin, 52a; BK xvi, 119d-120a; BK
xxvi, 215b-217b passim; 219d-221c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329a-331d; 340a-342c;
348b,d-363a,c / Political Economy, 367b;
369a-b / Social Contract, BK i 387b,d-394d;
BK n, 399b-c; 405d-406a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 397a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 409d-410a
278
THE GREAT IDEAS
2*03
(1. The distinction between nature and conven-
tion: its application to the origin of the state
and of language.)
42 KANT: Science of Right, 402c; 405d-406c;
433c-434d csp 433d-434a; 435a-436b; 437c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 294b-295b / Representative
Government, 327b,d-332d
44 BoswELL:/oteo«, 363c-364a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 75
31d-32b; PART HI, par 168 60b-c; ADDITIONS,
47 124a-b; 97 132c-133a; 108 134b-c / Philos-
ophy of History, INTRO, 170d-171d; PART n,
260b
49 DARWIV: Descent of Man, 298a-b; 349d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 733b-734b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysts, 20c-d / General Introduction, 452c-d;
573c / War and Death, 757d-759d / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 776b-802a,c esp 776b-
777a, 778a, 780b-781d, 783c-784b, 787a-c,
788d-789b, 791b-792a, 799b-802a,c / New
Introductory Lectures, 853a-b
2. The origin, development, and transmission
of customs
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31a-b; 38a-b; BK
n, 58a-b; 59d-60a; 62b-c; 66c-d; 69b-d; 87a-
b; BK in, 107b-c; BK iv, 125d-126a; 129c-130a;
BK v, 177a-b; 183d-184a; BK vr, 201b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395c-
d; BK in, 442c-443a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 663d-666c esp 666a-b
13 VIRGIL. Aeneid, BK v [42-83] 188a-189a; BK
vii [601-615] 252b-253a; BK vm [152-279]
263a-266b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c passim / Romu-
lus 15a-30a,c passim / Lycurgus, 36a-47c pas-
sim / Numa Pompihus 49a-61d passim / Solon,
70c-74b / Pophcola, 80d; 84d-85a / Camillus,
116a-c / Conolanus, 175c-d / Marcellus, 254c-
256b
15 TACITUS Histories, BK n, 214d-215a
18 AUGUSTINE Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 24-
25 648d-649d; BK in, CH 12 662c-663c
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 97,
A 3 237b-238b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 278a-279a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, THE AFFECTS, DBF
27, EXPL 419a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 80a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 309b-310a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 107a-
b; BK xvi, 116a-117c; 118a-119c; BK xvm,
132a-b; BK xx, 146a-b; BK xxi, 169a-170b;
BK xxni, 187b,d-189d; BK xxiv, 205d-206a;
BK xxv, 209a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 416c-417a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 154b-155a; 583d-
584b; 704d [n 79]
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 227b; 389b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 3Q8b [fn i)
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 259c-d;
265c-266a; PART iv, 315d-316b; 347b d;
351d-353a;367a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 228b-229b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317a-c; 318b-c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 799a-
800c / New Introductory Lectures, 834b-c
3. The conflict of customs: their variation from
place to place
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK i [1-5] 183a; BK vm [234-
255] 224c-d; BK rx [82-115] 230a-b
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [234-245] 3d
5 EURIPIDES- Andromache [147-245] 316c-317b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK t, 22d-23a, 31a-33a;
35b-c; 39a-c; 44b-45b, 48a,c; BK n, 56c-68a;
80a-c; BK HI, 93d-94a; 97d-98a; lllb-113d;
BK iv, 128c-d; 129c-130b; 132a-b; 134a; 137a-
138c; 142b-144b; 154b-158d passim; BK v,
160b-161c; BK vi, 195d-196c; BK vii, 238c;
253b-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 350b-d
7 PLATO: Symposium, 154a-155c / Laws, BK iv,
678c-679a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3 [994b32-
995a5l 513c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [ii34bi8-
1 135*4] 382c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES. Airs, Waters, Places, par i 9a-b;
par 14-18 15a-16c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [520-543] 117b-118a; BK
ix [590-620] 295a-b, BK xn [791-842] 375a-
376b
14 PLUTARCH. Themistodes, 99b-c / Marcellus,
254c-256b esp 256a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 23d-24a
18 AUGUSTINE: Chnstian Doctrine, BK n, CH 25
649b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 96,
A 2, ANS 231c-232b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
22-23 3b-4a; BK n, STANZA 6-7 22a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 44a-47a; 91d-98b «sp
93b-94a; 102a-103a; 230b-231a; 246b-257d
passim; 278a-279c; 281a-284c; 415a-416b;
524b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT v, sc i [1-84]
562c-563b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 46b-c
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 294 225b-226b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH H,
SECT 8-12 105d-107d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
66, 480b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 76b-78b; PART in,
98b-99a; 105a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 38b;
BK xv, llOa-b; BK xvi, 116a-119c; BK xix,
139c-140a; BK xxi, 153a-c; BK xxv, 209a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 416c-417a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89d-94b passim;
99c; 260d-261a; 409d-415a passim; 670d-671a
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
279
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 33d-36c passim;
85c-d; 223c-227b passim; 337c-339b passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 60, 184d
43 MILL: Liberty, 269c-d; 301b-302c; 307b-312a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 250c-d;
PART iv, 347b-d; 351d-353a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 43b-44a; 60b-65a;
351b-352a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 571b-577d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV, 122d-
125c
4. The change of customs: their variation from
time to time
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [957-1002] 500a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31a-b; 39a-b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 350b-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344b-d; BK v, 357d-
358a / Laws, BK iv, 678c-679a; BK vn, 717d-
718c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 8 [i268b23~
1269*28] 464d-465b
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Waters, Places, par 14, 15b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [925-1027]
73b-74c
13 VIRGIL: Aenetd, BK xn [791-842] 375a-376b
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 361a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 58b-d; BK iv, 67d-
68a; BK xi, 105d-107b; BK XH, lllb-c
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK HI, par 13 16c-d/
City of God, BK xv, CH 16 410b-411d / Chris-
tian Doctrine, BK n, CH 25 649b-d csp 649d;
BK HI, CH 12 662c-663c; CH 18-22 664d-666c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 97,
A 2 236d-237b; A 3, REP 1-2 237b-238b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xvi [64-78]
23a-b; PURGATORY, vi [58-151] 61b-62c; xi
[73-117] 69c-70a; PARADISE, xv [97]-xvi [154]
129b-132a; xxvi [124-138] 147a-b
22 CHAUCER: Trotlus and Cressida, BKII, STANZA 4
22a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 131b-132a; 143c-145c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 294 225b-226b
35 LOCKE. Cwil Government, CH xin, SECT 157
61c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
66, 480b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 105a-106b; 128a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptrtf of Laws, BK xiv, 104c;
BK xix 135a-146a,c esp 136c; BK xx, 146a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 402b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 545c-d; 638c-
639a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 6b; 107b; 485b-
486b
43 MILL: Liberty, 269c-d; 300d-302c/ Representa-
tive Government, 377d-378a
44 Bos WELL : Johnson, 204c-205b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 528c-S29a; 579b-
S82a passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 403a-c; BK xi,
498a-499a; EPILOGUE i, 647 b-c
5. Custom and convention in the moral order
5*. The conventional determination of moral
judgments: the moral evaluation of con-
ventions
5 EURIPIDBS: Hecuba [798-805] 359d / Phoeni-
cian Maidens [499-522] 382b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [1031-1114] 501a-
502b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32a; BK m, 92c-
93a; 97d-98a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 368b-c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 154a-155c/ Gorgias,271b-
284b / Republic, BK v, 357d-358a / Theaetetus,
525c-526a; 527b-528c csp 528b-c / Laws,
BK x, 759d-760c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94bi2-28]
339d-340a; CH 8 [i098bo-29] 344a-b; BK v,
CH 7 [ii34bi8~ii35*4] 382c-d / Poetics, BK i,
CH 6 448c-449b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1412-
1435] 79b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 2, 107a-b; CH
ii, 117b-c; BK n, CH n, 150a-151a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 18 264d
14 PLUTARCH: Themistoclest99b-c / Marcus Cato,
285c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK H, 24a; BK in, 58b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14-16 4c-
5b; par 19-30 5d-8d csp par 25-27 7a-d; BK
in, par 13 16c-d; par 15 17a-b; BK vi, par 2
35a-c; par 11-13 38b-39c / City of God, BK xv,
CH 16 410b-411d / Christian Doctrine, BK n,
CH 19-26 646b-650a; CH 39-40 654c-656a;
BK in, CH 10, 661d-662a; CH 12-14 662c-663d;
CH 18-22 664d-666c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61d-62a; 75a-b;
78b-c; 96a; PART n, 140b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
141d-142b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-47c; 93b-c; 102a-
103a; 143c-144a; 281a-284c; 307b; 424d-
426b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [249-259]
43b / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n [1-206]
113c-115c / King Lear, ACT i, sc n [1-22] 247d-
248a / Henry VIII, ACT i, sc in [3-5] 555b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 32c-33a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 46b-c; PART
in, 48b-49d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART m, THE AFFECTS, DBF
27 419a-b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 309 228b; 312 229a; 325
230b-231a; 381-385 238b-239a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK i,
CH n, s ECT 8-1 2 105d-107d passim ; 3 ECT 2 1-26
llla-112b; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 71, 197d; CH
xxvni, SECT 10-13 230b-231c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
132, 509c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 21b-23a; PART n,
76b-77a
280
THE GREAT IDEAS
5b to 6a
(5. Custom and convention in the moral order.
5a, The conventional determination of
moral judgments; the moral evaluation of
conventions.)
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 261a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 295b; 303d
38 MOHTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvm, 132c;
BK xix, 139b-140d
38 ROUSSEAU* Inequality ', 362a-b / Political Econ-
omy, 369a-370a / Social Contract, BK iv,
434b-435a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 346c-347a
42 KANT- Fund. Prin. MetaphysicofMorals,27Qd-
271a / Practical Reason, 307a-b / Intro. Meta-
physic of Morals, 387b; 387d-388a
43 MILL: Liberty, 269b-271d; 286b-287a; 293b-
302c passim; 307b-312a / Utilitarianism, 457c-
458a; 475a-d
44 BOSWFLL: Johnson, 197a-b; 198b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 2b-c; PART
ii, par 132, 46c-d; par 138 48c-d; PART in, par
150-152 56c-57b; par 339 llOb; par 355 112d-
113a; ADDITIONS, r 115a-d; 89 129d-130a; 91
131a-d; 96-97 132c-133a / Philosophy of His-
tory, INTRO, 166a-b, 170d-171c, PART 11, 271d-
272d; 273c; 279c-d; 280b-281b; PART in,
311a-b, PART iv, 333b-d
49 DARWIN • Descent of Man, 305a; 313b-d; 314c-
316a;317a-d;592d-593a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427a-
b; 428b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15d-16a; BK
iv, 177d-178a; BK vi, 263a-265d passim; BK
vin, 303a-305b esp 304c-305a; BK x, 403a-
405a, 442c-443b; BK xi, 476c-480a passim;
514c-d; BK xii, 542d; BK xiv, 589a-c; 611a-c;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-646c; 647b-649d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a-191a; 886b-887a
54 FRFUD: General Introduction, 625a / War and
Death, 757d-759a csp 759a / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 792 b-c
5b. The effect of custom on the training and
character of men
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [886-mo] 499b-502b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK 11, 314b-c; BK iv, 344b-
d; BK vi, 377a-379c / Laws, BK vii, 717d-
718c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3 (994b3i-
995B5l 513c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 23
18a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 18 264d
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 361a-d / Cleomenes,
663b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14-16 4c-
5b; par 19-30 5d-8d; BK vi, par 2 35a-c; par
11-13 38b-39c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH
13-13 662c-663c; CH 18-22 664d-666c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 92,
A I, REP i 213c-214c; A 2, REP 4 214d-215a,c;
Q 95, A i, ANS 226c-227c; A 3 228c-229b; Q 97,
AA 2-3 236d-238b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xvi [64-78]
23a*b; PURGATORY, vi [58-151] 61b-62c; PARA-
DISE, xv [97]-xvi [154] 129b-132a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 22a-c; 42b-43d; 46b-
47c, 63d-64b; 131b-132a; 524b-525d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc iv [161-
170] 56b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 78d-80a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART 11, 46b-c; PART
HI, 48b-49d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 6 173a; 97-98 190b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 8-12 105d-107d passim; SECT 20 llOc-
llla; SECT 25 llld-112a; BK n, CH xxr, SECT
71, 197d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
66, 480b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 303d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 21d-22b;
BK vii, 50c; BK xix, 138c-140d
38 ROUSSEAU* Inequality, 347a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337c-338c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92c-94b; lOlb;
291d-292d; 409d-413b passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 3S9b~39Qb esp 389d
42 KANT* Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 387b;
387d-388a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 49, 159d-160a; NUMBER
60, 184d
43 MILL. Liberty, 269b-c; 293b-302c passim /
Utilitarianism, 449c-d; 458a-b; 460a-461c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 150-
152 56c-57b; par 164 59a-d; par 257 80b;
ADDITIONS, 96-97 132c-133a; 106 134a /
Philosophy of History, PART n, 271c-273c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 313a-314b; 317a-d;
328c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 221b-d; BK
vin, 303a-305b esp 303d-304b; 309b-c; BK
xii, 542d; BK xv, 640d-641a
53 IAMES: Psychology, 733b-734b
54 FREUD. Sexual Enlightenment of Children 119a-
122a,c passim / War and Death, 757ti-759d /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 799c-801a csp
800c-801a / New Introductory Lectures, 834b-c;
843c; 854d-855a
6. Custom in relation to law
6a. Constitutions, social contracts, positive
laws, and manners as conventions
7 PLATO: Symposium, 154a-c / Crito, 216d-
219a,c / Republic, BK n, 311 b-c / Theaetetus,
528b-c; 531a-532a / Statesman, 600a-b / Laws,
BK in, 665c-666c; BK vii, 716a-b; 718b-c;
730d-731d; BK vm, 736c-737a; BK x, 760a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[i73»27-3i] 238c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [ii34bi8-
1135*7] 382c-383a / Politics, BK in, CH 16
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
281
[i287b5-7] 486a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-
17] 617c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 33d-34b / Themistocles,
99b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK m, par 15 17a-b /
City of God, BK iv, CH 4 190d; BK xix, CH 17,
522d-523a; CH 24 528b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
AA 2-3 227c-229b; A 4, ANS 229b-230c
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART 11,
99a-101b esp lOOc, lOla-b; 140b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-48b; 93b-94a; 102a-
b; 281a-283c; 426a-b; 4<32d-463b; 519a-520b
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT i, sc n [1-22]
247d-248a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 45b-d
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 291-338 225a-233a esp 294
225b-226b, 312 229a, 325-326 230b-231a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 12 27d-
28a; SECT 14-15 28b-c; CH vn, SECT 94-011
vm, SECT 122 46a-53c esp CH vin, SECT 95-99
46c-47c; CH x, SECT 132 55a-b; CH xni, SECT
157-158 61c-62b; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b; CH
xix, SECT 243 81d
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 22a-23a; 28a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
2d-3d; BK xix, 140c-142b; BK xxvi, 214d-
215a; BK xxvin, 240b; 261a-262a,c
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK i 387b,d-394d
esp 391a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 616d-617a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-73a passim;
75b-d; 86d-89c esp 87a, 87d
42 KANT : Science of Right, 419a 420b; 435a-436c;
437c-d;450d-451c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-28] la-b
43 MILL- Liberty, 269c-d; 270c-271b; 305b-312a
passim, esp 307b-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 327b,d-332d passim
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 276a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 211
70a-c; par 217 72b-c; par 234 75d-76a /
Philosophy of History, PART n, 271c-273c;
PART iv, 365b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1972-1979] 46b-47a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 292a-297a esp 294a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
684a
6b. The force of custom with respect to law
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [877-911] 347b-c f
Hecuba [798-805] 359d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 97d-98a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344b-d; BK vn,401c-d
/ Laws, BK in, 665c-666c; BK iv, 678d-679a;
BK v, 692b-c; BK vn, 713c-714c; 716a-b;
718b-c; BK vm, 736c-737a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3 [995*4-6]
513c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 6 448c-449b;
BK n, CH 8 [1269*14-23] 465 b; BK m, CH 16
[i287b5-8]486a;BKV,cH8[i
510a; CH 9 [1310*12-19] 512b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36b-37b; 38b-d; 46b-c;
47a-48a / Lycurgus-Numa, 63d-64a / Solon,
73d-74b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 57d-58b; BK iv,
67d-68a; BK xi, 106a-107b; BK xn, lllb-c;
BK xiv, 151d-152c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b;
BK v, par 14 30c-31a / City of God, BK xv,
CH 16 410b-411d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 3 228c-229b; Q 96, A 2, ANS 231c-232b; Q 97,
AA 2-3 236d-238b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART n,
108c; 130d-131a; 131c; 136d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47a-5Ia; 131b-132a;
283c; 462c-465c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc i [1-4] 178d-179a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 205d-206b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 45b-d
33 PASCAL- Penstes, 308 228b; 312 229a; 325-326
230b-231a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvin, SECT 10-13 230b-231c
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 22a-23a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3c-d;
BK x, 65b; BK xiv, 106b; BK xvin, 127c;
BK xix, 135b-136b; 137c-140c; BK xxi, 168d-
169a; BK xxrn, 188b-189a; 189d; 197c-198a;
BK xxv, 212a; BK xxvi, 218d; 221a-c; 223a-c;
BK xxvin, 237a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324d / Social Contract,
BK 11, 402b-c; 406c-d; BK in, 419d-420a; BK
iv, 434b-435a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 464c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 77c-d; 80a;
96bc
42 KANT: Science of Right, 448d-449c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [15-22] Ib
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 49,
159d-160a
43 MILL: Liberty, 270c-271b; 308b [fn i] / Rep-
resentative Government, 329d-330a; 330d-331a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 204c-205b; 276a-b; 277b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 257
80b; par 274 92a; par 339 HOb; par 355 112d-
113a; ADDITIONS, 132 137d-138b / Philosophy
of History, PART n, 271c-273c; 277c-d; PART
in, 294c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1972-1979] 46b-
47a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^, 292a-297a esp 294a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 137c-139a
7. Custom in social life
la. Custom as unifying a community
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vm, 287c-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 678c-679a; BK vn, 716a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK xn [791-842] 375a-376b
282
THE GREAT IDEAS
7bto7d
(7. CustOftt in social life. la. Custom as unifying
a community?)
14 PLUTARCH : Lycurgus, 46b-c / Alexander, 562b-
563c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 15 17a-b /
City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c; CH 17, 522d-
523a; CH 24 528b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK 11,
CH 25-26 649b-650a; CH 39-40 654c-656a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ri, Q 95,
A 3 228c-229b; Q 97, AA 2-3 236d-238b
21 DANTE; D/ww Comedy, PURGATORY, vi [58-
151] 6lb-62c; PARADISE, xv [97J-xvi [154]
129b-132a passim
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-47a; 131b-132a
30 BACON. New Atlantis, 205d-206b
31 DESCARTFS: Discourse, PART n, 45b-d
31 SPINOZA; Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xv 448c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 294 225b-226b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xix, 137c-
d; 138c-140c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, la; 15d-16c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 389c-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 27,
95c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-425b;
428b-c
46 HEGEL; Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 274
92a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176b;
PART i, 240d-241a; PART n, 260b-c; 277c;
280b-281b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421a-b
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK vi, 254c-260a;
263a-265d; BK vn, 288c-290b; BK x, 403a-
405a; BK xi, 499c-500c; BK xn, 533a-534d;
538d^539c; 556c-557b; EPILOGUE i, 647b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY; Brothers Karamazov, EPILOGUE,
406a-c
54 FREUD: War and Death, 756a-d
7b. Custom as a barrier between communities
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK vn [27-36] 218b
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [825-965] lld-
13b
6 HERODOTUS' History, BK i, 2a;31d-32a; BK iv,
137a-138c; 143b-144b; BK vin, 287c-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 678c-679a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [520-543] 117b-118a;
BK ix [590-620] ?95a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46b-c / Themistocles,
99b-c / Marcus Cato, 287d-288c / Alexander,
562b-563c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 295b-296a
18 AUGUSTINE. City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 14 663c-d
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Man of Law [4638-4644]
238a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 96a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 44b-c; 46b-47a; 91d-98b
csp 93b-94a; 477d-478a; 524b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT i, sc HI [154-
173] 325b / Merchant of Venice, ACT i, sc in
[41-53] 410a; [106-138] 410c-411a; ACT iv, sc i
[35-62] 425d-426a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 205d-207b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 385b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 21b-23a; 25b-26a;
PART iv, 149b-150b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv, HOa-b;
BK xix, 139c-140a; BK xx, 146a-b; BK xxiv,
206c; 207c-208a,c; BK xxv, 209a-b
38 ROUSSEAU* Inequality, 355b-c
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 15d-16b; 179d-183a
esp 179d, 180d-181a; 207b-211c esp 208b-d;
638d-639a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 224b-225a; 423d
43 MILL- Liberty, 300a-302c passim / Representa-
tive Government, 424c-428a passim, esp 427d;
437b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby DicJ{, 60b-65a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK vin, 309b-c;
BK ix, 362d-363a; BK xi, 515c-521c passim
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, EPILOGUE,
406a-c
54 FREUD: War and Death, 755c-757a passim /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 788b-c
Ic. Custom as determining economic needs or
standards
7 PLATO- Republic, BK u, 318a-d
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 285c-d / Lysander,
361a-d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK in, 58b-d
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 131b-132a, 489b-490c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v, SECT 46-49
35a-d, CH xvi, SECT 184 68b-d
38 MoNikbQviEii.SptntofLaws, BK xvin, 128b-
c; BK xix, 136c-137b; BK xxi, 153a c
39 SMUH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 10b-12c; BK v,
383c-d
50 MARX. Capital, 17d-18a; 28d-29b; 44d-45c;
66c-67a;81b-c;112a-c
Id. The influence of custom on the liberty of
the individual
6 THUCYDIDES; Peloponnesian War, BK n,396c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 22a-c; 42b-c; 46b-47c;
143c-144a; 307b; 424d-426b esp 426a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT n, sc n [136-
164] 365c-366a; sc in [119-131] 367b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xn, 84b,d;
BK xix, 138a-c; 142a, 145b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 41a
43 MILL: Liberty, 269b-271d; 293b-302c; 307b-
312a passim
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 355
112d-113a; ADDITIONS, 123 136d-137a / Phi-
losophy of History, PART n, 279c-281b; PART
HI, 310d-311b; PART iv, 333b-c
51 TOLSTQY: War and Peace, BK vin, 303a-305b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysts, 20c-d / General Introduction, 452c-d;
573c / War and Death, 755d; 757c-759d /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 776b-802a,c
8/09*
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
283
csp 780d-781d, 783b-785a, 788d-789b, 796b-c,
799a-801c / New Introductory Lectures, 853a-b
8. Custom in relation to order and progress:
the factors of tradition and invention
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344b-d / Laws, BK n,
654c-655b; BK iv, 678c-679a; BK v, 692b-c;
BK vii, 717d-718c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK 11, CH 3 [995*3-6]
513c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Fractures, par i 74b,d-75a
14 PLUTARCH: Agts 648b,d-656d passim / Clco-
menes, 663 b-c
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK xi, 105d-107b; BK xii,
lllb-c; UK xiv, 151d-152c
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 506a-b
16 KEPLER* Epitome, BK iv, 846a-850a passim
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 97,
A 2 236d-237b
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xiv [91-
126] 74c-75a; xxvm [76-126] 96d-97c; PARA-
DISE, xv-xvi 128b-132a
23 MACIIIAVELLI Prince, CH vi, 9b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 154b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-51a, 131b-132a;
143c-144a, 208b-c; 318c-319b; 458b-c; 462c-
465c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT n, sc in [119-
128] 367b
28 GALILKO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 166c-
d; THIRD DAY, 203c-d
28 HARVFY Motion of the Heart, 285 b-c / Circu-
lation of the Blood, 306a-c, 319c-d / On Animal
Generation, 364a-c; 457b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 14c-15d esp
15a-b, 16c; 29b-c, 65 b-c / Novum Organum,
BK i, APH 39-46 109c-110c; APH 74 118b; APH
77 118d-119b, APH 90 124d-125a / New Atlan-
tis, 205d-207b
31 DESCARTES. Discourse, PART n, 45c-d
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 294 225b-226b, 325 230b-
231a / Vacuum, 355a-358b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xin, SECT 157
61c-d, CH xix, SECT 223 76c-d / Human
Understanding, 85a-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, PREF 404a-b
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART in, 105a-106b
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK v, 22a b;
BK xiv, 104c; BK xix, 137c-138c; 139b-140a;
BK xxvi, 217b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 402b-403a, BK in, 419d-420a
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 96b-97b esp
97a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23d-24a; 459a-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 513d-514b
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [15-22] Ib
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62a-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 293b-302c esp 300a-302c /
Representative Government, 329a-b; 330d-331a;
344a-b; 352d-353a; 357c; 377b-378a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 189d-190b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 33a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 274
92a; par 355 112d-113a; ADDITIONS, 166 145b-
c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166d; 187d-
188b; PART i, 209b; 222a-224a; 235d-236c;
257a-c; PART iit 260b-c; 280b 281b; PART rv,
315d-316b; 351d-353a; 367a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 11 [7963-7964] 194a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 228b-229b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a
50 MARX- Capital, 6d-7a; 234a-235a; 239b-
241a
50 MARX-ENCJELS: Communist Manifesto, 426b-
428d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 132b-c; BK
vi, 239a-240d; BK vin, 305b-d; 307d-309c;
BK ix, 354b-c; BK x, 403a-c; BK xv, 639c;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-646c; 647b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 79b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 776c-
778a; 785c / New Introductory lectures, 834c;
849d
9. The bearing of custom on thought
9a. Custom as a source of opinion and belief:
its influence on judgments of beauty
6 HERODOTUS History, BK i, 44b; BK n, 56c-d;
BK HI, 92c-93a; 97d-98a; BK iv, 137a; 142c;
144a-b,157b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 116b-d / Republic, BK HI,
333b-334b / Laws, BK in, 675c-676b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK 11, CH 3 [994b32-
995*14] 513c
9 ARISTOTLE. Politics, BK in, CH n [1281*43-
bio] 479b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 13 16c-d /
Christian Doctrine, BK in, en 10, 661d-662a;
CH 12-14 662c-663d; CH 18-22 664d-666c
passim
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [73-
117] 69c-70a; xxvi [91-126] 93d-94b
22 CHAUCER. Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
4-7 22a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; 96a; PART
iv, 274b-c
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
12d-13b; BK iv, 273d-274a
25 MONTMCNE- Essays, 43d-44c; 46b-48b; 80b-
d; 93b; 143c-144a; 208b-c; 209c-212a esp
211b-c; 230b-231a; 259d-261c; 281a-284c
passim; 497d-502c passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Life It, ACT n, sc i
[1-20] 603c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [454-471]
45a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 285b-c / Cir-
culation of the Blood, 306a-c; 319c-d / On
Animal Generation, 411c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, xia-xvid;
PART n, 251a-252b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 61b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 45b-46c
284
THE GREAT IDEAS
(9. The bearing of custom on thought. 9a. Custom
as a source of opinion and belief} its influ-
ence on judgments of beauty.)
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 408b-409a
33 PASCAL: Pcnsles, 33 176b; 89-96 189b-190a;
98 190b; 245 218b; 252 219b-220a; 291-338
225a-233a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 85a-c; BK i,
CH u, SECT 8 105d-106a; SECT 20-26 110c-112b
passim; BK 11, CH xxxm, SECT 5-18 248d-251c
passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT XH, DIV
H2, 509c-d
36 SWIFF: Gulliver, PART i, 21b-23a; 27b-28a;
PART ii, 76b-77a; PART in, 95a-b
36 STERNE, Tristram Shandy, 309b-310a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 223a-225a
38 MONIESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xix, I35b-
d; 136c; 139b-140c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 296b-c; 464c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 221b-222a / Judgement,
513d-514b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 49, 159d-160a; NUMBFR
60, 184d
43 MILL: Liberty, 269b-271d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 202 b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 160
142d-143a / Philosophy of History, PART u,
265c 266a; 273c; PART iv, 351d-353a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 60b~65a; 229a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 95a-d / Descent of
Man, 302a-b; 462d-463a; 569c; 571b-577d esp
577b-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427a-
b; 428b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 247a-248a;
260b-c; BK VHI, 304c-d; 309b-c; 313d-314a;
318a-320b; 324b-325a; BK x, 403a-405a; BK
xiv, 611a-c; EPILOGUE i, 645a-646c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 642a; 886b-887a
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, 125a-126d /
General Introduction, 452c-453a / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 849d; 864a-865a
9b. The conventionality of truth: postulatioo,
choice among hypotheses
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 8Sd-86d; 107d-109a /
Phaedrus, 131b-133b / Theaetetus, 525c-528c
esp 528b-c; 531a-532a
8 ARISTOTLE . Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3
[72b5-i4] 99b / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 5-6
528c-531c
16 COPERNICUS : Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65c
25 MONTAIGNE* Essays, 44b-c; 46b-d;240c-246a;
259c-261c; 267c-d; 276b-278a; 281a-284c;
318a-319b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc u [254-257!
43b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 57d-58b /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 41 109c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART u, 46b-c
33 PASCAL. Penstes, 72 181a-184b esp 182b
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART HI, 118a-119a
45 FARADAY . Researches in Electricity, 362c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 2b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 645a-
646c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 884b-886a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the distinction between nature and convention, and for the examination
of related distinctions, see ART 2c; HABIT i, 7; NATURE 2a-2c.
The consideration of the natural and the conventional in language and society, see FAMILY i ;
LANGUAGE 2-2b; NATURE 2b, 50; SIGN AND SYMBOL la-if; STATE jb-jd.
Applications of the distinction between nature and convention in law and jurisprudence, see
JUSTICE 6a-6b, 93, loa; LAW 4-4!!, 5c, yc; and for the relation of law to custom and habit,
see HABIT 7; LAW 5f.
The discussion of custom as a conservative force in relation to progress, see CHANGE i2b;
HISTORY 4b; PROGRESS 43, 5,
The bearing of custom and convention on the issues of morality, see GOOD AND EVIL 33, 6d;
NATURE 53; OPINION 6a; RELATION 6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 70.
The relativity of truth to the customs of the time and place, and for the theory that the
foundations of science are conventional, see HYPOTHESIS 3; KNOWLEDGE 40, 5c; OPINION
3c; PRINCIPLE 3c(2), 5; RELATION 6b; TRUTH 7-7^ UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 73.
Matters relevant to the influence of custom on taste or judgments of beauty, see BEAUTY 5;
NATURE 5d; RELATION 6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 70.
The significance of nature and custom in the sphere of economic activity, see NATURE 5b;
WEALTH i, lob.
CHAPTER 14: CUSTOM AND CONVENTION
285
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings, which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
F. BACON. "Of Custom and Education," in Essays
MONTESQUIEU. Persian Letters
HUME. Of Some Remarkable Customs
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART v
STERNE. A Sentimental Journey
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, v (B)
MELVILLE. Typee
. Omoo
DOSTOEVSKY. A Raw Youth
FREUD "Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern
Nervousness
. Totem and Taboo
II.
HORACE. Satires
JUVENAL. Satires
Beowulf
Vdlsung Saga
SPENSER. The Faerie Queene
GRACIAN y MORALES. The Art of Worldly Wis-
dom
BROWNE. Hydnotaphia
PEP vs. Diary
LE SAGE. The Adventures of Gil Bias
DEFOE. Moll Flanders
RICHARDSON. Pamela
CHESTERFIELD. Letters to His Son
VOLTAIRE. "Customs . . . Usages," in A Philosophi-
cal Dictionary
SMOLLETT. The Expedition of Humphry Clinker
GOLDSMITH. The Citizen of the World
, She Stoops to Conquer
BENTHAM. A Comment on the Commentaries, SECT
13-20
SHERIDAN. The School for Scandal
LAMB. On the Custom of Hissing at the Theatres
AUSTEN. Pride and Prejudice
MANZONI. The Betrothed
T. CARLYLE. Sartor Resartus, BK r
LBRMONTOV, A Hero of Our Own Times
SAVIGNY. Vom Berufunserer Ut fur Gesetsgebung
und Rechtswissenschaft
. Jural Relations
GOGOL. Taras Bulba
. Dead Souls
DICKENS. Bleaf( House
THACKERAY. The History of Henry Esmond, Esq.
LOTZE, Microcosmos, BK vi, CH 3
FLAUBERT. Madame Bovary
TROLLOPE. Barchester Towers
DAUDET. Letters from My Mill
BAGEHOT. Physics and Politics
TYLOR. Primitive Culture
H. JAMES. Daisy Miller
MEREDITH. The Egoist
L. STEPHEN. The Science of Ethics
MAINE. Ancient Law
. Lectures on the Early History of Institutions
. Dissertations on Early Law and Customs
LANG. Custom and Myth
WUNDT. EthlCS, PART I, CH 3
FRAZER. The Golden Bough
TARDE. The Laws of Imitation
KOVALEVSKY. Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of
Russia
DUGUIT. LV/fl/, le droit objectifet la lot positive
MANN. Buddenbrooty
WESTERMARCK. The Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas
SUMNER. Folkways
T. VEBLEN. The Vested Interests and the State of the
Industrial Arts, CH 2
T. S. ELIOT. "Tradition and the Individual
Talent," in The Sacred Wood
DEWEY. Reconstruction in Philosophy, CH i, 5
. Human Nature and Conduct, PART I-H
S. LEWIS. Babbitt
UNDSET. Kristin Lavransdatter
VINOGRADOFF, Custom and Right
MALINOWSKI. Crime and Custom in Savage Society
— t— . The Sexual Life of Savages
DIAMOND. Primitive Law
Chapter 1 5: DEFINITION
INTRODUCTION
T~NEFINITION has been variously defined
JLx in the tradition of the great books. These
diverse conceptions of what a definition is raise
many issues.
At one extreme, writers like Hobbes look
upon definition as nothing more than an at-
tempt to say what a word means— how it has
been or is being used. At the other, writers like
Aquinas regard definition as that act of the
mind by which it expresses the nature of a thing
or formulates its essence.
In one technical view associated with the
name of Aristotle, to define is to state the genus
and differentia by which the species of a thing
is constituted. In another theory of definition
advanced by Locke and others, any combina-
tion of traits which distinguishes one class or
kind of thing from another defines the charac-
ter common to all members of that class. In still
another view, to be found in. Spinoza, definition
consists in giving the cause or genesis of a thing,
in saying how the thing originated or was
produced.
Sometimes definition through causes employs
the final rather than the efficient or productive
cause, and characterizes the thing by the end it
naturally serves. And sometimes, as with Wil-
liam James, definitions simply express the pur-
poses or interests which we have in mind when
we classify things to suit ourselves.
In the tradition of the liberal arts of gram-
mar, rhetoric, and logic, these various concep-
tions of definition are connected with contro-
versies concerning the power and activity of
the human mind, the relation of language to
thought, the structure of science or, more gen-
erally, the nature of knowledge, and the con-
stitution of reality, with particular reference to
the existence of universals and individuals and
their relation to one another,
x These connections appear in the thought of
Aristotle and Spinoza, Hobbes and Locke, Aqui-
nas and William fames. Their views of the way
in which definitions should be constructed or
their conceptions of the function of definitions
determine and reflect lines of agreement and
opposition on many other matters. The use of
definitions in the great works of mathematics
and natural science— by Euclid, Descartes,
Galileo, Newton, Lavoisier, and Darwin-
tends to exemplify now one, now another,
theory of definition. Modern discussions of the
nature of science and mathematics, especially
discussions influenced by the development of
mathematical logic— from Whewell, Mill, and
Pomcare* to Whitehead, Russell, and Dewey —
focus critical attention on the nature and role
of definitions.
MANY OTHER chapters provide an illuminating
context for topics discussed in this one, espe-
cially the chapters on LANGUAGE and LOGIC,
IDEA, PRINCIPLE and REASONING, PHILOSOPHY
and SCIENCE, and TRUTH. Though the issues
concerning definition cannot be resolved apart
from this larger context of controversy about
the mind, reality, and knowledge, we can nev-
ertheless formulate these issues in isolation. But
in doing so we ought to bear in mind that t$ey
can be more readily understood in proportion
as they are seen in the light of other relevant
considerations.
There is, first of all, the question about the
object of definition. What is being defined
when men make or defend definitions? This
question broadens into the problem of nominal
as opposed to real definitions. That is a complex
problem which raises a number of further ques-
tions. Are all definitions arbitrary, expressing
the conventions of our speech or the particular
purpose we have in mind when we classify
things? Or do some, if not all, definitions ex-
286
^'DEFINITION
287
press the real natures of the things (defined P Do
they classify things according to natural kinds
which have reality apart from our ifiind and its
interests ?
These issues are in turn related to the issue
concerning the limits of definition and its ulti-
mate principles— whether all things, ' or only
some, are definable, and whether the 'indefin-
able terms, without which definition is itself
impossible, can be arbitrarily chosen or must
always be terms of a certain sort. The sense in
which definitions may be true or false and the
sense in which they cannot be either, have a
bearing on all these issues; and through them
all run the divergent conceptions of how defini-
tions can or should be constructed.
WHEN IN THE course of argument one man dis-
misses the opinion of another by saying, "That
is just a matter of definition," the usual im-
plication is that the rejected opinion has no
truth apart from the way in which the man
who proposed it uses words. He may even be
accused of begging the question, of framing
definitions which implicitly contain the con-
clusion he subsequently draws from them.
The underlying supposition here seems to be
expressed by Pascal when, in his essay On Geo-
metrical Demonstration, he asserts that "there is
great freedom of definition and definitions are
never subject to contradiction, for nothing is
more permissible than to give whatever name
we please to a thing we have clearly pointed
out." He calls "true definitions" those which
are "arbitrary, permissible, and geometrical,"
The only restriction he would place upon our
freedom to make definitions is that "we must
be careful not to take advantage of our freedom
to impose names by giving the same name to
two different things." And even this case, '-he
claims, is permissible "if we avoid confusion by
not extending the consequences of one to the
other."
If we are free to make whatever definitions
we please, it would seem to follow that defini-
tions cannot be matters of argument; and dif-
ferences of opinion which result from differ-
ences in definition would seem to be irrecon-
cilable by any appeal to reason or to fact.
Such a conception of definition as verbal
does not seem to prevent Hobbes from holding
that definitions are 6rst principles or foundations
of science. "In Geometry (which is the only sciv
ence that it hath pleased God hitherto to be-
stow on mankind), men begin," he writes, "at
settling the signification of their words; which
settling of significations, they call Definitions;
and place them in the beginning of their reckon*
ing." This sh6ws, Hobbes thinks, "how neces-
sary it is for any man that aspires to true knowl-
edge to examine the definitions of former au-
thors; and either to correct them, where they
are negligently set down; or to make them him*
self. For the errors of definitions multiply them*
selves, according as the reckoning proceeds."
For Hobbes, then, definition is verbal; yet
definitions can also be true or false, and on the
truth of definitions depends the distinction be-
tween knowledge and opinion. "In the right
definition of names," he says, "lies the first use
of speech; which is the acquisition of science."
Only when discourse "begins with the defini-
tions of words" can it reach conclusions that
have the character of knowledge. "If the first
ground of such discourse be not definitions . . ;
then the end or conclusion is opinion."
Hobbes accurately reports the nature of ge-
ometry when he says that in that science defini-
tions serve as principles in reasoning or proof.
The words "by definition" mark one of the
steps in many Euclidean proofs. Descartes and
Spinoza, proceeding in the geometrical man-
ner, place definitions at the head of their works
as ultimate principles to be used in validating
their conclusions. But, unlike Hobbes, these
writers do not seem to regard their definitions
as merely verbal. Euclid goes further, as we
shall presently see, and offers what amounts
to proofs of his definitions, or at least of their
geometrical reality. Aristotle and Aquinas cer-
tainly take the position not only that definition^
are principles, but also that definitions them-
selves are capable of being demonstrated. But
they complicate the matter by insisting that
definitions are neither true nor false, since, as
Aristotle says, they do not involve "the asser-
tion of something concerning something."
At least two questions seem to be involved in
this familiar dispute about the arguability of
definitions and their role in argumentation. To
avoid confusion, they should be kept distinct.
One is the question of the truth and falsity of
288
THE GREAT IDEAS
definition*. It should be separated from, even
though it is related to, the other question about
whether all definitions are nominal, />., con-
cerned only with assigning meanings to the
words by which we .name things. To under-
stand what is involved in this second question,
it may be helpful to consider the relation of
words, thoughts, and things m the process of
definition.
A DICTIONARY is supposed to contain defini-
tions. It does in part — insofar as the meaning of
any word is expressed m a phrase containing
other words which arc not synonyms for the
word in question. The combined meanings of
these other words determine the meaning of
the word being defined.
For example, one definition of the word
"brother" is "a male relative, the son of the
same parents or parent." Another is "a male
member of a religious order." These two defini-
tions give different meanings for the same word.
The dictionary is here recording two ways in
which, as a matter of historical fact, the word
has been used. It has been and can be used in
still other ways. No one of these definitions can
be called "right" and the others "wrong."
Dictionary definitions seem to be verbal and
arbitrary in a number of ways. That the word
"brother" should carry any of the meanings
which the dictionary records is an accident of
English usage. It is arbitrary that that partic-
ular sound or mark should be the name for a
male relative who is the son of the same par-
ents. It would be equally arbitrary to restrict
the meaning of the word "brother" to any one
of its definitions.
Nothing about a word limits the number of
distinct meanings with which it can be used. As
Locke says, "every man has so inviolable a lib-
erty to make words stand for what ideas he
pleases, that no one hath the power to make
others have the same ideas k their minds that
he has, when they use the same words that he
does." A word is thus a conventional sound or
mark, which can be given any meaning con-
vention assigns to it. When that meaning is ex-
pressed in other words* we have a verbal defini-
tion, and such definitions arc certainly nominal
in this sense—that they state the meaning of
a name.
But are they merely nominal? Are they en-
tirely arbitrary ? That this word should be used
to name this thing is arbitrary, but that when
it is so used a certain definition also applies
may not be arbitrary. Among the several verbal
definitions of a word, the one which applies in
any particular case will depend upon the char-
acter of the thing which the word is used
to name.
For example, if John and fames are sons of
the same parents, the name "brother" applies,
but not with the same definition which is re-
quired for the application of the name to Mark
and Matthew who, unrelated by blood, are
members of the same monastic order. What the
word "brother" is used to mean may be arbi-
trary, but when it is used now of John and
James, and now of Mark and Matthew, it
would be misapplied if it did not carry the ap-
propriate definition. Which definition is appro-
priate in each case does not seem to be arbi-
trary, since that appropriateness depends not
on our will but on the objective facts of the
case — the actual relation of the persons called
"brothers."
Precisely because the word is used to name a
thing, the definition of the word as so used docs
more than state the meaning of the word. It
states something about the character of the
thing named. Definitions remain merely verbal
only so long as the words they define are not
actually used to name or to signify things in
some way. Whenever a thing is named or sig-
nified, the definition which gives the meaning
of the word must also signify something about
the nature of the thing.
"In the natural order of ideas," writes Lavoi-
sier, "the name of the class or genus is that
which expresses a quality common to a great
number of individuals; the name of the species,
on the contrary, expresses a quality peculiar to
certain individuals only. These distinctions are
not, as some may imagine, merely metaphysical,
but arc established by Nature."
YET IT MAY BE said that the definition is still
nominal, for it depends entirely on the mean-
ings of the words which express it. For example,
one definition of "brother" involves the mean-
ings of such words as "male" and "relative,"
"son," "parent," dnd "same." If we were to
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
<!89
look these words up in a dictionary, the def-
initions we found would involve the meanings
of still other words, and so on in an endlessly
circular fashion. Furthermore, we would find
the account of certain words, such as "relative1*
and "same," somewhat unsatisfactory as defini-
tions because the meaning of the defining words
would immediately involve the meaning of the
word to be defined. To say that "same" means
"not other" or "not different" seems the same
as saying "same" means "same." Yet we must
know the meaning of "same," for otherwise we
could not understand the meaning of "brother,"
in the definition of which the word "same"
appears.
That some words seem to have indefinable
meanings suggests that not all meanings are
merely verbal or nominal, and that the mean-
ing of every word cannot be found in the mean-
ings of other words. In the Preface to his dic-
tionary, Dr. Johnson observes that "as nothing
can be proved but by supposing something in-
tuitively known, and evident without proof, so
nothing can be defined but by the use of words
too plain to admit of definition." The circular-
ity of the dictionary is thus avoided. When we
trace meanings from one word to another, we
finally come to words whose meanings we seem
to understand immediately, or at least without
reference to the meanings of other words.
Just as the arbitrary character of verbal def-
initions seems to be removed by the considera-
tion of the things which words name or signify,
so the purely nominal character of definitions
seem to be removed by recourse to meanings
which are understood without further verbal
explanation— meanings which may in fact be
incapable of such explanation.
NOT ALL WRITERS agree with Dr. Johnson. All
of them would admit that some words must be
left undefined in order to define others, but
which shall be used as indefinable and which
shall be defined is, in the opinion of some, a
matter of choice. It is not something which can
be determined by the order intrinsic to our
ideas or meanings. The issue between the math-
ematical logicians who think that we are free
to choose our primitive or indefinable terms,
and those who, like Aquinas, think that cer-
tain terms, such as being, same, one, and rela-
tion, impose themselves upon our minds as prin-
ciples, leaving us no choice, parallels the issue
between the view that the principles of a sci-
ence consist of postulates voluntarily assumed
and the view that they are axiomatic or un-
avoidable.
Far from regarding such basic indefinable
terms as clearest and most indisputable in mean-
ing, Spinoza thinks that "these terms signify
ideas in the highest degree confused." For him
"the true definition of any one thing ... ex-
presses nothing but the nature of the thing de-
fined." But to arrive at the true definition, it is
necessary to discover the cause of the thing.
For "every existing thing," he writes, "there is
some certain cause by reason of which it exists."
This cause "must either be contained in the
nature itself and definition of the existing thing
... or it must exist outside the thing." In the
latter case, the definition of the thing always
involves a statement of the external cause of its
existence.
Accordingly, Spinoza rejects the traditional
type of Aristotelian definition as purely sub-
jective—a matter of individual memory and
imagination. "Those who have more frequently
looked with admiration upon the stature of
men," he writes, "by the name man will under-
stand an animal of erect stature, while those
who have been in the habit of fixing their
thoughts on something else will form another
common image of men, describing man, for in-
stance, as an animal capable of laughter, a biped
without feathers, a rational animal, and so
on; each person forming universal images of
things according to the temperament of his own
body."
However the issue between Spinoza and Aris-
totle is resolved, both seem to agree that more
is involved in the process of definition than the
statement of verbal equivalences. "We have a
definition," Aristotle says, "not where we have
a word and formula identical in meaning (for in
that case all formulae or sets of words would be
definitions)." The formula which is expressed
in a phrase or combination of words must state
the nature or essence of a thing, not just the
meaning of a word. "The formula ... in which
the term itself is not present but its meaning is
expressed, this," according to Aristotle, "is the
formula of the essence of each thing" and. he
290
THE GREAT IDEAS
adds, "there is an essence only of those things
whose formula is a definition.'*
Even supposing the truth of these state-
ments, which Hobbes or Locke certainly would
question, the problem of real as opposed to
nominal definition requires further examina-
tion. To explore the matter further, let us take
two of the most famous definitions to be found
in the great books. Both are definitions of man
--"featherless biped" and "rational animal."
As we have seen, these definitions must remain
purely nominal — only stating the meaning of
the word "man" — until that word is used to
name some kind of thing. If, however, we apply
the word "man" to existing entities which
combine the characteristics of having two legs
and lacking feathers, then "featherless biped"
defines, not the word "man," but a class of real,
that is, existing things. In addition to being
nominal, the definition is now also real m the
sense that the class or kind which it determines
has existing members.
That animals exist may similarly be a fact of
observation. But "animal" is only one of the
two terms in the other nominal definition of
"man." In order to make "rational animal"
more than a nominal definition, it is necessary
to verify the existence of animals which possess
a certain characteristic, rationality, not pos-
sessed by all animals. If rationality in some de-
gree belonged to all animals, then the word
"man" (nominally defined by "rational ani-
mal") would be synonymous with "animal."
But, unlike feathers, the presence or absence of
which seems readily observable, the possession
or lack of rationality is difficult to ascertain.
Here we face two possibilities. One is that we
can never be sure that some existing animals
are and some are not rational. Then the defini-
tion "rational animal" will never become real.
It will always remain merely nominal, the state-
ment of a possible meaning for "man," but one
which we cannot employ when we apply the
word to name any existing thing. The other
possibility is that we can infer the existence of a
special class of animals (distinguished by the
possession of reason) from such evident facts as
the activities of reading and writing, activities
not performed by all animals. Then, members
,c$ the class defined having been found to exist,
animal" becomes a real definition of
the beings to which we also arbitrarily assign
the name "man."
THE PROCESS of verification by which a nom-
inal is converted into a real definition can fre
regarded as the demonstration of a definition.
Strictly speaking, it is not the definition which
is thereby proved. It is rather a proposition in
which the subject of the definition is affirmed
to exist, or in which a subject already known to
exist is said to have a certain definition. For
example, it is not the definition "rational ani-
mal" which is proved, but the proposition
"there exists an animal which differs from other
animals in being rational," or the proposition
"the real being which we call 'man' is both an
animal and rational, and he alone is rational."
If these propositions cannot be proved, "ration-
al animal" remains a purely nominal definition.
That definitions are not as such either true or
false is unaffected by the distinction between
real and nominal definitions. The point is sim-
ply that a definition, which is always linguisti-
cally expressed by a phrase, never a sentence,
neither affirms nor denies anything, and so can-
not be either true or false. "Featherless biped"
or "son of the same parents" makes no assertion
about reality or existence.
Yet there is a special sense in which defini-
tions can be true or false, which does have a
bearing on the distinction between real and
nominal definitions. Pascal suggests three alter-
natives with regard to the truth or falsity of
definitions. "If we find it impossible," he
writes, "it passes for false; if we demonstrate
that it is true, it passes for a truth; and as long
as it cannot be proved to be either possible or
impossible, it is. considered a fancy."
According to Aquinas, there are two ways in
which a definition can be false. In one way,
when the intellect applies "to one thing the
definition proper to another; as that of a circle
to a man. In another way, by composing a def-
inition of parts which are mutually repugnant.
A definition such as 'a four-footed rational ani-
mal' would be of this kind ... for such a state-
ment as 'some rational animals are four-footed*
is false in itself."
But the truth or falsity of that statement can
conceivably be argued, and therefore it is not
so clear an example of a false definition as one
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
291
which, in Pascal's terms, plainly represents an
impossibility. Suppose someone offered "round
square" as the nominal definition of "rectacy-
cle." The phrase "round square" expresses a
self-contradiction, and in consequence the defi-
nition is false. Its falsity is tantamount to the
impossibility of there being any such figure as a
rcctacycle which has the definition proposed.
The truth of a definition — which is nothing
more than its freedom from self-contradiction
—is equivalent to the possibility, as opposed to
the impossibility, of the thing defined. To call
the definition "son of the same parents" or
"featherless biped" true is to say that the words
defined— "brother" or "man" — signify possible
existences. In short, only those nominal defini-
tions which are true can ever become real, and
they become real only when the possibility
they signify is actually known to be realized in
existence.
THE METHOD OF Euclid's Elements illustrates
the foregoing points. Euclid defines certain geo-
metrical figures, such as triangle, parallelogram,
square. These definitions may appear to be free
from contradiction, but that does not tell us
whether they are more than nominal. The de-
fined figures are possible, but the question is
whether they exist in the space determined by
Euclid's postulates.
To show that they do exist, Euclid under-
takes to construct them according to his postu-
lates which permit him the use of a straight
edge and a compass for purposes of construc-
tion. When in Proposition i Euclid proves that
he can construct an equilateral triangle, he es-
tablishes the geometrical reality of the figure
defined in Definition 20. A geometrical con-
struction is thus seen to be what is called an
"existence proof." It converts a nominal into a
real definition. Figures which cannot be con-
structed must be postulated; as, for example,
the straight line and the circle. Postulates i and
3 ask us to assume that a straight line can be
drawn between any two points and that a circle
can be described with any center and radius.
These postulates give Definitions 4 and 15 their
geometrical reality.
Though the method of construction is pecu-
liar to geometry, the relation of definitions to
proofs or postulates of existence is the same for
all sciences. Until a definition ceases to be nom-
inal and becomes real, it cannot be used scien-
tifically in the demonstration of other conclu-
sions; to use a merely nominal definition in the
proof begs the question.
If the existence of the thing defined is either
directly observable or self-evident, no proof or
postulation of existence is required. In theol-
ogy, for example, there are those who think
that the existence of God is immediately seen
in the definition of God. Descartes and Spinoza
seem to be of this opinion.
Descartes argues that "eternal existence** is
necessarily included in the idea of God as "a
supremely perfect Being." This is so evident,
he declares, that "existence can no more be
separated from the essence of God than can its
having its three angles equal to two right angles
be separated from the essence of a triangle, or
the idea of a mountain from the idea of a val-
ley," Concerning substance or God, Spinoza
holds that, since it pertains to its nature to
exist, "its definition must involve necessary
existence, and consequently from its definition
alone its existence must be concluded."
On the other hand, there are those who think
that the existence of God must be proved by
inference from effect to cause. Supposing that a
man understands the meaning of the word
"God," Aquinas maintains that it "does not
therefore follow that he understands that what
the name signifies exists actually, but only that
it exists mentally." Hence, he declares, it is nec-
essary to prove the existence of God, "accept-
ing as a middle term the meaning of the name,"
but using an effect in "place of the definition of
the cause in proving the cause's existence."
The difference between these two positions
might be summed up by saying that Descartes
and Spinoza, like Anselm before them, think
the definition of God is intrinsically real, where-
as Aquinas thinks we must begin with a nom-
inal definition of God, which becomes real only
with proof of God's existence. For some con-
firmed atheists, any definition of God is not
only nominal, but false — the definition of an
impossible being, incapable of existing.
THERE is STILL another issue about nominal and
real definitions. The point involved is the one
raised by Locke's discussion of nominal and real
292
THE GREAT IDEAS
essences. It is also raised by Aristotle's discrim-
ination between essential and accidental uni-
ties, i.e., the difference between the unity sig-
nified by the phrase "featherless biped" and by
the phrase "black man." Both phrases look like
definitions. Each designates a possible class of
individuals and sets up the conditions for mem-
bership in that class or exclusion from it.
The distinction between them does not rest,
according to Aristotle, on the criterion of exist-
ence. Both of the objects defined may exist, but
whereas the first is truly a species, the second is
only, in Aristotle's opinion, an accidental vari-
ety within the species man. Man, being a spe-
cies, can have a real essence, and so any defini-
tion of man — whether "featherless biped" or
"rational animal"— can be a real definition, con-
stituted by genus and differentia. But negro or
aryan, not being a species, but only a race or
variety, has no essence as such. The definitions
—"black man" and "white man"— indicate
this in that they are constituted by two terms
which are related as substance and accident, not
as genus and differentia.
Though Aristotle distinguishes these two
types of formulae as essential and accidental
definitions rather than as real and nominal defi-
nitions, the one principle of distinction is close-
ly related to the other, for only essential defini-
tions can have real essences for their objects.
Accidental definitions do little more than state
the meanings of words, or express what Locke
calls the "nominal essences" of things. He
doubts that the definition of anything except a
mathematical object can ever grasp the real es-
sence of a thing. For him all definitions are
nominal, which is equivalent to saying that we
never define by means of the true genus and
differentia, but always by accidental and exter-
nal signs, or by stating the component parts of
a complex whole.
"Speaking of a man, or gold," Locke ex-
plains, "or any other species of natural sub-
stance, as supposed constituted by a precise and
real essence which nature regularly imparts to
every individual of that kind, whereby it is
made to be of that species, we cannot be certain
of the truth of any affirmation or negation
made of it. For man or gold, taken in this sense,
and used for species of things constituted by
real essences, different from the complex idea
in the mind of the speaker, stand for we know
not what; and the extent of these species, with
such boundaries, are so unknown and undeter-
mined, that it is impossible with any certainty
to affirm, that all men are rational, or that all
gold is yellow,"
THIS ISSUE HAS MANY ramifications. In one
direction it leads into Aristotle's quarrel with
Plato over the method of definition by division
or dichotomy. In the Sophist and the Statesman,
the search for definitions proceeds by the divi-
sion of a class of things into two sub-classes, one
of which is then further subdivided, and so on
until a class is reached which has the character-
istics of the object to be defined. The attempt
to define a sophist, for example, starts with the
notion that he is a man of art, and proceeds by
dividing and subdividing the various kinds of
art. At one point in the course of doing this, the
Athenian Stranger summarizes the process to
that point.
"You and I," he says to Theaetetus, "have
come to an understanding not only about the
name of the angler's art, but about the defini-
tion of the thing itself. One half of all art was
acquisitive— half of the acquisitive art was con-
quest or taking by force, half of this was hunt-
ing, and half of hunting was hunting animals,
half of this was hunting water animals— of this
again, the under half was fishing, half of fishing
was striking; a part of striking was fishing with
a barb, and one half of this again, being the
kind which strikes with a hook and draws the
fish from below upwards, is the art which we
have been seeking, and which from the nature
of the operation is denoted angling or drawing
up ... And now, following this pattern," he
continues, "let us endeavor to find out what a
Sophist is."
The pattern as illustrated indicates that, in
the course of division, one of the two classes is
discarded while the other is subject to further
subdivision. Aristotle's criticism of this pro-
cedure turns partly on the fact that the divi-
sion is always dichotomous, or into two sub-
classes, and partly on the fact that the terms
which Plato uses in a succession of subdivisions
do not seem to have any systematic relation to
one another. If the class of animals, for exam-
ple, is divided into those with and those with-
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
293
out feet, it makes a difference, according to
Aristotle, what terms are then used to differ-
entiate footed animals into their proper sub-
classes.
"It is necessary," he insists, "that the divi-
sion be by the differentia of the differentia; e.g.,
'endowed with feet' is a differentia of 'animal';
again the differentia of 'animal endowed with
feet' must be of it qua endowed with feet.
Therefore we must not say, if we are to speak
rightly, that of that which is endowed with feet
one part has feathers and one is featherless (if
we do this we do it through incapacity); we
must divide it only into cloven-footed and not-
cloven; for these are differentiae in the foot;
cloven-footcdness is a form of footedness. And
the process wants always to go on so till it
reaches the species that contains no difference.
And then there will be as many kinds of foot as
there are differentiae, and the kinds of animals
endowed with feet will be equal in number to
the differentiae. If then this is so, clearly the
last differentia will be the essence of the thing
and its definition."
As Aristotle quarrels with Plato's method of
division, so William James takes issue with Aris-
totle's theory that a real essence is defined when
the right differentia is properly chosen within a
certain genus of things. He tends to follow
Locke's notion that definitions indicate no
more than the nominal essences of things, but
he gives this theory a special twist by adding
the notion that all our definitions merely group
things according to the interest or purpose,
whether theoretical or practical, which moti-
vates our classification of them. This has come
to be known as the pragmatic theory of
definition.
"My thinking," writes James, "is first and
last and always for the sake of my doing." After
pointing out that Locke "undermined the fal-
lacy" of supposing that we can define the real
essences of things, he goes on to say that "none
of his successors, as far as I know, have radically
escaped it, or seen that the only meaning of es-
sence is ideological^ and that classification and
conception are purely ideological weapons of the
mind. The essence of a thing is that one of its
properties which is so important for my interests
that in comparison with it I may neglect the
rest. . . . The properties which are important
vary from man to man and from hour to horfr."
In a footnote lames adds: "A substance like
oil has as many different essences as it has uses
to different individuals." The classification of
natural as well as artificial objects should there-
fore proceed according to the advice' Mephis^
topheles gives to the student in Goethe's Faust.
"You will have more success," he says, "if you
will learn to reduce all, and to classify each ac-
cording to its use." But if this is so, then no one
scheme of classification, more than any other,
represents the real structure or order of nature.
Nature indifferently submits to any and all divi-
sions which we wish to make among existing
things. Some classifications may be more sig-
nificant than others, but only by reference to
our interests, not because they represent reality
more accurately or adequately, It does not mat-
ter, therefore, whether we define by genus and
differentia, by other characteristics in combina-
tion, or by reference to origins or functions.
Darwin's scheme of classification provides
evidence relevant to this whole issue. As indi-
cated in the chapters on ANIMAL and EVOLU-
TION, Darwin thinks that his genealogical clas-
sification of plants and animals conies nearer to
the natural system of living organisms than the
classifications proposed by his predecessors.
"The Natural System," he writes, "is a genea-
logical arrangement, with the acquired grades
of difference, marked by the terms, varieties,
species, genera, families, etc.; and we have to
discover the lines of descent by the most per-
manent characters whatever they may be and
of however slight vital importance." Hence-
forth, following his method, "systematists will
have only to decide . . . whether any form be
sufficiently constant and distinct from other
forms, to be capable of definition; and if de-
finable, whether the differences be sufficiently
important to deserve a specific name."
But Darwin's statement re-opens rather than
resolves the great traditional questions. Are the
various groupings made in classification divi-
sions which the classifier finds useful to impose
on nature, or do they represent lines of real
distinction in the very nature of things? If the
latter is the case, either wholly or in part, are
we able to do more than approximate real dis-
tinction by whatever method of definition we
employ? Can we discover real species, cssen-
294 THE GREAT JDEAS
tially distinct from one another, and can our mind to submit itself to the test of agreement
definitions formulate the essence of each ? with reality. Definition helps man to ask nature
or experience the only sort of question to which
THE SEARCH FOR definitions basically belongs to answers can be found,
the activity of the human mind in all its scien- The search for definitions has, perhaps, its
tific or dialectical efforts to clarify discourse, to most dramatic exemplification in the dialogues
achieve precision of thought, to focus issues and of Plato. Socrates usually leads the conversation
to resolve them. in quest of them; though it is only in certain
Men have no other way of coming to terms dialogues, such as the Sophist and the States-
with one another than by defining the words man, that the making of definitions is practiced
they use to express their concepts or meanings, in detail. Two other books in this set are largely
They make terms out of words by endowing concerned with ways of reaching and defending
words with exactness or precision of meaning, definitions— Aristotle's Topics (which should be
Definition does this and makes possible the considered together with the opening chapters
meeting of minds either m agreement or in dis- of his Parts of Animals) and Bacon's Novum
pute. Definition also makes it possible for any Organum.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
' PAGB
1. The theory of definition 295
la. The object of definition: definitions as arbitrary and nominal or real and con-
cerned with essence
16. The purpose of definition: the clarification of ideas 296
ic, The limits of definition: the definable and the indefinable
id. The unity of a definition in relation to the unity of the thing defined 297
ic. The truth and falsity of definitions
2. The various methods of definition or classification
za. The use of division or dichotomy in definition
2b. Definition by genus and differentia: properties
2C. Definition by accidental or extrinsic signs or by component parts 298
2</. The appeal to genesis, origin, cause, or end in definition
2e. Definition by reference to purpose or interest
3. The grammatical or verbal aspects of definition 299
4. The search for definitions and the methods of defending them
i ji
5. Definition and demonstration; definitions as principles and as conclusions
6* The character of definitions in diverse disciplines 300
60. The formulation of definitions in physics, mathematics, and metaphysics
6b. The use of definition in speculative philosophy and empirical science
6V. The role of definitions in practical or moral philosophy and the social sciences 301
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION 295
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, whicn arc me voiurac and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set, the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS- When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 J AM ES : Psychology, 116a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower haft of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in ecu*
tain cases; c,g.y Iliad, BK u [265-283] 12d. :
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the fCing
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
42 KANT: Pure Redson, 44c-45b; 215d-217a
1. The theory of definition 44 BOSWELL; Johnson, 82a-c
7 PLATO: Meno, 174a-177d / Theaetetus, 544d- 53 JAMES: Psychology, 314a-b; 668a-673b
549d / Sophist 551a-579d / Statesman 580a- ,
608d / Laws, BK x, 763c-d / Seventh Letter, **• T1f <>b>e« °£ definition; definitions as ar-
809c-810d bitrary anq nominal or real and con-
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 3-10 cerned with essence
123c-128d; CH 13 131b-133c / Topics, BK vi- 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 104d-105b; 113a-114a,c /
vn 192a-211a,c / Metaphysics, BK vii, CH 4-6 Gorgias, 252d-253b / Republic, BK vi, 384a-
552b-555a; CH 10-17 558a-566a,c; BK vni, 387d; BK ix, 426d-427b / Timaeus, 457b-
CH 2-3 566d-568d; CH 6 569d-570d 458b / TheaeUtus, 514b-515c; 547c-549c /
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4 Sophist, 551a-d / Philcbus, 610d-613a / Laws,
165d-168c BK x, 763c-d / Seventh Letter, 809a-810b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BKIII, SECTII 262a-b 8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [2*i9~3b24] 6b-
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 35 8a / Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH22 113b-115b;
653b-c CH 33 [88b3o-89»i] 121b-c; BK n, CH 3-10 123c-
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-d 128d; CH 13 131b-133c / Topics, BK F,'CH 4
30 BACON : NoVum Organum, BK n 137a-195d esp [10^17-23] 144b-c; CH 5 [ioib37-ro2*5]
APH 17 149b-d, APH 22-51 153b-194c 144d; CH 8 [io3bi-n] 146d; CH 18 [io8*38->9]
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23c-24a 152d;[io8bio-32)153a,c;BKVj, CHI [139*24-34]
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 8, SCHOL 2 192a; BK vi, CH 4-BK vn, CH 5 194c-211a,c
356d-357d; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i 387b- passim / Physics, BK n, CH i [n)3*3o-bi9]
388a 269c-270a / Generation and Corruption, ftk i,
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 430b- CH 2 [317*17-27] 413b / Meteorology, BK iv,
434b; 442a-443b CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH [986b8-987*i] 504c-505a; (087*19-27] 50Sb;
in-vi 254d-283a passim > CH 6 [987bi-io] 505c; [987*30-3$] 506a; BK
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV n, CH 2 t994bi6-27] 513a-b; BK in, CH 2 [996**
48-49 476d-471d 12-21] 515a-b; BK iv, CH 4 525a-528b; »K vi,
296
THE GREAT IDEAS
lafo ic
(1. The theory of definition. la. The object of
definition; definitions as arbitrary and nom-
inal or real and concerned ivitk essence.)
CH i [io25b28-io26*6] 547d-548a; BK vn,
CH i [1028*31-37] 550d; CH 4-6 552b-555a;
CH 10-17 558a-566a,c; BK vin, CH 2-3 566d-
568d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK x, CH i [i052bi-
15] 578d-579a; BK xr, CH 5 590a-d; BK
xin, CH 4 [io78bi8-32] 610b-c / Soul, BK i,
CH i 631a-632d; BK in, CH 6 [43ob26~3i]
663b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[641*14-31] 163d-164a; CH 2-4 165d-168c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A
7, REP i 7a-c; Q 2, A i, REP 2 10d-lld; A 2,
REP 2 lld-12c; Q 3, A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 5, ANS
17c-18b; Q 17, A 3 102d-103c; Q 29, A i,
REP 1,3-4 162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-164b;
Q 44, A i, REP i 238b-239a; A 3, REP 3 240b-
241a; Q 58, A 5 303c-304c; Q 75, A 4, ANS
381b-382a; Q 85, A 6 458d-459c; Q n6, A i,
CONTRARY 592d-593d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-H, Q 4,
A i, ANS 402a-403d; PART in, Q 2, A 2, ANS
711d-712d; Q 60, A 4, REP i 849c-850b
23 HOBBRS: Leviathan, PART i, 55b-c; 56b; 59c-d;
PART iv, 270a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 518d-519a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 142d-
143a
30 BACON: Novum Qrganum, BK 11, APH 4 137d-
138b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xin, 26b-c / Objections
and Replies, POSTULATE iv 131a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 8, SCHOL 2
356d-357d; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i 387b-
388a; PART HI, PROP 4 398d
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 372b-373b; 376b-377a /
Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-431b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b, CH xxxn,
SECT 18 246c-247a; SECT 24 247c-d; BK in,
CH in, SECT 11-20 257a-260a esp SECT 18-20
259b-260a; CH v, SECT 14 267b-c; CH vi
268b-283a; CH x, SECT 17-21 295d-297b; CH
xi, SECT 15-24 303b-305d; BK iv, CH iv,
SECT 11-17 326b-328d passim; c*f vi, SECT
4-16 331d-336d passim; CH xn, SECT 9 360d-
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
18 410a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 179d-182b; 215d-216c /
Science of Right, 404d; 423d-424b
, 45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
lOa-b
46 HEGBL: Philosophy of History \ INTRO, 176c;
184d-185a
49,DARwm: Origin of Species, 27b-29a csp 29a
51 TOL$TOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n,
53 JAMES: Psychology, 106a; 185a-b; 668a-671a;
\b. The purpose of definition: the clarification
of ideas
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120a-b / Meno, 174a-179b /
Euthyphro, 193c / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK 11, CH 14
[98*1-2] 133c-d / Topics, BK i, CH 18 [io8a
17-37] 152b-d; BK vi, CH i [i39bn-i5]
192b-c; CH 4 [141*26-32] 194c; BK vin, CH 3
[158*31-159*2] 214d-215c / Metaphysics, BK
iv, CH 4 525a-528b; BK xi, CH 5 590a-d / Soul,
BK i, CH i [402b 1 5-403*2] 631d-632a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 2
[648bi~5] 172d / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 23 [1398*
15-27] 646c
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK HI, SECT n 262a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 85,
A 3, REP 3 455b-457a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 58d-59a;
PART iv, 269b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
142d-143a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60b-c;
61b-c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 59
112b-c
31 DESCARTES. Rules, xn, 23c-24a; xin, 26b-c
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-
434 b passim
34 NEWTON* Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 8b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH iv,
SECT 6-14 260d-263a
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT vin,
Div62478b-c; Div74484a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-c / Practical Reason,
293c-294b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 377d
45 LAVOISILR: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 4a-
SC;PARTI, lOa-b; 21a-22c
45 FARADAY. Researches in Electricity, 361a-b
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 2
9b-10a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 207d-208a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 694b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 314a-b; 669a-671a; 871a-b
Ic. The limits of definition: the definable and
the indefinable
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 384a-388a / Theaete-
tus, 544c-547c / Seventh^ Letter, 809c-810b
SARisTOTiE- Metaphysics, BK i, CH
24-993*1] 511a-b; BK 11, CH 2
513a-b; BK v, CH 3 [ioi4b3-i3) 534d; BK vn,
CH 4-5 552b-554a; CH 10-11 558a-561a; CH
13 [1039*15-23] 563a; CH 15 563c-564c; BK
vm, CH 3 [io43b23~33] 568b; BK x, CH 8-9
585b-586c
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 6 231b d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A
7, REP i 7a-c; Q 2, A i, REP 2 10d-lld; A 2,
REP 2 lld-12c; Q 3, A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 5, ANS
17c-18b; Q 29, A i, REP i 162a-163b; A 2,
REP 3 163b-164b; Q 44, A 3, REP 3 240b-
241a; Q 85, A i, REP 2 451c-453c
9
b
\dtolb
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
2*7
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 59 112b*c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23c-24a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, AXIOM 2 355d
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 431b-
434b; 442a-443b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH 11,
SECT i 127d-128a; CH iv, SECT 6 131a; CH
xx, SECT i 176b-c; BK in, CH iv, SECT 4-17
260b-263c; CH vi 268b-283a passim, csp
SECT 7-10 270b-271b; CH xi, SECT 13-25
302d-306c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
49 471c-d
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 29d-33d; 53b-54b;
179d-182b; 215d-216c /Judgement, 603a-604b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-120b
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 82b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 242a/ Descent of
Man, 346d-347b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 694b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 314a
Id. The unity of a definition in relation to the
unity of the thing defined
7 PLATO: Laches, 32a-33a / Cratylus 85a-114a,c
esp 85a-89a, 104b-114a,c / Meno, 174a-179b
/ Theaetetus, 514b-515d / Sophist, 559a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 6
[92*28-33] 126b; CH 10 [93b28-94*7] 128b-c;
CH 13 [97b6-25] 133a-b / Topics, BK vi, CH
4 [i4ia26-b2] 194c-d; CH 5 [142^0-143*12]
196b-c; CH 13-14 204c-206d; BK vn, CH 3
[153*6-22] 208a-b; [154*3-11] 209b / Physics,
BK i, CH 3 [i86bi4~3o] 261c-d / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 5 [986b8-987ai] 504c-505a, BK v, CH
6 [ioi6a33-bn] 536d-537a; BK vn, CH 4-6
552b-555a; CH 10-17 558a-566a,c; BK vin,
CH 2-3 566d-568d; CH 6 569d-570d, BK x,
CH r [1052*28-37] 578d / Soul, BK n, CH 3
[4i4b20-4i5*i4] 644d-645b
30 BACON Novum Organum, BK n, APH 35 162a-
164a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxn, SECT 4 201c-d; CH xxni, SECT 1-2
204a-c; BK in, CH v, SECT 4 264b; CH vi,
SECT 21 273c-d; SECT 28-30 276a-277b
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, SECT i 413a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 503a-b
le. The truth and falsity of definitions
7 PLATO- C/Ytfy/wj85a-114a,cesp 85a-89a, 104b-
114a,c / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
' 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi-vn 192a-211a,c
passim, csp BK vi, CH 4-14 194c-206d / Meta-
physics, BK v, CH 29 [i024b27~38] 546d-547a;
BK vi, CH 4 [iO27bi7-28] 550a,c; BK ix, CH
10 [105 ibi 8-33] 577d-578a / Soul, BK in, CH
6 [43ob26-3o] 663b-c
19 AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A
r, REP 2 lOd-lld; Q 17, A 3 102d-103c; Q 58,
A 5 303c-304c; Q 85, A 6 458d-459c
23 HOB RES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b
30 BACON* Novum Organum, BK i, APH 59 112b-
c; BK n, APH 35 162a-164a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xm, 26b»c
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PART i, PROP 8, SCHOL 2,
357b-d; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2 387b-
388b
33 PASCAL Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-
431b
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxn 243c-248b passim
42 KANT* Pure Reason, 179d-182b
43 MILL Utilitarianism, 469a-b
44 BOSWFLL: Johnson, 82a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, IN IRQ, par 2 9b-
lOa
53 JAMES: Psychology, 669a-671a
2. The various methods of definition or classi-
fication
2a. The use of division or dichotomy in defi-
nition
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 134a-c / Sophist, 552b-561d;
577c-579d / Statesman 580a-608d / Philcbus,
610d-613a
8 ARISTOTLE. Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 31
64b-65a / Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 5 125b-
d; CH 13 [96b25~97b6] 132a-133a / Topics, BK
vi, CH 6 [i43bi 1-144*4] 197b-c / Metaphysics,
BK vn, CH 12 [io37b28-io38B35] 561c-562a
9 ARISTOTLE* Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4
165d-168c
17 PLOIINUS First Ennead, TR in, CH 4 lla-c /
Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 8-10 285a-286d; CH
16-18 289c-291d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 35
653b-c
2b. Definition by genus and differentia: proper*
ties
7 PLATO- Theaetetus, 548c>549d
8 ARISTOTLE- Categories, CH 3 [ibi6-24] 5d;
CH 5 [2*n-3b24] 6a-8a; CH 13 [i4b32-i5a8]
20c-d / Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 27 [43*25-44]
60c-d / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 22 113b-
115b; BK 11, CH 13-14 131b-134a / Topics, BK
i, CH 4-9 144b-147b; CH 18 [io8a38-b9] 152d;
[io8bi9-32] 153a,c; BK iv-vn 168b,d-211a,c
/ Physics, BK i, CH 3 [i86bi4-34] 261c-262a /
Metaphysics, BK in, CH i [995b27-3i] 514b;
CH3 517a-518a; BK v, CH 3 [toi4b3~i3] 534d;
CH 25 [io23b22-25] 545c; CH 28 [i024*37-b9J
546b-c; BK vn, CH 4 [1030*7-14] 552d; CH
12-14 561b-563c; BK vni, CH 3 [i043b24~i044*
14] 568b-d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK x, CH 8-9
585b-586c; BK xi, CH i [1059^21-1060*1]
587d-588a / Soul, BK i, CH i [402*15-403*2]
631d-632a
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[486*15-487*1] 7b-d / Parts of Animals, BK i,
298
THE GREAT IDEAS
(2. The various methods of definition or classifi-
cation. 2b, Definition by genus and differ-
entia; properties!)
CH i [641*14-31] 163d-164a;cH2~4l65d-168c/
Ethics* BK n, CH 5 [no5bi9J-CH 6 [1107*9]
351b-352c
17 PLOIINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH i, 281a-b;
CH 8-io 285a-286d; CH 16-18 289c-291d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, o 3, A
4, REP i 16d-l7c; A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 29, A i,
REP 3-4 162a-163b; Q 50, A 2, REP i 270a-
272a; A 4, REP i 273b-274b; Q 66, A 2, REP
2 345d-347b; Q 75, A 3, REP i 380c-381b;
Q 76, A 3, ANS and REP 2,4 391a-393a; Q 77,
A i, REP 7 399c-401b; Q 85, A 3 455b-457a;
Q 88, A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; PART i-n, Q i,
A } 611b-6l2a? Q 18, AA 5-11 697a-703a pas-
sim, csp A 7 698c-699c; Q 23 723c-727a pas-
sim, esp A i 723c-724c; Q 35, A 4 774d-
775d; A 8, ANS and REP 3 779c-780c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARI i-n, Q 49,
AA 1-2 lb-4a; Q 52, A i, ANS and REP 2
15d-18a; Q 53, A 2, REP 3 21a-d; Q 54 22d-
25d passim; Q 55, A 4, ANS and REP 1-2
28c-29d; QQ 60-6 1 49d-59d passim; Q 71, A
6 HOb-lllb; Q 72 lllb-119b passim; Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; PART ii-n, Q 4, A i
402a-403d; PART in, Q 2, A i, ANS 710a-711c
30 BACON: Not'um Organum, BK n 137a-195d
pasMm, csp APH 20-52 150d-195d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 154a-b
35 LOCKL: Human Understanding, BK in, CH in
254d-260a passim, esp SECT 6-10 255c-257a;
CH vi 268b-283a passim, esp SECT 6 269d-
270a, SECT 30-32 276d-278b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 193a-200c; 215d-216c
45 LAVOISIER. Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 4a-
SC;PARTI, 21d,25c-d
46 HTGFL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176c
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dtct(, 98a-b; 104a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 12c-13a; 25d-29a
esp 28b-29a; 30d-31d; 207d-210b csp 207d-
208a / Descent of Man, 331b-332a; 346d-
347c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 344b-345b; 669a-671a;
869a-871a esp 870a 871a
2c. Definition by accidental or extrinsic signs
or by component parts
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 6 [144*23-27]
197d; [I44b3-i45b33] 198a-199c; CH 13 [150*1]-
CH 14 [151*32] 204c-206a / Metaphysics, BK
VH, CH 12 [1038*8-30] 561d-562a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [i29ob25~36]
489d-490a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 29,
A i, REP 3 162a-163b; Q 77, A i, REP 7 399c-
401b; PART i-n, Q 35, A 8, ANS and REP 3
779c-780c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2,
387b-388a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxii, SECT 3 201b-c; SECT 9 202c-203a; CH
xxin, SECT 3-10 204c-206d; SECT 14-18
208b-209a; SECT 37 213d-214b; BK HI, CH
in, SECT 10 256c-257a; CH iv, SECT 12-14
262b-263a; CH vi 268b-283a passim, esp SECT
2-3 268c-d, SECT 29 276b-d; CH xi, SECT 19-
22 304b-305a; SECT 25 305d-306c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
49 471c-d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
21a-22c; 25c-29d
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dic{, 95b-105b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 207a-210b esp
207a, 208b, 210b; 212d-215a / Descent of
Man, 332b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 503a-b; 742a-b
2d. The appeal to genesis, origin, cause, or
end in definition
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 544c-548d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 5 [143*9-12]
196c; CH 6 [145*19-27] 198d-199a; [145*32-
b2o] 199a-b; CH 8 [i46b9-i 47*11] 200c-201a;
CH 12 [i49b3i~39] 204b-c / Meteorology, BK
iv, CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3
[983*24-29] 501c; BK v, CH 28 [io24a29-b9]
546b-c; BK vm, CH 2 [1043*2-17] 567b-c;
CH 4 [i044bi2-i"5] 569b; BK xn, CH 3 [1070*
21-24] 599c / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*25-b7]
632b-c; BK n, CH 2 [413*11-19] 643a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 1-2 445a-446d;
BK in, CH 9 [1280*25-1281*2] 477d-478c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 44,
A i, REP i 238b-239a; PART i-n, Q i, A 3
611b-612a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-«, Q 55,
A 4 28c-29d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d / No-
rum Organum, BK i, APH 63 113d-114a
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART i, PROP 8, SCHOL 2
356d-357d; APPENDIX 369b-372d
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK in, CH
iv, SECT 10 261 b-d; SECT 16 263b-c; CH vi,
shCT23 274b-c
42 KANT- Judgement, 574a-b; 579b-c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 207a-229a,c esp
207d-208a, 211b-c, 217d-218a, 228c-d; 238b-
239a / Descent of Man, 331b-333a esp 332b-c;
337a-341d passim
53 JAMES: Psychology, 742a-b
2e. Definition by reference to purpose or in-
terest
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i 387b-388a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xvin, SECT 7 174d-175a; CH xxii, SECT 5-7
201d-202b; BK HI, CH v 263d-268a passim,
csp SECT 6 264c-265a; CH vi, SECT 30 276d-
277b esp 277a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1942-1945) 46a
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
299
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 27c-29a passim,
esp29a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 184a-186a; 314a-b; 668a-
671a
3. The grammatical or verbal aspects of defini-
tion
7 PLATO Charmides, 6b-d / Cratylus 85a-114a,c
/ Theaetetus, 544d-545b / Laws, BK x, 763c-d
/ Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH i 5a-b; CH 5 [3*
32 -bp] 7c-d / Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH
13 [97b27~39] 133b-c; CH 14 (98*13-23] 133d-
134a / Topics, BK i, CH 5 [ioib37-io2*n]
144d; CH 15 149d-152a, CH 18 [108*17-37]
152b-d; BK iv, CH 3 [123*27-29] 171d; CH 6
[i27b5-6] 177a; BK vi, CH i [i39bi2-i8] 192b-
c; CH 2-14 192c-206d passim, esp CH 10-11
202 b- 2 03d; BK vn 206b,d-211a,c passim; BK
vin, CH 3 [i58b8-i59a2] 215b-c / Metaphysics,
BK iv, CH 4 525a-528b; CH 7 [1012*22-24]
532b; BK vn, CH 4-5 552b-554a; CH 15
[1040*9-14] 564a; BK x, CH i [io52bi-i5]
578d-579a; BK xi, CH 5 590a-d / Soul, BK i,
CH i [402b5-8] 631c-d
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART n-u, Q
4, A i, ANs402a-403d
23 HOBBBS: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-57c; PART
iv, 269b-c, 270a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23c-24a; xm, 26b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxn, SECT 3-10 201b-203c passim; BK HI, CH
m, SECT 10 256c-257a; CH iv, SECT 6-7 260d;
CH v, SECT 4 264 b; SECT 10-11 266b-d; CH vi,
SECT 32 277c-278b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-120b
44 Bosw ELL. Johnson, 82a-c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 4a-
5d; PART i, lOa; 21a-22c; 25c-29d
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 361a-
362c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 171b-172a
4. The search for definitions and the methods
of defending them
7 PLATO: Charmides, 4a-13d / Laches, 31c-37c /
Meno 174a-190a,c esp 174a-179b / Republic,
BK i-iv 295a-356a esp BK iv, 346a-355a / The-
actetus 512a-550a,c / Sophist, 552b-579d /
Statesman 580a-608d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH i-io
122b,d-128d; CH 13-14 131b-134a / Topics, BK
i-vn 143a-211a,c esp BK i, CH 4-9 144b-147b /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5 [987*19-27] 505b, CH
6 [987bi-io] 505c; [987b3o-33] 506a; BK ix,
CH 6 [1048*25^9] 573c-574a; BK xm, CH 4
[io78bi8-32] 610b-c / Soul, BK i 631a-641d
esp CH i 631a-632d; BK n, CH i (4i2ai]-CH 4
[415*23] 642a-645c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4
165d-168c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 11 262a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 4 lla-c /
Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 6 231b-d / Sixth En-
nead, TR in, CH 6-10 284a-286d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i,< Q 10,
A i 40d-41d; Q 29, A i 162a-163b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i~n, Q 49,
AA 1-2 lb-4a; Q 55, A 4 28c-29d; Q 71, A 6
HOb-lllb; Q 90 205a-208b; PART n-n, Q 4,
A i 402a-403d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 518d-519a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-203d esp 200a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 61b-c / No-
vum Organum, BK i, APH 59 112b-c; APH 105
128b-c; BK n, APH 10-20 140c-153a; APH 24-25
154c-155d
31 DESCARTFS: Rules, xn, 23c-24a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH xi,
SECT 24 305b-d
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT vn 470d-
478a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-d
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 215d-216d / Practical
Reason, 293c-294b
43 FEDLRALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-120b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 241d-242a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, EPILOGUE n,
683d-684c; 690b
5. Definition and demonstration: definitions as
principles and as conclusions
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 31 64b-
65a; CH 43 68d / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH
2 [72*19-24] 98d; CH 8 [75b2i~32] 104a; CH
10 [76b35-77a4] 105c-d; CH 22 113b-115b;
CH 33 [88b3o-89fti] 121b-c; [89Ri7-b5] 121d-
122a,c; BK 11, CH 3-10 123c-128d / Topics, BK
vi, CH 4 [141*26-32] 194c; BK vu, CH 3 208a-
209b; CH 5 [i54B23-bn] 209d-210a; [155*17-
23] 210d; BK vin, CH 3 [158*31-150*2] 214d-
215c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [992^30-993*1]
Sllb; BK in, CH 2 [996b8-2i] 515a-b; BK iv,
CH 4 525a-528b; CH 7 [1012*18-24] 532a-b;
CH 8 [ioi2b5-8] 532c; BK xi, CH 5 590a-d;
BK xm, en 4 [io78bi7~3o] 610b-c / Soul,
BK i, CH i [402*10-23] 631b; [402bi 5-403*2]
631d-632a; CH 3 [407*22-30] 636d-637a; CH 5
(409*3i-bi8] 639b-c; BK n, CH 2 [413*11-19]
643a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639b7-6"42b5] 161d-165c
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 2 306a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i,
A 7, REP I 7a-C; Q 2, A I, REP 2 lOd-lld,' A 2,
REP 2 lld-12c; Q 3, A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 17,
A 3, REP i-2 102d-103c; Q 58, A 5 303c<304c;
Q 85, A 6 4S8d-459c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-60c; 65c-d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 128c-
129a
300
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 6b
(5. Definition and demonstration: definitions as
principles and as conclusions,)
33 PASCAL: Pensees, i I71a-172a / Geometrical
Demonstration, 430b-434b passim, esp 430b,
431b-432a; 442a<443b
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK in, CH ix,
SECT 15-16 288d-289c; CH xi, SECT 15-17
303b-304a; BK iv, CH in, SECT 20, 319b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
131 508d-S09a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 179d-182b; 211c-218d csp
215d-216d / Practical Reason, 293c-294b
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 2 9b-
lOa
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 690b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b
6. The character of definitions in diverse dis-
ciplines
6a. The formulation of definitions in physics,
mathematics, and metaphysics
7 PLATO: Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 4 [i4i*26-b24]
194c-195a; BK vn, CH 3 [153*6-11] 208a-b /
Physics, BK i, CH 9 [i92*25~b2] 268c-d; BK
n, CH 2 270a-271a; BK in, CH 1-2 278a-279c;
CH 6 [2o6b 33-207*14] 285b-c; BK iv, CH 1-5
287a-292c; CH n 298c-300a / Meteorology,
BK iv, CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK iv,
CH 4 525a-528b, BK v, CH I-BK vi, CH i
533a-548c; BK ix, CH 6 [i048a25~b9] 573c-
574a; BK xi, en 5 590a-d; CH 7 592b-593a;
BK xm, CH 2 [io77bi]-cH 3 [1078*32] 608d-
609d / Soul, BK i, CH I-BK ii, CH 3 631a-645b
esp BK i, CH i 631a-632d
0 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4
165d-l68c / Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [i 098*20^8]
343c-344a
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK i, DEFINITIONS la-2a
csp 1-2,4,10 la, 15 Ib, 23 2a; BK n, DEFINI-
TIONS 30a; BK in, DEFINITIONS 41a-b esp
2-3 41a; BK iv, DEFINITIONS 67a-b; BK v,
DEFINITIONS 81a-82a csp 3-7 81a-b; BK vi,
DEFINITIONS 99a; BK vn, DEFINITIONS 127a-
128a esp 1-2 127a, 11-12,20 127b; BK x, DEF-
INITIONS 1 191a-b esp 1,3 191a; DEFINITIONS n
229a; DEFINITIONS in 264b; BK xi, DEFINI-
TIONS 301a-302b esp 14 301b, 18,21 302a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK r, DEF-
INITIONS 404a / Conoids and Spheroids, 452a-
454a passim; DEFINITIONS 455a-b / Spirals,
DEFINITIONS 490a / Equilibrium of Planes, BK
n, 51 la / Sand-Reckoner, 524a-b / Quadrature
of the Parabola, DEF 534b-535a
11 APOLLONIUS: Conies, BK i, FIRST DEFINI-
TIONS 604a-b esp i 604a; SECOND DEFINITIONS
626a
11 NICOMACHUS* Arithmetic, BK i, 814b-c
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK v, 986b*1004a passim
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH i, 281 a- b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii Q i,
A 7, REP I 7a-C, Q 2, A 2, REP 2 lld-12c,* Q 3,
A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 10, A i 40d-41d; Q 29,
A i 162a-163b; o 75, A 4, ANS 381b-382a; o
85, A i, REP 2 451c-453c; A 8, REP 2 460b-
461b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; PART iv,
269b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
142d-143a; THIRD DAY, 197b-c; 200a-203d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23c-24a; xin, 26b-c /
Objections and Replies, 128c-129a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-
372d; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2 387b-388b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, i 171a-172a/ Vacuum, 372b-
373b; 376b-377a / Geometrical Demonstra-
tion, 430b-434b passim, esp 430b-431b
34 NEWTON- Principles, DEFINITIONS 5a-13a / Op-
tics, BK i, 379a-380b
35 HUME : Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV 48-
49 470d-471d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15c-16c; 17d-19a; 68a-
69c; 215d-217a; 245c-248d
6b. The use of definition in speculative philos-
ophy and empirical science
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 544c-549d / Statesman,
595b-c / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 13-14
131b-134a / Soul, BK i 631a-641d esp CH i
631a-632d; BK 11, CH 1-3 642a-645b
9 ARISTOTLE. Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 1-4
161a-168c passim / Politics, BK iv, CH 4
[1290^5-40] 489d-490a
28 GILBERT* Loadstone, BK n, 43c-44d
28 GALILEO* Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-203d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 63 113d-
114a; BK n, APH 10-20 140c-153a; APH 48
179d-188b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23c-24a; xin, 26b-c
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PART 11, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 372b-373b, 376b-377a
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS 5a-13a/ Op-
tics, BK i, 379a-380b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
- xxin, SECT 3-10 204c-206d; SFCT 14-18 208b-
209a; SECT 37 213d-214b; BK in, CH ix, SECT
15-17 288d-290a; CH xi, SECT 10 302b; SECT
19-25 304b-306c
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT 11, DIV
17, 457b,d [fn i]; SECT vn, DIV 48-49 470d-
471d; SECT vin, DIV 74 484a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, I5c-16c; 215d-216d;
243c-244c / Practical Reason, 293c-294b / In-
tro. Metaphysic of Morals, 388a-c /Judgement,
603b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-120b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART I, lOa-
b; 21a-22c;
6c
CHAPTER 15: DEFINITION
301
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 184a-187b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 361a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 2
9b-10a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE u, 690b;
694bd
53 JAMES : Psychology, 3b-4a, 869a-871a csp 870a-
871a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 400d-401a / Instincts,
412a-413b
6c. The role of definitions in practical or moral
philosophy and the social sciences
7 PLATO- Phacdrus, 120a-c / Seventh Letter,
809c-810b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH I-BK n, CH 6
339a-352d passim; BK x, CH 1-8 426a-434a /
Politics, BK i, CH 1-2 445a-446d; BK in, CH
1-6 471b,d-476c; CH 9 [1280*25-1281*2] 477d-
478c
12 AVRELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 21-24
524b-528c esp CH 21 524b-525a, CH 24 528b-c
20 AQUINAS • Swnma Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49
la-6a; Q 55, A 4 28c-29d; Q 71, A 6 llOb-
lllb; Q 90 205a-208b; PART n-ii, Q 4, A i
402a-403d
23 HOBBBS: Leviathan, PART i, 57d-58a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH xi,
SECT 17 303d-304a; BK iv, CH HI, SECT 20,
319b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VH, DIV
48-49 470d-471d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 271a-
c, 280d-281a / Practical Reason, 297a-314d;
330d-331a / Intro. Metaphy sic of Morals, 386b-
d; 390b,d-391a / Science of Right, 398c-399c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-120b; NUMBER
39 125a-128b passim, esp 125b*c; NUMBER 42,
137a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 2 9b-
lOa / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158a-162a
50 MARX: Capital, 6c-lld passim; 178d-179c
passim; 265a-266a; 267c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 365a-b;
EPILOGUE n, 683d-684a, 690b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 887a-888a
CROSS-REFERENCES
For The linguistic aspects of definition and the general theory of the meaning of words, see
LANGUAGE la; SIGN AND SYMBOL 43.
The logical aspects of definition, see IDEA 43.
Other discussions of the object of definition and the problem of essences or universal, see
BEING 8c; NATURE 4a; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 2a-2c.
The notions of genus and differentia, species and property, see BEING 8d; IDEA 4^3);
NATURE ia(i); RELATION 53(4); UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 5b.
Other considerations of indefinable terms, see INFINITY 2c; PRINCIPLE 23(3); and for the
mdefinability of individuals, see UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 4e.
The use of definitions as principles in reasoning or proof, and for the problem of demonstrat-
ing definitions, see PRINCIPLE 23(2); REASONING 5^2).
The discussion of matters related to the truth or falsity of definitions, see IDEA 6f; TRUTH
3bd).
The role of definitions in dialectic and science, and in the various sciences, see DIALECTIC
23(2), 2b(i); MATHEMATICS 33; MATTER 4b; METAPHYSICS 2b; PHILOSOPHY
PHYSICS 23; SCIENCE 43.
302
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Boo{s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals, These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented m this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AQUINAS. On Being and Essence, CH 2-3
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART i, CH 2
SPINOZA. Correspondence, ix
LOCKE. Conduct of the Understanding
KANT. Introduction to Logic, vm
HEGEL. Science of Logic, VOL i, BK n, SECT i, CH i
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK i, CH 7-8; BK 4,
CH 7-8
II.
QUINTILIAN. Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Ora-
tory), BK vn, CH 3
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK
ii
JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho-
misticus, Ars Logica, PART n, QQ 6-12
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART i,
CH 12-14; PART IV, CH 4-5
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK in, CH 3
T. REID. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of
Man, i
J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
Mind, CH 8
W. HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic,
VOL n (24)
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL i, BK vm
SlGWART. LoglC, PART I, CH I , SECT 44 1 PART III, CH I ,
SECT 74
JEVONS. The Principles of Science, CH 30
- . Studies in Deductive Logic, CH 1-2, 7
VENN, Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
CH 11-13
POINCARE". Science and Method, BK n, CH 2
WHITEHEAD and RUSSELL. Principia Mathematica,
INTRO, CH I, CSp pp 11-19; PART I, SECT A, CSp
B. RUSSELL. Principles of Mathematics, PART i
- . Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, CH
13, 16-17
WHITEHEAD, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
Natural Knowledge, CH 8-13
- . The Concept of Nature, CH 4
W. E. JOHNSON. Logic, PART i, CH 7-8
OGDEN and RICHARDS. The Meaning of Meaning
DUBISLAV. Die Definition
MARITAIN. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 3
CARNAP. The Logical Syntax of Language, PART i,
SECT 8 ; PART II, SECT 22 1 PART III, SECT 2p
DEWEY. Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 13-14,
16-18, 20.
DEWEY and BENTLEY. Knowing and the Known,
CH 7
Chapter 16: DEMOCRACY
INTRODUCTION
OF all the traditional names for forms of
government, "democracy" has the liveli-
est currency today. Yet like all the others, it
has a long history in the literature of political
thought and a career of shifting meanings. How
radically the various conceptions of democracy
differ may be judged from the fact that, in one
of its meanings, democracy flourished in the
Greek city-states as early as the fifth century
B.C.; while in another, democracy only began
to exist in recent times or perhaps does not yet
exist anywhere in the world.
In our minds democracy is inseparably con-
nected with constitutional government. We
tend to think of despotism or dictatorship as its
only opposites or enemies. That is how the ma-
jor political issue of our day is understood. But
as recently as the i8th century, some of the
American constitutionalists prefer a republican
form of government to democracy ; and at other
times, both ancient and modern, oligarchy or
aristocracy, rather than monarchy or despotism,
is the major alternative. "Democracy" has even
stood for the lawless rule of the mob— either it-
self a kind of tyranny or the immediate pre-
cursor of tyranny,
Throughout all these shifts in meaning and
value, the word "democracy" preserves certain
constant political connotations. Democracy ex-
ists, according to Montesquieu, "when the body
of the people is possessed of the supreme power."
As the root meaning of the word indicates, de-
mocracy is the "rule of the people." While there
may be, and in fact often has been, a difference of
opinion with respect to the meaning of "the
people," this notion has been traditionally asso-
ciated with the doctrine of popular sovereignty,
which makes the political community as such
the origin and basis of political authority. In the
development of the democratic tradition, par-
ticularly in modern tijnes, this has been accom-
panied by the elaboration of safeguards for the
rights of man to assure that government actu-
ally functions for the people, and not merely for
one group of them.
Although they are essential parts of democ-
racy, neither popular sovereignty nor the safe-
guarding of natural rights provides the specific
characteristic of democracy, since both are com-
patible with any other just form of government.
The specifically democratic element is apparent
from the fact that throughout the many shifts
of meaning which democracy has undergone,
the common thread is the notion of political
power in the hands of the many rather than the
few or the one. Thus at the very beginning of
democratic government,.we find Pericles calling
Athens a democracy because "its administration
favours the many instead of the few." Close to
our own day, Mill likewise holds that democ-
racy is "the government of the whole people by
the whole people" in which "the majority . . .
will outvote and prevail."
According as the many exercise legal power
as citizens or merely acfual power as a mob, de-
mocracy is aligned with or against constitution-
al government. The quantitative meaning of
"many" can vary from more than the few to all
or something approximating all, and with this
variance the same constitution may be at one
time regarded as oligarchical or aristocratic, and
at another as democratic. The way in which the
many who are citizens exercise their power —
either directly or through representatives—oc-
casions the i8th century distinction between a
democracy and a republic, though this verbal
ambiguity can be easily avoided by using the
phrases "direct democracy" and "representa-
tive democracy," as was sometimes done by the
writers of The Federalist and their American
contemporaries.
These last two points— the extension of the
303
304
THE GREAT IDEAS
franchise and a system of representation— mark
the chief differences between ancient and con-
temporary institutions of democracy. Today
constitutional democracy tends to be represent-
ative, and the grant of citizenship under a dem-
ocratic constitution tends toward universal suf-
frage. That is why we no longer contrast democ-
racy and republic. That is why even the most
democratic Greek constitutions may seem un-
democratic—oligarchical or aristocratic— to us.
To the extent that democracy, ancient or
modern, is conceived as a lawful form of govern-
ment, it has elements in common with other
forms of lawful government which, for one rea-
son or another, may not be democratic. The sig-
nificance of these common elements— the prin-
ciple of constitutionality and the status of citi-
zenship—will be assumed here. They are dis-
cussed in the chapters on CONSTITUTION and
CITIZEN. The general theory of the forms of
government is treated in the chapter on GOV-
ERNMENT, and the two forms most closely re-
lated to democracy, in the chapters on ARISTOC-
RACY and OLIGARCHY.
THE EVALUATIONS of democracy are even more
various than its meanings. It has been denounced
as an extreme perversion of government. It has
been grouped with other good, or other bad,
forms of government, and accorded the faint
praise of being called either the most tolerable
of bad governments or the least efficient among
acceptable forms. It has been held up as the po-
litical ideal, the only perfectly just state— that
paragon of justice which has always been,
whether recognized or not, the goal of political
progress.
Sometimes the same writer will express di-
vergent views. Plato, for example, in the States-
man, claims that democracy has "a twofold
meaning'* according as it involves "ruling with
law or without law." Finding it "in every re-
spect weak and unable to do either any great
good or any great evil/1 he concludes that it is
"the worst of all lawful governments, and the
best of all lawless ones." The rule of the many is
least efficient for either good or evil. But in the
Republic, he places democracy at only one re-
move from tyranny. On the ground that "the
excessive increase of anything often causes a re-
action in the opposite direction," tyranny is
said to "arise naturally out of democracy, and
the most aggravated form of tyranny and slav-
ery out of the most extreme form of liberty."
Similarly, Aristotle, in the Politics, calls de-
mocracy "the most tolerable" of the three per-
verted forms of government, in contrast to oli-
garchy, which he thinks is only "a little better"
than tyranny, "the worst of governments." Yet
he also notes that, among existing governments,
"there are generally thought to be two princi-
pal forms—democracy and oligarchy, . . . and
the rest are only variations of these." His own
treatment conforms with this observation. He
devotes the central portion of his Politics to the
analysis of oligarchy and democracy. In his view
they are equal and opposite in their injustice,
and to him both seem capable of degenerating
into despotism and tyranny.
Among the political philosophers of modern
times a certain uniformity of treatment seems
to prevail in the context of otherwise divergent
theories. Writers like Hobbes, Locke, and
Rousseau, or Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and
Kant differ in many and profound respects. But
they classify the forms of government in much
the same fashion. As Hobbes expresses it, "when
the representative is one man, then is the com-
monwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all
that will come together, then it is a democracy,
or popular commonwealth; when an assembly
of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy."
Though Hobbes favors monarchy and Montes-
quieu either aristocracy or democracy, these
writers do not make the choice among the three
traditional forms a significant expression of
their own political theories. For them the more
important choice is presented by other alterna-
tives: for Hobbes between absolute and limited
government; for Montesquieu and Locke, be-
tween government by law and despotism; for
Rousseau and Kant, between a republic and a
monarchy.
The authors of The Federalist definitely
show their preference for "popular govern-
ment" as opposed to monarchy, aristocracy, or
oligarchy. They usually refer to it as a "repub-
lic," by which they mean "a government which
derives all its powers directly or indirectly from
the great body of the people, and is administered
by persons holding their offices during pleasure,
for a limited period, or during good behavior."
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY
305
Alexander Hamilton and others involved in the
American constitutional debates, as for example
James Wilson, occasionally call this system a
"representative democracy," but in The Federal-
ist a republic is sharply differentiated from a
democracy. The "great points of difference,"
however, turn out to be only "the delegation
of the government (in a republic) to a small
number of citizens elected by the rest," and the
"greater number of citizens, and greater sphere
of country" to which a republic may extend.
The difference, as already noted, is best ex-
pressed in the words "representative" and "di-
rect" democracy.
In Mill's Representative Government we find
democracy identified with the ideal state. "The
ideally best form of government," he writes, "is
that in which the sovereignty, or supreme con-
trolling power in the last resort, is vested in the
entire aggregate of the community, every citi-
zen not only having a voice in the exercise of
that ultimate sovereignty, but being, at least oc-
casionally, called on to take an actual part in the
government, by the personal discharge of some
public function, local or general." Though Mill
recognizes the infirmities of democracy and
though he readily concedes that it may not be
the best government for all peoples under all
circumstances, his argument for its superiority
to all other forms of government remains sub-
stantially unqualified.
IN MILL'S CONSTRUCTION of the democratic ideal
as providing liberty and equality for all, the es-
sential distinction from previous conceptions lies
in the meaning of the word all. The republicans
of the 1 8th century, in their doctrines of popu-
lar sovereignty and natural rights, understood
citizenship m terms of equality of status and
conceived liberty in terms of a man's having a
voice in his own government. The ancients, see-
ing that men could be free and equal members
of a political community only when they lived
as citizens under the rule of law, recognized that
the democratic constitution alone bestowed
such equality upon all men not born slaves.
But generally neither the ancients nor the i8th
century republicans understood liberty and
equality for all men to require the abolition of
slavery, the emancipation of women from polit-
ical subjection, or the eradication of .all con-
stitutional discriminations based on wealth, race,
or previous condition of servitude.
With Mill, all means every human person
without regard to the accidents of birth or for-
tune. "There ought to be no pariahs in a full-
grown and civilized nation," he writes, "no per-
sons disqualified, except through their own de-
fault." Under the latter condition, he would
withhold the franchise from infants, idiots, or
criminals (including the criminally indigent),
but with these exceptions he would make suf-
frage universal. He sums up his argument by
claiming that "it is a personal injustice to with-
hold from any one, unless for the prevention of
greater evils, the ordinary privilege of having
his voice reckoned in the disposal of affairs in
which he has the same interest as other people/*
and whoever "has no vote, and no prospect of
obtaining it, will either be a permanent malcon-
tent, or will feel as one whom the general affairs
of society do not concern." But it should be
added that for Mill the franchise is not merely a
privilege or even a right; "it is," he says,
"strictly a matter of duty." How the voter uses
the ballot "has no more to do with his personal
wishes than the verdict of a juryman. ... He is
bound to give it according to his best and most
conscientious opinion of the public good. Who-
ever has any other idea of it is unfit to have the
suffrage."
The notion of universal suffrage raises at once
the question of the economic conditions pre-
requisite to the perfection of political democra-
cy. Can men exercise the political freedom of
citizenship without freedom from economic de-
pendence on the will of other men? It was com-
monly thought by i8th century republicans
that they could not. "A power over a man's sub-
sistence," Hamilton declares, "amounts to a
power over his will." On that basis it was urged
by many during the Philadelphia convention
that a property qualification was necessary for
suffrage.
Kant also argues that suffrage "presupposes
the independence or self-sufficiency of the in*
dividual citizen." Because apprentices, servants,
minors, women, and the like do not maintain
themselves, each "according to his own industry,
but as it is arranged by others," he claims that
they are "mere subsidiaries of the Common-
wealth and not active independent members of
306
THE GREAT IDEAS
it," being "of necessity commanded and pro-
tected by others." For this reason, he concludes,
they are "passive," not "active," citizens and
can be rightfully deprived of the franchise.
For political democracy to be realized in prac-
tice, more may be required than the abolition
of poll taxes and other discriminations based on
wealth. In the opinion of Karl Marx, the "bat-
tle for democracy" will not be won, nor even
the "first step" taken towards it, until "the
working class raises the proletariat to the posi-
tion of ruling class." Quite apart from the mer-
its of the revolutionary political philosophy
which Marx erects, his views, and those of other
social reformers of the i9th century, have made
it a central issue that democracy be conceived in
social and economic terms as well as political.
Otherwise, they insist, what is called "democ-
racy" will permit, and may even try to con-
done, social inequalities and economic injustices
which vitiate political liberty.
THERE is ONE other condition of equality which
the status of citizenship demands. This is equal-
ity of educational opportunity. According to
Mill, it is "almost a self-evident axiom that the
State should require and compel the education,
up to a certain standard, of every human being
who is born its citizen." All men may not be
endowed with the same native abilities or tal-
ents, but all born with enough intelligence to
become citizens deserve the sort of education
which fits them for the life of political freedom.
Quantitatively, this means a system of educa-
tion as universal as the franchise; and as much
for every individual as he can take, both in
youth and adult life. Qualitatively, this means
liberal education rather than vocational train-
ing, though in contemporary controversy this
point is still disputed.
The way in which it recognizes and discharges
its educational responsibility tests the sincerity
of modern democracy. No other form of govern-
ment has a comparable burden, for no other
calls all men to citizenship. In such a govern-
ment, Montesquieu declares, "the whole power
of education is required." Whereas despotism
may be preserved by fear and a monarchy by a
system of honor, a democracy depends on civic
virtue. For where "government is intrusted to
private citizens," it requires "love of the laws
and of the country," and this, according to
Montesquieu, is generally "conducive to purity
of morals."
Universal schooling by itself is not sufficient
for this purpose. Democracy also needs what
Mill calls the "school of public spirit." It is only
by participating in the functions of govern-
ment that men can become competent as citi-
zens. By engaging in civic activities, a man "is
made to feel himself one of the public, and
whatever is for their benefit to be for his bene-
fit." The "moral part of the instruction afforded
by the participation of the private citizen, if
even rarely, in public functions," results, ac-
cording to Mill, in a man's being able "to
weigh interests not his own; to be guided, in
case of conflicting claims, by another rule than
his private partialities; to apply, at every turn,
principles and maxims which have for their
reason of existence the common good." If
national affairs cannot afford an opportunity
for every citizen to take an active part in govern-
ment, then that must be achieved through local
government, and it is for this reason that Mill
advocates the revitalization of the latter.
THERE ARE OTHER problems peculiar to modern
democracy. Because of the size of the territory
and population of the national state, democratic
government has necessarily become representa-
tive. Representation, according to The Federal-
ist, becomes almost indispensable when the
people is too large and too dispersed for assem-
bly or for continuous, as well as direct, partici-
pation in national affairs. The pure democracy
which the Federalists attribute to the Greek
city-states may still be appropriate for local
government of the town-meeting variety, but
for the operations of federal or national govern-
ment, the Federalists think the republican in-
stitutions of Rome a better model to follow.
The Federalists have another reason for es-
pousing representative government. The "mor-
tal disease" of popular government, in their
view, is the "violence of faction" which decides
measures "not according to the rules of justice
and the rights of the minor party, but by the
superior force of an interested and overbearing
majority." Believing the spirit of faction to be
rooted in the nature of man in society, the
American statesmen seek to cure its evil not by
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY
307
"removing its causes," but by "controlling its
effects." The principle of representation, Madi-
son claims, ' 'promises the cure."
Representation, by delegating government
to a small number of citizens elected by the
rest, is said "to refine and enlarge the public
views by passing them through the medium of
a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may
best discern the true interest of their country."
From this it appears that representation pro-
vides a way of combining popular government
with the aristocratic principle of government
by the best men.
The assumption that representation would
normally secure the advantages of aristocratic
government is not unmixed with oligarchical
prejudices. If, as the Federalists frankly sup-
pose, the best men are also likely to be men of
breeding and property, representative govern-
ment would safeguard the interests of the gen-
try, as well as the safety of the republic, against
the demos — in Hamilton's words, "that great
beast." Their concern with the evil of factions
seems to be colored by the fear of the dominant*
faction in any democracy— the always more
numerous poor.
THE LEAVENING OF popular government by
representative institutions in the formation of
modern democracies raises the whole problem of
the nature and function of representatives. To
what extent does representation merely pro-
vide an instrument which the people employs to
express its will m the process of self-govern-
ment? To what extent is it a device whereby
the great mass of the people select their betters
to decide for them what is beyond their com-
petence to decide for themselves?
According to the way these questions are
answered, the conception of the representative's
function — especially in legislative matters — will
vary from that of serving as the mere messenger
of his constituents to that of acting indepen-
dently, exercising his own judgment, and rep-
resenting his constituents not in the sense of do-
ing their bidding, but only in the sense that he
has been chosen by them to decide what is to
be done for the common good.
At one extreme, the representative seems to
be reduced to the ignominious role of a mouth-
piece, a convenience required by the exigencies
of time and space. Far from being a leader, or
one of the best men, he need not even be a
better man than his constituents. At the other
extreme, it is not clear why the completely in-
dependent representative need even be popu-
larly elected. In Edmund Burke's theory of
virtual representation, occasioned by his argu-
ment against the extension of the franchise, even
those who do not vote are adequately repre-
sented by men who have the welfare of the
state at heart. They, no less than voting constit-
uents, can expect the representative to consider
what is for their interest, and to oppose their
wishes if he thinks their local or special interest
is inimical to the general welfare.
Between these two extremes, Mill tries to
find a middle course, in order to achieve the
"two great requisites of government: responsi-
bility to those for whose benefit political power
ought to be, and always professes to be, em-
ployed ; and jointly therewith to obtain, in the
greatest measure possible, for the function of
government the benefits of superior intellect,
trained by long meditation and practical disci-
pline to that special task." Accordingly, Mill
would preserve some measure of independent
judgment for the representative and make him
both responsive and responsible to his constit-
uents, yet without directing or restraining him
by the checks of initiative, referendum, and
recall.
Mill's discussion of representation leaves few
crucial questions unasked, though it may not
provide clearly satisfactory answers to all of
them. It goes beyond the nature and function
of the representative to the problem of securing
representation for minorities by the now famil-
iar method of proportional voting. It is con-
cerned with the details of electoral procedure —
the nomination of candidates, public and secret
balloting, plural voting— as well as the more
general question of the differences among the
executive, judicial, and legislative departments
of government with respect to representation,
especially the difference of representatives in
the upper and lower houses of a bicameral
legislature. Like the writers of The Federalist,
Mill seeks a leaven for the democratic mass in
the leadership of men of talent or training. He
would qualify the common sense of the many
by the expertness or wisdom of the few.
308
THE GREAT IDEAS
THE ANCIENT ISSUE between the democratic
and the oligarchical constitution turns primari-
ly on a question of justice, not on the relative
competence of the many and the few to rule.
Either form of government may take on a
more or less aristocratic cast according as men
of eminent virtue or ability assume public
office, but in neither case does the constitution
itself guarantee their choice, except possibly on
the oligarchical assumption that the possession of
wealth signifies superior intelligence and virtue.
The justice peculiar to the democratic con-
stitution, Aristotle thinks, "arises out of the
notion that those who are equal in any respect
arc equal in all respects; because men are equally
free, they claim to be absolutely equal." It does
not seem to him inconsistent with democratic
justice that slaves, women, and resident aliens
should be excluded from citizenship and public
office.
In the extreme form of Greek democracy, the
qualifications for public office are no different
from the qualifications for citizenship. Since
they are equally eligible for almost every gov-
ernmental post, the citizens can be chosen by
lot rather than elected by vote. Rousseau agrees
with Montesquieu's opinion of the Greek prac-
tice, that "election by lot is democratic in na-
ture." He thinks it "would have few disad-
vantages in a real democracy, but," he adds,
"I have already said that a real democracy is
only an ideal."
The justice peculiar to the oligarchical con-
stitution is, according to Aristotle, "based on
the notion that those who arc unequal in one
respect are in all respects unequal; being un-
equal, that is, in property, they suppose them-
selves to be unequal absolutely." The oligarchi-
cal constitution consequently does not grant
citizenship or open public office to all the fret-
born, but in varying degrees sets a substantial
property qualification for both.
Though he admits that the opposite claims
of the oligarch and the democrat "have a kind
of justice," Aristotle also points out the in-
justice of each. The democratic constitution,
he thinks, docs injustice to the rich by treating
them as equal with the poor simply because
both are freeborn, while the oligarchical con-
stitution does injustice to the poor by foiling
to treat all free men, regardless of wealth* as
equals. "Tried by an absolute standard," Aris-
totle goes on to say, "they are faulty, and,
therefore, both parties, whenever their share
in the government does not accord with their
preconceived ideas, stir up a revolution."
Plato, Thucydides, and Plutarch, as well as
Aristotle, observe that this unstable situation
permits demagogue or dynast to encourage
lawless rule by the mob or by a coterie of the
rich. Either paves the way to tyranny.
To stabilize the state and to remove injus-
tice, Aristotle proposes a mixed constitution
which, by a number of different methods, "at-
tempts to unite the freedom of the poor and
the wealth of the rich." In this way he hopes to
satisfy the two requirements of good govern-
ment. "One is the actual obedience of citizens
to the laws, the other is the goodness of the
laws which they obey." By participating in the
making of laws, all free men, the poor included,
would be more inclined to obey them. But
since the rich are also given a special function,
there is, according to Aristotle, the possibility
of also getting good laws passed, since "birth
and education are commonly the accompani-
ments of wealth."
To Aristotle the mixed constitution is per-
fectly just, and with an aristocratic aspect added
to the blend, it approaches the ideal polity.
Relative to certain circumstances it has "a
greater right than any other form of govern-
ment, except the true and ideal, to the name of
the government of the best."
Yet the true and the ideal, or what he some-
times calls the "divine form of government,"
seems to be monarchy for Aristotle, or rule by
the one superior man; and in his own sketch of
the best constitution at the end of the Politics—
the best practicable, if not the ideal— Aristotle
clearly opposes admitting all the laboring classes
to citizenship.
As INDICATED IN the chapter on CONSTITU-
TION, Aristotle's mixed constitution should be
distinguished from the mediaeval mixed re-
gime, which was a combination of constitu-
tional with non-constitutional or absolute gov-
ernment, rather than a mixture of different con-
stitutional principles. The mixed regime— or
"royal and political government"— seems to
have come into being not as an attempt to
CHAPTER 16s DEMOCRACY
309
reconcile conflicting principles of justice, but
as the inevitable product of a decaying feudal-
ism and a rising nationalism. Yet Aquinas
claims that a mixed regime was established by
divine law for the people of Israel; for it was
"partly kingdom, since there is one at the head
of all; partly aristocracy, in so far as a number
of persons arc set in authority; partly democra-
cy, i.e., government by the people, in so far as
the rulers can be chosen from the people, and
the people have the right to choose their rul-
ers." In such a system, the monarchical princi-
ple is blended with aristocratic and democratic
elements to whatever extent the nobles and the
commons play a part in the government. But
neither group functions politically as citizens
do under purely constitutional government.
The question of constitutional justice can,
however, be carried over from ancient to
modern tunes. Modern democracy answers it
differently, granting equality to all men on the
basis of their being born human. It recognizes
in wealth or breeding no basis for special politi-
cal preferment or privilege. By these standards,
the mixed constitution and even the most ex-
treme form of Greek democracy must be re-
garded as oligarchical in character by a writer
like Mill.
Yet Mill, no less than Aristotle, would agree
with Montesquieu's theory that the Tightness
of any form of government must be considered
with reference to the "humor and disposition of
the people in whose favor it is established." The
constitution and laws, Montesquieu writes,
"should be adapted in such a manner to the
people for whom they are framed that it would
be a great chance if those of one nation suit
another."
Mill makes the same point somewhat differ-
ently when he says, "the ideally best form of
government . . , does not mean one which is
practicable or eligible in all states of civiliza-
tion." But although he is willing to consider
the forms of government in relation to the his-
toric conditions of a people, not simply by ab-
solute standards, Mill differs sharply from
Montesquieu and Aristotle in one very impor-
tant respect. For him, as we have seen, repre-
sentative democracy founded on universal suf-
frage is, absolutely speaking, the only truly
just government— the only one perfectly suited
to the nature of man. Peoples whose accidental
circumstances temporarily justify less just or
even unjust forms of government, such as oli-
garchy or despotism, must not be forever con-
demned to subjection or disfranchiscment, but
should rather be raised by education, experi-
ence, and economic reforms to a condition in
which the ideal polity becomes appropriate for
them.
THE BASIC PROBLEMS of democratic govern-
ment—seen from the point of view of those who
either attack or defend it— remain constant
despite the altered conception of democracy in
various epochs.
At all times, there is the question of leader-
ship and the need for obtaining the political
services of the best men without infringing on
the political prerogatives of all men. The differ-
ence between the many and the few, between
the equality of men as free or human and their
individual inequality in virtue or talent, must
always be given political recognition, if not by
superiority in status, then by allocation of the
technically difficult problems of statecraft to
the expert or specially competent, with only
certain broad general policies left to the deter-
mination of a majority vote. Jefferson and Mill
alike hope that popular government may abol-
ish privileged classes without losing the bene-
fits of leadership by peculiarly gifted individ-
uals. The realization of that hope, Jefferson
writes Adams, depends on leaving "to the citi-
zens the free election and separation of the
anstoi from the pseudo-aristoi, of the wheat
from the chaff."
At all times there is the danger of tyranny
by the majority and, under the threat of rev-
olution, the rise of a demagogue who uses mob
rule to establish a dictatorship. Hobbes phrases
this peculiar susceptibility of democracy to the
mischief of demagogues by saying of popular
assemblies that they "are as subject to evil
counsel, and to be seduced by orators, as a
monarch by flatterers," with the result that
democracy tends to degenerate into govern-
ment by the most powerful orator,
The democratic state has seldom been tempt-
ed to undertake the burdens of empire without
suffering from a discordance between its domes-
tic and its foreign policy. Again and again,
310
THE GREAT IDEAS
Thucydides describes the effort* of the Atheni-
ans to reconcile their imperialism abroad with
democracy at home.
In his oration at the end of the first year of
the Peloponnesian war, Pericles praises the
democracy of Athens and at the same time cele-
brates the might of her empire. "It is only the
Athenians," he says, "who, fearless of conse-
quences, confer their benefits not from calcu-
lations of expediency, but in the confidence of
liberality." But four years later, after the re-
volt of Mitylene, Cleon speaks in a different
vein. Thucydides describes him as being "at
that time by far the most powerful with the
commons." He tells his fellow citizens of demo-
cratic Athens that he has "often before now
been convinced that a democracy is incapable
of empire," but "never more so than by your
present change of mind in the matter of Mity-
lene." He urges them to return to their earlier
decision to punish the Mitylenians, for, he says,
if they reverse that decision they will be "giv-
ing way to the three failings most fatal to empire
— pity, sentiment, and indulgence."
Diodotus, who in this debate recommends a
policy of leniency, does not do so in the "con-
fidence of liberality" which Pericles had said
was the attitude of a democratic state toward
its dependencies. "The question is not of jus-
tice," Diodotus declares, "but how to make
the Mitylenians useful to Athens. . . . We must
not," he continues, "sit as strict judges of the
offenders to our own prejudice, but rather see
how by moderate chastisements we may be en-
abled to benefit in the future by the revenue-
producing powers of our dependencies. ... It is
far more useful for the preservation of our
empire," he concludes, "voluntarily to put up
with injustice, than to put to death, however
justly, those whom it is our interest to keep
alive."
Twelve years later, Alcibiades, no democrat
himself, urges the Athenians to undertake the
Sicilian expedition by saying, "we cannot fix
the exact point at which our empire shall stop;
we have reached a position in which we must
not be content with retaining but must scheme
to extend it, for, if we cease to rule othervwe
arc in danger of being ruled ourselves." In the
diplomatic skirmishes which precede the in*
vasion of Sicily, Hermocrates of Syracuse tries
to unite the Sicilian cities so that they may es-
cape "disgraceful submission to an Athenian
master." The Athenian ambassador, Euphemus,
finds himself compelled to speak at first of "our
empire and of the good right we have to it";
but he soon finds himself frankly confessing
that "for tyrants and imperial cities nothing is
unreasonable if expedient."
The denouement of the Peloponnesian war,
and especially of the Syracusan expedition, is
the collapse of democracy, not through the loss
of empire but as a result of the moral sacrifices
involved in trying to maintain or increase it.
Tacitus, commenting on the decay of republi-
can institutions with the extension of Rome's
conquests, underlines the same theme. It is still
the same theme when the problems of British
imperialism appear in Mill's discussion of how a
democracy should govern its colonies or de-
pendencies.
The incompatibility of empire with democ-
racy is one side of the picture of the democratic
state in external affairs. The other side is the
tension between democratic institutions and
military power or policy— in the form of stand-
ing armies and warlike maneuvers. The in-
efficiency traditionally attributed to democ*
racy under peaceful conditions does not, from
all the evidences of history, seem to render de-
mocracy weak or pusillanimous in the face of
aggression.
The deeper peril for democracy seems to lie
in the effect of war upon its institutions and on
the morality of its people As Hamilton writes
in The Federalist: "The violent destruction of
life and property incident to war, the continual
effort and alarm attendant on a state of cori*
tinual danger, will compel nations the most atr
tached to liberty to resort for repose and se*
curity to institutions which have a tendency to
destroy their civil and political rights. To be
more safe, they at length become willing to
run the risk of being less free."
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY 311
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PACB
1. Conceptions of democracy: the comparison of democracy with other forms of govern-
ment 312
2. The derogation of democracy: the anarchic tendency of freedom and equality 313
2a. ^awless mob-rule: the tyranny of the majority
2& The incompetence of the people and the need for leadership: the superiority of
monarchy and aristocracy
3. The acceptance of democracy as one of several good forms of government 314
30. Comparison of democratic and oligarchic justice: the mixed constitution as a
compromise between the interests of the poor and rich
3^. Comparison of the political wisdom of the many and the few: the mixed regime
as including both
y. Comparison of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy with respect to efficiency 315
4. The praise of democracy: the ideal state
40. Liberty and equality for all under law
(1) Universal suffrage: the abolition of privileged classes
(2) The problem of economic j ustice : the choice between capitalism and socialism 3 1 6
4& The democratic realization of popular sovereignty: the safeguarding of natural
rights
4^. The infirmities of democracy in practice and the reforms or remedies for these
defects
4<f. The suitability of democratic constitutions to all men under all circumstances:
conditions favorable to democracy; progress toward democracy 317
5. Democracy and representative government
50. The distinction between direct democracy and representative, or republican,
government: the territorial limits of democracy
, 5& The theory of representation
(1) Majority rule and minority or proportional representation 318
(2) Ultimate limitations on the franchise
(3) Methods of election and voting
(4) The role of political parties: factions (
5^. The distribution of functions and powers: checks and balances in representative
democracy 319
6. The educational task of democracy: the training of all citizens
7. The growth and vicissitudes of democracy
70. Demagoguery and the danger of revolution " ; 320
7^. The dangers of imperialism: the treatment of dependencies
jc. The challenge of war and peace: the citizen army r, . >,o-;
312
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER. Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is m section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand sideof the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage. Foi c'xample,in 7 PLVTO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 ana ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS- One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; eg., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE RLFERFVCES* The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows, eg., OLD TESTA-
MEN i Nehemiah, 7 45— (D) II Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Conceptions of democracy: the comparison
of democracy with other forms of gov-
ernment
5 EURIPIDPS: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnestan War, BK n, 395d-
399a esp 396c d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 301c-d; BK vm, 408b-
413d / Statesman, 598b-604b esp 603d-604b /
Laws, BK in, 667c-676b esp 672d-676b; BK
iv, 679c-682c; BK vi, 699d-700c; BK vm,
733d-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH i 471b,d-472c;
CH 6 [i278b7-i4] 475d; CH 7-8 476c-477c,
BK iv, CH 2-6 488b-493a; CH 11-12 495b-497b;
CH 16 [1301*10-15] 502c; BK v, CH i 502a-
503b; BK vi, CH 1-6 520a-524c / Rhetoric, BK
i, CH 8 608a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c / Solon,
70d-71c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART 1-11, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-309d
23 HOBBBS: Leviathan, PART n, 104b-106d; 114b-
115a; 150c-151a; 154b-c; PART m, 228b; PART
iv, 273a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n 25d-28c; CH
iv, SECT 21 29d; CH VH, SECT 87-89 44a-d;
CH vm 46c-53c passim; CH x, SECT 132 55a-b;
CH xi 55b-58b passim; CH xm, SECT 149
59b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU* Spirit of Laws, BK ii-m 4a-
13d esp BK n, 4a-6b, BK in, 9b-10c; BK v,
18d-25a; 31b-33a,c; BK vi, 34d-35c; BK vn,
44d-45b; 47c-48a; BK vm, 51a-52c; BK ix,
59c;BKxi,68b,d-69c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a b / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 391a-393c; BK n, 395a-398b;
BK in, 410b-411c; 413c; 420a-424d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
436c-d; 445a-c; 450a-452a esp 450a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9, 47a-48d; NUMBER
10, 51c-53a; NUMBER 14, 60a-61b; NUMBER
39, 125b-126b; NUMBER 48, 157c; NUMBER 63,
193d 194a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268c / Representative
Government 327a-442d passim, esp 341d-350a,
355t>-356a, 366c-367a, 370a-3?2b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273
90c-92a; par 279, 93d-94c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 172d-175c; PART n, 271c-274a
esp 271d-272d, 273d-274a; 275b-276d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 84b-85a
50 MARX-£NGELS : Communist Manifesto, 428d-
429e
2 *<> 2*
2. The derogation of democracy: the anarchic
tendency of freedom and equality
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-425] 261d-262a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
533a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin, 408b-414b / Laws,
BK in, 674c-676b; BK iv, 681b-682c; BK
vm, 733d-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH 10 [1161*7-9]
413b / Politics, BK iv, CH 2 [i289*35-bn]
488b-c; CH 4 [1292*4-37] 491b-d; CH 6 [i292b
40-1293*9] 492c; BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36]
512c; CH ii [I3i3b33~i3i4ai] 516c; BK vi,
CH 4 [i3i9b2~32] 523a-b / Athenian Consti-
tution, CH 28 565c-566b
14 PLUTARCH: Dion, 800c
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART 11, 114b-115a;
150c-151a; PART iv, 273a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21
29d; CH vi, SECT 57, 37a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK HI, lOa;
BK vm, 51a-52c; BK xi, 68b,d-69c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 424b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51c-d
43 MILL- Liberty, 298b-299a / Representative
Government, 354b-355b; 387b-c; 403d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 125c-d; 127b-c; 211b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 301
lOOb-lOla; par 308 102c-103a / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 175b-c; PART iv, 366c-
367a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 431c
2a. Lawless mob-rule: the tyranny of the ma-
jority
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [409-427] 261d-262a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 108a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
525a-b; 533a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 411d-412d / States-
man, 598b-604b esp 603d-604b / Laws, BK
in, 675c-676b; BK iv, 681b-682c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 12 [1274*5-14]
470c-d; BK HI, CH 10 [1281*11-28] 478d-
479a; CH n [i28ib39-i282*4i] 479d-480b;
BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-37] 491b-d; CH 6 [i292b
40-1293*9] 492c; BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36]
512c; CH 10 [1312*40^8] 514d-515a; BK vi,
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY 313
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b-c; 94d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9, 47a-c; NUMBER 10,
50b-d; NUMBBH 22, 84c-d; NUMBER 51,
164a-165a; NUMBER 58, 181 b-c; NUMBER 63,
192c-193a
43 MILL: Liberty, 268d-271c; 298b-299a; 302b c
/ Representative Government, 366c-380b passim,
csp376b-c;406c-d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 260b; 422c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 303
101c-102a; ADDITIONS, 180 148b / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 172d-173a; PART HI,
300a-b; PART iv, 365a
14 PLUTARCH: Agis, 648b,d-649b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 114d-115a; PART
iv, 273b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc
vi-vin 61a-63b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [1-225]
351a-353d; ACT in, sc i [140-161] 370d-371a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 878 345a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK HI, lOa;
BK vi, 35c-36a; BK vm, 51a-52c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 419b
2b, The incompetence of the people and the
need for leadership: the superiority of
monarchy and aristocracy
5 EURIPIDES- Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
425a-d; BK v, 504c-505a; BK vi, 520b-c;
533a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 346c-347a; BK vi,
375d-376c, BK vm, 409a-d; 411d-414b /
Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 674d-
676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i27ob7~i7]
466d; BK HI, CH 10-13 478d-483a; CH 15
[1286*22 -b8] 484c-d / Athenian Constitution,
CH 28 565c-566b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 23 306a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d / Lycurgus-Numa,
62b-64a,c / Agis, 648b,d-649b / Dion, 792d-
802a,c esp 800c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 94b-c; PART n,
104d-106d; 129b-130a; 152b-c; PART iv,
273a-b
25 MONTMGNE: Essays, 147b-148a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc i~n
568b,d-572c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus, ACT i, sc i [1-225]
351a-353d; ACT n, sc i [1-106] 361a-362a;
ACT in, sc i [140-161] 370d-371a; ACT iv, sc
vi [74-156] 383a-384a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART 11, 44d-45a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 878 345a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 223
76c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4d-5a;
BK in, lOc-d; BK v, 25c-d; BK vm, 51a-52c;
BK xi, 71a-c; 72b; BK xix, 142c-143a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 401c-d;
BK in, 411a; 412a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 68b,d-69a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 55, 172d-173a; NUM-
BER 58, 181b-c; NUMBER 63, 192c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 298b-299a; 319d-323a,c pas-
sim / Representative Government, 353b-3S4b;
363b-366a; 375a-377a
314
THE GREAT IDEAS
3/o 33
(2. The derogation of democracy: the anarchic
tendency of freedom and equality. 2b. The
incompetence of the people and the need for
leadership: the superiority of monarchy and
aristocracy.)
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 86a-b; 172d-173a; 178a-c;
220a~d; 414c; 422c
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 281
95b-d; par 308 102c-103a; par 317-318 104d-
105b; ADDITIONS, 186 149b / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART 11, 272c-
273a; PART HI, 300a-301c
3. The acceptance of democracy as one of sev-
eral good forms of government
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
7 PLATO. Statesman, 600c-604b esp 603d-
604b
9 ARISTOTI E- Politics, BK in, CH i 471b,d-472c;
CH 6 [I278b6~i4] 475d; CH 7-8 476c-477c;
CH ii 479b-480c; BK iv, CH 11-12 495b-497b/
Rhetoric, BK i, en 8 608a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
23 Hos BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 154b-c; PART
HI, 228b; PART iv, 273a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b;
BK in, 9b-10c
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 359a-b / Social Con-
tract, BKin,410b-411c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-d
43 FEDERALIST : NUMBER io, 51c-53a; NUMBER
14, 60a-d; NUMBER 39, 125b-126b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
273 90c-92a / Philosophy of History, INIRO,
173a-175c; PART n, 271c-274a passim
3«. Comparison of democratic and oligarchic
justice: the mixed constitution as a com-
promise between the interests of the
poor and rich
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6THucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396b-c; BK vi, 520a-d; BK vin, 575d-576b;
590a-b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 681b~682c; BK vi,
699d-700b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 6 [i265b26-
I266*3<>] 461b-d; BK in, CH 8-13 477a-483a;
BK IV, CH 3 [l289b26]-CH 4 [l290b2l] 488d-
489d; CH 8-9 493c-494d; CH 11-12 495b-497b;
BK iv, CH I4-BK v, CH i 498b-503b; BK vi,
CH 2 [i3i8B4)-CH 3 [I3i8b5] 521b-522a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-3Sd / Solon, 70d-
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 156b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 5bc;
BK xi, 71d-72b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 412b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90d<91a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81d; 94c-95b;
96b-d; 403b*404d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 54, 171b-172b; NUM-
BER 57 176d-179b passim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 384a-387d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 275b-
276a
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto, 432b d
3&. Comparison of the political wisdom of the
many and the few: the mixed regime as
including both
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c; BK
v, 180c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
425a-d; BK vi, 520a-d
7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c esp 213a-215d / Re-
public, BK iv, 346c-347a; BK vi, 375d-376c;
377a 379c / Statesman, 598b-604b / Law*,
BK in, 674d-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 10-13 478d-
483a; CH 15 [i286a7-b8] 484b-d; CH 16 [i287b
8-36] 486a-c
14 PLUTARCH Lycurgus, 34d-35d / Agis, 648b,d-
649a/ Dion,8QOc
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS and
REPi-2307d-309d
23 HOBBFS Leviathan, PART n, 105d-106b,
129b-130a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 303c-304a
27 SHAKFSPFARE' Conolanus 351a-392a,c
31 DESCARTFS: Discourse, PART n, 44d-45a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 223
76c-d; SECT 240-242 81b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4d-5a;
BK xi, 71a-c; BK xix, 145c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369c-d / Social
Contract, BK in, 411d-412a; 413c; 414d-415b;
BK iv, 427a-428a passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, Wc-9Sb
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3, 33b; NUMBER io,
51d-52a; NUMBER 40, 130d-132a; NUMBER
49-50 159b-162c passim; NUMBER 55, 172d-
173a; NUMBER 57 176d-179b passim; NUM-
BER 58, 181b-c; NUMBER 63, 192c-193a; NUM-
BER 68, 205b-d; NUMBER 71, 214d-215a;
NUMBER 76, 227a
43 MILL: Liberty, 298b-299a; 319d-323a,c pas-
sim / Representative Government, 353b-354b;
356b-362c passim; 363b-3(56a; 374c-377a;
384a-387d; 401a-406a passim, esp 402b-c;
407d-409c; 410d-412a
44 BOSWELL -.Johnson, 86a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 281
95b-d; par 297 99b; par 301 lOOb-lOla; par
308 102c-103ft; par 317-318 104d-105b; AD-
DITIONS, 1 86 149b
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY
315
3f . Comparison of democracy, aristocracy, and
monarchy with respect to efficiency
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK m, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Statesman, 603d-604b / Laws, BK
iv, 679b-680c; BK vi, 699d-700c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 11-13 479b-
483a; CH 15-18 484b-487a,c; BK iv, CH n
495b-496d
15 TACITUS : Annals, BK i, 4d-5b
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART n, 104d-106d; 107d-
108a; 129b-130a
38 MONTESQUIEU" Spirit of Laws, BK in, lOc-d;
BK v, 25c-d; BK xi, 72b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 411d-412a
42 KANT. Science of Right, 450b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 118d-119b; NUM-
BER 70, 210c-211a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 344a-d;
363b-366a
4. The praise of democracy: the ideal state
5 EURIPIDES. Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK in, 107c-d; BK v,
175b; BK VH, 238b-c
6THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK n,
395d-399a esp 396c-397c; BK vi, 520a-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 408b-413d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 11-12 479b-
481b; BK iv, CH 11-12 49Sb-497b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 114b-115a;
150c-151a
35 LocKf Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 223
76c-d, SECT 240-242 81b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4c-5a;
BK in, 9b-10c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c passim /
Social Contract, BK in, 411a-c; BK iv, 427d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
450d 452a / Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10 49c-53a; NUMBER
14, 60c-d; NUMBER 39, 125b-126b; NUMBER
46, 150c; NUMBER 55, 174c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 341d-350a
esp 344d, 350a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 276a-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf^ 84b-85a
4a. Liberty and equality for all under law
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK in, 107c-108d; BK
vn, 232d-233d
6THUCYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d; BK vi, 520a-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 674c-676c; BK iv,
681b 682c; BK vi, 699d-700c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [i 134*24-^7]
382a-c / Politics, BK m, CH i 471b,d-472c;
CH 6 [i278b30-i279*22] 476a-c; CH 8-13
477a-483a passim; CH 16-17 485b-487a pas-
sim; BK iv, CH 4 [i29ib30-38] 491a-b; CH 14
[1298*4-34] 498b-d; BK v, CH i 502a-503b;
CH 8 [1308*10-25] 510a-b; CH 9 [1310*25-36]
512c; BK vi, CH 2 520d-521b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xin, 132a-c
23 MACHIAVELLI. Prince, CH v 8a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 94b-d; PART n,
113c-116b; 150c-151a; 156b-c; PART iv, 273a-c
35 LOCKE' Ctvil Government, CH iv, SECT 21
29d; CH vi, SECT 54-57 36c-37b; CH vn,
SECT 87-94 44a-46c; CH xi, SECT 136-139
56c-58a; SECT 142 58b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a-21a;
BK vi, 34d; BK vni, 51a-52c; BK xi, 68b,d-69c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-b / Social Con'
tract, BK n, 396d-398b; 405a-c; BK iv, 427d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14b
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 81d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
398c-399c; 400b,d-402a,c; 408c-409c; 436c-d;
438d-439a; 450d-452a esp 451b-c /Judgement,
586a-587a
43 DECLAR \TION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-28]
la-b passim
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36]
5b-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [519-521] 16aj AMEND-
MENTS, i-x 17a-18a; xin, SECT i-xiv, SECT 2
18c-19a;xvl9b;xixl9d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 26 92a-94d; NUMBER
37, 118d-119b; NUMBER 57, 177d-178a; NUM-
BER 84, 251b-254b
43 MILL: Liberty, 267a-274a / Representative
Government, 346a-c; 365b-366a; 370a-372b;
387b-d; 403d / Utilitartamsm, 460a-c; 467a-b;
474d-476a
44 BQSWEI.L- Johnson, 125c-d, 127b-c, 211b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 213b;
PART n, 271d-272d; 275b-276d; PART iv,
362d-363a
48 MKLVILLE: MobyDid^ 84b-85a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 429b-c
51 TOLSTOY • War and Peace, BK i, lOa-b
4a(l) Universal suffrage: the abolition of priv-
ileged classes
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
520b-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 406a-407a / Laws,
BK vi, 705b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 9-12 477c-481b
passim; BK iv, CH 6 492b-493a; BK vi, CH 4
[i3i9b2-32] 523a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-5c;
BKXI, 71d-72b
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK iv, 427d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14b
41 GIBBON '.Decline and Fall, 73b-c;81d-82b
42
316
THE GREAT IDEAS
4*(2) to *c
(4a. Liberty and equality far all under law.
4a(l) Universal suffrage: the abolition of
privileged classes.)
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: vi [87-93]
6b
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
9 [289-295) 14a; ARTICLE vi [597-599] 16d;
AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 1-3 18d-19a; XV
19b; xvn 19b-c; xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125c-126b; NUM-
BER 57, 177a-b; NUMBER 84, 252a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 344d-346c;
350a; 369b-370a; 380c-389b; 394a-396d;
403d
50 MARX-ENCELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-
d; 425b-c; 428d-429c
4a(2) The problem of economic justice: the
choice between capitalism and social-
ism
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecdesiazusae 615a-628d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 341c-d; BK v, 363b-
365d/ Laws, BK v, 691b-697a
QARisroiLF- Ethics, BK v, en 2 [ii3ob3o]-cii
4 [ri32b2o] 378b-380b / Politics, BK n, CH 5
458a-460a; CH 6 [1265*27-37] 460c-d; CH 7
461d-463c; BK v, CH i 502a-503b; BK vi, CH
3 521c-522a; CH 5 [i32oai7-bu] 523d-524b
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 36a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 2, ANS and REP 1-6 309d-316a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART n, 156b-157a
27 SHAKLSI>E\UE Conolanns, ACT i, sc i [1-226]
351a-353d
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a
38 MONTESQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 16a-17b;
BK v, 19d*21d; BK vn, 44d-45b, BK xm,
96a-102a,c
38 ROUSSEAU- Political Economy, 375b-d; 377b-
d / Social Contract, BK i, 393d-394d; BK u,
405a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 28a-d;
61c-d; 109d-UOd; BK iv, 201b-d; 239c-240a;
287c-d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
v [645-648] 17c; xm 18c, xvi 19b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-53a; NUMBER
35, 113a-114b; NUMBER 60, 184d-186b; NUM-
BER 79, 233c
43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 345b-346a; 369b-370a / Utilitarianism,
467a-b; 472d-473c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 304c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv,
356d
50 MARX- Capital, 33b-37a; 104b-105a; 113c-
115c; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENCELS: Communist Manifesto, 419a-
434d csp 428d-429c, 432b-c, 433b, 434c-d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-
788b
4b. The democratic realization of popular sov-
ereignty: the safeguarding of natural
rights
5 EURIPIDES* Suppliants [334-358] 261 b-c;
[399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-d; BK vn,
245b
6THUCVDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396b-397c
7 PLATO : Laws, BK iv, 681d-682c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH i 471b,d-472c;
CH 6 [i278b7-i4] 475d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8
[1365^2-31] 608a
14 PLUTARCH- Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 101a~104d;
PART HI, 228b-c; PART iv, 273a-c
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vn, SECT 87~CH VIH, SECT 99 44a-47c;
CH ix, SECT I27-CH x, SECT 132 54a-55b;
CH xi 55b-58b; CH xni, SECT 149 59b-d; CH
xix 73d-81d passim, esp SECT 212 74a-b,
SECT 243 81d
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d; 356b-359a /
Political Economy, 369b-c / Social Contract,
BK i, 387b,d-392a; BK n, 395a-396a; BK HI,
420a-424d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14b; 91a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94d
42 KANT Science of Right, 429a-c, 434a; 435a-
458a,c esp 436c, 437c-d, 450a-b, 451c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDFPENDENCE [1-28] la-
b; [41-47] 2a; [109-12 i]3a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
AMENDMENTS, i-x 17a-18a; XHI-XV 18c-19b;
xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST NUMBER 10 49c-53a, NUMBER
14, 60c-d; NUMBER 22, 84d-85a; NUMBER 39
125a-128b; NUMBER 40, 131b; NUMBER 44,
144d-145a; 146c-d; NUMBER 46, 150b-c; NUM-
BER 51, 164a-16Sa; NUMBER 78, 231a-232c;
NUMBER 83, 246a-b; NUMBER 84, 251b-254b
43 MILL- Liberty, 267a-274a / Representative
Government, 344d; 3SOa; 382b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
279, 93d-94d; par 308 102c-103a / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 175b-c; PART n, 272a-d
4c. The infirmities of democracy in practice
and the reforms or remedies for these
defects
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES. Acharnians 455a-469a,c /
Knights 470a-487a,c csp [1111-1150] 483d-
484b / Wasps 507a-525d / Peace 526a-541d
csp [601-692) 532d-S34a / Birds 542a-563d /
Frogs [686-705] 572a-b / Lysistrata [486-586]
589a-590d / Eccksiazusae [169-188] 617a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 108a-c; BK v,
180c-d
*d to 5b CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War* BK in,
425a-d; BK v, 504c-505a; BK vi, 533a*c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 411d-413d / Laws,
BK HI, 674c-676b; BK vi, 699d-700c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-3?]
491b-d; CH 6 [i292b40-i293R9] 492c; BK v, CH
9 [1310*25-36] 512c; BK vi, CH 4 |i3i8b6-i3i9b
32] 522a-523b / Athenian Constitution, CH 28
565c-566b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35c / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62b-64a,c/ Agis, 648b,d-649b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 148d-149b;
150c-d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xm, SECT 157-
i5861c-62b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 5a; BK
in, lOa-c; BK vi, 35c-36a; BK vm, 51a-52c;
BK ix, 58b,d-59b; BK xi, 69a-c; BK xix, 142c-
143a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 418a-420a;
BK iv, 433a-434b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94d-95c; 562c-
565a esp 563d-564a
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 10 49c-53a passim;
NUMBER 22, 83b-d; NUMBER 44, 146c-d;
NUMBER 48, 157c; NUMBER 49-50 159b-162c;
NUMBER 55, 172b-173b; NUMBER 58, 181b-c;
NUMBER 62, 189d-191c; NUMBER 63, 192b-
195b, NUMBER 75, 223c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 268d-271a; 298b-299b; 309a-b
/ Representative Government, 354b-355b; 362c-
389b passim, csp 380c-381a, 387b-d; 392b-
399d; 403b-d; 406a-409c passim
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 178a-c, 374b-c
46 HEGEL* Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 30 }
101c-102a / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
172d-173a
317
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268c; 272a / Represen-
tative Government, 328d-332d; 338b 340d;
344d-345a; 350b-355b; 387c-d; 395b-c; 413d-
414d; 424c-428a passim, esp 427a-b; 433b-
442d passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 16Ia-c;
172d-17Sc; PART u, 271c-274a; PART m,
300c-d
5. Democracy and representative government
5a. The distinction between direct democracy
and representative, or republican, gov-
ernment: the territorial limits of democ-
racy
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vi, CH 4 [i3i8b2i-27]
522b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH x, SECT 132
55a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VIH, 56c-d;
BK ix, 58b,d-60a; BK xi, 71a-c; BK xix, 142c-
143a
38 ROUSSEAU Social Contract, BK in, 410c; 420a-
423a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 451c-452a
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER io, 51c-53a; NUMBER
14, 60a-61b; NUMBER 48, 157c; NUMBER 63,
192c-194a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 330a-b;
350a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 175b-c;
PART n, 273d-274a
d. The suitability of democratic constitutions
to all men under all circumstances: con-
ditions favorable to democracy; progress
toward democracy
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 193b-c; BK i\,
314a,c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK ix, 425c-427b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 15 [i286b8-22J
484d-485a; BK iv, CH 2 [1289^3-20] 488c-d;
CH n-12 495b-497b; BK vi, CH 4 522a-523b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b-d;
BK vm, 56b-c; 57b-c; BK xiv, 107b-d; BK
xvi, 118b-c; BK xvii-xvm, 122a-126c; BK
xix, 139c-140a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 402b-405a; 405c-406a; BK in,
410c; 411a-c; 415d; 421c-423a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 562c-565a csp
562c-d, 563d-564a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-115a / Science of
%A/,436d-437c;451a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 60a-61b; NUMBER
39, 125b; NUMBER 55, 174c-d
5b. The theory of representation
7 PLATO- Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14 498b-499c
passim; CH 15 499c-501c; BK vi, CH 3-4
521c-523b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-3Sd / Solon, 70d-
71c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 207a-c; Q 97, A 3, REP 3
237b-238b
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 96c-98a,c; PART
n, lOla-b; 104d-105c; 117b-121a; 153a-159c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 87-89
44a-d; CH xi, SECT 140 58a; CH xn, SECT
143 58c-d; CH xin, SECT 154-158 60c-62b;
CH xix, SECT 240 81b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 71a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 421c-423a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271d
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 522c-523a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436c; 450a-b; 451c-
452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [35-47]
lb-2a; [109-121] 3a-b passim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i lla-
14b passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER io 49c-53a; NUMBER
14, 60a-61b; NUMBER 22, 82a-83a; NUM-
BER 28, 97b-d; NUMBER 35, 113a-114b;
318
THE GREAT IDEAS
to
(5. Democracy and representative government.
5b. The theory of representation.)
NUMBER 52-66 165a-203a passim, csp NUM-
BER 57, 176d~178b, NUMBER 63, 192b-194a;
NUMBER 76, 227a; NUMBER 78, 231a-232c
43 MILL Liberty, 268b-c / Representative Govern-
ment 327a-442d passim, esp 329d-330b,
338a-b, 350a, 355b-356b, 370a-372b, 389c-
392b, 401a-406a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 301-
303 100b-102a; par 308-311 102c-104a; ADDI-
TIONS, 182 148c-d / Philosophy of History \
INTRO, 175b-c
5b(l) Majority rule and minority or propor-
tional representation
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 10 478d-479a;
CH 13 [i283*2i-b34J 481b-d, CH 15 [1286*22-
b22] 484c-485a; BK iv, CH 8 [1294*12-15]
493d-494a; BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-35] 512c;
BK vi, CH 2 [i3i7b2-i6] 520d; CH 3 [1318*19-
b5J 521c-522a; CH 4 [i3i8b2i-26] 522b
33 PASCAL: Pen^es, 301-303 227b; 878 345a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vui, SECT 95-99
46c-47c; CH x, SECT 132 55a-b; CH xi, SECT
140 58a
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 4b-6d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 391b; BK
iv, 425d-427a esp 426d-427a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91 b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v [49-73]
5d-6a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
xiv, SECT 2 18d-19a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10 49c-53a, NUMBER
22, 82a-83a, NUMBER 35, 113a-114b; NUM-
BER 37, 120b-c; NUMBER 43, 141d-142d;
NUMBER 51, 164a-165a passim; NUMBER 54
170a-172b; NUMBER 58, 181d-182a, NUMBER
62, 189b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 268d-271c, 298b-302c; 307b-
31 2a / Representative Government, 366a-380b;
386a-387d; 406d-407d; 410b-c
44 BOSWKLL: Johnson, 261c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
311-313 103d- 104 b / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 172d-173a; PART iv, 365a
56(2) Ultimate limitations on the franchise
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697d-700b; BK vm,
740d-741a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 6 492b-493a;
BK vi, CH 3 521c-522a; CH 4 [i3i9b2-32]
523a-b; BK vn, CH 9 533a-d / Athenian Con-
stitution, CH 4 554b-d; CH 42 572b-d
14 PLUTARCH :Lycurgus-Numa,62b'd
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-5c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 427c-432b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
2 [5-10] lib
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 52, 165a-c; NUMBER 54
170a-172b; NUMBER 57, 177a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 375a-b;
380c-389b passim, esp 382c-383c; 394b-
396d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 311
103d-104a
5^(3) Methods of election and voting
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c; BK xn,
786b-787b
9 ARISTOTLE- Politics, BK iv, CH 9 [i294b6-i3]
494c; CH 14 [i298bi 3-1299*1] 499a-c; CH 15
[i3ooa9-b4] 500d-501b
14 PLUTARCH. Lycurgus, 45d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 6a-b / Histories, BK
iv, 267d-268c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xin, SECT 154-
158 60d-62b; CH xix, SECT 216 74d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 5b-
6a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c-325b / Social
Contract, BK iv, 426c-428a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i,
SECT 2 [5-10] lib,' SECT 2 [l7]-SFCT 3 [66]
llb-12a; SECT 4 [96-102], SECT 5 [107-109]
12b; ARTICLE n, SECT i [321-374] 14b-d;
AMENDMENTS, XII 18a-CJ XVII 19b-C
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 52-61 165a-188d pas-
sim; NUMBER 62, 189a-b; NUMBER 68 205b-
207a
43 MILL' Representative Government, 370a-406a;
412a-414d
44 Bosw ELL- Johnson, 176a-b; 251a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
309-311 103b-104a / Philosophy of History,
PART n, 277c-d
The role of political parties: factions
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata [577-580] 590c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
434c-438b; BK iv, 458d-459c; 463a-465c; BK
v, 502d-504a; BK vm 564a-593a,c esp 568d-
569a, 575c~576c, 577b-d, 579c-583c, 584b-
585a, 585d-586b, 587a-590c
7 PLATO. Laws, BK v, 695a-c; BK ix, 744c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 6 420c-421a /
Politics, BK v, CH 9 [i309bi4-i3io°i2] 511d-
512b / Athenian Constitution, CH 5 554d-555a;
CH 8, par 5 556c
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 68d; 75c-d / Pericles,
126c-d / Pompey, 521d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 97b-c / Histories,
BK n, 224d-225a
23 MACHIAVELLI* Prince, CH ix, 14c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 121c-d; 148d-
149b; 150b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, 9d; BK
xix, 142b-143a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 396b-d;
BK in, 424b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-271a;
BK v, 420c-421a
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY
319
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 652b-655c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10 49c-53a; NUMBER
43, 141d-142d; NUMBER 50, 161d-162c passim;
NUMBER 51, 164a-165a; NUMBER 60, 185b-
187a
43 MILL: Liberty, 289c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 366a-370a; 371c-372a; 376a-377a; 412b
413a
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 261c-d; 374b~c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 275b-d;
279b; PART in, 285d; PART iv, 336a-c;
366d-367a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 423d-
425b
5c. The distribution of functions and powers:
checks and balances in representative de-
mocracy
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14-16 498b-
502a,c; BK vi, CH 8 525b-526d / Athenian
Constitution, CH 42-69 572b-584a,c passim
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35d / Solon, 70d-
71c
23 HOBBIES: Leviathan, PART n, 103d-104b;
150b, 151c-152a
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH vm, SECT 107
49b-d; CH xii-xm 58c-62b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69d-
75a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 428a-
435a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 26d-27b
42 KANT- Science of Right, 436b-c; 438a-439a;
451d-452a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION- ix 7a-9a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
i lla-b; SECT 2 [41-47] lid; SECT 3 [73-87]
12a; SECT 4 [96-102] 12b; SECT 5 12b-c;
ARTICLE I, SECT 7 [l52]-ARTICLE II, SECT I
[326) 12d-14b; ARTICLE n, SECT 2 [409]-
ARTICLE III, SECT 2 [492] 15a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 47-48 153c-159a esp
NUMBER 48, 157c; NUMBER 51 162d-165a;
NUMBER 52, 167a-b; NUMBER 57 176d-179b;
NUMBER 58, 180d, NUMBER 60, 184d-185b;
NUMBER 62, 189d-191c; NUMBER 63, 192c-
193c; NUMBER 66, 200c-201d; NUMBER 69
207a-210c passim; NUMBER 73, 219b-221c;
NUMBER 76, 226a-227b; NUMBER 78, 230a-
233a; NUMBER 81, 237d-239c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-356b;
365b-366a; 369b-370a; 401d-402b; 406a-
409c; 412b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 272
89d-90c; ADDITIONS, 178 147d-148a / Phi
losophy of History, INTRO, 192d-193a
6.The educational task of democracy: the train-
ing of all citizens
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6THucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
395d-399a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 675c-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 9 [1294^9-24]
494c; BK v, CH 9 [1310*12-35] 512b-c; BK VH,
CH 14 537b-538d; BK vm, CH i 542a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 114d-115a;
153a-155c
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b csp 384b-
389a
38 MONTESQUIEU : Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15c-
18d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 375d-377b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 340c-
343d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 84,
253d-254b
43 MILL: Liberty, 317d-323a,c / Representative
Government, 330a-b; 339a-341c; 349a-350a;
351a-c; 381b-382b; 386b-387d; 401a-406a
passim; 418b-d; 420b-d; 424b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 237d>240d esp 238b-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427c;
429b
7. The growth and vicissitudes of democracy
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae [169-188] 61 7a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 120b-c
6THucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
434c-438b; BK vm, 579d-580a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 408b-414b / Laws,
BK HI, 674d-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 12 [i273b27~
1274*22] 470b-d / Athenian Constitution, CH
1-41 553a-572a esp CH 41 571c-572a / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 4 [1360*17-29] 600c
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Themistocles,
96b-c / Pericles 121a-141a,c / Alabiades, 166a-
174d / Phocton 604b,d-619d / Tiberius Grac-
chus, 675b-d; 678b-d / Catus Gracchus
681b,d-689a,c esp 683b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH v 8a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 114b-115a; 150c-
151a; PART iv, 273a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE : Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus 351a-392a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spmt of Laws, BK in, 9b-
lOc
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 418a-
419b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-73d passim;
217a-b; 218c-219a; 427b-428b; 562b-565a
esp 562c-d; 574b-582b esp 574b-577d; 587b-
588b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i 29a~31a passim; NUM-
BER 6 38d-41c passim; NUMBER 9-10 47a-
53a; NUMBER 22, 82d-83d; NUMBER 43, 141a-
142d; NUMBER 44, 146c-d; NUMBER 51, 164a-
165a; NUMBER 58 179c-182a passim; NUMBER
63, 192c-194a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c / Representative
Government, 376b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 271c-
274a; 275b-276a
320
THE GREAT IDEAS
7 a tolc
(7. The growth and vici&itudet of democracy)
la. Demagoguery and the danger of revolution
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c esp
(1111-1150] 483d-484b / Wasps [655-724]
515c-516d / Peace [601-692] 532d-534a
6 HERODOTUS: 77 w/ory, BK in, 108a-c
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
434c-438b; BK iv, 463a-465c; 466a-469b;
BK vi, 519c-d; 520a-d; 533a-c; BK vm, 575c-
582c csp 575c-576c, 577b-d, 579c-581c,
582a-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 411d-414b / Laws,
BK IX, 744c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK 11, CH 12 [127^36-
1274*14] 470c-d; BK v, CH i [1302*8-16] 503b;
CH 5 506b-507a; CH 8 [1308*11-24] 510a-b;
CH 9 [i309bi4-i3iofti2] 511d-512b; BK vi, CH
4 [i3i9b2]-cii 5 [i320bi7] 523a-524b / Atheni-
an Constitution, CH 14-15 558d-559c; CH 28-29
565c-566d; CH 34 568c-569a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 13a-14c / Solon, 75c-
76d / Camillus, 117c-121a,c / Coriolanus,
180b-d / Pompey, 521c-d / Caesar 577a-604d
csp 577d-583a / Phocion 604b,d-619d / Cato
the Younger, 628b-d / Cams Gracchus 681 b,d-
689a,c esp 684c-685c / Dion, 792d-802a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a / Histories, BK
n, 224d-225a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 105c-106d; 127d-
129d; 152a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a-26a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 224-
228 76d-78a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vm,
52b-c; BK xix, 142d-143a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 419b
42 KANT. Science of Right, 439c-441d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30b; NUMBER 9,
47a-b; NUMBER 21, 78d-79a; NUMBER 48,
157c; NUMBER 58, 181b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 329b-330c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 300a-
301c
7b. The dangers of imperialism: the treatment
of dependencies
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata [572-586] 590c-d
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
403b-c; BK in, 425a-429a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 698c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 21a-27c csp 22c / Peri-
cles, 129a-141a,c passim
15 TACITUS' Histories, BK n, 224d-225a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 107a; 107c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xvi 654-70c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 182b-183a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK x, 64a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 252d-2S3a;
267c-271d
40 GIB BON: Decline and Fall, 79b-d; 630b,d-
631b
42 KANT- Science of Right, 413d; 454a-455a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 427a-b;
433b-442d
Ic. The challenge of war and peace: the citizen
army
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians 455a-469a,c /
Knights 470a-487a,c / Peace 526a-541d esp
[601-692] 532d-534a / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
esp [486-586] 589a-590d
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK v, 175b, 177d-178a;
180c-d, BK vii, 232d-233d
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK n, 402b-
404d; BK in, 425a-d; 434c-438b; BK vi,
513d-514d, 515d-516a; BK vm, 564a-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK i, 640b-642b, BK in, 674d-
675c; BK vm, 732b-735a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vi, CH 7 [1321*5-26]
524d-525a; BK vii, CH 9 [1329*3-17] 533b-c;
CH 14 [i333bi-i334aio] 538b-d / Athenian
Constitution, CH 8, par 5 556c; CH 15 559b-c;
CH 27, par 1-2 565a-b
23 MACHIAVKLLI. Prince, CH v 8a-c; CH xii-
xin 17d-21a; CH xxvi 36b-37d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 224-
230 76d-78c
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART 11, 80a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, lOa-c;
BK ix, 58b,d-60a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c / Political Econ-
omy, 380b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b-5c
42 KANT: Science 0/%/tf,452d-458a,c esp 454d-
455a, 457a-458a,c//M^m^/, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 40a-41a; NUMBER 8
44c-47a; NUMBER 22, 83a-b; NUMBER 29
98c-101a passim; NUMBER 46, 152b-153a
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, PART 11, 274b-
275b; 278c-279b
CHAPTER 16: DEMOCRACY 321
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general theory of government and the forms of government, see GOVERNMENT; and
for the forms of government most closely related to democracy, see ARISTOCRACY;
OLIGARCHY.
The theory of constitutional or representative government, in itself and in contrast to
monarchy or absolute government, see CONSTITUTION; MONARCHY.
Other discussions of the mixed constitution and the mixed regime, see ARISTOCRACY 2b;
CONSTITUTION 33, 5b; GOVERNMENT 2b; MONARCHY ib(i).
Other expositions of the theory of the conditions relative to which democracy is a suitable
form of government, see MONARCHY 46(2); SLAVERY 6c; TYRANNY 4b.
The general discussion of political liberty and equality in relation to the rights of citizenship,
see JUSTICE ge; LIBERTY if.
The problem of suffrage and the debate concerning the extension of the franchise, see CITIZEN
2c~3; LABOR yd; OLIGARCHY 4, 53; SLAVERY 5b.
The relation between economic and political democracy, and the problems of economic as
well as political justice, see LABOR y(\ LIBERTY ad; SLAVERY 5a-5b.
The theory of popular sovereignty and natural rights, see GOVERNMENT ig(3); JUSTICE 6-6e;
LAW yb-yc; STATE 2c; TYRANNY 5c.
The consideration of majority rule and the tyranny of the majority, see OPINION y-yb;
TYRANNY 2c.
Other discussions of the theory of representation, see ARISTOCRACY 6; CONSTITUTION 9-90.
Matters relevant to the educational problems of democracy, see ARISTOCRACY 5; EDUCATION
8d; STATE yd.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
}. WILSON. Worfy, PART i, CH vr~ix; PART n, CH
*• xn
PLUTARCH. "Of the Three Sorts of Government — CARTWRIGHT. Takp Your Choice!
Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy," in Mo- BURKE. An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs
ralta . Letter to Sir Hercules Langnshe
SPINOZA. Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise) , PAINE. Rights of Man, PART n, CH i
CH 1 1 . Dissertation on First Principles of Government
}. S. MILL. "M. De Tocqueville on Democracy in JEFFERSON. Democracy, CH 1-2
America," "Enfranchisement of Women," in VOL TOCQUEVILLE. Democracy in America
n, Dissertations and Discussions T. CARLYLE. Chartism
. Socialism MICHELET. The People
MARX. The Civil War in France CALHOUN. A Disquisition on Government
. Critique of the Gotha Programme . A Discourse on the Constitution and Govern-
ment of the United States
11 • MAZZINI. The Duties of Man
Clarke Papers, The Putney Debates THOREAU. A Plea for Captain John Brown
VOLTAIRE. "Democracy," in A Philosophical Die- WHITMAN. Democratic Vistas
tionary J. F. STEPHEN. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
322
THE GREAT IDEAS
ACTON. Essays on Freedom and Power, CH 5, 7-8
ARNOLD. "Democracy," "Equality," in Mixed
Essays.
MAINE. Popular Government
LECKY. Democracy and Liberty
GIDDINGS. Democracy and Empire
M. HIRSCH. Democracy Versus Socialism
H, ADAMS. The Degradation of the Democratic
Dogma
OSFROGORSKI. Democracy and the Organization of
Political Parties
DICEY. The Relation Between Law and Public Opin-
ion in England During the Nineteenth Century
SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 5
SORBL. Reflexions on Violence
MICHELS. Political Parties
MORLRY. Notes on Politics and History
BEARD. Economic Origins ofjeffersoman Democracy
CROLY. Progressive Democracy
PARLIO. The Mind and Society, VOL iv
T. VFBLEN. The Vested Interests and the State of
the Industrial Arts
LENIN. The State and Revolution, CH 5
. "Left-Wing" Communism, an Infantile Dis-
order
TROISKY. The Defense of Terrorism
BRYCF. The American Commonwealth
. Modern Democracies
TAWNEY. Equality
NOCK. The Theory of Education in the United States
KELSEN. Vom Wesen und Wert der Democratic
. Staatsform und Weltanschauung
LASKI Democracy in Crisis
J. A. HOBSON. Democracy and a Changing Civilisa-
tion
FRIEDRICH Constitutional Government and Democ-
racy
BENES. Democracy Today and Tomorrow
DEWEY. Characters and Events, VOL n, BK v (17)
. The Public and Its Problems, CH 3
. Freedom and Culture, CH 4-7
MAC!VER. Leviathan and the People
HOOK. Reason, Social Myths and Democracy
BECKER Modern Democracy
MERRIAM. The New Democracy and the New Despot-
ism
. What Is Democracy?
AGARD. What Democracy Meant to the Greeks
B \RKER Reflections on Government
LINDSAY. The Modern Democratic State
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH in-iv
. Ransoming the Time, CH 2
. Christianity and Democracy
. Pnncipes a*une pohttque humaniste
PERRY Puritanism and Democracy
SIMON. Community of the Free, CH 4
Chapter 17: DESIRE
INTRODUCTION
TN Darwin, Mill, James, and Freud, at the
JL modern end of the great tradition, the word
"desire" primarily signifies a cause of animal and
human behavior. It is one of the basic terms in
psychological analysis, covering that whole
range of phenomena which are also referred to
by such terms as wanting, needing, craving, wish-
ing, willing, all of which are discussed in con-
nection with theories of instinct and emotion,
libido and love, motivation and purpose.
If we turn to traditional beginnings, to the
writings of Plato, Aristotle, Galen, and Ploti-
nus, we find that the psychological considera-
tion of desire is part of a much larger context.
The ancients are, of course, concerned with the
role of desire in causing animal or human be-
havior, and with the causes of such desire, but
they are also interested in cravings which seem
to be present in plants as well as animals. Plato,
for example, attributes to plants "feelings of
pleasure and pain and the desires which accom-
pany them." The vegetative activities of nu-
trition, growth, and reproduction seem to
spring from basic appetites— or, in modern
phraseology, "biological needs"— inherent in
all living matter.
Because hunger and thirst so readily sym-
bolize the essence of desire (or certainly repre-
sent its most general manifestation in living
things), the words "appetite*1 and "desire" are
frequently used as synonyms in the earlier
phase of the tradition. As Hobbcs observes,
when he proposes to use "appetite" and "de-
sire" as synonyms, desire is "the general name,"
and appetite is "oftentimes restrained to signify
the desire for food, namely hunger and thirst."
So, too, Spinoza says that "there is no difference
between appetite and desire," yet he adds,
"unless in this particular, that desire is gener-
ally related to men in so for as they are con-
scious of their appetites, and it may therefore
be defined as appetite of which we are con-
scious."
Spinoza here seems to be reflecting the dis-
tinction made by earlier writers between
natural appetite and conscious desire, which we
today would, perhaps, express in terms of
"need" and "wish." The ancient conception
of tendencies inherent in all things— inanimate
as well as living— which seek a natural fulfill-
ment broadens the meaning of appetite or de-
sire. When Aristotle says that "each thing seeks
its own perfection" and that "nature does
nothing in vain," he is thinking of non-living
as well as living bodies. Wherever in the phys-
ical world things seem to have a natural tend-
ency to move in a certain direction or to change
in a certain way, there appetite, belonging to
the very nature of the moving thing, operates
as a cause. Adopting this view, Dante declares
that "neither Creator nor creature was ever
without love, either natural or of the mind";
and in his Convwio he shows how each thing
has its "specific love." The love, or desire, of
the elements is their "innate affinity to their
proper place"; minerals desire "the place where
their generation is ordained" with the result
that "the magnet ever receives power from the
direction of its generation."
According to this view it is possible to speak
of the natural desire of raindrops to fall or of
smoke to rise. Such a manner of speaking may
at first seem metaphorical— an expression of
primitive animism or anthropomorphism — but
the ancients, observing different natural tend-
encies in heavy and light bodies, mean this
literally.
The sense of such statements is no different
from what is meant when it is said that the sun-
flower, without consciousness, naturally tends
to turn toward the sun, or that all men by
nature desire to know.
323
324
THE GREAT IDEAS
FROM ITS NARROWEST meaning with reference
to the behavior of animals and men, desire
gains a wider connotation when it is conceived
as covering the appetites found in living organ-
isms. But in its broadest significance, it refers
to the innate tendency inherent in matter it-
self. As we shall presently see, appetite, desire,
or tendency is seated in matter according to
that conception of matter which identifies it
with potentiality or potential being. These
considerations are more fully treated in the
chapters on BEING, CHANGE, and MATTER, but
their significance for the notion of desire can
be briefly indicated here.
Plotmus suggests the basic insight when he
describes matter as "in beggardom, striving as
it were by violence to acquire, and always dis-
appointed/' Matter is that in natural things
which is the reason for their motion and change.
Considering natural change, Aristotle names
what he thinks are its three principles. In addi-
tion to "some thing divine, good, and desirable,'*
he writes, "we hold that there are two other
principles, the one contrary to it, the other such
as of its own nature to desire and yearn for it."
These are respectively form, privation, and
matter. The relation between matter and form
is expressed by Aristotle in terms of desire.
"The form cannot desire itself," he says, "for
it is not defective; nor can the contrary desire
it, for contraries are mutually destructive. The
truth is that what desires the form is matter,
as the female desires the male."
Conceived most generally as natural appe-
tite or tendency, desire becomes a physical or
metaphysical term. "Natural appetite" says
Aquinas, "is that inclination which each thing
has of its own nature." The significance of de-
sire in this sense extends, far beyond psycho-
logical phenomena, to all things m motion
under the impetus or inclination of their own
natures, rather than moved violently by forces
impressed on them from without.
In ancient physics every natural tendency
has an end or fulfillment in which the motion
governed by that tendency comes to rest. Eros
and telos— desire and end —are complementary
concepts, each implying the other as principles
of physics, i.e., as factors operating together
throughout nature in the order of change. The
telos of each thing is the perfection which satis-
fies the tendency of its nature. That nature
does nothing in vain means simply that no
natural desire — need or appetite— exists with-
out the possibility of fulfillment.
CONSIDERING THE DESIGN of the universe and
the relation of creatures to God, theologians like
Augustine and Aquinas use the concept of de-
sire in both its psychological and its meta-
physical sense.
Considered metaphysically, desire can be
present only in finite beings, for to be finite is
to be in want of some perfection. Hence desire
can in no way enter into the immutable, infi-
nite, and perfect being of God. In desire,
Aquinas points out, "a certain imperfection is
implied," namely, the lack "of the good which
we have not." Since God is perfect, desire can-
not be attributed to Him, "except metaphor-
ically." Love, however, implies perfection
rather than imperfection, since it flows from
the act of the will "to diffuse its own goodness
among others." For that reason, although the
infinite perfection of God precludes desire, it
does not preclude love.
The theologian goes beyond the metaphysi-
cian or physicist when he carries the analysis of
desire to the supernatural plane. As God is the
supernatural efficient cause of all created things,
so God is also the supernatural final cause— the
end or ultimate good toward which all creatures
tend. The metaphysical maxim that each thing
seeks its own perfection is then transformed.
"All things," Aquinas writes, "by desiring
their own perfection, desire God Himself, inas-
much as the perfections of all things are so
many similitudes of the divme being. ... Of
those things which desire God, some know Him
as He is Himself, and this is proper to the ra-
tional creature; others know some participation
of His goodness, and this belongs also to sensible
knowledge; others have a natural desire with-
out knowledge, as being directed to their ends
by a higher intelligence."
The existence in the creature of a desire for
God raises difficult questions concerning the
manner in which this desire is fulfilled. A super-
natural end cannot be attained by purely nat-
ural means, i.e., without God '5 help. The vision
of God in which the souls of the blessed come
to rest is, according to the theologian, the ulti-
CHAFFER 17: DESIRE
325
mate gift of grace. Hence, in man's case at least,
it becomes necessary to ask whether he can have
a purely natural desire to see God if the goal
of such desire cannot be achieved by purely
natural means.
The question is not whether men to whom
God has revealed the promise of ultimate glory
can consciously desire the beatific vision. Clear-
ly that is possible, though to sustain such desire
the theological virtue of hope, inseparable from
faith and charity, may be required. Rather the
question is whether the beatific vision which is
man's supernatural end can be the object of
natural desire. On this the theologians appear
to be less clearly decided.
Aquinas holds that "neither man, nor any
creature, can attain final happiness by his nat-
ural powers." Yet he also seems to maintain
that man has a natural desire for the perfect
happiness of eternal life. "The object of the
will, /.<?., of man's appetite," he writes, "is the
universal good, just as the object of the intel-
lect is the universal truth/' Man's natural de-
sire to know the truth — not just some truths
but the whole truth, the infinite truth—would
seem to require the vision of God for its fulfill-
ment. Aquinas argues similarly from the will's
natural desire for the infinite good. "Naught
can lull man's will," he writes, "save the uni-
versal good ... to be found not in any creature,
but m God alone." Some writers find this con-
firmed m the fact that whatever good a man
sets his heart upon he pursues to infinity. No
finite amount of pleasure or power or wealth
seems to satisfy him. He always wants more.
But there is no end to wanting more of such
things. The infinity of such desires must result
in frustration. Only God, says the theologian,
only an infinite being, can satisfy man's infinite
craving for all the good there is.
Seeing man's restlessness, no matter where he
turns to find rest, Augustine declares: "Thou
madest us for Thyself, and our heart is restless,
until it repose in Thee." Pascal reaches the
same conclusion when he considers the ennui
of men which results from the desperation of
their unending search. "Their error," he
writes, "does not lie in seeking excitement, if
they seek it only as a diversion; the evil is that
they seek it as if the possession of the objects of
their quest would make them really happy."
With regard to the frantic pursuit of diversions,
he claims that "both the censure rs and the cen-
sured do not understand man's true nature11
and the "misery of man without God." In such
restlessness and vain seeking, the theologian sees
evidence of man's natural desire tobew/M God,
Admitting the same facts, the skeptics inter-
pret the infinity of man's desire as a craving tc
be God. If this is not every man's desire, it i;
certainly Satan's in Paradise Lost. Skeptic 01
believer, every man understands the questior
which Goethe and Dante among the great
poets make their central theme. At what mo
ment, amid man's striving and restlessness, wil
the soul gladly cry, "Ah, linger on, thou art sc
fair?" Confident that there can be no such
moment, Faust makes that the basis of hu
wager with Mephistopheles.
The two poets appear to give opposite an
swers to the question. Faust finds surcease in ar
earthly vision of progressive endeavor. Heaven
ly rest comes to the soul of Dante at the ver)
moment it relinquishes its quest, winning peace
through surrender.
IN THE BROADEST OR theological sense of the
word, God alone does not desire. In the nar
rowest or psychological sense, only animals anc
men do. The contrast of meanings is useful
Natural appetite or tendency throws light 01
the nature of conscious desire.
In order to "determine the nature and seat o
desire," Socrates in the Philebus considers sue!
things as "hunger, thirst, and the like" as "11
the class of desires." He points out that "whei
we say 'a man thirsts,' we mean to say that hi
'is empty.' " It is not drink he desires, but re
plenishment by drink, which is a change o
state. This insight Socrates generalizes by say
ing that "he who is empty desires ... the op
posite of what he experiences; for he is empt}
and desires to be full." In the Symposium, usinj
the words "love" and "desire" as if they wen
interchangeable, Socrates declares that "he wh<
desires something is in want of something" an<
"love is of something which a man wants an<
has not."
In the psychological sphere, desire and lov
are often identified—at least verbally. The on<
word is frequently substituted for the othet
Here the fact already noted, that God loves bu
326
THE GREAT IDEAS
does not desire, suggests the root of the distinc-
tion between desire and love. Desire always in-
volves some lack or privation to be remedied by
a change; whereas love, certainly requited
love, implies the kind of satisfaction which ab-
hors change. Love and desire are, of course,
frequently mixed, but this does not affect their
essential difference as tendencies. They are as
different as giving and getting. Love aims at
the well-being of the beloved, while desire seeks
to enjoy a pleasure or possess a good.
Not all writers, however, contrast the gener-
osity of love with the acquisitiveness of desire.
Locke, for example, finds self-interest and self-
seeking in both. The meaning of love, he ob-
serves, is known to anyone who reflects "upon
the thought he has of the delight which any
present or absent thing is apt to produce in him.
. . . For when a man declares in autumn when
he is eating them, or in spring when there are
none, that he loves grapes, it is no more but
that the taste of grapes delights him." The
meaning of desire is, in Locke's opinion, closely
related. It consists in "the uneasiness a man
finds in himself upon the absence of anything
whose present enjoyment carries the idea of
delight with it." We desire, in short, the things
we love but do not possess.
The distinction between love and desire, the
question whether they arc distinct m animals
as well as m men, and their relation to one
another when they are distinct, arc matters
more fully discussed in the chapter on LOVE.
It is enough to observe here that when writers
use the two words interchangeably, they use
both words to signify wanting and seeking.
In the case of animals and men, the thing
wanted is an object of conscious desire only if
it is something known. In addition to being
known as an object of science is known, it must
also be deemed good or pleasant—in other
words, worth having. For Locke, desire, as we
have seen, is no more than "an uneasiness of the
mind for want of some absent good," which is
measured in terms of pleasure and pain. "What
has an aptness to produce pleasure in us is that
we call good, and what is apt to produce pain
in us we call evil'' That which we consciously
desire, that which we judge to be desirable,
would thus be something we regard as good for
us, while die "bad" or "evil" would be that
which we seek to avoid as somehow injurious
rather than beneficial to us.
There is no question that desire and aversion
arc psychologically connected with estimations
of good and evil or pleasure and pain. This is
the case no matter how we answer the moral-
ist's question, Do we desire something because
it is good, or do we call it "good" simply be-
cause we desire it? The ethical significance of
the question, and of the opposite answers to it,
is discussed in the chapter on GOOD AND EVIL.
THE METAPHYSICAL conception of natural de-
sire provides terms for the psychological anal-
ysis of conscious desire and its object. Viewed
as belonging to the very nature of a thing,
appetite, according to Aristotle, consists in the
tendency toward "something we do not have"
and "which we need." Both factors are essen-
tial—the privation and the capacity, or poten-
tiality, for having what is lacked. Privation m
the strict sense is always correlative to poten-
tiality.
The writers who use these terms would not
speak of the sunflower being deprived of wis-
dom, even as they would not call a stone blind.
Blindness is the deprivation of sight in things
which have by nature a capacity to see. So
when it is said that man by nature desires to
know, or that certain animals, instinctively
gregarious, naturally tend to associate with one
another in herds or societies, the potentiality of
knowledge or social life is indicated; and pre-
cisely because of these potentialities, ignorance
and solitariness are considered privations.
We observe here two different conditions of
appetite or desire. As the opposite of privation
is possession— or of lacking, having— so the op-
posite states of appetite are the drive toward
the unpossessed and satisfaction in possession.
We do not strive for that which we have, unless
it be to retain our possession of it against loss;
and we do not feel satisfied until we get that
which we have been seeking.
"If a man being strong desired to be strong,"
says Socrates in the Symposium^ "or being swift
desired to be swift, or being healthy desired to
be healthy, he might be thought to desire some-
thing which he already has or is." This would be
a misconception which we must avoid. To any-
one who says "I desire to have simply what I
CHAFFER 17: DESIRE
32?
have," Socrates thinks we should reply: "You,
ray friend, having wealth and health and
strength, want to have the continuance of
them. . . . When you say, 'I desire that which I
have and nothing else,* is not your meaning
that you want to have in the future what you
now have ?" This "is equivalent to saying that a
man desires something which is for him non-
existent, and which he has not got"; from which
Socrates draws the conclusion that everyone
"desires that which he has not already, which is
future and not present . . . and of which he is
in want."
The object of desire— natural or conscious—
thus seems to be an altered condition in the
desirer, the result of union with the object de-
sired. Man's natural desire to know impels him
to learn. Every act of learning which satisfies
this natural desire consists in a changed condi-
tion of his mind, a change which both Plato
and Aristotle describe as a motion from igno-
rance to knowledge.
When we consciously desire food, it is not
the edible thing as such we seek, but rather the
eating of it. Only the eating of it will quiet our
desire, with that change in our condition we
call "nourishment." That the edible thing is
only incidentally the object of our desire may
be seen in the fact that no way m which we can
possess food, other than eating //, satisfies hunger.
THE DISTINCTION between natural and con-
scious desire is complicated by other closely re-
lated distinctions which psychologists have
made. Freud, for example, distinguishes be-
tween conscious and unconscious desire; Dar-
win separates instinctive from learned desires;
and James observes how a conscious desire may
become habitual and operate almost automat-
ically, without our awareness of either its
object or its action.
Part of the complication is verbal and can be
removed by referring to natural desires as non-
conscious rather than KH-conscious. The word
"conscious" literally means with knowledge.
Creatures which lack the faculty of knowing
cannot desire consciously. It does not follow,
however, that sentient or conscious beings
cannot have natural appetites. Man's natural
desire to know is a case in point. That natural
human tendency is not excluded by the fact
that many men also consciously seek knowl-
edge, knowing what knowledge is and considei-
ing it something worth having.
The instinctive desires of animals are not
generally thought to operate apart from the
perception of the object toward which the an-
imal is emotionally impelled. The instinctive
desire works consciously, both on the side of
perception and on the side of the emotionally
felt impulse. If, because it is innate rather than
learned, or acquired through experience, we
call the instinctive desire "natural," it is well
to remember that we are not here using the
word to signify lack of consciousness. Yet both
instinctive and acquired desires may operate
unconsciously.
What Freud means by a repressed desire
illustrates this point. The repressed desire,
whether instinctual in origin or the result of
some acquired fixation of the libido on object
or ego, would be a conscious tendency if it were
not repiessed. Freud compares the process of re-
pression to the efforts of a man to get from one
room to another past the guard of a door-
keeper, "The excitations in the unconscious
... to begin with, remain unconscious. When
they have pressed forward to the threshold and
been turned back by the door-keeper, they are
incapable of becoming conscious'; we call
them then repressed. . . . Being repressed, when
applied to any single impulse, means being
unable to pass out of the unconscious system
because of the door-keeper's refusal of admit-
tance into the preconscious."
The repressed desire is made to operate un-
consciously by being repressed, which does not
prevent it from influencing our conduct or
thought, but only from intruding its driving
force and its goal upon our attention. In con-
trast, the desire which works habitually and
therefore to some extent unconsciously, is not
repressed, but merely one which no longer de-
mands our full attention.
DESIRE AND EMOTION are often identified in our
description of the behavior of animals and men.
Sometimes, however, desire along with aver-
sion is treated as just one of the emotions, and
sometimes all the emotions are treated as mani-
festations of just one type of conscious appetite,
namely, animal as opposed to rational desire*
328
THE GREAT IDEAS
The appetitive or driving aspect of emotions
is indicated by William James in his analysis of
instinctive behavior. The functioning of an
instinct may be viewed, according to James, as
a train of psychological events of "general re-
flex type . . . called forth by determinate sen-
sory stimuli in contact with the animal's body,
or at a distance in his environment," arousing
"emotional excitements which go with them."
The emotional part of the instinctive behavior
is at once an impulse to perform certain acts
and the feeling which accompanies the acts
performed. The sheep, instinctively recogniz-
ing the wolf as dangerous, fears and flees. It
runs away because it is afraid and feels fear in
the act of flight. When, in his theory of the
emotions, James goes so far as to say that the
feeling of fear results from running away, he
does not mean to deny that the emotion of fear
involves the impulse to flee.
In its aspect as impulse— or tendency to act
—an emotion is a desire, consciously aroused by
sense-perceptions and accompanied by conscious
feelings. This conception of emotion has been
variously expressed in the tradition of the great
books. Aquinas, for example, calls all the emo-
tions or passions "movements of the sensitive
appetite." But he also uses the words "desire"
and "aversion" along with "love" and "hate,"
"anger" and "fear" to name specific emotions.
Hobbes recognizes the appetitive tendency
which is common to all the emotions when he
finds at their root what he calls "endeavor" —
"those small beginnings of motion, within the
body of man, before they appear in walking,
speaking, striking, and other visible actions. . . .
This endeavor," he goes on to say, "when it is
toward something which causes it, is called ap-
petite or desire." Spinoza makes the same point
in somewhat different terms. "Desire," he
writes, "is the essence itself or nature of a per-
son in so far as this nature is conceived from its
given constitution as determined towards any
action. ... As his nature is constituted in this
or that way, so must his desire vary and the
nature of one desire differ from another, just
as the affects from which each desire arises dif-
fer. There are as many kinds of desire, there-
fore, as there are kinds of joy, sorrow, love, etc,,
and in consequence ... as there arc kinds of
objects by which we are affected."
Those psychologists who find in man two
distinct faculties of knowledge — the senses and
the reason or intellect — also find in him two dis-
tinct faculties of appetite or desire. The dis-
tinction is perhaps most sharply made by Aris-
totle and Aquinas, who claim that "there must
be one appetite tending towards the universal
good, which belongs to reason, and another
with a tendency towards the particular good,
which appetite belongs to sense." The tradi-
tional name for the intellectual appetite, or the
faculty of rational desire, is "will." In Spinoza's
vocabulary, the effort of desire, "when it is re-
lated to the mind alone, is called #////, but when
it is related at the same time both to the mind
and the body, is called appetite."
Psychologists who attribute these diverse
modes of desire, as they attribute sensation and
thought, to a single faculty called "mind" or
"understanding," nevertheless deal with the
whole range of appetitive phenomena, includ-
ing both the animal passions and acts of will.
James, for example, treats the instinctive acts
associated with the emotions as "automatic and
reflex" movements, and separates them from
"voluntary movements which, being desired
and intended beforehand, are done with full
prevision of what they are to be." In so doing,
he draws a line between emotional impulses and
acts of will, even though he does not distin-
guish two appetitive faculties.
With or without the distinction in faculties,
almost all observers of human experience and
conduct seem to agree upon a distinction in
types of conscious desire, at least insofar as they
recognize the ever-present conflict between the
passions and the will. These matters are more
fully considered in the chapters on EMOTION
and WILL.
THE ROLE OF DESIRE in human life — especially
emotional desire— is so intimately connected
with problems of good and evil, virtue, duty,
and happiness, that until quite recently the
subject was discussed mainly in books on ethics,
politics, or rhetoric rather than psychology.
Even Freud, who tries to separate psychological
description and explanation from moral princi-
ples or conclusions, cannot avoid treating the
effects of morality upon the dynamics of desire
and the life of the passions. Many of the funda-
CHAPTER 17; DESIRE
mental terms of psychoanalysis— conflict, re-
pression, rationalization, sublimation, to name
only some— carry the connotation of moral
issues, even though they imply a purely psy-
chological resolution of them.
Contrary to a popular misconception, Freud
expressly declares that "it is out of the question
that part of the analytic treatment should con-
sist of advice to 'live freely.* "The conflict "be-
tween hbidinal desires and sexual repression,"
he explains, is "not resolved by helping one
side to win a victory over the other." Although
Freud thinks that "what the world calls its
code of morals demands more sacrifices than it
is worth," he also declares that "we must be-
ware of overestimating the importance of ab-
stinence in effecting neurosis,"
What Freud calls emotional infantilism re-
sembles to some degree what a moralist like
Aristotle calls self-indulgence or incontinence.
To give vent to all the promptings of desire,
without regard to the demands of society or
reality is to revert to infancy— a state charac-
terized, according to Freud, by "the irrecon-
cilability of its wishes with reality." Because
children "live at the beck and call of appetite,
and it is in them that the desire for what is
pleasant is strongest," Aristotle thinks it fitting
that we should speak of self-indulgence when
it occurs in an adult as a "childish fault."
Aristotle and Freud seem to be looking at
the same facts of human nature and seeing them
in the same light. What Freud describes as the
conflict between the "pleasure-principle" and
the "reality-principle," Aristotle— and with
him Spinoza— treats as a conflict between the
passions and the reason, and Kant conceives in
terms of the opposition between desire and
duty. What Freud says of the reality-principle
—that it "demands and enforces the postpone-
ment of satisfaction, the renunciation of mani-
fold possibilities, and the temporary endurance
of pain" — parallels traditional statements con-
cerning the role of reason or of duty in the
moral life. Where the moralists speak of the
necessity for regulating or moderating emo-
tional desires, Freud refers to the need of "do-
mesticating" them, as one would train a beast
to serve the ends of human life.
The implication, in Aristotle and Spinoza as
well as in Freud, does not seem to be that man's
animal appetites are m themselves bad, but
that, if they are undisciplined or uncontrolled,
they cause disorder in the individual life and
in society. Some moralists, however, take an
opposite view. For them desire is intrinsically
evil, a factor of discontent, and fraught with
pain.
"While what we crave is wanting," Lucretius
writes, "it seems to transcend all the rest; then,
when it has been gotten, we crave something
else"; yet as often as a man gams something
new, he discovers afresh that "he is not better
off." Either our desires are unsatisfied, and then
we suffer the agony of frustration; or they arc
satiated and so are we — desperate with ennui.
Hence, freedom from all desires, not just their
moderation, seems to be recommended for
peace of mind; as centuries later Schopenhauer
recommended the negation of the will to live in
order to avoid frustration or boredom.
Marcus Aurehus and the Stoics, and later
Kant, similarly urge us "not to yield to the
persuasions of the body . , . and never to be
over-powered either by the motion of the senses
or of the appetites." But whereas the Stoics
would restrain desire "because it is animal" and
in order to avoid pain, Kant argues that the re-
nunciation of desire should be undertaken "not
merely in accordance with duty . . . but from
duty, which must be the true end of all moral
cultivation."
The opposition between these two views of
desire in the moral life represents one of the
major issues in ethical theory, further discussed
in the chapters on DUTY and VIRTUE. The doc-
trine of natural appetite is crucially relevant to
the issue. If the naturalist in ethics is right, he
is so by virtue of the truth that natural tend-
encies are everywhere the measure of good and
evil. If, however, there is no truth in the doc-
trine of natural desire, then the impulses which
spring from man's animal passions can claim no
authority in the court of reason.
330 THE GREAT IDEAS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PACE
1. Desire and the order of change: cros and tclos 331
2. The analysis of desire or appetite 332
20. The roots of desire in need, privation, or potency: the instinctual sources of the
libido
2b. The objects of desire: the good and the pleasant
2c. Desire as a cause of action: motivation or purpose; voluntariness 333
2d. The satisfaction of desire: possession and enjoyment 334
3. The modes of desire or appetite
3#. Natural appetite: desires determined by nature or instinct
3^. Desires determined by knowledge or judgment 335
(1) The distinction between sensitive and rational desire: emotional tendencies
and acts of the will
(2) Conscious and unconscious desires: habitual desire 336
y. Desire and love: their distinction and connection
3</. Desire and aversion as emotional opposites 337
4. The economy of desire in human life
40. The conflict of desires with one another
4& The attachment of desires: fixations, projections, identifications, transferences
4^. The focusing of desires: emotional complexes 338
4^. The discharge of desires: catharsis and sublimation
5. Desire as ruler
50. Desire ruling imagination: daydreaming and fantasy
5#. Desire ruling thought: rationalization and wishful thinking
y. Desire ruling action: the unchecked expression of desires; incontinence 339
6. Desire as subject to rule 340
6a. The regulation of desire by reason: the discipline of moral virtue or duty
6£. The restraint or renunciation of desire: abstention, inhibition, repression 341
6c. The results of repression: dreaming, symbolic over-reactions, neuroses
7. Desire and infinity
70. The infinite tendency of desires
(1) The pursuit of pleasure 342
(2) The lust for power
(3) The accumulation of wealth
7$. The restless search for the infinite: the desire for the vision of God 343
CHAPTER 17: DESIRE
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: lhad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower hah es of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b,the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in tv\o columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO* Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECI) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., lhad, BK n [265-283] 12d,
BIBLE REFERENCES- The refeiences are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT Nehemiah, 7.45— (D) II Esdras, 7 46
SYMBOLS' The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently lather than continuously m the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Desire and the order of change: eros and telos
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 103c-d / Symposium, 165c-
166b / Phaedo, 241b-242b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*16-24]
268b-c; BK n, CH 8-9 275d-278a,c; BK vin,
CH 4 [255°3o-b3i] 340a-c / Generation and
Corruption, BK n, en 6 [333*35-334*9] 434b-
435a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [984b8]-cn 4
[985*281 502d-503c; CH 7 [988b6-i6] 506c-d,
BK ix, CH 8 [i050a3~b6] 575d-576b; BK xn,
CH 5 [io7ob36-io7ia4] 600b-c; CH 7 [1072*
2o-bi3J 602b-d; CH 10 [i075bi-io] 606b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 6 202d-
203a
12 J^UCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1-61] la-d;
[1022-1037] 13c-d; [1052-1082] 14a-c; BK n
[167-183] 17a-b; [1048-1066] 28b-c; BK iv
[823-857] 55a-b; BK v [156-194] 63a-c;
[416-431] 66c-d; [509-533] 67d-68a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v 100c-106b /
Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 18-21 166d-168c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i, la; BK
iv, par 15-17 23a-c / City of God, BK xn, CH
4-5 344b-345b; BK xix, CH 12-14 517b-520d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ
5-0" 23b-30d passim; QQ 19-20 108d-124a
passim; Q 26, A 2, ANS 150c-151a; Q 48, A i,
ANS and REP 4 259b-260c; QQ 59-60 306b-
314c passim; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; Q
104, A 3, REP i 537b-d; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-
542a; PART i-n, Q i, A 2 610b-611b; A 8
615a-c; Q 2, A 5, REP 3 618d-619c; Q 26, A i,
ANS and REP 3 734a-d; Q 27, A 3, ANS and
REP 3-4 738c-739c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9i]-xvin [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, i [94-142]
107b-d
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 50a; 61a-c; PART
iv, 271d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 38a-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 426d-427a
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 73a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PREF 422b,d-
424a
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 72, 184b; 75 185b-186a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 29-41 184d-188c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 293d [fn 3]; 304b-d;
315b-c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385a-
386d / Judgement, 465c-466c esp 466b,d
[fn i]; 483d-484b; 577c-578a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 161 d-
168b esp 162a-163d, 164c, 165b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-42a; 96b-98a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-7a esp 4b-5a
332
THE GREAT IDEAS
2/02*
(1. Desire and the order of change: eros and
telos.)
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle 639a-
663d esp 651d-654c, 662c-663d / Ego and Id,
708d-712a csp 711c-712a / Civilization and
In Discontents, 790a-791d; 799a~800a / New
Introductory Lectures, 849c-851d
2. The analysis of desire or appetite
2a. The roots of desire in need, privation, or
potency: the instinctual sources of the
libido
7 PLATO: Lysis, 24a-c / Symposium, 162a-166b /
Republic, BK iv, 352b-d / Phtlebus, 621c-622b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*16-24]
268b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vu, CH i
(58i'2i-b22] 107a-b / Parts of Animals, BK
in, CH 14 [675b25~3o] 205b / Ethics, BK in,
CH ii [in8b8-i8] 365a-b / Rhetoric, BK n, CH
13 [I389b32-35l 637b
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 6 202d-
203a, CH 8 205a-207b; CH 13, 211d-212d
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK iv [858-876]
55b-c; BK v [156-173] 63a-b
I?PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH i lOOc-
lOlc; CH 10 105d-106b / Fourth Ennead, TR
iv, CH 18 21 166d-168c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 1-6 la-2c;
BK in, par i 13b-c; par 10 15b-d; BK iv, par
15-19 23a-24b; BK v, par 1-2 27a-c; BK vu,
par 16-23 48c-50c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 3, REP 3 25a-d; Q 19, A i, REP 2 108d-109c;
Q 59, A 2, ANS 307c-308b; Q 81, A 2 429c-
430c; PART I-H, Q 27, A 3, ANS and REP 3-4
738c-739c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9i]-xvm [75] 79b-80c; xx [i24]-xxi [75]
84c-85d passim; PARADISE, i [103-120] 107b-c
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 61a d
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT n, sc iv
[263-274] 261c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c; 349a-
350a; 402a-d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 97d-98a; 99d-
102d
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART iv, PROP 2-7 425a-426b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 100 191a-192b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 6 177a-b; CH xxi, SECT 30-35 185a-186d
csp SECT 31 185c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 346b
43 MILL: Liberty, 295b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
190-195 66a-67a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XHI, 577a-578b
esp 577d-578a; BK xw, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-
63 Ic; EPILOGUE i, 665a-d
53 IAMBS: Psychology, 51a-b; 767a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 363c-d /
Narcissism, 400c-402c / Instincts, 412c-413a;
414a-d / General Introduction, 574a; 580a-d;
591d-592b; 615b-616b, 618d-619a / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 654a-c; 657d-659a /
Group Psychology, 673b-c / Ego and Id, 710c-
711 b / Civilization and Its Discontents, 789c-
791c csp 791a / New Introductory Lectures,
846a-851d csp 846a-847b, 849b-851c
2b. The objects of desire: the good and the
pleasant
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Phaedrus,
120a-122a / Symposium, 161d-166b / Meno,
177d-178b / Gorgias, 262a-264b; 275b-280d /
Republic, BK n, 310c-d; BK iv, 351b-352d;
BK ix, 422c-425b csp 423b-424d / Philebus,
614a / Laws, BK v, 689c-690c; BK vi, 712b;
BK VIH, 735c-736c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK n, CH 3 [nob38-ina6j
155d; BK in, CH 1-4 162a-166b; BK vr, CH 8
[i46a37-bi9] 200b-c; [i46b36-i47an] 200d-
201a / Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*16-24] 268b-c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982^2-27] SOOd-
501a; [983*14-21] 501 b-c; BK xn, CH 7 [1072*
23-bi3] 602b-d / Soul, BK n, CH 3 [414*28^5]
644c; BK in, CH 7 [43iai-bi2] 663c-664b; CH
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIH, CH
i [589*3-10] 115b / Parts of Animals, BK ir,
CH 17 [66ift6-8] 188a / Motion of Animals,
CH 6 [700^3-30] 236a / Ethics, BK i, CH i
[1094*1-3] 339a, CH 2 [1094*17-22] 339b; BK
vi, CH 2 387d-388b; BK vu, CH 11-14 403c'
406a,c; BK x, CH 2 426c-427b; CH 3 [1174*
4-11] 428b; CH 4 [1175*10-22] 429c, CH 5
[ii75b24~33] 430b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6-7
602d-607d; CH 10 [1369*1-4] 612b; en 11
[1370*17-28] 613c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK u [1-61]
15a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 4 108d-
HOa
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead^ IR vi 21a-26a pas-
sim / Third Ennead, TR v I00c-106b / Fourth
Ennead, TR iv, CH 35, 177d-178a / Fifth En-
nead, IR v, CH 12 234a-d / Sixth Ennead, TR
vii, CH 30 336b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9-18 lOd-
13a; BK x, par 29-33 78d-80b / Ctty of God,
BK xii, CH 6 345b-346c; BK xix, CH i 507a-
509a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-4 625 b-c;
CH 22-30 629b-633b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 5-6
23b-30d passim; Q 16, A i, ANS 94b-95c; A 4
97a-c; QQ 19-20 108d-124a passim; Q 26, A 2,
ANS 150c-151a; Q 48, A i, ANS and REP 4
259b-260c; QQ 59-60 306b-314c passim, esp
Q 60, AA 3-5 311d-314c; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-
3l8c; Q 63, A 4 328b-329a; QQ 80-83 Wa-
440b; passim; Q 104, A 3, REP i 537b-d; Q 105,
A 4, ANS 541c-S42a; Q 106, A 2, ANS 546d-547c;
2c
CHAPTER 17: DESIRE
333
PART i-n, QQ 1-5 609a-643d passim; Q 8 655a-
657c; Q 22, A 2, ANS 721c-722c; A 3, REP 2
722d-723b; Q 23 723c-727a; Q 26, A i, ANS
and REP 3 734a-d; Q 27 737a-740a; Q 30
749a-752b passim; Q 33, A 2 766a-767a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a; PART in SUPPL, Q 98,
A 3 1074a-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9i]-xvm [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, v [1-12]
112a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-62c; 76c-77b;
96a; PART iv, 272c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART 11, 381d-
382a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 73a-74a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 50b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, PROP 4-13 398d-
400d; PROP 39, SCHOL 408b-d; PROP 56
414a-d; THE AFFECTS, DBF 1-3 416b-417a;
PART iv, DBF 1-2 424a; PROP 9-13 426d-428a;
PROP 19-28 429d-431c; PROP 63 443d-444a;
PROP 65-66 444b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, Si 186b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 3 104b-d; BK n, CH VH, SECT 3 131d-
132a; CH xx, SECT 6 177a-b; CH xxi, SECT
29-48 184d-190d passim, esp SECT 31 185c-d,
SECT 42 188c; SECT 55-56 192c-193b; SECT
61-62 194b-d; SECT 70 197a-b; SECT 73 198c-
199c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
264d-265b / Practical Reason, 298a-300d;
315c-317b; 330c-331a; 341c-342a / Judge-
ment, 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-450b; 461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 123-
124 44a-d / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
319b-320a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1194-1216] 29b-30a;
PART n [11,559-586] 281b-282a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-b; 316a-317a;
592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 524c-527a;
BK xn, 560a-561c; BK xm, 577a-578b esp
577d-578a; BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-
631c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 198b-211a; 808b-814b esp
812b-813a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 414a-b; 418d-420b esp
420a-b / General Introduction, 592c-593a / Be-
yond the Pleasure Principle, 639a-640c / Civi-
lization and Its Discontents, 772a-b
2r. Desire as a cause of action: motivation or
purpose; voluntariness
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 95a-b / Symposium, 163a-
166b / Republic, BK iv, 352d-353b / Timaeus,
474b-d/ Laws, BK vi, 712b; BK ix, 751b d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, KK u, CH 2 [994^-16]
512d-513a; BK vi, CH i [io25b23-25] 547d;
BK ix, CH 5 [io47b35-io48a24J 573b-c; CH 7
[1049*5-12] 574c-d / Soul, BK in, CH 7
[43ift8-bi2] 663c-664b; CH Q/-II 664d-667a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 6-11
235d-239d esp CH 6 235d-236b, CH 10 238c-
239a / Ethics, BK in, CH i 355b,d-357b esp
[iina2i-b3] 357a-b; CH 12 365d-366a,c; BK
vi, CH 2 387d-388b / Politics, BK n, CH 7
[1267*3-8] 462c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10
611c-613a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d; BK iv [877-906] 55d-56a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH 10 105d-
106b / Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 18-21 166d-
168c / Sixth Ennead, TR vin, CH 4 344b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 25 25c;
BK vin, par 19-27 58b-60c / City of God, BK
xn, CH 6 345b-346c ~
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14, A
8, ANS and REP i 82c-83b; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-
107c; Q 19, A 4 lllc-112c; Q 41, A 2 218c-219d;
Q 57, A 4, REP 3 298a-299a; Q 59, A i, REP 3
306c-307b; Q 75, A 3, REP 3 380c-381b; Q 78,
A i, ANS and REP 4 407b-409a; Q 80, A 2,
REP 3 428a-d; Q 81, A 3, ANS and REP 2
430c-431d; PART i-n, Q i, AA 1-6 609b-614c;
Q 6 644a-651c; QQ 16-17 684a-693d; Q 22, A 2,
REP 2 721c-722c; Q 28, A 6 744b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvni
[19-75] 80a-c
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 53a; 61a-c; 64a-c;
76c; PART n, 112d-113c
31 DLSCARIES: Discourse, PART v, 60b
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART in, THE AFFECTS, DBF i
416b-d; PART iv, DEF 7 424b; PROP 19 429d;
PROP 59 442b-d
33 PASCAL Provincial Letters, 24b-26b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH 11,
SEC i 3 104b-d; SECT 13 107d-108c; BK n, CH
xx, SECT 6 177a-b; CH xxi, SECT 29-48 184d-
190d passim, esp SECT 33 186a; SECT 73
198c-199c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-339b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
262a c; 271c-d; 279b; 282d-283d / Practical
Reason, 293d [fn 3]; 298d-300a; 303b-304b;
341c-342a / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
385a-386d
43 MILL. Representative Government, 346c-348c /
Utilitarianism, 461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par n
15a-b; par 17 16c; PART n, par 123 44a-b /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 162a-c; 164b-
166b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-314c passim;
316a-317a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-7a; 8a-9a; 13a-15a;
51a-b; 767a-768a; 788a-799b
54 FREUD. Interpretation of Dreamt, 363b-364d;
377c-378b / Instincts, 412c-413a; 418d-419a /
General Introduction, 453b-476a,c passim, esp
469a-470c, 473b-d / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 768b-c
334
(2. The analysis of desire or appetite.)
Id. The satisfaction of desire: possession and
enjoyment
7 PLATO: Symposium, 162b-c / Gorgias, 275b-
276b / Republic, BK ix, 421a-425b / Philebus,
620a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 8 [i 46^3 -19]
200c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK HI, CH 10-11 364b-
365d; BK x, CH 4-5 428b-430d esp CH 4
[1175*10-22] 429c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1003-
1010] 43a; BK iv [1073-1120] 58a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 2-4 9b-d;
BK iv, par 15 23a-b; BK vi, par 9-10 37c-38b;
par 26 42d-43a; BK vin, par 6-8 54c-55a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-4 625b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A
6, ANS and REP 2 27c-28b; PART i-n, Q i, AA
7-8 614c-615c; Q 2, A 6 619d-620d; Q 3, A 4
625a-626b; Q 4, AA 1-2 629d-631a; Q 5, A 8,
REP 3 642d-643d; Q n 666b,d-669b; Q 27, A 3,
ANS 738c-739c; Q 30, A 4, REP 3 751c-752b;
QQ 31-34 752b-772b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, QQ
28-29 527b-533a; PART in SUPPL, Q 69, A 4,
ANS 889c-890c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvin
[19-39] 80a-b; PARADISE, in [34-90] 109d-
llOb; xxxn [52-72] 155b-c; xxxni [46-48]
156c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 32 406b-c;
PROP 35-36 406d-407c; PROP 39, scHOL408b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensc'cs, 109 193b-194a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 346b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 298a-300a; 341c-
342a / Judgement, 470a-471b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 347b-348b /
Utilitarianism, 448d-449c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 45
23c-d; par 59 27a-b; PART n, par 124 44b-d,
PART in, par 154 57c; par 182 64a / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 165b-166a
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART i [2605-3216] 63 b-
79a, PART n [9192-9573] 223b-232a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-309d passim;
312b
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 725b-726a; 812a-813b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 363c-d;
377c-d / Instincts, 412d-413a / Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, 663a / Ego and Id, 711d-
712a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 773b-d
3. The modes of desire or appetite
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK HI, CH 9 [432^-7] 665a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [1370*17-27]
613c
17 PixmNus: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 4-5 108c-
109d
THE GREAT IDEAS
2dto3a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 29-33
78d-80b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 6,
A i, REP 2 28b-d; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c;
Q 59, A i, ANS 306c-307b; Q 78, A i, REP 3
407b-409a; Q 80 427a-428d; PART i-n, Q 5,
A 8, REP 3 642d-643d; Q 8, A i, ANS 655b-
656a;Q26,Ai734a-d
21 DANTE: Dunne Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9i]-xvm [75] 79b-80c esp xvu [91-96] 79b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 61a-62a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 9 399b-c;
PROP 56-57 414a-415b; THE AFFECTS, DBF i
416b-d; PART iv, P&OP 59 442b-d; APPENDIX,
i-in 447a-b; PART v, PROP 4, scHOL453b-d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 119a-b / Descent
of Man, 287d-289a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a-17b esp 8a-9a, 13a-15a;
47b-52b esp 49b-50a, 51a-52a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 591d-593b /
War and Death, 757d-759d esp 758d-759a
#. Natural appetite: desires determined by
nature or instinct
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120b-c / Symposium, 165 b-c
/ Republic, BK n, 311b-312b / Timaeus,
474b-d / Philebus, 621c-622b / Laws, BK vi,
712b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH o [i92ai6-24]
268b-c; BK vni, CH 4 [255*30-^31] 340a-c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-28] 499a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 8
[542fti7-b4] 68d-69a; BK vi, CH i8-BK vn,
CH 2 97b-108c passim, esp BK vi, CH 18 97b-
99c, BK vn, CH i 106b,d*108a; BK vin, en
i [589*4-9] 115b / Ethics, BK in, CH n [in8b
8-18] 365a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 11 [1370"*
18-25] 613c; BK n, CH 7 [1385*21-25] 631d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 6 202d-
203a; CH 8 205a-207b, CH 13, 211d-212d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK iv [858-876] 55b-c; [1037-1057]
57d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK n, 224d-225a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v 100c-106b /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 28, 157a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 6, A
i, REP 2 28b-d; Q 12, A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 8, REP
4 57b-58b, Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c; A 4
lllc-112c; Q 26, A 2, ANS 150c-151a; Q 59, A i,
ANS 306c-307b; Q 60 310a-3l4c; Q 62, A i,
ANS 317d-318c; Q 63, A 3 327b-328b; Q 75, A 6,
ANS 383c-384c; Q 78, A i, REP 3 407b-409a;
Q 80, A i, ANS ana REP 1,3 427b-428a; Q 82,
A i 431d-432c; PART i-n> <? 5, A 8 642d-643d;
Q 8, A i, ANS 6S5b-656a; Q 10, A 2 663d-664d;
Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2, 673c-674c; Q 26,
A i, ANS and RBP 3 734a-d; A 2, ANS 734d-
735c; Q 27, A 2, REP 3 737d-738c; Q 30,
AA 3-4 750d-752b; Q 34, A i, REP 2 768c-
769d; Q 36, AA 1-2 780c-782b; Q 40, A 3 794c-
795a
3* to
CHAPTER 17: DESIRE
335
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 2, ANS and REP 2 221d-223a; Q 109, A 3
340c-341b; PART in SUPPL, Q 93, A i, ANS
1037d-1039a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9r]-xvm [75] 79b-80c; xx [i24]-xxi [75]
84c-85d passim; PARADISE, i [103-120] 107b-c
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; 61a-d; 76c-d;
PART iv, 271d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 224d-225a; 489b-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c; 349a-
350a; 402a-d; 405c-406a; 476c-477a
31 DESCARTES- Discourse, PART v, 60b / Medi-
tations, vi, 97d-98a; 99d-103d / Objections
and Replies, 124b; 156a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, 395a-d; PROP 7
399a; PART iv, PROP 19 429d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 81 186b / Geometrical Dem-
onstration, 440b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 3 104b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
3 405b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-339b; 346b
44 Bos WELL Johnson, 130b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par n
15a-b; ADDITIONS, 121 136c-d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 119a / Descent of
Man, 287d-289a;304a-313a passim, esp304b,d
[fn5], 307d-309d, 310c-311b; 371c-372c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 49b-50a; 198b-199a; 204b-
211a esp 205b-206a, 209a-b; 700a-737a esp
700a-701a, 712b-737a; 799a-b; 890b 892a
esp 891b [fn i]
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho -
Analysis, 15d-18a / Interpretation of Dreams,
363c-d / Narcissism, 400c-402c esp 401 b-c /
Instincts, 414b-421c passim, esp 414c-415d /
General Introduction, 569c-576d esp 574a-d /
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654c;
658b~659d / War and Death, 758a-759a;
764d-765a / Civilization and Its Discontents,
787a-788d esp 787a-c; 789b-791d / New In-
troductory Lectures, 837b-d; 846a-851d esp
846a-847b; 883b-c
\b. Desires determined by knowledge or judg-
ment
7 PLATO- Protagoras, 59a-62d / Phaedrus, 120b-c
/ Philebus, 621c-622b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 8 [i46b36-
147*11] 200d-201a / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 7 [1072*26-30] 602b / Soul, BK n, CH 2
[413^19-24] 643d; CH 3 [414*28^16] 644c-d;
BK in, CH 3 [427b2i-24J 660a; CH 7 [43i*8-bi2]
663c-664b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 3 [1113*3-13]
359a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [1370*17^28] 613c
17 PLOTTNUS: Fourth Ennead, TR nit CH 28,
157a-b; TR iv, CH 20, 168a-b / Sixth Ennead,
TR VIH, CH 2-4 343c-344d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 29-33
78d-80b / City of God, BK xiv, CH 6 380b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 78,
A i, REP 3 407b-409a; QQ 80-83 427a-440b;
PART i-n, Q 27, A 2 737d-738c; Q 40, A 2
793d-794c
21 DANTB: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[9i]-xvm [75] 79b-80c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 50b / Medi-
tations, in, 82d-83a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, AXIOM 3 373d;
PART iv, PROP 59 442b-d; PROP 61-62 443a-d;
APPENDIX, in 447b; PART v, PROP 4, SCHOL
453b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-339b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. -Metaphysic of Morals,
264d-265b esp 265b,d [fn i]
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-313a passim,
csp 312a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 13a-15a; 51a-52a; 729b-
730a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 501d-504b;
593a / War and Death, 758a-759a
The distinction between sensitive and
rational desire: emotional tendencies
and acts of the will
7 PLATO: Republic, BK ix, 421a-425b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 573a-
c; BK xn, CH 7 [1072*27-29] 602b / Soul,
BK in, CH 7 [43i*8-bi2] 663c-664b; CH 9
[432b5-7] 665a; CH 10 [433b5-i3] 666b; CH
10 [433b27]-cH n [434*22] 666c-667a /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453ai5~3i]
695b-d
9ARisTorLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [1368^8-
1369*4] 612a-b;cH n [1370*17-28] 613c
17 PLOIINUS- First Ennead, TR vi 21a-26a pas-
sim / Third Ennead, TR v, CH i lOOc-lOlc;
TR vi, CH 4-5 108c-109d / Fourth Ennead,
TR iv, CH 28 172a-173b / Sixth Ennead, TR
vin, CH 2-4 343c-344d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A i, ANS 108d-109c; Q 59, A i, ANS and REP i
306c-307b; Q 79, A i, REP 2 414a-d; Q 80,
A 2 428a-d; Q 82, A 2, REP 3 432d-433c; A 5
435c-436c; Q 106, A 2, REP 3 546d-547c; PART
i-n, Q i, A 2, REP 3 610b-611b; Q 6, A 2 646a-c;
Q n, A 2 667b-d; Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2
673c-674c; Q 15, A 2 682a-c; Q 16, A 2 684d-
685b; Q 17, A 2 687d-688b; Q 22, A 3 722d-
723b; Q 24, A 2, ANS 727d-728c; Q 26, A i,
ANS 734a-d; Q 30, A i 749a-d; A 3 750d-751c;
Q 31, AA 3-4 754a-755c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART Hi, Q 18,
A 2 811d-812b
21 DANTB: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
[19-75] 80a-c
23 HOBBES : Leviathan, PART i, 63a; 64ft-c; PART
n, 162c
31 DESCARTES : Discourse > PART in, 50b
336
THE GREAT IDEAS
33(2) to 3c
(3£. Desires determined by knowledge or judg-
ment. 3£(1) The distinction between
sensitive and rational desire: emotional
tendencies and acts of the will.)
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 48, SCHOL
391 b-c; PART in, PROP 9, SCHOL 399c; PROP
58-59 415c-416b; THE AFFECTS, DBF i, EXPL
416c-d; PART v, PROP 32 460b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxi,SECT3o!85a-c
42 KANT: Fund, Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
264d-265b csp 265b,d [fn i]; 271c-d; 279b;
282d-283b; 284d-285a / Practical Reason,
301a-c; 303b-304b; 314d-317c; 330c-331a /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-386b /
Judgement, 483d~484b; 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 463c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 19
16d-17a; par 25-26 18a-c; PART n, par 139
48d-49b; PART m, par 194 66c-d; ADDITIONS,
121 136c-d; 131 137d / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 163a-164a; PART iv, 362b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-314c; 592d-
593a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a-9a; 13a-15a; 767b-768a;
790a-799b passim, esp 794a-798b
54 FREUD: Hysteria, HOc / Interpretation of
Dreams, 377c-380d csp 377c-378b, 379d-
380 b / General Introduction, 501d-504b; 590a-
593b; 607d-608c; 615b-616c / Ego and Id,
702c / New Introductory Lectures, 837b-838d;
843d-844b
3^(2) Conscious and unconscious desires: ha-
bitual desire
7 PLATO : Republic, BK ix, 416a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i 348b,d-349b;
CH 5 351b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 10-11
55c-56b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 87,
A 2 466c-467b; PART i-ii, Q i, A 6, REP 3
614a-c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3 8b-9a; A 5 lOb-d; Q 56, A 4 32b-33c; A 6
34b-35a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 9, SCHOL 399c;
THE AFFECTS, DBF I, EXPL 416c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Mctaphysic of Morals,
262a-c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-
386b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 463d-464d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 119a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 407c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8b-9a; 90b<93a passim;
788a-792a
54 FREUD: Hysteria, HOb-c / Interpretation of
Dreams, 357b-358c; 363b-365c csp 364c;
369a-b; 377b-387a,c passim, esp 386d-387a /
Unconscious, 428a-443d esp 428a» 429d-430b,
432c-433d, 436b-437c / General Introduction,
452a-c; 453b-476a,c esp 468a-469c, 473c-d;
501d-503d esp 503b-c; 531d-532b; 599d /
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 643d-646a /
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 720a
3r. Desire and love: their distinction and con-
nection
5 EURIPIDES: Iphtgenia at Aulis [543-589] 429d-
430a
7 PLATO: Lysis, 20c-d; 23d-24d / Phaedrus,
115a-129d csp 120b-c, 123b-124a / Symposium,
164c-165b / Laws, BK vm, 735c-736c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 22
[68a25-b7] 89d-90a / Topics, BK vi, CH 7
[146*9-12] 199d; BK vii, CH i [i52b6-9] 207c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH n [in8b8-i8]
365a-b; BK vm, CH 1-8 406b,d-411d passim,
CH 13-14 414d-416d; BK ix, CH i 416b,d-417c
passim; CH 5 420a-c; CH 8 421d-423a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1062] 57d-58a
12 EPICTETUS. Discourses, BK in, CH 24 203c-
210a
17 PLOHNUS First Ennead, TR v, CH 7-TR vi,
CH 9 20a-26a
18 AUGUSTINF: Confessions, BK n, par I-BK in,
par i 9a-13c / City of God, BK xiv, CH 7
380c-381c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 10,
661d-662a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A i, REP 2 108d-109c; A 2, ANS 109c410b;
Q 20, A i, ANS and REP 2 120a-121b; A 2,
REP 3 121b-122a; Q 60, A 3, ANS 311d-312b,
PART I-II, Q 2, A I, REP 3 615d-616c; Q 23, A 2
724c-725c; A 4 726a-727a; Q 25, A 2 731b-
732a; A 3, ANS 732a-733a; Q 26 733d-737a,
Q 27, AA 3-4 738c-740a; Q 28, A i, ANS and
REP 1-2 740b-741a; A 2, ANS 741a-742a, A 3,
ANS and REP 2-3 742a-d; A 4 742d-743c, Q
30, A 2 749d-750d; Q 32, A 3, REP 3 760d-761c;
A 8, ANS 764c-765b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q62,
A 3, ANS and REP 3 61c-62b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvii feij-xvin [75] 79b-80c
23 HOBBFS: Leviathan, PART i, 61c; 63a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 83d-84a; 398c-399d;
424d-425a;473a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc n [308-321] 107d-108a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 79d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics^ PART in, THE AFFECTS, DEF
6 417b-c; PART iv, APPENDIX, i-n 447a-b;
xix-xx 449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [500-617]
243a-245b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 4-6 176d-177b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345c-346b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 204b-209b passim
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 404d-406b; 409b-411a,c /
Instincts, 420a-421a / General Introduction,
CHAPTER 17iDESUtE
337
581b; 617c-618a / Group Psychology, 673b-
674a; 679a-b; 681c-683a; 693a*694b / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 783b-c / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 847d-848a
5d. Desire and aversion as emotional opposites
7 PLATO- Republic, BK iv, 352d-353a
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 7 [43ia8-b9J
663c-664a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 2 [1139*21-31]
387d-388a; BK x, CH 2 [1173*5-13! 427a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 6380b-c
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q
23, A 2 724c-725c; A 4 726a-727a; Q 25, AA
1-2 730b-732a; A }, REP 3 732a-733a; Q 30
749a-752b; Q 35, A 6 777b-778c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in 395a-422a,c esp
PROP 12-13 400b-d, PROP 15-48 401a-411a,
PROP 51 4!lC-412a, THE AFFECTS, DBF 2-3
416d-417a, DEF 6-7 417b-d; PART iv, DEF 5
424b
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 4-5 176d-177a
42 KANT • Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385a-c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 708a-709a
54 FREUD Instincts, 418c-421a,c esp 418c / Be-
yond the Pleasure Principle, 659b-d / Group
Psychology, 677c-678c / Ego and Id, 708d-
710c esp 709d-710c / War and Death, 766a-b
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 790a-791b
4. The economy of desire in human life
4a. The conflict of desires with one another
APOCRYPHA: Susanna, 22-24— (D) OT, Dante!,
13:22-24
N EW TESTAMENT : Matthew, 6 -.24 ; 8 :2i-22 ; 26 136-
45 / Romans, 7:14-25 / Philipptans, 1:21-26
/ James, 4:1-10
7 PLATO. Phaedrus, 128a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 [1048*21-
24] 573c / Soul, BK in, CH 10 [433b5~i3] 666b;
CH ii [434*10-15] 666d-667a / Memory and
Reminiscence, CH 2 [453*15-31] 695b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn 395a-406a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1073-
1085] 58a-b
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK iv [332-360] 176a-177a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 11-12 21d-
22b; BK x, par 39 81b-<:; par 41-64 81c-87d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 6,
A A 6-7 649a-650d, Q 9, A 2, REP 3 658d-
659c; Q 10, A 3 664d-665c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 77,
A i 145a-d; PART ii-n, Q 29, A i 530b-531a,
PART in, Q 18, A 6 814d-815d; PART in SUPPL,
Q 96, AA ii-u 1063d-1065b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [1-27]
llOd-llla
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 297b-d; 350d-354b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART ni-iv395a-45Qd passim,
esp PART HI, PROP 31 405d-406a, PART ivt
DEF 5 424b, PROP 7, COROL 426b, PROP 15-18
428a-429d, PROP 60-61 442d-443b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 17
• 16c; ADDITIONS, 13 118c
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PARTI [354-513] lla-14b,
[614-685] 17a-18a, [1110-1117] 27b-28a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 394a-397a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 309c-313a; 318d-
3l9a
50 MARX : Capital, 293c-294a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
53d-54b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b-204b; 705a-706b;
717a-718a; 720b; 734b-735a; 791a-798b pas-
sim, esp 794a-795a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 7a-8a / Hystena, 65c-66a; 82c-83a;
117a / Interpretation of Dreams, 370b / Nar-
cissism, 407a-c / Unconscious, 433d-436c esp
436b-c/ General Introduction, 467b-476a,c esp
469c-470c, 474d-475a; 501d-504b; 589c-593b
esp589c-591d;599d-600d;615b-616c;624b-d;
633d-635d / Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
640c-d/ Ego and Id, 699a-c; 704d; 712a-717a,c
passim / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety,
720a-733c passim, esp 722b-d, 724a-725a,
731c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 783d-
784a; 789b-791d passim / New Introductory
Lectures, 843d-845a
4b. The attachment of desires: fixations, pro-
jections, identifications, transferences
12 LUCRETIUS Nature of Things, BK iv [1058-
1072] 57d-58a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 15 155c-156b
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, lOb-llb
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT HI, sc n
[123-195] 87c-88a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 13-17 400c-
402a; PROP 46 410c; PART rv, PROP 6 426a;
PROP 44, SCHOL 437d-438a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 81 186b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 196d-
197c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1583-1606] 38b-39a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl(csp 135a-136b, 156b-
158b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 648b-650b; 707a-712b
esp 707b-708a; 734b-735b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 16b-18a; 19a-c / Narcissism 399a-
411a,c esp 404d-406c, 409d-410d / Instincts,
414b / General Introduction, 557b-558d esp
558a-b; 569c-589c esp 574c-d, 580a-581c,
585b-586d, 589a-c; 593d-597c; 599d-600d;
616d-622b; 623c-631b esp 628d-630d; 634b-d
/ Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 644d-645d;
648c / Group Psychology, 678d-684a esp 678d-
681a, 681b,d [fn 4] / Ego and Id, 703c-706c
esp 704d-705c; 711b-c; 712b-c / New Intro-
338
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The economy of desire in human life. 4b. The
attachment of desires: fixations, projections,
identifications, transferences,}
ductory Lectures, 832b-834b csp 832d-833b;
847b-849b; 855d-856d; 862d-863c
4c. The focusing of desires: emotional com-
plexes
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysts, lOc; 16b-17d / Interpretation of
Dreams, 246a-248c / Instincts, 415d-418c /
General Introduction, 529d-531d; 557b-55Sd;
569c-585a esp 574a-576d, 580a-584c; 593d-
600d; 607b-623c / Beyond the Pleasure Prin-
ciple, 644d-646a / Group Psychology, 680c-d /
Ego and Id, 704d-706d / Inhibitions, Symp-
toms, and Anxiety, 724a-742a esp 724a-727c,
733c-734d, 739a-740b / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 774c-d; 792b-796c esp 794c-
796c / New Introductory lectures, 833c-834a;
847b 849b; 855d-863c esp 8S6b-860a
4</. The discharge of desires: catharsis and
sublimation
9 ARISTOTLE: Poetics, CH 6 [i449b28] 684a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
190a-c
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes, 337a
42 KANT Judgement, 509b-d
44 BOSWLLL: Johnson, 308b c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 718a-719a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 2b-6c esp 4c-5a; 8d-9a; llc-17b;
20a-d / Hysteria, 26c-31a esp 27a-c, 62c-64a /
Interpretation of Dreams, 189b-193b; 356d-
373a esp 363c-d, 364d-365c, 369a-370a / Nar-
cissism* 407c-4Q8a / General Introduction, 452c-
d; 495a-499b esp 496a-497b; 527c-539c esp
532d-535d; 587d-588b; 592c-593a / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 641d-643c / Group Psy-
chology, 693b-694b / Ego and Id, 704b-c; 710c-
712a / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and \Anxiety,
739a-c; 745a; 751 b-d/ Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 773d-774c; 781 a-c / New Introductory
Lectures, 847a-b
5. Desire as ruler
5*i. Desire ruling imagination: daydreaming
and fantasy
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 361a
8 ARISTOTLE: Dreams, CH 2 [46o*33-b27] 704b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 42 82a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART I-H, Q 77,
A i, ANS 145a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PARTI, 52d-53a; PART n,
138d-139a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 37a-b; 405d-406a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT m, sc n
[123-195) 87c-88a / Richard //, ACT v, sc v
[1-41] 349d-350a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART i, lb-2b,
18d-19b, 50b-52d, 134b-135d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [95-128] 177b-
178a / Samson Agonistes [599-605] 352b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 220c-
221a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [7271-7312] 178b-
179a; [10,039-066] 245a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 82a-d; BK
in, 125b-c; 146d-148c; BK vi, 254b-c; BK x,
394d; 443c-444a; BK xi, 497c-499c; BK xn,
542d-543a; 544a-b; BK xiv, 601c-602d; BK
xv, 615a-617a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 374a-375a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho -
Analysis, 18c-d / Hysteria, 115a-116a / Inter-
pretation of Dreams, 333c-336a esp 333c-d,
347d-349c / General Introduction, 483b-c;
486b-489c esp 486d-487a, 487d-488a; 597b-
601b esp 599b-600b, 600d-601b / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 774a-c
b. Desire ruling thought: rationalization and
wishful thinking
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, llb-d, 21d-22a
6 I^HUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK in,
427d-428a; BK iv, 474a-c; BK v, 506b; 507a c
9 ARISTOTLL. Politics, BK HI, CH 16 [i2Sj&2o-b^]
485c-486a
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK iv [1141-
1191] 59a-d
12 EPICILTUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 18 161a-
162b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 9,
A 2, ANS and REP 2 658d-659c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 74,
AA 5-10 131d-137c, Q 77, A i, ANS 145a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52d-53a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
148d-150d; 154a-156c, 159d-163c; 166a468a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 210b-212a; 273b-276a;
490d-491d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT in, sc n
[123-195] 87c-88a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT v,
sc n [106-114] 136a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK HI, 60d-61a
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 306a-c;
309d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 49 Ilia
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv 89a-93a / Objec-
tions and Replies^ 215d-216a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 39, SCHOL
408b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 82-87 186b<189a; 99-100
191a-192b / Geometrical Demonstration, 439b-
442a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxi, SECT 12 180d-181a; SECT 65-67 195b-
196c; BK iv, CH xx, SECT 12 392c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29b-30a; NUMBER
31, 103c-104a; NUMBER 50, 162a-b
CHAPTER 17: DESIRE
339
43 MILL: Liberty, 269d-270a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 103b-c; 106d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
ii, 82d-83a; BK in, 134a-c; BK iv, 170d-171c;
BK vi, 238a-c; BK ix, 366d-367b; BK x, 426b;
BK xi, 505a-511b esp 509d-510a; BK xm,
585b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 314b; 381b-385b; 643a-
646a; 652a-657b; 668a-671a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 363d-364b;
379a-380d / Narcissism, 400a / Group Psy-
chology, 682b-d / Ego and Id, 716a / War and
Death, 760d-761a; 765a-766b1 / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 774c-d / New Introductory
Lectures, 873d-879c passim, esp 874a-d, 876d-
877b, 878b-c
5c. Desire ruling action: the unchecked expres-
sion of desires; incontinence
OLD TESTAMENT' Genesis, 4 1-16; 25:29-34; 34;
39:7-20 / Exodus, 16:1-3 / Numbers, 11:4-35;
16:1-35— (D) Numbers, 11:4-34; 16 1-35 /
/ Samuel, 18-5-12; 19:8-10— (D) 7 Kings,
18:5-12; 19:8-10 / // Samuel, n; 13— (D)
// Kings, ii ; 13
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:6-9— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 2:6-9
NEW TESTAMENT' Romans, i '18-32 / Philippians,
3:18-19 / / Timothy, 6*9-10 / James, 4:1-47
I John, 2*15-17
5 AESCHYLUS Seven Against Thebes [653-719]
34b~35a
5 SOPHOCLES. Ajax [1047-1090] 152a-b / Tra-
chiniae [431-492] 174a-c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [623-641] 217c
5 ARISTOPHANES • Clouds [882-1104] 499b-502a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 95d-98b; BK
VH, 222c-d
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
436d-438b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120a-122a; 128a-129c / Re-
public, BK ii, 311b-312b; BK HI, 326c-327b;
BK iv, 352b-354d, BK ix, 416a-418c; 425c-
42 7b / Timaeus, 474b-d / Seventh Letter,
801 b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 9 [433*1 ]-CH ii
[435*21] 665c-667a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VH, CH i
[581*21^22] 107a-b / Motion of Animals,
CH 7 [7oia6]-cH 8 [702*22] 236b-237c / Eth-
ics, BK i, CH 13 [iio2bi3-26] 348a-b; BK HI,
CH ii [ni8b8-i9] 365a-b; CH 12 [1119*34-
bi9) 366a,c; BK vn, CH i-io 395a 403c; CH 14
[ii54b2-i5] 405d-406a / Politics, BK n, CH 7
[1267*3-8] 462c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10
[1369*5-22] 612b-c; BK n, CH 12 [i389*3-bn]
636b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK ii, CH r8 161a-
162b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 10 257d-
258a
14 PLUTARCH: Antony 748a-779d
15 TACITUS : Annals, BK in, 57b-58d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 25 25c;
BK vi, par 11-13 38b-39c; BK vm, par 25-27
60a-c; BK x, par 40-70 81c-89a / Christian
Doctrine, BK HI, CH 18-21 664d-666b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 3, REP 1-2 430c-431d; Q 83, A i, REP i 436d-
438a; PART i-n, Q 6, A 7 650a-d; Q 9, A 2
658d-659c; Q 10, A 3 664d-665c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 75,
AA 2-3 138c-139d, Q 77 144d-152a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v [I]-VHI [64]
7a-llc, xi [67-90] 15d-16a; PURGATORY, XVH
[91-139] 79b-d; xix-xxvi 81c-94c
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Tale [i7,i04~i44]490a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 107a-112d; 159a-167a;
232b-238d; 350d-354b; 413a-416c; 486b-
495a; 527b-528a; 538a-543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT in, sc n
[123-195] 87c-88a; ACT v, sc vi [61-93] 103d'
104a / Richard III 105a-148a,c / Romeo and
Juliet, ACT n, sc vi [1-15] 300c
27 SHAKESPEARE' Hamlet, ACT in, sc n [61-79]
49c-d; sc iv [65-81] 55b-c / Troilus and Cres-
sida, ACT i, sc in [101-124] 109b; ACT n, sc
n 113c-115d / Othello 205a-243a,c esp ACT
iv, sc i 229d-233a, ACT v, sc n [291-356]
242b-243a / King Lear, ACT iv, sc vi [109-134]
274c-d / Antony and Cleopatra 311a-350d
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART iv, PROP 1-18 424c-
429d; PROP 44 437c-438a; PROP 6o~6i 442d-
443b
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK vm [521-594]
243b-245a; BK ix [990-1066] 269a-270b; BK
xn [79-90] 321a / Samson Agonistes [521-540]
351a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH ii,
SECT 3 104b-d; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 29-48
184d-190d passim; SECT 65-67 195b-196c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 239b-243a
37 FIELDING- Tom ] ones, 109c; 122d-123a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 34d-39d passim,
esp 35a-b, 38a-b; 60a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 174c-175a; 559a-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 135c-136a; 301c-d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, INTRO, 162b-c;
171c-172b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [2605-2677] 63b-65a;
PART n [9695-9944] 235a-241b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
v, 201a-c; BK vi, 248b-250a; 251d-252d; BK
vm, 321d-322d; 329c-333a; 334d-335a; 336b-
337d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karam azov , BK i, 4a-d;
BK n, 39b-40a; BK vi, 164b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 718a-720a; 799a-807a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 690b-c / Ego and
Id, 702c-d / New Introductory Lectures, 837b-
839b
340
6. Desire as subject to rule
6a, The regulation of desire by reason: the
discipline of moral virtue or duty
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:14,17 / Numbers,
15:38-41 / Deuteronomy, 5:18,21 / Psalms,
37:1-13 csp 377-8— (D) Psalms, 36:1-13 esp
36:7-8 / Proverbs, 7; 23:1-6; 25:16; 30:7-9
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 18:30-31; 23 '5-6;
31:1-17— (D) OT, Eccksiasttcus, 18:30-31;
23.5-6; 31:1-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 8:1-13 / / Corin-
thians, 1 3 '4-8 / Galattans, 5:16-24 / Colossians,
3:5-15/7 Thessalonians, 4:3-8 / / Timothy,
6:3-12 / THUS, 2:11-14; 3:3-7 /James, 4:1-7
/ I Peter, 2.11
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumemdes [490-565] 86b 87a
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia at Auhs [543-589] 429d-
430a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [882-1104] 499b-502a
/ Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 128a-d / Phaedo, 225d-
226c / Gorgia$, 275b-280d / Republic, BK in,
326c-327b; BK iv, 346a-356a; BK ix, 416a-c;
435c-427b / Laws, BK vi, 7l2b; BK vm,
735c~738c
8 ARISTOTLE* Topics, BK v, CH i [129*10-16]
179a / Soul, BK HI* CH 9 [433*5-8] 665c; CH n
[434*10^15] 666d-667a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [iio2bi3-no3*
3] 348a-c; BK in, CH 10-12 364b-366a,c; BK
vi, CH 2 387d-388b; BK vn, CH i-io 395a-
403c passim / Politics, BK n, CH 7 [i266b26-
1267*17] 462b-d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 826d-827a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations 253a-310d esp BK n,
SECT 16 259a, BK iv, SECT 24 265c-d, BK vn,
SECT 55 283b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv 167a-186b
14 PLUTARCH: Corwlanus, 174b,d-175a / Caius
Manus, 353d-354a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 57b-58d
17 PLOIINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 1-2 246c-
247b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 2-4 9b-d;
BK in, par i 13b-c; BK vi, par 18-26 40d-43a;
BK vin, par 1-2 52c-53b; par 10-11 55c-56b;
par 25-27 60a-c; BK x, par 40-70 81c-89a /
City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-289a;
BK xiv, CH 8-9 381c-385b; BK xix, CH 4,
511d-512a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 24
630c-631a; CH 27 631d; BK in, CH 18-21 664d-
666b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 81,
A 3 430c-431d; Q 95, A 2 507c-508a; Q 98, A 2
517d-519a; PART i-n, Q 10, A 3 664d-665c; Q
17, A 7 690d-692a; Q 24 727a-730a; Q 45, A
4, ANS 812b-813a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3 8b*9a; Q 56, A 4 32b-33c; A 5, RKP i
33c~34b; QQ 59-60 45d-54d; PART w, Q 15,
A 4 790d-791c
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 6a
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy^ PURGATORY 53a-105d
csp xv (40J-XVHI (75] 75d-80c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
82 99a / Parson's Tale, par 80 541b-542a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 95d-96b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 89b-90c; 159a-167a;
184a-d; 200d-205b; 232b-238d; 431c-432d;
486b-495a;538a<543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc i [24-69]
533b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc in [5-51]
34b-d; ACT in, sc n [61-79] 49c-d / Troilus
and Cressida, ACT i, sc HI [101-124] 109b; ACT
n, sc n 113c-115d / Othello, ACT i, sc in
[322-337] 212b-c
30 BACON : Advancement of learning, 26a-c; 78a-d
31 DESCARTES. Discourse, PART in, 49b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP i 396a-c;
PROP 9, SCHOL 399c; PART iv, PREP 422b,d-
424a; PROP 14-18 428a-429d; PROP 44-73
437c-447a, APPENDIX, i-in 447a-b; xxxn
450c-d, PART v, PREF 451a-452c; PROP i- 16
452d-456c; PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 390b-391a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 104 193a; 502 260b-261a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 13 107d-108c; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 46-54
189d-192c; SECT 71 197b-198a, SECT 73 198c-
199c
42 KANT. Fund. Pnn. Metaphy sic of Morals, 256b;
258b-c; 259a-c; 264d^265b / Pref. Metaphysi-
cal Elements of Ethics, 378b-c / Judgement,
586a-587a
43 MILL- Liberty, 295a-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 348a-b / Utilitarianism, 463d-464d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 135c-136a; 176d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 19
16d-17a; PART in, par 149 56b; par 187 65a-
c; ADDITIONS, 13-14 118c-d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 162a-172b; PART in, 312d-
313a
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 304a-305a; 310c-
319a esp 310c-312c, 313d-314b, 318d-319a;
592b-593b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 245b-c;
248b-250a; EPILOGUE i, 655c-656b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 80a-83b passim; 202a-
204b, 797b-798a; 807a-808a, 816a~819a
54 FREUD. Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 9a; 16c / Hysteria, HOb-c / Inter-
pretation of Dreams, 386d-387a / Narcissism,
407 b-c / General Introduction, 452c-d; 501 d-
504b esp 504b; 590a-593b; 624a-625b esp
625a-b / Ego and Id, 701d-702d; 704a-707d
esp 706d-707c; 715a-716c csp 715c-d / In-
hibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 721d-722c;
744a / War and Death, 757c-759d / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 773b-774a csp 773c;
780b-781d; 783c-785a; 785d-789a esp 787b-c;
792a-796c esp 792a-b, 793a-b, 793d-794b;
800c-801b / New Introductory Lectures, 837d-
840a
6bto1a
CHAPTER 17: DESIRE
341
6b. The restraint or renunciation of desire:
abstention, inhibition, repression
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
12 EPICTETUS. Discourses 105a-245a,c esp BK i,
CH i 105a-106c, CH 3-4 108b-110a, BK 11, CH
2 140c-141c, CH 17-18 158d-162b, BK in, CH
24 203c-210a, BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK 11, SECT 5 257b-c;
BK vn, SECT 2 279b,d; SECT 55-57 283b-c;
BK ix, SECT 7 292b
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK iv [393-449] 178a-179b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-
289a, BK xiv, CH 8-9 381c-385b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 10,
A 3 664d-665c; Q 24 727a-730a csp A 2
727d-728c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART ii-n,
Q 186 650b-663b; PART in SUPPL, Q 96 1049d-
1066a
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5587-5743]
256a-258b
24 RABFLAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
188d-191c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 89b-91b; 99b-c; 107a-
112d; 166a-d; 200d-205b, 232b-238d; 297d-
300c, 353c-354b; 432b-d; 538a-543a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72b
31 Di SCARTES Discourse, PART in, 49b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 9-18 426d-
429d, PART v, PROP 2 452d-453a; PROP 6
453d-454a; PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON Comus [420-475] 42b-44a; [716-765]
49a-50a / Areopagitica, 390b-391a
33 PASCAL: Provincial letters, 64b-65b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 192a-193c; 596c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346a-d / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 378d~379a
44 BoswELL:/o/tfl.f0«, 283a
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-
225a
47 GOETHE Faust, PART i [1544-1571] 37b-38a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK in, 122b-c; BK
v, 201a-c, BK vi, 248b-250a; BK ix, 373b-374a;
BK xin, 577a-578b esp 577d-578a; BK xiv,
605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631a
52 DOSIOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164d-165a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 80b-83b esp 81a; 199b-
202a esp 200b-201a; 720a; 725a; 734b-735b;
799a-800a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysts, 6d-8b esp 7a-c; 16c / Interpretation of
Dreams, 377d-378d esp 378b-d / Repression
422a-427a,c esp 422c-d / Unconscious, 432d-
436b / General Introduction, 566a-568a; 573c-
d; 585b-586d esp 586d / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 640c / Ego and Id, 699a; 706b-c /
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 718a-722b
esp 719b-c, 720a-d; 726a-728b; 741d [fn i];
747b-c; 750a-d / Civilization and Its Discon-
tents, 773b-d; 781a-d; 782a-b,d [fn i]; 793a-
795c esp 793d-794b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 834d-835b; 842a-845b esp 842b-d,
843d-844c
6c. The results of repression: dreaming, sym-
bolic over-reactions, neuroses
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 8-9
381c-385b esp CH 9, 384b, 385b
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK v [28-128] 176a-
178a
40 GIB BON Decline and Fall, 598a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 220b-c; 233b-
234a; BK vi, 238a-c; 248b-250a; BK vn,
292b-296a; BK vni, 338b-339c esp 338d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 753b-754b
54 FREUD- Origin and Development of Psycho -
Analysis la-20d esp 4c^5a, 6d-9a, llc-12b,
13a-b, 14b-15a, 20c-d / Hysteria 25a-118a,c
esp 27a-28c, 35b-c, 38a-b, 52c-53c, 65c-66a,
75a-d, 82c-87a, 90d-96a, 97b-102a, llla-
115a, 116d-118a,c / Interpretation of Dream s,
164d-168d esp 167d-168a; 176a-b; 189b-205c
passim; 216b-219a; 234d-235d; 240d-249b esp
240d-241a, 248c<249a; 294d-295b; 323b-c;
328a-d; 331d-332a; 352d-382a esp 356d-365c,
375c-376a, 380d-382a, 386b-387a / Repres-
sion, 423b-427a,c esp 423b-424b, 425c-426a /
Unconscious, 434c-436b / General Introduc-
tion, 469c-470b; 476a-544d esp 489c-491b,
495a-504d, 532d-539b; 557b-631b csp 563a-
569c, 586b-590a, 593b-600d, 614b-615a;
633d-635d / Group Psychology, 690a-c / Ego
and Id, 712c-715c esp 713c-714b, 715a-b /
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety 718a-
754a,c esp 720a, 721c-d, 722c-723d, 728b-
733c, 741d [fn i], 745d-747b/ War and Death,
759c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781 c-
d; 793a-794a; 796a-c; 798c-799a; 800d-801c
/ New Introductory Lectures, 810d-813c esp
811b-812b; 817a-818b; 840a-846a
7. Desire and infinity
la. The infinite tendency of desires
OLD TESTAMENT- Proverbs, 27:20 / Ecclesiastes^
6.7 / Habat^u^, 2:5— (D) Habacuc, 2:5
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:9— (D) OT, EC'
clesiasticus, 14-9
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 4-13-14
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 275b-277c / Republic, BK v,
370a-c; BK ix, 416a-418c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1003-
1010] 43a; [1076-1094] 44a,c; BK vi [1-42] 80a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 9, 185d;
BK iv, CH 9, 237d-238a
14 PLUTARCH : Caius Marius, 353d-354a,c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 19 5d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q i
A 4 612a-613a; Q 2, A i, REP 3 615d-616c; Q
30, A 4 751c-752b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 149b-d; 297d-299c;
429a-b;489b-d;503b-d
342
THE GREAT IDEAS
(7. Desire and infinity, la. The infinite tendency
of desires.)
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT in,
sc ii [82-90] 121a / Macbeth, ACT iv, sc in
(57-991 304a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 6-9 398d-399c
33 PASCAL: Pensfes, 109 193b-194a; 125-183
195b-204b
36 Si ERNE Tristram Shandy, 236b-238a
42 Kw. Judgement, 584d<585c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par
185 64b d; ADDITIONS, 118 136a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART i [354-481] lla-14a,
[602-784] 16b-20b, [1671-1706] 40a-41a,
PART n [11,4^3-466] 278a-279a, [11,559-586]
281b-282a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164b-d
7a(l) The pursuit of pleasure
APOCRYPHA- Ecclesiasticus, 23:16-17— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticits, 23.21-24
NEW TESTAMENT '.John, 4:13-14
7 PLATQ: Gorgias, 275b-277c / Phikbus, 628a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 12 [ni9b6-i2]
366c / Politics, BK i, CH 9 [1257*^8 1258*14]
452a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1003-
10 10] 43a; [1076-1094] 44a,c; BK iv [1073-
1120] 58a-d; BK v [1405-1435] 79b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 9, 237d-
238a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 2-4 9b-d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 30,
A 4 751c-752b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, v [25-45] 7b-c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
58-66 8b-9b / Wife of Bath's Prologue [5953-
5960] 262a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 429a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Antony and Cleopatra, ACT i,
ic i [1-55] 311b-312a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxi, SECT 42-45 188c-189d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364a-b
42 KWT-. Judgement, 584d-585b; 586d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 185
64b-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3217-3250] 79a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK HI,
53b-54b
7* (2) The lust for power
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 14:12-14— (D) Isaias,
14:12-14 / Habatyuk 2:5— (D) Habacuc, 2:5
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 215c-216b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK v, 506b c
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 275b-277c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [59-86]
30d-31b; [995-1002] 42d-43a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 9, 237d-
238a
14 PLUTARCH: Pyrrhus, 319b*321a / Pompey,
525a-b; 533a-c / Caesar, 599b-d / Cicero,
706b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 13 387c-
388c
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 63,
A 3 327b-328b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 350d-354b
26 SHAKESPEARE Richard III 105a-148a,c / Jul-
ius Caesar, ACT n, sc i [10-34] 574c-d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK i [242-270] 98b-
99a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xix, SECT 229
78a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364a-b
7^(3) The accumulation of wealth
OLD TESTAMENT- Ecclestastes, 5*10; 6.7 — (D)
Ecclesiastes, 5:9; 6 7 / Haba^u^, 2:5-11 — (D)
Habacuc, 2 5-11
APOCRYPHA: Ecclestasttcus, n.io; 14:9— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasttcus, irio; 14 9 / Baruch, 3:16-19—
(D) OT, Baruch, 3:16-19
NEW TESTAMENT* LuJ^e, 12-16-21
5 ARISTOPHANES. Plutus [143-197] 630d-631b
7 PLATO. Gorgias, 275b-277c / Republic, BK
vin, 405c-408a, 412a / Laws, BK vin, 733b-d;
BK i\, 751b-d
9 ARISTOILF Politics, BK i, CH 9
i258Hi4] 452a-b; BK n, en 7 [i266b2
4G2b463b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-93]
30d-31b; BK vi [1-42] 80a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 9, 237d-
238a
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK i, par 19 5d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 2,
A i, REP 3 615d-616c; Q 30, A 4, ANS 751c-
752b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 84,
A 1 174b-175a
21 DANTE : DivineComedy, HELL, vn [52-66] lOa-b
22 CHAUCER- TaleofMehbeus, par 18, 408a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 122a-124c
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xxvni-
xxix 450a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 237a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 71b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 510b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 125a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 185
64b d; par 195 66d-67a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [5505-6172] 136a-
151a; [11,151-287] 271b-274b esp [11,151-162]
271b, [11,239-258] 273b-274a
50 MARX: Capital, 60d-62d esp 62a-b; 71d-72c
esp 72a-c; 292c-295a csp 293c~294a
n
CHAFFER 17: DESIRE
343
7 h. The restless search for the infinite: the de-
sire for the vision of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:11-23 / Psalms, 27
csp 27:4, 27:8; 42-43; 63; 73:25-28; 84-(D)
Psalms, 26 csp 26:4, 26:8; 41-42; 62; 72:25-28;
83 / Isaiah, 26 18-9— (D) Isaias, 26:8-9
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 4:13-14; 6:35 / Philip-
pians, 3.7-21 / I John, 3:1-3
7 PLATO: Symposium, 163a-167d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi 21a-26a pas-
sim / Sixth Ennead, TR ix 353d-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions la-125a,c esp BK i,
par 1-6 la-2c, BK n, par 15 12b-c, BK HI,
par i 13b-c, par 8 14d-15a, BK iv, par 15-
19 23a-24b, BK v, par 1-2 27a-c, BK VH,
par 16-23 48c-50c, BK vm, par 17-18 57d-
58a, BK ix, par 3 62a-b, BK x, par 1-40
71c-81c, BK xi, par 1-4 89b-90b, BK xn,
par 10 lOlc, par 23 104b-c, BK xin HOd-
125a,c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 38
635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 6, A
I, REP 2 28b-d, Q 12, A I, ANS 50c-51c; A 8,
REP 4 57b-58b; Q 26, A 2, ANS 150c-151a; Q
54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c;
Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; PART i-n, Q 2, A i,
REP 3 615d-616c; Q 5, A i, ANS 636d-637c; Q 8
655a-657c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART 1-11, Q
109, A 3 340c-341b; PART H-II, Q 27. A 6
524c-525c; Q 28, A 3 528d-529c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 69, A 4 889c-890c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv
[40-81] 75d-76a; xvn [pij-xvm [75} 79b-80c;
PARADISE, iv [ii5)-v [12] llld-112b; xxn
[52-72] 140b; xxvi [1-78] 145d-146c; xxxm
156b-157d csp [46-48] 156c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 88c-d
31 SPINOZA, Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv
447b-c; PART v, PROP 36 461a-c
32 MILTON. Sonnets, xiv 66a
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 72, 183a-b; 125-183 195b-
204b; 463 255a; 468-492 255b-259b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH
xxi, SECT 45-47 189b-190b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-
225a; PART in, 304c-306a
47 GOETHE- Faust csp PART i [354-481] lla-
14a, [602-784] 16b-20b, [1671-1706] 40a-41a,
PART n [11,433-466] 278a-279a, [11,559-586)
281b-282a
48 MELVILLE: MobyDic^, 78a-b
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK MI, 560a-561d;
BK xiv, 608a-b; BK xv, 631a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK ui,
53b-54b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Matters relevant to the metaphysical conception of desire, sec BEING 70-7^3); CHANGE i;
MATTER la, 3)3.
Discussions bearing on the theory of natural appetite or desire, see HABIT 33; HAPPINESS i;
NATURE la, 2d, 30(3).
Other discussions of the distinction between conscious and natural desire, and of animal
appetite in contrast to the human will, see ANIMAL 13(3); MAN 4b; SENSE 3e; WILL i,
2b(2).
The consideration of voluntary acts or movements, see ANIMAL 4b; NATURE 30(2); WILL
3a(i)-3a(2).
Other treatments of the objects of desire in general, see BFING 3b; Goon AND EVIL 1,1, 3c;
HAPPINESS i, 4~4b; PLEASURE AND PAIN 6a-6b; and for particular objects of desire, see
HONOR 2b; LIFE AND DEATH 8b; WEALTH loa-iob, ioe(3).
The conception of pleasure as the satisfaction of desire, see PLEASURE AND PAIN 6d.
Another comparison of desire and love, see LOVE ic, 23-23(4).
Further psychological analysis of emotional desires and impulses, see EMOTION 3-30(4);
LOVE 23(3)^23(4); MEDICINE 6c(2).
Other discussions of the influence of emotional desires on imagination and thought, see
EMOTION 3b; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 8c, 8e; OPINION 2a; WILL 3b(i).
The psychological or ethical consideration of problems arising from the conflict between de-
sire and reason or duty, see DUTY 8; EMOTION 4-4^2); LIBERTY 33-3^ MIND ie(3), pb;
VIRTUE AND VICE 53; WILL 2b(2), 90.
The discussion of man's relation to the infinite, /^INFINITY 6a; MAN lod; and for the theo-
logical conception of man's ultimate rest in the vision of God, see GOD 5b, 6c(4) ; HAPPINESS
7c-7c(i); LOVE 53(2); WILL 7d.
344
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
EPICTETUS. The Manual
GOETHE Sorrows of Young Werther
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, iv (3)
FREUD. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex,
II.
EPICURUS. Letter to Menoeceus
BOCCACCIO. Decameron
VILLON. The Debate of the Heart and Body of
Villon
EBREO. The Philosophy of Love, DIALOGUE i
P. SIDNEY. Astrophel and Stella
MARLOWE. Tamburlaine the Great
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, x (i), xxin-
xxiv, xxx (16), XLVH (14)
JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Phihsophicus Tho-
misticus, Philosophia Naturalis, PART iv, Q 12
MOLIERE. Lavare (The Miser)
MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la vente, BK
IV
ACINE. Phedre
— . Athahe
OSSURT. Traitf de la concupiscence
EIBNITZ New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH 21
J. BUTLER. Fifteen Sermons upon Human Nature,
i-n
HUTCHESON. A System of Moral Philosophy, BK i,
» CH 2-3; BK II, CH 2
. An Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the
Passions and Affections
HfiLvimus, Traitt de r esprit, HI, CH 9-11
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, in, PART ii, CH 1-2
J. G. FICHTE. The Vocation of Man
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea
BROWN. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, VOL u, pp 153-179
D. STEWART. Outlines of Moral Philosophy, PART u,
CH i (1-4)
. Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of
Man, BK i, CH 1-3
J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
Mind, CH i
STENDHAL. The Red and the Blac\
BENTHAM An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation, CH 10
. Deontology
PUSHKIN. The Queen of Spades
WHLWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK i, CH 2
BALZAC. Cousin Bette
SPENCER. The Principles of Psychology, VOL i, PART i,
CH 6 (50) ; PART iv, CH 8
BMN. The Emotions and the Will
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of the Unconscious
H SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK i, CH 4
ZOL\. Nana
FRANCE. The Crime ofSylvestre Bonnard
T. H. GREEN. Prolegomena to Ethics, BK u, CH 2
L. STEPHEN. The Science of Ethics, CH 2
IBSEN. The Master Builder
CHLKHOV. The Sea-Gull
RIBOT. The Psychology of the Emotions
BRADLEY. Collected Essays, VOL i (14)
MOORE. Prmcipia Ethica, CH 2 (39-47)
SCHELER. Der Formahsmus in der Ethif^ und die ma-
teriale Wertethi^
B RUSSELL. The Analysis of Mind, LECI 3
DEWEY. Human Nature and Conduct, PART in (8)
FITZGERALD. The Great Gatsby
O'NEILL. Desire Under the Elms
F. ALEXANDER. Psychoanalysis of the Total Person-
ality
BEEBE-CENTER. The Psychology of Pleasantness and
Unpleasantness
NYGREN. Agape and Eros
ROUGEMONT. Love in the Western World
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH vi
D'ARCY. The Mind and Heart of Love
Chapter 18: DIALECTIC
INTRODUCTION
THE words "dialectical" and "dialectician"
are currently used more often in a deroga-
tory than in a descriptive sense. The person
who criticizes an argument by saying, "It's just
a matter of definition" is also apt to say, "That
may be true dialectically, but . . ." or "You're
just being dialectical." Implied in such remarks
is dispraise of reasoning which, however excel-
lent or skillful it may be as reasoning, stands
condemned for being out of touch with fact or
experience.
Still other complaints against dialectic are
that it plays with words, begs the question,
makes sport of contradictions. When the theo-
logian Hippothadeus almost convinces Panurge
that he "should rather choose to marry once,
than to burn still in fires of concupiscence,"
Rabelais has Panurge raise one last doubt
against the proposal. "Shall I be a cuckold,
father," he asks, "yea or no?" Hippothadeus
answers: "By no means . . . will you be a cuck-
old, if it please God," On receiving this reply
Panurge cries out, "O the Lord help us now;
whither are we driven to, good folks? To the
conditionals, which, according to the rules and
precepts of the dialectic faculty, admit of all
contradictions and impossibilities. If my Trans-
alpine mule had wings, my Transalpine mule
would fly. If it please God, I shall not be a
cuckold, but I shall be a cuckold if it please
him."
As a term of disapproval, "dialectical" has
been used by scientists against philosophers,
by philosophers against theologians and, with
equal invective, by religious men against those
who resort to argument concerning matters
of faith.
The early Middle Ages witnessed a conflict
between the mystical and the rational ap-
proaches to the truths of religion. Those for
whom religious experience and revelation were
the only avenue to God condemned the dia-
lecticians—the philosophers or theologians who
tried to use reason discursively rather than pro-
ceed by intuition and vision. With the Refor-
mation and with the Renaissance, men like Mar-
tin Luther and Francis Bacon regarded dialec-
tic as the bane of mediaeval learning. Because
of its dialectical character, Luther dismissed all
theological speculation as sophistry. Bacon, for
the same reason, stigmatized scholastic philoso-
phy as consisting in "no great quantity of mat-
ter and infinite agitation of wit."
On grounds which were common as well as
opposite, both mystics and experimentalists at-
tacked dialectic as a futile, if not vicious, use
of the mind — as "hair-splitting" and "logic-
chopping." Even when they admitted that it
might have some virtue, they approved of it as
a method of argument or proof, proper enough
perhaps in forensic oratory or political debate,
but entirely out of place in the pursuit of trutlv
or in approaching reality.
A CERTAIN CONCEPTION of dialectic is implicit
in all such criticisms. The dialectician is a man
who argues rather than observes, who appeals
to reason rather than experience, who draws
implications from whatever is said or can be
said, pushing a premise to its logical conclusion
or reducing it to absurdity. This aspect of dia-
lectic appears to be the object of Rabelais' satire
in the famous dispute between Panurge and
Thaumast, which is carried on "by signs only,
without speaking, for the matters are so ab-
struse, hard, and arduous, that words proceed-
ing from the mouth of man will never be suffi-
cient for the unfolding of them."
In view of those who think that truth can be
learned only by observation, by induction from
particulars, or generalization from experience,
the technique of dialectic, far from being a
345
346
THE GREAT IDEAS
method of inquiry, seems to have virtue only
for the purpose of disputation or criticism.
"The human faculties," writes Gibbon, "are
fortified by the art and practice of dialectics."
It is "the keenest weapon of dispute," he adds,
but "more effectual for the detection of error
than for the investigation of truth."
Mill describes "the Socratic dialectics, so
magnificently exemplified in the dialogues of
Plato," as a "contrivance for making the diffi-
culties of the question . . . present to the learn-
er's consciousness . . . They were essentially a
negative discussion of the great questions of
philosophy and life," he continues, "directed
with consummate skill to the purpose of con-
vincing anyone who has merely adopted the
commonplaces of received opinion that he did
not understand the subject . . . The school dis-
putations of the Middle Ages had a somewhat
similar object." In Mill's opinion, "as a disci-
pline to the mind, they were in every respect
inferior to the powerful dialectics which formed
the intellects of the 'Socratic viri'; but the
modern mind," he says, "owes far more to both
than it is generally willing to admit, and the
present modes of education contain nothing
which in the smallest degree supplies the place
either of the one or of the other."
Disparaging comment on dialectic comes not
only from those who contrast it unfavorably
with the methods of experiment or empirical
research. It is made also by writers who trust
reason's power to grasp truths intuitively and
to develop their consequences deductively.
Sensitive to what may seem to be a paradox
here, Descartes writes in his Rules for the Di-
rection of the Mind: "It may perhaps strike
some with surprise that here, where we are dis-
cussing how to improve our power of deducing
one truth from another, we have omitted all
the precepts of the dialecticians." The dialec-
tician can proceed only after he has been given
premises to work from. Since, in Descartes'
view, dialectic provides no method for estab-
lishing premises or for discovering first princi-
ples, it can "contribute nothing at all to the
discovery of the truth ... Its only possible use
is to serve to explain at times more easily to
Others the truths we have already ascertained;
hence it should be transferred from Philosophy
to Rhetoric.1*
THE CONNECTION of dialectic with disputation
and rhetoric has some foundation in the his-
torical fact that many of the techniques of
dialectic originated with the Greek sophists who
had primarily a rhetorical or forensic aim.
Comparable to the Roman rhetoricians and to
the law teachers of a later age, the sophists
taught young men how to plead a case, how to
defend themselves against attack, how to per-
suade an audience. Skill in argument had for
them a practical, not a theoretical, purpose;
not truth or knowledge, but success in litiga-
tion or in political controversy. The familiar
charge that the method they taught enabled
men "to make the worse appear the better rea-
son," probably exaggerates, but none the less
reflects, the difference between the standards
of probability in disputation and the standards
of truth in scientific inquiry. This has some
bearing on the disrepute of sophistry and the
derogatory light cast on the dialectical when it
is identified with the sophistical.
But there is another historical fact which
places dialectic in a different light. In the tra-
dition of the liberal arts, especially in their
Roman and mediaeval development, "dialec-
tic" and "logic" are interchangeable names for
the discipline which, together with grammar
and rhetoric, comprises the three liberal arts
known as the "tnvium." In his treatise On
Christian Doctrine Augustine uses the word
"dialectic" in this way. Whatever else it means,
the identification of dialectic with logic implies
its distinction from rhetoric, and certainly
from sophistry.
Yet Augustine does not fail to observe the
misuse of dialectic which debases it to the level
of sophistry. "In the use of it," he declares, "we
must guard against the love of wrangling, and
the childish vanity of entrapping an adversary.
For there are many of what are called sophisms"
he continues, "inferences in reasoning that are
false, and yet so close an imitation of the true,
as to deceive not only dull people, but clever
men too, when they are not on their guard."
He gives as an example the case of one man say-
ing to another, "What I am, you are not." The
other man may assent to this, thinking, as
Augustine points out, that "the proposition is
in part true, the one man being cunning, the
other simple.'* But when "the first speaker
CHAPTER 18: DIALECTIC
347
adds: 'I am a man* " and "the other has given
his assent to this also, the first draws his con-
clusion: 'Then you are not a man,1 "
According to Augustine, "this sort of en-
snaring argument" should not be called dia-
lectical, but sophistical. He makes the same
sort of observation about the abuse of rhetoric
in speech which "only aims at verbal ornamen-
tation more than is consistent with seriousness
of purpose." That, too, he thinks, should be
"called sophistical" m order to avoid attaching
the name of rhetoric to misapplications of the
art.
Dialectic for Augustine is the art which
"deals with inferences, and definitions, and
divisions" and "is of thegreatestassistanceinthe
discovery of meaning." Rhetoric, on the other
hand, "is not to be used so much for ascertain-
ing the meaning as for setting forth the mean-
ing when it is ascertained." Dialectic, in other
words, is divorced from the practical purpose of
stating and winning an argument, and given
theoretical status as a method of inquiry.
THIS CONCEPTION of dialectic originates in the
dialogues of Plato. Not himself a sophist, either
by profession or in aim, Socrates found other
uses for the analytical and argumentative devices
invented by the sophists. The same skills of mind
which were practically useful in the public as-
sembly and in the law courts could be used or
adapted for clarification and precision in specu-
lative discussions. They could also be used to
find the truth implicit in the commonly ex-
pressed convictions of men and to lay bare
errors caused by lack of definition in discourse
or lack of rigor in reasoning.
In \i\\eSophist Plato separates the philosopher
from the sophist, not by any distinction in
method, but by the difference in the use each
makes of the same technique. And in the
Republic, one of the reasons Socrates gives for
postponing the study of dialectic until the age
of thirty is that youngsters, "when they first
get the taste in their mouths, argue for amuse-
ment" and "like puppy-dogs, they rejoice in
pulling and tearing at all who come near them."
As a result of being vainly disputatious, they
"get into the way of not believing anything
which they believed before, and hence, not
only they, but philosophy and all that relates
to it is apt to have a bad name with the rest of
the world ... But when a man begins to get
older, he will no longer be guilty of such in-
sanity; he will imitate the dialectician who is
seeking for truth, and not the sophist, who is
contradicting for the sake of amusement."
In the hands of the philosopher dialectic is an
instrument of science. "There is," according to
Socrates, "no other method of comprehending
by any regular process all true existence or of
ascertaining what each thing is in its own na-
ture." It passes beyond the arts at the lowest
level, "which are concerned with the desires or
opinions of men, or are cultivated with a view
to production and constructions." It likewise
transcends the mathematical sciences, which,
while they "have some apprehension of true
being . . . leave the hypotheses which they use
unexamined, and are unable to give an account
of them." Using these as "handmaids and
helpers," dialectic "goes directly to the first
principle and is the only science which does
away with hypotheses in order to make her
ground secure."
The dialectic of Plato has an upward and a
downward path which somewhat resemble the
inductive process of the mind from facts to
principles, and the deductive process from
principles to the conclusions they validate.
Dialectic, says Socrates, ascends by using hy-
potheses "as steps and points of departure into
a world which is above hypotheses, in order
that she may soar beyond them to the first
principle of the whole ... By successive steps
she descends again without the aid of any sensi-
ble object, from ideas, through ideas, and in
ideas she ends."
As the disciplined search for truth, dialectic
includes all of logic. It is concerned with every
phase of thought: with the establishment of
definitions; the examination of hypotheses in
the light of their presuppositions or conse-
quences; the formulation of inferences and
proofs; the resolution of dilemmas arising from
opposition in thought.
WHEREAS FOR PLATO dialectic is more than the
whole of logic, for Aristotle it is less. Dialectic
is more than the process by which the mind
goes from myth and fantasy, perception and
opinion, to the highest truth. For Plato it is the
348
THE GREAT IDEAS
ultimate fruit of intellectual labor — knowledge
itself, and in its supreme form as a vision of be-
ing and unity. That is why Socrates makes it
the .ultimate study in the curriculum proposed
for training the guardians to become philoso-
pher kings. "Dialectic," he says, "is the coping-
stone of the sciences, and is set over them; no
other science can be placed higher— the nature
of knowledge can go no further."
For Aristotle, dialectic, far from being at the
summit of science and philosophy, lies at their
base, and must be carefully distinguished from
sophistry, which it resembles in method. "Dia-
lecticians and sophists assume the same guise as
the/philosopher," Aristotle writes, "for sophis-
tic is wisdom which exists only in semblance,
and dialecticians embrace all things in their
dialectic, and being is common to all things; but
evidently their dialectic embraces these sub-
jects because these arc proper to philosophy.
Sophistic and dialectic," he continues, "turn on
the same class of things as philosophy, but
philosophy differs from dialectic in the nature
of the faculty required and from sophistic in
respect of the purpose of the philosophic life.
Dialectic is merely critical where philosophy
claims to know, and sophistic is what appears to
be philosophy but is not."
ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE, dialectic is neither
itself a science nor the method of science. It is
that part of logic or method which he treats in
the Topics, and it differs from the scientific
method expounded in the Posterior Analytics
as argument in the sphere of opinion and proba-
bilities differs from scientific demonstration.
Unlike the conclusions of science, the conclu-
sions of dialectical reasoning are only probable,
because they are based on assumptions rather
than self-evident truths. Since other and oppo-
site assumptions cannot be excluded, one dia-
lectical conclusion is usually opposed by another
in an issue of competing probabilities.
Intermediate between science and rhetoric,
dialectic can serve both. In addition to its prac-
tical employment in forensics, it is useful in the
philosophical sciences because it develops skill
in making and criticizing definitions, and in
asking or answering questions. "The ability to
raise searching difficulties on botfi sides of a
c abject," Aristotle says, "will make us detect
more easily the truth and error about the sever-
al points that arise."
Though it is primarily a method of arguing
from assumptions and of dealing with disputes
arising from contrary assumptions, dialectic is
also concerned with the starting points of argu-
ment. The Topics considers how assumptions
are chosen, what makes them acceptable, what
determines their probability. Here again Aris-
totle shows how the philosopher can make use
of dialectic— as that "process of criticism where-
in lies the path to the principles of all inquiries."
THERE ARE FOUR major expositions of dialectic
in the tradition of the great books. It is as pivot-
al a conception in the thought of Kant and
Hegel as it is in the philosophies of Plato and
Aristotle. With differences which may be more
important than the similarities, the Kantian
treatment resembles the Aristotelian, the
Hegelian the Platonic.
Like the division between the Posterior
Analytics and the Topics in Aristotle's Organon,
the transcendental logic of Kant's Critique of
Pure Reason falls into two parts— the analytic
and the dialectic. The distinction between his
transcendental logic and what Kant calls "gen-
eral logic" is discussed in the chapter on LOGIC,
but here it must be observed that for Kant
"general logic, considered as an organon, must
always be a logic of illusion, that is, be dialecti-
cal." He thinks that the ancients used the word
"dialectic" in this sense, to signify "a sophisti-
cal art for giving ignorance, nay, even inten-
tional sophistries, the coloring of truth, in which
the thoroughness of procedure which logic re-
quires was imitated." For his own purposes,
however, he wishes "dialectic" to be under-
stood "in the sense of a critique of dialectical
illusion/'
When he comes to his own transcendental
logic, therefore, he divides it into two parts.
The first part deals with "the elements of pure
cognition of the understanding, and the princi-
ples without which no object at all can be
thought." This is the "Transcendental Analyt-
ic, and at the same time a logic of truth"—-
a logic of science. Since in his (view "it ought
properly to be oaly a canon for judging of the
empirical use of the understanding, this kind of
logic is misused when we seek to employ it as
18: DIALECTIC
349
an organon bf thte universal and unlimited exer-
cise of the understanding."
When it is thus misused, "the exercise of the
pure understanding becomes dialectical. The
second part of our transcendental logic/' Kant
writes, "must therefore be a critique of dia-
lectical illusion, and this critique we shall term
Transcendental Dialectic— not meaning it asv
an art of producing dogmatically such illusion
(an art which is unfortunately too current
among the practitioners of metaphysical jug-
gling), but as a critique of understanding and
reason in regard to their hyperphysical use."
Kant goes further than Aristotle in separat-
ing dialectic from science. With regard to the
sensible or phenomenal world of experience,
science is possible; with regard to the mind's
own structure, the supreme sort of science is
possible. But when reason tries to use its ideas
for other objects, and then regards them "as
conceptions of actual things, their mode of
application is transcendent and delusive." Kant
explains that "an idea is employed transcen-
dentally, when it is applied to an object falsely
believed ... to correspond to it; immanently,
when it is applied solely to the employment
of the understanding in the sphere of experi-
ence"; and he maintains that when ideas are
used transcendentally, they do not give rise to
science, but "assume a fallacious and dialectical
character."
A conclusion of dialectical reasoning, ac-
cording to Kant, is either opposed by a con-
clusion equally acceptable to reason— "a per-
fectly natural antithetic"— as in the antinomies
of pure reason; or, as in the paralogisms, the
reasoning has specious cogency which can be
shown to "conclude falsely, while the form is
correct and unexceptionable." In this balance
of reason against itself lies the illusory character
of the transcendental dialectic.
Where Aristotle recognizes that reason can
be employed on both sides of a question be-
cause it involves competing probabilities, Kant
in calling dialectic "a logic of appearance" ex-
plicitly remarks that "this does not signify a
doctrine of probability." He further distin-
guishes what he calls "transcendental illusory
appearance" from "empirical illusory appear-
ance" and ordinary "logical illusion." The
latter two can be corrected and totally removed.
But "transcendental illusion, on the contrary,"
he writes, "does not cease to exist even after it
has been exposed and its nothingness has been
clearly perceived by means of transcendental
criticism."
The reason for this, Kant explains, is that
"here we have to do with a natural and unavoid-
able illusion, which rests upon subjective prin-
ciples, and imposes these upon us as objective.
. . . There is, therefore," he continues, "a
natural and unavoidable dialectic of pure rea-
son" which arises because the mind seeks to
answer questions "well nigh impossible to
answer," such as "how objects exist as things in
themselves" or "how the nature of things is to
be subordinated to principles." In its effort to
transcend experience— "in disregard of all the
warnings of criticism" — the mind cannot escape
the frustration, the dialectical illusion, "which
is an inseparable adjunct of human reason."
It is not, Kant repeatedly insists, that "the
ideas of pure reason" are "in their own nature
dialectical ; it is from thei r misemployment alone
that fallacies and illusions arise."
FOR HEGEL AS for Plato dialectic moves in the
realm of truth and ideas, not probabilities and
illusions. But for Hegel dialectic is always the
process of mind, or of the Idea, in interminable
motion toward absolute truth— never resting in
the intuition of that truth. The Idea, he writes,
"is self-determined, it assumes successive forms
which it successively transcends; and by this
very process of transcending its earlier stages,
gains an affirmative, and, in fact, a richer and
more concrete shape."
The dialectical process is a motion in which
contrary and defective truths are harmonized.
The synthesis of thesis and antithesis results in
a more complete truth. To illustrate his mean-
ing, Hegel uses the example of building a house.
For such a purpose, we must have "in the first
instance, a subjective aim and design" and as
means, "the several substances required for
the work— iron, wood, stones." In rendering
these materials suitable for our purpose, we
make use of the elements: "fire to melt the
iron, wind to blow the fire, water to set the
wheels in motion, in order to cut the wood,
etc."
Yet the house that we build is, according to
350
THE GREAT IDEAS
Hegel, an opposite or antithesis of these ele-
ments. "The wind, which lias helped to build
the house, is shut out by the house; so also arc
the violence of rains and floods, and the de-
structive powers of fire, so far as the house is
made fire-proof. The stones and beams obey
the law of gravity —press downward— and so
high walls are carped up." The result is that
"the elements are made use of in accordance
with their nature, and yet to cooperate for a
product, by which their operation is limited."
The initial opposition between the idea of a
house and the elements is reconciled in the
higher synthesis, which is the house itself.
While it shows the opposing theses and the
resulting synthesis, this example does not fully
exhibit the dynamic character of the Hegelian
dialectic. If the resulting synthesis is not the
whole truth, it too must be defective and re-
quire supplementation by a contrary which is
defective in an opposite way. These two to-
gether then become the material for a higher
synthesis, another step in that continuing dia-
lectical process which is the life of mind— both
the subjective dialectic of the human mind and
the objective dialectic of the Absolute Mind or
the Idea.
THE THREAD OF common meaning which runs
through these four conceptions of dialectic is
to be found in the principle of opposition. In
each of them dialectic either begins or ends
with some sort of intellectual conflict, or de-
velops and then resolves such oppositions.
For Kant dialectical opposition takes the ex-
treme form of irreducible contradictions from
which the mind cannot escape. "It is a melan-
choly reflection," he declares, "that reason in
its highest exercise, falls into an antithetic."
This comes about because "all statements enun-
ciated by pure reason transcend the conditions
of possible experience, beyond the sphere of
which we can discover no criterion of truth,
while they are at the same time framed in ac-
cordance with the laws of the understanding,
which are applicable only to experience; and
thus it is the fate of all such speculative dis-
cussions, that while the one party attacks the
weaker side of his opponent, he infallibly lays
open his own weaknesses."
For Hegel the opposition takes the mijdcr
form of contrary theses and antitheses. They
can be dialectically overcome by a synthesis
which remedies the incompleteness of each
half truth. "It is one of the most important
discoveries of logic," Hegel says, "that a
specific moment which, by standing in an
opposition, has the position of an extreme,
ceases to be such and is a moment in an organic
whole by being at the same time a mean."
The Hegelian opposition is thus also "media-
tion."
Dialectical opposition for Aristotle originates
in the disagreements which occur in ordinary
human discourse. But just as disagreement is
reasonable only if there are two sides to the
question in dispute, so reason can operate dia-
lectically only with regard to genuinely argu-
able matters. The familiar topics concerning
which men disagree represent the commonplace
issues of dialectic, since for the most part they
are formed from debatable propositions or ques-
tions. "Nobody in his senses," Aristotle be-
lieves, "would make a proposition of what no
one holds; nor would he make a problem of
what is obvious to everybody or to most peo-
ple." Each of the conflicting opinions will
therefore have some claim to probability. Here
the dialectical process ends neither in a synthe-
sis of incomplete opposites nor in a rejection of
both as illusory; but, having "an eye to general
opinion," it seeks to ascertain the more reason-
able view— the more tenable or probable of the
two.
In the Platonic theory of dialectic, the ele-
ment of opposition appears in the tension be-
tween being and becoming, the one and many,
or the intelligible and the sensible, which is
found present in every stage of the mind's dia-
lectical ascent to the contemplation of ideas.
So fundamental is this tension that Spc rates uses
it to define the dialectician as one who is "able
to see 'a One and Many' in Nature"— by com-
prehending "scattered particulars in one idea"
and dividing it "into species according to their
natural formation." Here as in the Hegelian
theory the oppositions— apparent contradic-
tions in discourse— can be resolved by dialectic,
and through their resolutiqn the mind then
rises to a higher level.
CHAPTER 18: DIALECTIC
151
IT is ONLY IN the writings of Hegel or his fol-
lowers that the meaning of dialectic is not
limited to the activity of human thought.
Hegel expressly warns that "the loftier dia-
lectic ... is not an activity of subjective think-
ing applied to some matter externally, but is
rather the matter's very soul putting forth its
branches and fruit organically." It is the "de-
velopment of the Idea," which is "the proper
activity of its rationality." If the whole world
in its existence and development is the thought
and thinking of an Absolute Mind, or the Idea,
then the events of nature and of history are
moments in a dialectical process of cosmic pro-
portions. The principles of dialectic become
the principles of change, and change itself is
conceived as a progress or evolution from lower
to higher, from part to whole, from the inde-
terminate to the determinate.
The dialectical pattern of history, conceived
by Hegel as the progressive objectifkation of
spirit, is reconstructed by Karl Marx in terms
of the conflict of material forces. Marx himself
explicitly contrasts his dialectic with that of
Hegel. "My dialectic method," he writes, "is
not only different from the Hegelian, but is
its direct opposite." Hegel, he claims, thinks
that "the real world is only the external,
phenomenal form of 'the Idea,' " whereas
his own view is that "the ideal is nothing
else than the material world reflected by the
human mind, and translated into forms of
thought."
Nevertheless, with respect to dialectic, Marx
praises Hegel for being "the first to present its
general form of working in a comprehensive
and conscious manner." 'The only trouble is
that with Hegel, dialectic "is standing on its
head." It must therefore "be turned right side
up again," a revolution which Marx thinks he
accomplishes in his dialectical materialism.
Having put dialectic on its proper basis,
Marx constructs the whole of history in terms
of a conflict of material forces, or of social
classes in economic strife, according to a dialec-
tical pattern which provides "recognition of
the existing state of things, at the same time
also the recognition of the negation of that
state, of its inevitable breaking up." History is
thus viewed dialcctically "as in fluid move-
ment/1 yet it is also conceived as working
'towards a definite crtd~~thc revolution which
has as its result the peace of the classless society.
Bourgeois industry, by bringing about the con-
centration and association of the proletariat,
produces "its own grave diggers; its fall and the
victory of the proletariat" are "equally inevi-
table."
In Marx's vocabulary the phrases "historical
materialism" and "dialectical materialism" arc
strictly synonymous. But Marx's protest to
the contrary notwithstanding, a comparison of
Marx and Hegel seems to show that a dialectic
of history is equally capable of being conceived
in terms of spirit or of matter.
The question whether there is a dialectic of
nature as well as a dialectic of history remains a
point of controversy in Marxist thought, de-
spite the bearing which Hegel's Science of Logic
and Phenomenology of Mind might have upon
the question. Engels tries in his Dialectics of
Nature to give a fuller rendering of the Hege-
lian dialectic in strictly materialistic terms. Its
universal scope, including all of nature as well
as all of history, is also reflected in certain post-
Darwinian doctrines of cosmic evolution.
CONSIDERATIONS RELEVANT to the Hegelian or
Marxist dialectic will be found in the chapters
on HISTORY and PROGRESS. Without judging
the issues which Hegel and Marx have raised in
the thought of the last century, it may be per-
missible to report the almost violent intellectual
aversion they have produced in certain quarters.
Freud, for example, is as unsympathetic in his
criticism of Marx and as uncompromising in his
rejection of dialectical materialism, as James be-
fore him is extreme in the expression of his dis-
taste for Hegel. Mocking "the Hegefeers" who
think that "the glory and beauty of the psychic
life is that in it all contradictions find, their re-
conciliation," James declares: "With this intel-
lectual temper I confess I cannot contend."
The Hegelian dialectic and what James calls
"the pantomime-state of mind" are, in his opin-
ion, "emotionally considered, one and the same
thing. In the pantomime all common things are
represented to happen in impossible ways, peo-
ple jump down each other's throats, houses turn
inside out, old women become young men,
352 THE GREAT IDEAS
everything 'passes into its opposite* with incon- object, many and one) must first be translated
ceivable celerity and skill. . . . And so in the into impossibilities and contradictions, then
Hegelian logic," James continues, "relations 'transcended' and identified by miracle, ere the
elsewhere recognized under the insipid name of proper temper is induced for thoroughly enjoy-
distmctions (such as that between knower and ing the spectacle they show.'*
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1 . Defini tions of dialectic 353
2. Diverse theories of dialectic
20. Dialectic as the pursuit of truth and the contemplation of being
(1) The ascent from appearance to reality, or from opinion to knowledge: the
upward and downward paths of dialectic
(2) Definition, division, hypothesis, and myth in the service of dialectic 354
2b. Dialectic as the method of inquiry, argument, and criticism in the sphere of
opinion
(1) Divisions of dialectic: the theory of the predicables
(2) The technique of question and answer
2C. Dialectic as the logic of semblance and as the critique of the illusory employment
of reason beyond experience
(1) The division of logic into analytic and dialectic: the distinction between
general and transcendental dialectic
(2) The natural dialectic of human reason
2d. Dialectic as the evolution of spirit or matter
(1) The distinction between subjective and objective dialectic: the realization
of the moral will 355
(2) The dialectic of nature and of history: the actualization of freedom
3. Types of dialectical opposition
30. The opposition between being and becoming, the one and the many, the same
and the other
3^. The opposed premises of dialectical argument: dialectical problems and theses;
the conflict of probabilities
y. The opposed conclusions of dialectical reasoning: the antinomies and paralogisms
of a transcendental dialectic
$d. Thesis and antithesis as moments in the advance toward a dialectical synthesis
4. Dialectic in relation to philosophy and science
5. The spheres of dialectic and rhetoric: proof and persuasion 356
6. The evaluation of dialectic: the line between dialectic and sophistry
CHAPTER 18: DIALECTIC
353
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upperandlower halves of the page. Forexample, m53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, thepassagc
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. Forexample, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins m the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, m brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehermah, 7*45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS' The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Definitions of dialectic
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 88d-89a / Phaedrus, 139d-
140a / Republic, BK vi, 387c-d; BK vir, 396d~
398c / Parmenides, 491a-c / Sophist, 557a-b;
571a-c / Philebus, 611d-612b;634b-c/,Sm7z//j
Letter, 809c-810c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*
2i-bi5] 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH n
[77*25-35] 106b / Topics, BK i, CH i [iooai8-
b3i] 143a-c; CH 2 [10^3-4] 144a / Sophistical
Refutations, CH 2 [165^-4] 228a; CH 11 [i7ib
3-8] 236a-b; [i72Ri5-b4] 237a-c / Generation
and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2 [1004^15-27] 523d;
BK xi, CH 3 [io6ia29~bio] 589c-d / Soul, BK i,
CH i [403a29-b8] 632c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*1-5]
593a; [1355*7-10] 594b; CH 2 [1356*31-33]
595d-596a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 4-6 lla-
12b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologicat PART i-n, Q 57,
A 6, REP 3 40a-41a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, x, 16d-17a
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 36d-37d; 59c-d; 108a-
lllc esp 108a-d; 227a-235a esp 229b-c, 231c-
23 2a / Practical Reason, 337a-c / Judgement,
562a-564c esp 562d
43 MILL. Liberty, 287d-288a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 31
19c-20a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 179b-c;
182d
2. Diverse theories of dialectic
2a. Dialectic as the pursuit of truth and the con-
templation of being
7 PLATO. Protagoras, 57a-c / Phaedrus, 139b-
140b / Phaedo, 242 b-c / Republic, BK vi,
383d-388a; BK vn, 396d-398c / Parmenides,
491a-d / Sophist, 556c-557b; 571a-c / States-
man, 585c / Philebus, 611d-612b; 634b-635a /
Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b esp
CH 4-6 lla-12b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 337a-338c / Judge-
ment, 551a-552c
43 MILL: Liberty, 287c-288c
2a(l) The ascent from appearance to reality,
or from opinion to knowledge: the up-
ward and downward paths of dialectic
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 363b-388a; BK vn,
391b-401d / Sophist 551a-579d esp 552b-c,
561d-579d / Statesman 580a-608d esp 585d,
586c, 589c-d, 591a-c, 594d-596a, 599a-c,
608d / Seventh Letter, 810a-d
354
THE GREAT IDEAS
2a(2) to Id
(2a. Dialectic as the pursuit of truth and the con-
templation of being. 2a(\) The ascent
from appearance to reality, or from opinion
to knowledge: the upward and downward
paths of dialectic."}
17 PLOTINUS • First Ennead, TR nr, CH 4-6 lla 12b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 113b-115c; 173b-174a /
Judgement, 551a-552c
43 MILL: Liberty, 288a
2a(2) Definition, division, hypothesis, and
myth in the service of dialectic
7 PLATO: Charmtdes, 4a-13d esp 4b, 5a-b, 6d,
7c, lOa / Laches, 31c-37d / Protagoras, 43d-
45a; 49a / Phaedrus, 124b-129d; 134a-c, 139d-
140b / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 175d, 179d-180b,
183b-c / Euthyphro, 192c-199a,c esp 193a,
193d, 195b / Phaedo, 242b-243c / Republic,
BK i~n, 297b 316b; BK iv, 346a-356a, BK
vi-vn,386d-398c/ Timaeus, 462b-c/ Parmem-
des 486a-511d esp 491a-d / Sophist 551a-579d
esp 552b-c, 553d-554a, 561b, 570c-571d /
Statesman 580a-608d esp 580d, 582d-583c,
586c~589c, 591a-d, 594d-596a / Phdcbus
609a-639a,c esp 610d 613a, 615c 617d /
Seventh tetter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK i,
CH 2 [316*5 -14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH
6 [987*29-b7] 505bc; [987^0-33! 506a, BK
xin, CH 4 [io78hi8 32] 610b-c / Soul, BK i,
CH i [403*29 b8] 632c-d
QARisroTLi'1 Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 23
165d-167d
12 EPICIETUS- Discourses, BK i, cu 7 112b-113d
17 PLOITNUJ> Ihrv Ennead, TR in, CH 4 lla-c
2b. Dialectic as the method of inquiry, argu-
ment, and criticism in the sphere of
opinion
8 ARISIOILC: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*
2i-bi5] 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH
ii (77&25 -S5] 106b; CH *9 [8ibi7-22] lllc-d /
Topics 143a-223a,c / Sophistical Refutations
227a-253d esp cu 1-2 227a-228a, CH 9-11
234b-237c, CH 34 252c-253d / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2 [ioo4bi5~27] 523d
9 ARISTOTLE. Rhetoric, BK i, CH 1-2 593a-598b;
CH 4 [i359a^o-bi9J 599c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 6, REP 3 40a-41a; PART in, Q 9, A 3, REP 2
765b-766b
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 60a-c; 65a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2c-3a; iv, 5b-c; x,
16d-17a; xin, 25b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 36d-37d; 109b-c / Judge-
ment, 600d-603d
43 MILL: Liberty, 287c-288c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 31
19c-20a; PART n, par 140, 53a-b / Philosophy
of History > PART iv, 360c-d
26(1) Divisions of dialectic: the theory of the
predicables
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i-vn 143a-211a,c esp
BK i, CH 2 143d-144a, CH 4-6 144b-146a, CH
12 148d / Sophistical Refutations, CH 11 [i7ib
3-8] 236a-b; [i72a22-b4] 237b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [1356*36-
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 57,
A 6, REP 3 40a-41a
2^(2) The technique of question and answer
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 50d-51b / Euthydemus,
78a-d / Cratylus, 88d-89a / Republic, BK vi,
375b-c / Sophist, 551d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*
2i-bi5) 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH
n [77*25-35] 106b; BK n, CH 5 [9ibu-i7]
125b / Topics, BK vin 211a-223a,c / Sophis-
tical Refutations, CH 10 [i7ia27)-cn n [i7ib6]
235d-236a, CH n [172*15-21] 237a
12 EPICTETUS Discourses, BK in, CH 2, 178a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 65a
42 KANT . Pure Reason, 36a-b
46 HECJFL* Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 140,
53a-b
2c. Dialectic as the logic of semblance and as
the critique of the illusory employment
of reason beyond experience
42 KANT Pure Reason, la-4a,c esp la-b; 7a-8b,
15c-16c; 20a; 36d-37b; 53b 54b, 59c-d; 93c-
99a; 101b-107b; 108a 209d esp 108a-112d,
120c-121c, 129c-130b, 133d, 157d, 173b-174a,
175c-d, 185b-c, 190a-209d; 217d-218a; 219a-
223d; 227a 235a esp 229b-c, 231c-232a /
Fund Pnn. Metaphy sic of Morals, 260d-261c,
283d-284d / Practical Reason, 291a-292a,
296a-d; 309b; 310d-311d; 313b-314d; 320c-
321b; 335c-337a,c /Judgement, 461a-c; 540a-
542a; 543c-544c; 551a-552c, 562a-564c; 570b-
572b; 606d-607c
2c(l) The division of logic into analytic and
dialectic: the distinction between gen-
eral and transcendental dialectic
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 34a-37d esp 36a-37d,
108a-lllc
2c(2} The natural dialectic of human reason
42 KANT- Pure Reason, la-3b; 7a-8b; 20a; 120c-
121c; 133d; 192c-193b; 217d-218a; 227a-235a
esp 229b-c / Practical Reason, 335c-337d;
352b-c / Judgement, 570b-572b
2d. Dialectic as the evolution of spirit or matter
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 32-33
20a-d; PART in, par 342-344 llOc Ilia; par
353-360 112b-114a,c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 153a-206a,c esp 178a-179c, 182d-183a,
203a-206a,c; PART i, 208b-d; 236a-c; 257a-c;
PART n, 278a-c; PART iv, 315a
2</(l) to 4
50 MARX: Capital, lOa-lld esp llb-d
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c
2d(l) The distinction between subjective and
objective dialectic: the realization of the
moral will
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 26
18b-c, par 31 19c-20a; PART n, par 105-114
40a-42b esp par 109 41a-b; par 140 49b-54a;
ADDITIONS, 67-72 126d-127c / Philosophy of
History, PART iv, 360c-361a
24(2} The dialectic of nature and of history:
the actualization of freedom
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 4 12d-
13a; PART in, par 194 66c-d; par 340-344
llOb-llla; par 353-360 112b-114a,c / Philoso-
phy of History 153a-369a,c esp INTRO, 156c-
190b, 203d-206a,c, PART iv, 368d-369a,c
3. Types of dialectical opposition
3<*. The opposition between being and becom-
ing, the one and the many, the same and
the other
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 126a-c; 134b c / Symposium,
167a-d / Republic, BK in, 333b-d; BK v, 370d-
373c; BK vi-vu, 383d-398c / Parmemdes
486a-511d / Sophist, 564d-574c / Statesman,
594d-595a / Plnlebus, 610d-613a; 615c-617d;
633a-635a esp 634b-635a / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 505b-
506b, BK HI, CH i [995b2o~25] 514a-b; BK iv,
CH 2 522b-524b esp [ioo"4b 15-26] 523d
11 NICOMACHUS- Arithmetic, BK n, 839d-840b
17 PLOTINUS' First Ennead, TR in, CH 4 lla-c /
Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 5 51b-d / Third En-
nead, TR in, CH i 93b-c; TR vn 119b-129a;
TR ix 136a-138a,c / Fourth Ennead, TR n,
CH i 139c-140c / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 4-7
209d-212c; TR n 214c-215c; TR vi 235b-237d
/ Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 1-3 310d-312b;
TR ix, CH 1-2 353d-355a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 107a-b
3£. The opposed premises of dialectical argu-
ment: dialectical problems and theses;
the conflict of probabilities
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*
2i-bi5J 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH
ii [77*25-35] 106b / Topics, BK i, CH n
148a-c; BK vin, CH 2 [157*34-^3] 213d-
214b / Sophistical Refutations, CH 2 [i65b3-4J
228a / Heavens, BK i, CH 10 [279b4~i2] 370d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH n, 150d-151a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 83,
A i, ANS 436d-438a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 47d-48d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH
xvi, SECT 9 369b-c
CHAPTER 18: DIALECTIC
355
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT x, DIV
86-91 488d-491c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 108a-d
3c. The opposed conclusions of dialectical rea-
soning: the antinomies and paralogisms
of a transcendental dialectic
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1355*28-40]
594c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 7a-8b; 120c-
173a esp 129c-130b, 133c; 174b-177b; 187a-
192d; 200c-209d; 219a-220b; 229b-c / Fund.
Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261b; 283d-
284d / Practical Reason, 291a-292a; 302a-d;
331c-337a,c; 340a-342d; 348d-349a / Science
of Right, 407a-408b / Judgement, 540a-546d
esp543c-544c;562a-578aesp562d-564c,575b-
578a; 584c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 11, par 135
47b-d
3</. Thesis and antithesis as moments in the
advance toward a dialectical synthesis
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 7a-8b; 43d-44a; 133c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 17
16c; par 26 18b-c, par 31-33 19c-20d; PART i,
par 104 39b-d; PART n, par 105-114 40a-42b
esp par 109 41a-b; PART in, par 256 79d-80a;
par 302 lOla-c; par 353-360 112b-114a,c /
Philosophy of History 153a 369a,c esp INTRO,
153a-190b, 203a-206a,c, PART i, 208b-d,
235d-236c, 238b, 245b-d, 257a-c, PART n,
279c-d, PART in, 286c-287a, 303c-311d, PART
iv, 316a-b, 321d-322c, 326d-327a, 333d-334d
53 JAMES Psychology, 117b, 238b [fn 2]
4. Dialectic in relation to philosophy and sci-
ence
7 PLATO. Republic, BK vi-vii, 383d-398c esp
BK vi, 386d-388a, BK vn, 396d-398c / Par-
menides, 490d-491a / Sophist, 570a-574c esp
571a-c / Philebus, 610d-613a; 633a-635a esp
634b-635a / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*
2i-bi5J 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 6
[74bi8-25] 102c; [75*18-28] 103a-b; CH n
[77*22-35] 106b; CH 19 [8ibi7-24] lllc-d; BK
11, CH 5 J9ibn-i7] 125b / Topics, BK i, CH
1-2 143a-144a; CH IO-H 147b-148c; CH 14
[105^0-31] 149c; BK vni, CH 3 [i59a2-i4]
215c-d/ Sophistical Refutations, CH 9-11 234b-
237c / Heavens, BK i, CH 10 [279b4~i2] 370d /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*
5-14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*
2o]-BK n, CH i [993^18] 499a-512a esp BK i,
CH 3 [983*24-^7] 501c-d, CH 7 506b-d, BK i,
CH 10 [993an]-BK 11, CH i [993bi8] 511c-512a;
BK in 513l\d-522a,c esp CH i [995a23~b4]
513b,d; BK iv, CH 2 [1004^5-27] 523d; BK
xi, CH 3 [io6i*29-bi2] 589c-d; BK xm, CH 4
[ic>78bi8~32] eiOb-c / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*
25-bi9) 632b-d
356
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Dialectic in relation to philosophy and science.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric* BK I, CH 2 [1358*3-33]
597d-598b; CH 4 [i359bi2-i8] 599d
17 PLOTTNUS' First Ennead, TR HI 10a-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 3-4,
266b-267b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 6, REP 3 40a-41a; PART in, Q 9, A 3, REP 2
765b-766b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2c-3a; iv, 5b-c; x
15d-17a; xm, 25b-26a
42 KANT: P«rc Reason, 37a-b / F*W. /Vw. Meta-
phy sic of Morals, 261c-d/ Judgement, 551a-552c
43 MILL: Liberty, 287c-288c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 31
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 545d-546a
5. The spheres of dialectic and rhetoric: proof
and persuasion
7 PLATO- Protagoras, 39d-42c / Euthydemus,
83a-b / Phaedrus, 131b-141a,c / Apology,
200a-201b; 203a-205c / Gorgtas 252a-294d
csp 253b-256c, 258b-259a, 265a-267c, 280d-
285a / Statesman, 595a-d / Philebus, 610d-
613a; 634b-635a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 1-2 593a-598b;
CH 4 [r 359*30 -b 1 9] 599c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 37
653d-654b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 83,
A i, ANS 436d-438a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 446d-450a; 453c-455a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60a-c; 66c-
67c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, x, 16d-17a
6. The evaluation of dialectic: the line between
dialectic and sophistry
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d esp [889-
1104] 499b-502a
7 PLATO; Protagoras, 52a b / Euthydemus 65a-
84a,c esp 72b 73c/ Meno, 176d-177a/ Phatdo,
243b-c / Republic, BK VH, 388a-398c csp 396d-
398c / Theaetetus, 522a-523a; 525d-526b /
Sophist 551a-579d esp 559c-562a, 577c-579d /
Philebus, 611d-612b; 633a-635a esp 634b-635a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 1-2 143a-144a;
CH 18 [108*17-37] 152b-d; BK vi, CH 2 [i39b
32-140*2] 192d-193a/ Sophistical Refutations,
CH 2 227d-228a; CH 8-n 233c-237c / Genera-
tion and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14]
411c-d / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2 [ioo4bi5-27J
523d; BK xi, CH 3 [io6i*29~bi2] 589c-d /
Soul, BK i, CH i [402^1 5-403*2] 631d-632a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [i355bi4-22]
595a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 8 113d-114c;
BK in, CH 2 177c-178d; CH 21 193d-195a; CH
24, 207d-208a
17 PLOTINUS First Ennead, TR HI, CH 4-6 lla-12b
18 AUGUSTINE* Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 31
651d-652b; CH 37 653d-654b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
101b-106a; BK in, 187b-c, 197b-200d
25 MONT \IGNE- Essays, 75a-77a; 260a-261a;
446d-450a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60a-c; 66c-
67c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 62-63 H3b-
114a; APH 65 114b-c
31 DESCARTES- Rules, n, 2c-3a, iv, 5b-c, x, 16d-
17a, xiv, 28b-c / Discourse, PART vi, 63d
36STERNK- Tristram Shandy, 227a-228a; 234b-
236b, 329b-336a; 421b-422b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 36a-b; 36d-37d; 109b-c;
120c-121c; 133d; 157d, 187c-188b, 221c-222b
/ Judgement, 600d-601c, 607d-608c esp 608b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 287c-288c passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 360c-
361a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 107a-b; 117b; 238b [fn 2]
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 545d
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The comide ration of dialectic as logic or a part of logic, and of its relation to the other liberal
arts, see LANGUAGE 7; LOGIC i, ib, 3-30; RHETORIC la.
Other discussions of the conception of dialectic as the highest science, the supreme form of
knowledge or wisdom, see METAPHYSICS i; PHILOSOPHY 20; SCIENCE 13(2); WISDOM la.
Other discussions of dialectic as a method of argument in the sphere of opinion, sec OPINION
20; REASONING 5c; RHETORIC 4c— 4c(3); and for matters relevant to the use of dialectic as
a method of inquiry, see DEFINITION 4; HYPOTHESIS i; PRINCIPLE 30(2).
The role of dialectic in the philosophy of history, see HISTORY 4a(2)~4a(3); PROGRESS xa.
The discussion of the types of opposition which have significance for dialectic, see OPPOSI-
TION le, 20, 2e; REASONING 5c.
Dialectic in relation to philosophy and theology, see METAPHYSICS 30; PHILOSOPHY 30;
THEOLOGY 5.
Discussions of sophistry, and for the condemnation of dialectic as sophistry, see LOGIC 5;
METAPHYSICS 43; PHILOSOPHY 6b; THEOLOGY 5; TRUTH 8c; WISDOM 3.
CHAPTER 18: DIALECTIC
357
ADDITIONAL READINGS
v
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works arc divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great lotas.
I.
AUGUSTINE. Divine Providence and the Problem of
Evil, BK II, CH II-l6
. Concerning the Teacher
HOBBES. The Art of Sophistry
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind
. Science of Logic
ENGELS. Dialectics of Nature
. Herr Eugen Duhnng's Revolution in Science,
PART i (12-13)
II.
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK
i -ii
PHILOSTRATUS. Lives of the Sophists
ERIGENA. De Dwisione Naturae, BK v (4)
ABAILARD, Sic et Non
. Dialectica
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogicon
NICOLAS OF CUSA. De Docta Ignorantia
MELANCHTHON. Dialectica
RAMUS. Dialecticae Imtitutiones
J. G. FICHTE. The Science of Knowledge, PART in,
A-D
SCHLEIERMACHER.
WHEWELL. On the Philosophy of Discovery, APPEN-
DIX c
LOTZE. Logic, BK I, CH 3 (c)
C. S. PEIRCE, Collected Papers, VOL i, par 284-572;
VOL v, par 41-1 19; VOL vi, par 7-34
BRUNETIERE. An Apology for Rhetoric
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality
MCTAGGART. Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic
PLEKHANOV. Fundamental Problems of Marxism
TROELTSCH. Gesammelte Schnften, VOL in, CH 3 (4)
LENIN. Selected Worty, VOL xi (On Dialectics)
BUKHARIN. Historical Materialism
ADLER. Dialectic
BUCHANAN. Possibility
SANTAYANA. Reason in Science, CH 7
- . The Realm of Essence, CH 7
WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality, PART i
JACKSON. Dialectics
B. RUSSELL. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth,
CH 24
Chapter 19: DUTY
INTRODUCTION
ECKE, discussing in the bourse of his essay
on Human Understanding "why a man
must keep his word," notes that we meet with
three different answers to this question. "If a
Christian be asked, he will give as reason: Be-
cause God, who has the power of eternal life
and death, requires it of us. But if a Hobbist be
asked why ? he will answer: Because the public
requires it, and the Leviathan will punish you
if you do not, And if one of the old philoso-
phers had been asked, he would have answered:
Because it; was dishonest, below the dignity of
a man, and opposite to virtue, the highest per-
fection of human nature, to do otherwise."
With these three answers Locke introduces
us to some of the alternative views on what is
perhaps the central problem concerning duty.
All three acknowledge the existence of duty
and the force of obligation. By accepting the
question they affirm the proposition that a man
must or ought to keep his word. But why ? What
creates the ought or obligation?
Two of the answers Locke cites— that of the
Christian and that of the Hobbist— seem to
derive duty from the commands of law, the law
of God or of the state, in either case a law to be
enforced by the sanctions of a superior power.
Accordingly, the citizen has duties to the state,
the religious man to God. Yet it does not seem
to be entirely the case that such duties rest ex-
clusively on the superior power of God or the
state. Men who obey either divine or civil law
from fear of punishment alone, are said to act
not from duty but from expediency— in terms
of a calculation of risks and consequences.
Obedience to law would appear to be ac-
knowledged as a duty only by those who recog-
nize the authority of the law or the right of the
lawmaker to command. They would be willing
to obey the law even if no external sanction
could be enforced against them by a superior
power. Those whom the law binds in conscience
rather than by its coercive force obey the law
because it is morally right to do so. The sense
of the law's moral authority is for them the
sense of duty from which the dictates of con-
science flow.
Locke's third answer— that of the ancient
philosophers— shows that duty is sometimes
understood without reference to law, divine or
human. We share this understanding whenever,
having made a promise or contracted a debt,
we feel an obligation to discharge it even if
no superior commands the act. Here, further-
more, the obligation seems to be to another
individual — to a person who may be our equal
— rather than to the state or God.
As indicated by Locke's statement of this
ancient view, it is the honest or just man who
acknowledges such obligations apart from the
law or his relation to any superior. Virtue may,
of course, also direct a man to act for the com-
mon welfare and to obey the laws of the state
or the commandments of God. But the imme-
diate source of the obligation to act in a certain
way toward one's fellow men is placed by the
ancients, according to Locke, in "virtue, the
highest perfection of human nature." On this
view, virtue alone provides the motivation.
Without it men would act lawfully only be-
cause of the law's coercive force. Without it
men would recognize no obligations to their
fellow men or to the state.
THESE TWO conceptions of duty — for the mo-
ment grouping the Christian and Hobbist an-
swers together against the ancient view— may
seem at first to be only verbally different. It
seems certain that dutiful conduct would fre-
quently be the same on either view. Yet they
do conflict with one another, and each, if
examined further, presents difficulties.
358
CHAFTBR 19; DUTY
The theory that duty arises from a man's
own virtue receives its classic expression, as
Locke intimates, in the ancient philosophers,
particularly Plato and Aristotle. It appears in
the Republic, for example, when Socrates has to
meet Glaucon's argument that men abide by
moral rules, not simply because they ought to,
but in order to avoid the pain of censure and
punishment. Glaucon claims that, given the
possession of Gyges' ring which can render a
man invisible to others, "no man would keep
his hands off what was not his own when he
could safely take what he liked." He could "in
all respects be like a God among men."
Against this Socrates sets his conception of
the "just man" who does what he ought to do
because it is just, and because justice is essential
to the very life and health of the soul. Accord-
ing to Socrates' way of thinking, it is ridiculous
to ask "which is the more profitable, to be just
and act justly and practise virtue, whether seen
or unseen of gods and men, or to be unjust. . . .
We know that, when the bodily constitution is
gone, life is no longer endurable, though pam-
pered with all kinds of meat and drinks, and
having all wealth and all power; and shall we be
told that when the very essence of the vital
principle is undermined and corrupted, life is
still worth having to a man, if only' he be al-
lowed to do whatever he likes with the single
exception that he is not to acquire justice and
virtue, or to escape from injustice and vice?"
On this view, it seems to be the virtue of
justice which lies at the root of duty or obliga-
tion. But for Plato justice, though only one of
the virtues, is inseparable from the other three
—temperance, courage, and wisdom. It is al-
most indifferent therefore whether one attrib-
utes moral obligation to the particular virtue
of justice or to virtue in general. As the chap-
ters on JUSTICE and VIRTUE indicate, Aristotle
differs from Plato, both with respect to the
virtues in general and to justice in particular.
For Aristotle it is justice alone, not virtue in
general or any other particular virtue, which
gives rise to duty or obligation.
Justice differs from the other virtues, accord-
ing to Aristotle, in that it "alone of the virtues
is thought to consider 'another's good' because
it concerns the Delation of a man to his neigh-
bor.'1 The other virtues, such as temperance
and courage, do not give rise to obligation^
unless they arc somehow annexed to or united
with justice. Whenever Aristotle speaks of
duties he does so with reference to the obliga-
tions that follow from justice— "the duties of
parents to children and those of brothers to
each other . . . those of comrades and those of
fellow-citiseris."
Whereas for Aristotle justice always refers to
the good of another, or to the common good of
all, such virtues as temperance and courage,
when they are isolated from justice, concern
the well-being of the individual himself. That
is why only justice entails duties, which are ob-
ligations to act in a certain way for the welfare
of others, if the good of no other individual is
involved, it seems that a man has no duty to be
temperate or courageous, even when he possesses
these virtues.
Precisely because of the essentially social
character of justice, Aristotle raises the ques*
tion "whether a man can treat himself unjustly
or not." He is willing to admit that a man can
do justice or injustice to himself only in a meta-
phorical sense. What he calls "metaphorical jus-
tice" is not a relation between a man and him-
self, but a relation between one part of himself
and another.
Aquinas seems to follow Aristotle in connect-
ing duty with justice and with no other virtue.
"Justice alone of all the Virtues," he writes,
"implies the notion of duty." If he also inti-
mates that duty may sbhiehow enter into the
acts of other virtues— as when he says that "it
is not so patent in the other virtues as it is in
justice" — his position still remains fundamen-
tally Aristotelian. Referring to that "kind of
metaphorical justice" to which Aristotle ap-
peals in stating the sense in which a man can
treat himself unjustly, Aquinas explains how
"all the other virtues" can be said to "involve
the duty of the lower powers to reason." Apart
from this metaphorical duty of the passions to
obey reason, duty in the strict sense comes, in
the opinion of Aquinas, only from the precepts
of justice, which concern the relation of one
person to another.
ON THIS THEORY, duty is not coextensive with
morality, the sense of duty is not identical with
the moral sense, knd sjbeci&c duties obligate a
360
THE GREAT IDEAS
man to other men even when no general law
exists to be obeyed. Difficulty is found with
this theory by those critics who think that the
whole of morality, not simply one part of it,
involves duties. Does not the sense of duty
operate, they ask, in matters which do not affect
any other individual or even the common good ?
Does a man, for example, have a duty to tell the
truth only to others, but not to seek it for him-
self? Kant, as we shall see, holds that there are
private as well as public duties, or, in his lan-
guage, internal duties in the realm of ethics as
well as external duties in the realm of juris-
prudence.
The Hobbist theory of duty seems to face
similar difficulties. The specific duties which are
determined by the precepts of justice may, as
we have seen, not always be the same as the
specific duties imposed by civil law, though
they will be identical whenever the law of the
state is itself an expression or determination of
justice. But when law rather than justice is the
principle, duty seems to consist primarily in
obedience to the law or rather to the lawgiver
who has superior power and authority. Only
secondarily, or in consequence, does it involve
obligations to other men who are one's equals.
With Hobbes, for example, justice, and ob-
ligation as well, begin only with the establish-
ment of a constituted authority with the power
of making laws. "Where there is no Common-
wealth," he writes, "there is nothing unjust.
So that the nature of justice consisteth in keep-
ing of valid covenants; but the validity of cove-
nants begins not but with the constitution of a
civil power, sufficient to compel men to keep
them." Duty and justice are both said to be
"laws of nature/' but, Hobbes adds, they "are
not properly laws, but qualities that dispose
men to peace, and to obedience," until "a Com-
monwealth is once settled," and then they be-
come "the commands of the Commonwealth."
In other words, "it is the Sovereign power that
obliges men to obey them," and obedience,
which is said to be "part also of the law of
nature," is its proper expression.
So far the two conceptions conflict or at least
diverge. But if the legal theory of duty goes no
further than the enactments of the state, the
same question arises here as before. Does a man
have no duties apart from his relation to the
state? Can duty be co-extensive with morality
if the only rules of conduct to be obeyed are
laws imposed from without— regulations which
have authority simply because they come from
one who has the right to command? Again, as
we shall see, Kant would say No,
WE HAVE now stated the questions about duty
which raise difficulties for Aristotle and Hobbes.
Though they differ in their theories of law and
justice, as well as in their conceptions of duty,
they seem to concur in thinking that doing
one's duty does not exhaustively solve all moral
problems.
The same questions do not, however, seem to
present difficulties to other moralists— to Kant
and to the Stoics of antiquity, such as Marcus
Aurehus and Epictetus. On the contrary, their
moral philosophy, by making the sphere of duty
co-extensive with the whole of the moral life,
seems to prevent such questions from being
raised.
As we turn to examine their conception of
duty, we must observe that, in two respects, it
alters Locke's threefold division of the answers
to the question, Why must a man keep his
word ? In the first place, Locke's statement of
the answer given by "the ancient philosophers"
seems to have only Plato and Aristotle in mind,
certainly not the Stoics. In the second place,
Locke's statement of the Christian position
seems to associate it with the Hobbist answer,
against that of Plato and Aristotle. That
association may be justified on the ground that
duty to God, like duty to the state, involves
obligation to a superior. But Aquinas, as we
have seen, seems to agree with Aristotle about
justice as a source of duty; and, as we shall see,
he also seems to agree with Kant and the Stoics
about the pervasiveness of duty in the realm of
morals. Locke's statement of the Christian posi-
tion* which selects one aspect of it only, may
therefore be inadequate.
The point which unites Kant, the Stoics, and
Aquinas is their agreement concerning the ex-
istence of a law which is neither enacted by the
state nor proclaimed by God m his revealed
commandments. This law the Stoics speak of as
"the law of reason," Aquinas calls "the natural
law," and Kant conceives to be "the moral law
within." The common conception thus vari-
19: DUTY
361
ously expressed is more fully treated in the
chapter on LAW; but that ampler discussion is
not needed to perceive that the law of reason
or of nature is a moral law, in that its general
principles and detailed precepts govern the en-
tire range of moral acts.
"Morality," according to Kant, "consists in
the reference of all action to the legislation
which alone can render a kingdom of ends pos-
sible." By this he means that "the will is never
to act on any maxim which could not without
contradiction be also a universal law." This law
is also moral in the sense that it exercises only
moral authority and should prevail even with-
out the support of the external sanctions which
accompany the positive commands of a supe-
rior. 'The idea of duty," Kant declares, "would
alone be sufficient as a spring [of action] even if
the spring were absent which is connected by
forensic legislation . . . namely external com-
pulsion."
Making the natural or moral law the princi-
ple of duty introduces the element of obligation
into every moral act. Whatever is right to do
we are obliged to do in conformity to the law
of nature or in obedience to the commands of
the moral law. We need no external promulga-
tion of this law— i.e., no express formulation in
words by a lawgiver — for this law is inherent in
reason itself. Its various maxims or precepts can
be deduced from what Aquinas calls the "first
principle ... of the practical reason" and Kant
"the categorical imperative." Or, as the Stoics
say, since reason is the "ruling principle" in
man, man's duty consists in "holding fast" to it
and "going straight on" so that it has "what is
its own."
On this theory, we are obliged in conscience
to do whatever reason declares right, whether
or not others are directly involved. The dis-
tinction between public and private morality—
between the spheres of justice and the other
virtues— is irrelevant to conscience. Conscience,
according to Kant, functions equally in the
spheres of internal and external duty. In both
the realm of ethics and the realm of jurispru-
dence, conscience, applying the moral law, dic-
tates our duty in the particular case. We stand
in no different relation to ourselves and others,
since the moral law is universally and equally
binding on all persons. The obligation is in
every case to obey the law. It is not a duty to
persons, except as the moral law commands us
to respect the dignity of the human person,
ourselves and others alike.
The element of a superior commanding an
inferior seems to be present in this conception
of duty through the relation of reason to the
will and appetites of man. Acting dutifully con-
sists in the submission of the will to reason,
and in overcoming all contrary inclinations or
desires. But though Kant sometimes speaks in
these terms, he also conceives duty as carrying
with it an obligation to God. "The subjective
principle of a responsibility for one's deeds be-
fore God," he says, is "contained, though it be
only obscurely, in every moral self-conscious-
ness."
Nevertheless, Kant insists that "the Christian
principle of morality itself is not theological."
It rests, in his opinion, on the "autonomy of
pure practical reason, since it does not make
the knowledge of God and his will the founda-
tion of these laws, but only of the attainment of
the summum bonum, on the condition of follow-
ing these laws, and it does not even place the
proper spring of this obedience in the desired
results, but solely in the conception of duty, as
that of which the faithful observance alone con-
stitutes the worthiness to obtain those happy
consequences."
It is "through the summum bonum as the
object and final end of pure practical reason"
that, in Kant's view of Christian morality, we
pass from moral philosophy to ''religion, that is,
to the recognition of all duties as divine com-
mands" A Christian theologian like Aquinas,
however, seems to go further than Kant in
equating conformity to the moral law— or the
natural law of reason— with religious obedience
to God. Nor does he explain this equivalence
by reference to the fact that God has made
man's attainment of the summum bonum— or
eternal happiness— depend on his free compli-
ance with the moral law. Rather, for Aquinas,
the natural law is "nothing else than the ra-
tional creature's participation in the eternal
law" of God— the "imprint on us of the divine
light." As God is the author of man's nature
and reason, so is He the ultimate authority be-
hind the commands of the natural law which
He implanted in man's reason at creation.
362
THE GREAT IDEAS
For a Christian theologian like Aquinas, duty
to God involves obedience to the moral law
which reason can discover by itself, no less than
obedience to those positive commandments
which God has revealed to man. Aquinas seems
to think that violation of the natural law is as
much a sin as violation of the divine law. Both
involve a rupture of that order laid down by
God, the one "in relation to the rule of reason,
in so far as all our actions and passions should be
commensurate with the rule of reason,'* theother
"in relation to the rule of the divine law." Thus,
in all moral matters, it would appear that duty
is, in Wordsworth's phrase, "stern daughter of
the voice of God." If the natural law commands
us to use our faculties to the ends for which they
were created, then the possession of a mind im-
poses upon us what Socrates in the Apology
calls man's "duty to inquire." If we fail to seek
the truth, we sin against God by sinning against
our nature, even though "Thou shalt seek the
truth" is nowhere explicitly prescribed in Holy
Writ.
ETHICAL DOCTRINES can be classified according
to the role which they assign to duty as a moral
principle. There is perhaps no more fundamen-
tal issue in moral philosophy than that between
the ethics of duty and the ethics of pleasure or
happiness. This issue obviously belongs to the
chapters on HAPPINESS and PLEASURE as well
as the present one. All three must be read to-
gether—and perhaps also the chapters on DE-
SIRE, LAW, and VIRTUE— to complete the pic-
ture.
According to the morality of duty, every act
is to be judged for its obedience or disobedience
to law, and the basic moral distinction is be-
tween right and wrong. But where pleasure or
happiness are central, the basic distinction is
between good and evil, and desire rather than
law sets the standard of appraisal. An analysis
of means and ends and a theory of the virtues
are usually found in the ethics of happiness, as
a theory of conscience and sanctions is usually
prominent in the ethics of duty.
At one extreme, there is the position which
totally excludes the concept of duty. This fact
more than any other characterizes the Epicure-
anism of Lucretius. The good life for him is one
where "nature craves for herself no more than
this, that pain hold aloof from the body, and
she in mind enjoy a feeling of pleasure exempt
from care and fear." The life he describes— so
disciplined and moderated that all but the
simplest pleasures are relinquished in the effort
to avoid pain — seems to leave no place for
obligation or social responsibility.
In the much more elaborate moral philosophy
of Aristotle, virtue entails moderation in the
avoidance of pain as well as in the pursuit of
pleasure. Though he admits that "most pleas-
ures might perhaps be bad without qualifica-
tion," Aristotle claims that "the chief good,"
which is happiness, "would involve some
pleasure." But even as a good, pleasure is
not the only good, for there are other objects
of desire.
The happy man, according to Aristotle, is
one who somehow succeeds in satisfying all his
desires by seeking the various kinds of goods in
some order and relation to one another. Happi-
ness itself is something that "we choose always
for itself and never for the sake of something
else." Although we may also choose other things
in some sense for themselves, such as "honor,
pleasure, reason, and every virtue," still they
are chosen "for the sake of happiness," since we
judge them as "the means by which we shall be
happy."
In Aristotle's ethics of happiness, duty is not
entirely excluded, but neither is it given any
independent significance. As we have seen, it is
merely an aspect of the virtue of justice, and
amounts to no more than the just man's ac-
knowledgment of the debt he owes to others;
or his recognition that he is under some obliga-
tion to avoid injuring other men and to serve
the common good.
At the other extreme, there is the position
which identifies the sense of duty with the
moral sense. In the Stoicism of Marcus Aurehus
and Epictetus, to live well is to do one's duty,
and to set aside all contrary desires. "It is thy
duty," the Emperor writes, "to order thy life
well in every single act; and if every act does its
duty, as far as is possible, be content; and no one
is able to hinder thee so that each act shall not
do its duty." Man is not destined to be happy;
his happiness consists rather in doing what is
required of him at his post of duty in the order
of the universe. The only good is a good will,
CHAPTER 19: DUTY
363
a dutiful will, a will which conforms itself to the
law of nature.
Kant's much more elaborate moral philos-
ophy presents the same fundamental teachings.
This is indicated by the fact that he associates
what he calls eudaemonism (i.e., the ethics of
happiness) with hedonism (i.e., the ethics of
pleasure). Happiness, he writes, is "a rational
being's consciousness of the pleasantness of life
uninterruptedly accompanying his whole ex-
istence," and its basis is "the principle of self-
love." Therefore, according to Kant, both eu-
daemonism and hedonism commit the same
error. Both ''undermine morality and destroy
its sublimity, since they put the motives to
virtue and to vice in the same class, and only
teach us to make a better calculation." Both
admit desire as a moral criterion of good and
evil. Both are utilitarian in that they are con-
cerned with consequences, with means and ends.
Both measure the moral act by reference to the
end it serves.
For Kant, "an action done from duty de-
rives its moral worth, not from the purpose
which is to be attained by it, but from the
maxim by which it is determined, and there-
fore does not depend on the realization of the
object of the action, but merely on the principle
oi volition by which the action has taken place,
without any regard to any object of desire. . . .
Duty," he goes on to say, "is the necessity of
acting from respect for the law." From this he
argues that duty, and consequently all moral
action, must be done because it is right, because
the law commands it, and for no other reason.
The recommendation of any action solely on
the ground that it will contribute to happiness
as satisfying the inclination of the person and
achieving the object of the will, is completely
ruled out. That would be a judgment of pure
expediency. Worse than not moral, it is, in the
opinion of Kant, immoral.
"An action done from duty," Kant writes,
"must wholly exclude the influence of inclina-
tion, and with it every object of the will, so that
nothing remains which can determine the will
except objectively the law, and subjectively
pure respect for this practical law, and conse-
quently the maxim that I should follow this
law even to the thwarting of all my inclina-
tions. . . . The pre-eminent good which we call
moral can therefore consist in nothing else than
the conception of law in itself, which certainly
is only possible in a rational being in so far as
this conception, and not the expected effect,
determines the will."
This law, which is the source of duty and of
all moral action, is Kant's famous "categorical
imperative"— or, in other words, reason's un-
conditional command. According to its decree,
Kant declares, "I am never to act otherwise
than so that I could also will that my maxim
should become a universal law." By obeying
the categorical imperative, we can know and do
our duty and rest assured that our will is mor-
ally good. "I do not, therefore, need any far-
reaching penetration to discern what I have to
do," Kant writes, "in order that my will may
be morally good. Inexperienced in the course
of the world, incapable of being prepared for
all its contingencies, I only ask myself: Canst
thou also will that thy maxim should be a uni-
versal law? If not, then it must be rejected, and
that not because of a disadvantage accruing
from it to myself, or even to others, but because
it cannot enter as a principle into a possible
universal legislation."
To say that a man ought to do this or refrain
from doing that in order to achieve happiness is,
for Kant, at best a conditional obligation, ulti-
mately a specious one since he is not uncon-
ditionally obliged to be happy. Kant does not
totally exclude happiness or the summum bo-
num. In fact he says that there is no need to
maintain "an opposition" between them and
morality. But he claims that "the moment duty
is in question we should take no account of
happiness." Just as Aristotle treats duty only in
terms of justice, so Kant considers happiness to
have a moral quality only insofar as to be
worthy of it is an end set by the moral law.
Two OTHER voices join in this great argument
concerning duty and happiness. One is that of
John Stuart Mill, whose Utilitarianism recog-
nizes Kant as the chief opponent of an ethics of
happiness. Though Mill differs from Aristotle
on many points, particularly in regard to the
virtues as means to happiness, Mill's answer to
Kant can be read as a defense of Aristotle as
well as of his own theory.
From Kant's point of view, they are both
364
THE GREAT IDEAS
utilitarians. They both argue in terms of means
and ends. They both make purely pragmatic,
not moral, judgments— judgments of expedi-
ency instead of judgments of right and wrong.
From Mill's point of view, Aristotle like him-
self needs no other principle of morality than
happiness, an ultimate end which justifies every
means that tends towards its realization. "The
ultimate sanction of all morality, external mo-
tives apart," Mill writes, "is a subjective feeling
in our own minds." He asserts that "when once
the general happiness is recognized as the ethical
standard," it will appeal to "a powerful natural
sentiment." Man's nature as a social being, he
holds, "tends to make him feel it one of his
natural wants that there should be harmony
between his feelings and aims and those of his
fellow-creatures."
This conviction, in persons who have it,
"docs not present itself to their minds as a
superstition of education, or a law despotically
imposed by the power of society, but as an
attribute which it would not be well for them
to be without." This conviction, rather than
an internal sense of obligation or fear of external
sanctions imposed by a superior power, is for
Mill "the ultimate sanction of the greatest hap-
piness morality"— which aims at the greatest
happiness for the greatest number.
Where Mill answers Kant by excluding duty
—even from considerations of justice— Aquinas
seems to develop an analysis in which every
moral act can be regarded as obeying or dis-
obeying the natural law and yet, at the same
time, be judged as a means which serves or fails
to serve the ultimate end of man's natural de-
sire. "The order of the precepts of the natural
law is," in the words of Aquinas, "according to
the order of natural inclinations." The dilemma
set up by the opposition between duty and
happiness seems to be denied, or at least avoided,
by a theory which finds a perfect parallelism
between the precepts of natural law and the
objects of natural desire, a parallelism resulting
from their common source in the creation of
human nature by God.
THE TENSION between duty and desire— be-
tween obedience to rules of conduct and un-
restrained indulgence— is one of the burdens
which no other animal except man must bear. It
is a constant theme in the great poems. It is
pivotal to the plot of most of the great love
stories. It is a theme of tragedy, for in which-
ever direction the tension is resolved — whether
in the line of duty (as by Aeneas forsaking
Dido) or in disobedience to law (as by Adam
yielding to Eve in Paradise Lost) — ruin results.
The tragedy of being both rational and ani-
mal seems to consist in having to choose between
duty and desire rather than m making any par-
ticular choice. It may be significant, however,
that the tragic heroes of poetry more frequently
abandon duty than desire or love, though sel-
dom without mortal punishment, preceded by
a deep sense of their transgression. Sometimes,
however, they are self-deceived, and cloak de-
sire in the guise of duty.
There is another source of tragic conflict in
the spheie of duty. Men are torn by competing
loyalties, obligations which pull them in oppo-
site directions. In the basic relationships of the
family, the duty a man owes to his parents often
cannot be discharged without violating or ne-
glecting obligations to his wife. When the moral
law and the law of the state command contrary
actions, duty is weighed against duty in an
ordeal of conscience. Sometimes, however, one
obligation seems to take clear precedence over
another, as in the mind of Sophocles' Antigone,
for whom the king's edict loses its authority
when it runs counter to the law of God. Creon
the king, not Antigone his subject, may be the
play's more tragic personage. He sacrifices a
dearly beloved son to uphold the authority he
considers it his duty as a ruler to maintain.
If man is not a rational animal or if, whatever
his nature, reason is not its ruling principle,
then the sense of duty would appear to be an
imposture that draws its driving force from
the emotional energies with which certain man-
made rules of conduct are invested. Rather than
acting as a counterweight to desire, duty is
itself the shape which certain desires take to
combat others.
Conscience, or the super-ego, according to
Freud, is born of the struggle between the ego
and the td. Translated into "popular language,"
Freud tells us, "the ego stands for reason and
circumspection, while the id stands for the un-
tamed passions." What may originally have had
a necessary function to perform in the psychic
CHAPTER 19: DUTY
365
economy can grow to play too dominant a part.
For the psychoanalyst, not tragedy but neurosis
results from an overdeveloped sense of duty.
When "the ego [is] forced to acknowledge its
weakness," Freud explains, it "breaks out into
anxiety: reality anxiety in face of the external
world, normal anxiety in face of the super-ego,
and neurotic anxiety in face of the strength of
the passions in the id."
THE RELATION of ruler and ruled in the domes-
tic or the political community may seem at first
to impose duties or obligations only on the
ruled. The ruler commands. His subjects are
obliged to obey. Does the ruler in turn have no
duties, no obligations to those whom he governs ?
If he has none, then neither have the persons he
rules rights which he must respect. Such abso-
lute rule— defined by a correlative absence of
duties in the ruler and rights in the ruled— has
been one conception of the relation between
master and slave.
In the state rulers who are merely office-
holders are obligated by the duties of their
office as well as vested with its authority and
power. The office-holder, duty-bound by the
constitution, is not an absolute ruler. He is, in
fact, a servant of the state, not its master. The
mediaeval king who pledged himself in his coro-
nation oath to discharge the duties of his office
may not have been bound by human law, but
so long as his conscience kept him loyal to his
pledge, he recognized the supremacy of the
natural law or of the law of God. The self-
governing citizen of a republic is similarly duty-
bound only when he recognizes the supremacy
of the common good.
According to the theory of constitutional
government, rights and duties are correlative.
The acknowledgment of duties signifies that the
holder of rights recognizes their limited or con-
ditional character. To consider oneself entirely
exempt from duties or obligations is to regard
one's rights as absolute. Can anyone have abso-
lute rights except on condition of being with-
out a superior of any sort? One implied answer
to this question is that neither despot nor state,
but only God, is autonomous or without duty.
PAGE
366
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The concept of duty or obligation: its moral significance
2. Comparison of the ethics of duty with the ethics of happiness, pleasure, or utility
3. The divisions of duty : internal and external duty ; the realms of ethics and j unsprudence 367
4. The sense of duty
40. The moral and social development of conscience : its dictates
4#. The emotional development of conscience : its morbid manifestations
5. tTie derivation of duty from divine, natural, and civil law, and from the categorical
imperative of reason
6. Conflicts between duties of diverse origins
7. The relation of duty to justice and to rights: oaths and promises
8. The tension between duty and instinct, desire, or love
9. The duties of command and obedience in family life
10. Political obligation: cares, functions, loyalties
n. Duty to God: piety and worship
368
369
370
373
366
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed m one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology, \ 16a-l 19b,the passage
begins in the upper half of page 1 16 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand sideof the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand sideof
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO, Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand siac of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS' One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES. The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7.45— (D) 11 Esdras, 7.46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The concept of duty or obligation: its moral
significance
7 PLATO- Gorgias, 269d-270c
12£picTFTus: Discourses, BK n, CH 5, 143d-
144a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT i 259b,d;
SECT 6 261a-c; BK iv, SECT 4 264a; BK v,
SECT 6 269b-d; BK vi, SECT 22-23 276a-b;
SECT 26 276b-c; BK vn, SECT 5 280a-b, BK
vin, SECT 26 287c; SECT 32 287d-288a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4, 287d;
BK xix, CH 14-16, 520c-522a; CH 19 523b-d
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 22-30 629b-
633b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 99,
A 5 249a-250a; PART ii-n, o 4, A 7, REP 3
407d-409a; QQ 183-189 625a-700d passim, esp
Q 183, A i, REP 3 625a-626a, A 3 627a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87c; PART n,
115a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7a-d; 24c-25c; 233a-b;
319b; 383c-385a; 467b-470a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-fa>a
38 ROUSSEAU : Soaal Contract, BK i, 388d-389a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 149d-150a;
190c-d; 236d-237a / Fund. Prin, Metaphysic
of Morals, 253d-254d; 2S6a-279d esp 276b-
277a; 282d-283d / Practical Reason, 305d-
307d, 325a-d; 327d-329a / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 366d-367a; 368a-d, 373b-d
/ Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-390a,c
esp 383a-384d, 389a-390a,c; 391a-c; 392b-
393a / Science of Right, 397c-398a; 416b-
417b / Judgement, 571c-572a; 594c-596c esp
595a-d, 605d-606b [fn 2}
43 MILL- Liberty, 304c-306b passim / Utilitarian-
ism, 453c-454a; 468b-469b
46 HtcEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 133-
135 47a-d; PART m, par 148-150 56a-57a;
ADDITIONS, 84 129b; 95 132b / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 170d-171c, PART i, 224a;
PART iv, 362c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 304a; 310d-314c
esp 313d-314a; 592 b-c
!. Comparison of the ethics of duty with the
ethics of happiness, pleasure, or utility
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK n, CH n 150a-151b;
CH 19 162c-164b; BK in, CH 24 203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK vin, SECT 10 286b; SECT 2&'287c;
SECT 39 288c; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECT 7
292b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-
289aj BK xiv, CH 8-9 381c-385b
3*040
CHAPTER 19: DUTY:
367
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART I-H, Q 24,
A 2 727d-728c
24 RAB.ELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
V
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d~76a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 62b-68b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b; 236b-239a /
Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-257d;
258d-264a; 265b; 267b d; 280d-281a; 282b-
283d; 286a-c / Practical Reason, 297a-319b
csp 298a-300a, 304d-307d; 325a-33la; 338c-
355d esp 345d-347a / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 365b-366d; 369c-373b / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 387b-388a; 389a-
390a,c / Science of Right, 446b-c / Judgement,
478a-479c; 584d-587a; 588b [fn 2]; 591b-592a;
594c-596c;605d-606b[fn2]
43 MILL: Liberty, 296a-297b / Utilitarianism
445a-476a,c esp 457c-461c, 464d-476a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 124
44b-d; par 134-135 47b-d; ADDITIONS, 85-87
129b-d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 813a-814a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 800c-
801 b
3. The divisions of duty: internal and external
duty; the realms of ethics and jurispru-
dence
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 269d-270c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, o 16,
A 4, REP 3 97a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q
99, A 5, ANS 249a-250a, Q 100, A 2, REP 2
252b-253a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 95d-96a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7 a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [1334-1379] 368b-
369b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 89d-91a; 96a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals,
268d-270c; 272b-273a / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics 365a-379d esp 366d, 367b-
368a, 370d-372a, 374a-c, 378a / Intro. Meta-
physic of Morals, 383a-384a,c; 386d-387a,c;
389a-390a,c; 391a-394a,c / Science of Right,
398a-399c; 400b,d-401b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458a-d; 468b-469b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 79
33a-c; PART u, par 137-141 4&a-54d / Philoso-
phy of History, INTRO, 170d-171c; 186b-c;
PART i, 207b-c; 211a-c; 214d-2l6b; PART HI,
290a-b
$1 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n,
689b
4. The sense of duty
5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [1010-
1047] 80a-c / ftumcnidcs 81a-91d csp [436-666]
86a-88a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1-509] 114a-
118d / Antigone 131a-142d / Electra 156a-
169a,c / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d esp [373-
430] 228b-d / Akestis 237a-247a,c / Heraclei-
dae 248a-257a,c esp [748-783] 254d-255a /
Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [87-597] 258d-
263c/ Electra 327a-339a,c / Phoenician Maid-
ens [1625-1766] 392b-393d
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
397d-398c
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 70d-7lb / Meno, 183a-b
/ Apology, 206b-d / Cnto 213a-219a,c / Re-
public, BK vii, 390b-391b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 5 IZOb-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vm, SECT 32
287d-288a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato 276b,d-290d esp
282a / Cato the Younger 620a-£48a,c esp
626d-627b, 632b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [859-1004] 174a-
176b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 301d-303c; 467d-468b
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Like It, ACT u, sc^ii
[56-65] 605a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 81b-88b
32 MILTON: Comus [170-229] 37a-38b / Paradise
Lost, BK in [194-197] 139b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
253d-254b / Practical Reason, 325c-327d;
333a-334a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of
Ethics, 375a-b (judgement, 593a-d; 599b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458b-461c esp 458b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 3lOa-314a csp
310c-d, 314a; 592b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 275a; BK x,
465c-467a; BK xi, 513d-514d; 527b-528b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 807a-808a
4a. The moral and social development of con-
science: its dictates
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 28:1 / Ecclcsiastes,
7:21-22— (D) Ecclesiastes, 7:22-23
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 17 :u— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 17:10 / Ecclesiasticuf,
14:2— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14:2
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 2:14-15 / / Corin-
thians, 8/7 Timothy, 411-2 / Titus, 1 115
5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [1010-
1076] SOa-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 5 257b-c;
BK in, SECT 4 260b-261a; BK iv, SECT 18
264d; BK vin, SECT 32 287d-288a
18 AUGUSTLNE: Confessions, BK n» par 9, lOd;
BK iv, par 14 22d-23a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 79,
AA 12-13 425c-427a; PART i-ii, Q 19, AA 5-6
705d-708a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 96,
A 4 233a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxvn
[124-142] 95d-96a ,
368
THE GREAT IDEAS
ttto 5
(4. The sense of duty, 4a. The moral and social
development of conscience: its dictates.)
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65d-66a; PART n,
149b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 16a-d; 46b-d; 174d-
176a; 306d-307a; 381a-395b esp 384d-385a;
467d-468b
26 SHAKPSPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT n, sc n
[1-66] 78d-79c / Merchant of Venice, ACT n,
sc ii [1-33] 412a-b / 2nd Henry IV, ACT v,
sc v 501b-502c
27 SHAKESPEARE; Hamlet, ACT i, sc m [78-81]
35a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 74b-c; 96a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART m, THE AFFECTS, DEF
27, EXPL 419a-b
33 PASCAL Provincial Letters, 29b-33b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 7-9 105d-lQ6d; BK n, CH xxvin, SECT
10-12 230b-231c csp SECT 12 231b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 255a-266b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 57c-58a; 360d-361a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-331c; 343d-345c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306d-307d; 321b-
329a csp 326b-327d / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 374c-379d / Intro. Metaphysic
of Morals, 389a-b /Judgement, 593a-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 295b-d / Utilitarianism, 458b-
461c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 219a-b
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART n, par
136-138 47d-48d; ADDITIONS, 87-89 129c-
130a / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 353c-d
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 304a-305c; 310c-
318c; 321b-323a; 592b-593b
52 DOSTOLVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
160b-163c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a-191a; 661b; 886b-
888a
54 FREUD: Ego and Id, 707b-708b / War and
Death, 757c-759d esp 758c-d, 759b / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 792 b-d / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 8 76 b-d
4b. The emotional development of conscience:
its morbid manifestations
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 17— (D) OT,
Bool( of Wisdom, 17
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra [121-633] 157b-161a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK m [1014-
io23]43a-b; BK v [1143-1160] 76a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 174d-176a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [1-75]
114d-115b; ACT v, sc in (119-206) 144d-145d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet 29a-72a,c esp ACT n,
sc n [617-633] 46c-d, ACT in, sc i [56-90]
47c-d, sc in [36-72] 53d-54a, sc iv 54b-56d,
ACT iv, sc iv [32-66] 59a-c / King Lear, ACT
Hi, sc iv [23-36] 264c / Macbeth, ACT in, sc
iv 297c-299b; ACT v, sc i 306b-307a; sc in
307c-308b
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [590-605] 352b
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 54d-55a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306d-307d / Intro.
Metaphystc of Morals, 389a-b / Judgement,
593a-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3776-3834] 92a-93b;
[4405-4612] 110a-114b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312d-314b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 373b-374d;
BK x, 406c-410c; 416c-417b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
160b-163c; BK xi, 319b-c; BK XH, 367c-368a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 407b-409a / General In-
troduction, 622c-d / Group Psychology, 689d-
691c / Ego and Id, 703c-708c esp 706b-707d;
712b-717a,c esp 715d-716c / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 792a-799a esp 792b-794a, 797c-
799a / New Introductory Lectures, 830a-840a
esp 838d 839b; 851d-852d
5. The derivation of duty from divine, nat-
ural, and civil law, and from the cate-
gorical imperative of reason
OLD TESTAMENT* Genesis, 22-1-19 esp 22*18 /
Leviticus, 19 esp 19:2, 19:36-37 / Deuteronomy,
5.22-33 esp 5:32-3 3, 6:17-18,24-25; 11-26-28;
12 28-32 esp 12 32 / Psalms, 17 3-4, 78 i-u,
119 esp 119:4-6, 119:33-40, 119.57-61 — (D)
Psalms, 16:3-4; 77:1-11; 118 esp 118:4-6,
118 33-40, 118 57-61 / Ecclesiastes, 12:13-14
/ Jonah— (D) Jonas
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 7:21 / John, 5:30
5 AESCHYLUS- Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c /
Seven Against Thebes [1005-1078] 38b-39a,c /
Eumemdes [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES Oedipus the King [863-910] 107b-c
/ Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1316-1345]
154b-c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [1-41]
258a-b / Phoenician Maidens [1625-1766]
392b-393d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 201d-202c
7 PLATO: Apology, 206b-d / Crito, 214d-219a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 16, 157c-
158d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a-b;
BK iv, SECT i 263a; SECT 4 264a; SECT 39
267a; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK VH, SECT
55 283b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 14-16,
520c-522a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 22-30
629b-633b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
A i, ANS 325c-326c
20 AQUINAS: Summa TJieologicd, PART I-H, Q 96,
A 4 233a-d; Q 99, A 5 249a-250a; PART n-ii,
Q 4, A 7, REP 3 407d-409a{
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87c; 95d-
96a; PART n, llOa; 113c; 131a-c; 137b-138b;
159d-160d; 164a,c; PART m, 165a; CONCLU-
SION, 282a; 283c
6/o 7
CHAPTER
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-d; 233a»b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [647-654] 261 b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH u, SECT 4-6
25d-26c; CH xvi, SECT 186 68d-69a; SECT
195 70a-b / Human Understanding, BK i, CH
n, SECT 5-6 105a-c; SECT 12-13 107b-108c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spmt of Laws, BK i, 2a-b;
BK xxm, 187d-188a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-331c; 356b-359a
/ Social Contract, BK i, 388d-389a, 392b-393c;
BK n, 397d-398a; 399b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 236d-237a /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of 'Moral, 253d-254d;
260a-261d; 268c-270c, 272a-b, 273d-287d esp
275b-d, 277d-279d, 281c-283d / Practical Rea-
son, 297a-314d esp 307d-314d; 321b-329a /
Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 366a-d;
369a-c; 373d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
386b-d; 388b-c; 390b,d-391c; 392b-393a /
Judgement, 571c-572a, 605d-606b [fn 2}
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 445d-446d; 470a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 135
47b-d; ADDITIONS, 86 129c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 170d-171c; 186b-c; PART iv,
362b-d
6. Conflicts between duties of diverse origins
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:18-25 esp 2-24 /
Deuteronomy, 21.18-21
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8 21-22; 12:46-50;
22.17-21 / Mar\, 12 '14-17 / Luke, 20 20-26
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maiden* [333-489] 5a-
7a / Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c / Aga-
memnon [184-247] 54a-c / Choephoroe [885-
930] 78d-79b / Eumemdes 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [1-99]
131a-132a / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c esp [50-
122] 182d~183b
5 EURIPIDES Electra 327a-339a,c esp [962-987]
335d-336a / Phoenician Maidens 378a-393d /
Iphtgenia at Auhs 425a-439d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 71d-72a; BK v,
171d-172a
7 PLATO: Crtto, 213d-219a,c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [331-361] 176a-177a
14 PLUTARCH: Fabius, 152b-d/ Conolanus, 189d-
191c / Timoleon, 196b-198b / Agis, 654c-655a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 19 523b-d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, lOlc, 151a-c;
PART in, 198d-199a; 240a-246a,c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 381a-388c esp 386a-d;
467b-470a; 486b-488b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT i, sc n [1-43]
322d-323a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistcs [843-902] 358a-
359a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16c-17b; 18a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369c / Social
Contract, BK iv, 435a-439c passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 193c-194a; 226a-b
l?r DUTY 369
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89b-c
42 KANT: Ititro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392a
43 MILL: Liberty, 304c-d / Utilitarianism, 456d-
457b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 145b; 221d-224a; 542a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 150
56c-57a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 275a-276b;
EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c; 670d-671a
7. The relation of duty to justice and to rights:
oaths and promises
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 28:18-22; 29:15-30 /
Leviticus, 5'4~*I3» 27 / Numbers, 6; 30 / Deu-
teronomy, 23:21-23 / Joshua, 2; 6:22-25;
24.1-28— (D) Josue, 2; 6-22-25; 24:1-28 /
Judges, 1-2 ; 1 1 128-40 / I Samuel, i :i 1-28— (D)
I Kings, 1. 11-28 / Ptalms, 50.14; 66:13-14—
(D) Psalms, 49:14; 65:13-14 / Ecclesiastes, 5:4
-(D) Ecclesiastes, 5:3 / Zechanah, 8:17— (D)
Zachanas, 8:17
APOCRYPHA Ecclesiasticus, 29:3 — (D) OT, EC-
desiasttcus, 29:3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:33-37 / James,
5:12
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK iv [153-239] 25c-26b
5 ALSCHYLUS: Choephoroe 70a-80d
5 SOPHOCLES. Philoctetes 182a-195a,c csp [895-
1292] 190a-193c
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [218-331] 354d-355c /
Iphigema at Auhs [16-140] 425b-426b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK ui, 90c-d; BK iv,
151a-b, 159a-b; BK vi, 197a-b; 201d-202c;
BK ixt 311b-312d
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK 11, 406a-
407b; BK in, 429c-434c; BK v, 490a-b
7 PLATO Apology, 209a-b / Crito, 216d-219a,c /
Gorgias, 284a-285a / Republic, BK i, 297a-300b
/ Law*, BK xii, 787d-788c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH 9 [ii59b25~
ii6oa9] 411d-412b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 14
[i375a8-n]619c
12 AURELIUS Meditations, BK m, SECT 7 261c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK xii [175-215] 358b-360a
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 357a-b / Agesilaus,
484a-b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 16,
A 4, REP 3 97a-c; Q 21, A i, REP 3 124b-125b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A 3 51c-52b; Q 99, A 5 249a-250a; Q 100,
A 2, REP 2 252b-253a; A 3, REP 3 253a-d;
PART H-II, Q 4, A 7, REP 3 407d-409a; Q 23,
A 3, REP i 485a-d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1128-1176] 178b-
179a / Franklin's Tale [11,770-844] 363b-364b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 77b-c; 86c-92b;
PART n, 115a-116a; 127b; 138c; 142a-d; 145a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 13d-14c; 381a-388c esp
383c-d, 387b-c; 467b-470a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT v, s.c i
[175-190] 66d-67a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT i, sc
II [I-34] 72d-73b / Titus Androntcus, ACT v,
370
THE GREAT IDEAS
8
(7. The relation of duty to justice and to rights:
oaths and promises!)
sc i [68-86] 193a / Two Gentlemen of Verona,
ACT ii, sc vi 239a-c / Merchant of Venice, ACT
iv, sc i 425c-430b / Julius Caesar, ACT u,
sc i (112-140] 575d-576a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Trotlus and Cressida, ACT HI,
sc u [165-212] 121d-122b; ACT v, scm [1-75]
137a-d / Conolanus, ACT v, sc m 387a-389b /
Sonnets, CLII 609c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Toleration la-22d csp 5d-lla / Civil
Government, CH u, SECT 4-6 25d-26c; SECT
14 28b-c; CH xvi 65d-70c passim, csp SECT 186
68d*69a, SECT 195 70a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vm, 55c-d
38 ROUSSFAU: Social Contract, BK i, 388c-391b;
392b-393c; BK u, 396d-398b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89d-91c; 532d-
533d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 267d-
268a, 269a-c; 272c-d / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 371b-372a / Intro. Metaphysic
of Morals, 389c-390a,c / Science of Right,
416b-417b; 429d-430a; 432c-433c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 7, 44a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-312a esp 305d-306b,
309c-310c; 316b-319d / Representative Govern-
ment, 392b-393c / Utilitarianism, 464d-476a,c
passim, esp 468b-469b, 475a-b
46 HEGFL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 78-79
32d-33c; PART in, par 154-155 57c; par 221
73b; par 261 83a-d; par 293 98b; ADDITIONS,
49 124b-c; 99 133a; 139 139b / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 236a-c; PART iv, 362c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1716-1731] 41a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 505a-511b
csp 509d-510a
8. The tension between duty and instinct, de-
sire, or love
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 13:6-11; 21-18-
21 / Judges, 11:28-40 / Ruth, i / Zechanah,
13:3— (D) Zachanas, 13-3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 12:46-50 / Acts,
21:7-15
4 HOMER. Iliad, BK vi [369-502] 43d-45a
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [184-247] 54a-c
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d esp [373-
430] 228b-d / Iphigenia at Aulis 425a-439d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a~599a,c esp
[706-780] 592b-593b
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK vi, 201d-202c
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK v,
506b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1121-
1140] 58d-59a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c; BK
ii, CH ii 150a-151b; BK HI, CH 2 177c-178d;
CH 24 203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 2 274a;
BK vii, SECT 55 283 b-c; BK VIH, SECT 32
287d-288a; SECT 39 288c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv 167a-186b
14 PLUTARCH: Popltcola, 77d-79c / Fabius,
152b-d / Conolanus, 189d-191c / Timoleon,
196b-198b/ Agis, 654c-655a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4, 287d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 5, REP 3 58b-59d; PART H-II, QQ 25-26
501a-520d; Q 31, AA 2-3 537c-539c; Q 32,
A 5-Q 33, A 8 544a-558d; Q 44 592d-598c
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-8b; PUR-
GATORY, x [70-93] 68a-b; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv 88b-
120a esp STANZA 76-79 98b-99a, STANZA 219
117a
23 HOBBI s Leviathan, CONCLUSION, 279a-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
197b-198b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 83a-86c; 467b-470a;
486b-488b
26 SHAKESPEARE. Two Gentlemen of Verona
229a-253a,c esp ACT n, sc iv [192-214] 238b,
sc vi 239a-c, ACT in, sc i [1-50] 240b-d / Ro-
meo and Juliet, ACI in, sc v [66-205] 307d-
309b / Richard II, ACT v, sc u febj-sc in [146]
347a-349c / Much Ado About Nothing, ACT
n, sc i [182-189] 509a-b / Julius Caesar, ACT
in, sc n [11-44] 583d-584a
27 SHAKESPEARE: : Macbeth, ACT i, sc vii [1-28]
289b-c / Antony and Cleopatra 311a-350d
esp ACT i, sc iv [1-33] 315d-316b / Conolanus,
ACI v, sc in 387a-389b
29 CERV ANTES. Don Quixote, PART i, 120b-137d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 24b
32 MILTON. Samson Agonistes [843-902] 358a-
359a
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 104 193a
35 LOCKE Cwil Government, CH ii, SECT 4-6
25d-26c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 77c-78b; 79d-80b
42 KANT: Fund Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
261c-d; 262a-d; 264a; 284d-285a / Practical
Reason, 306a-b; 325a-327d, 342a-b / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 367a-b /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-386b
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 22, 83c-d; NUMBER 72,
217a-b; NUMBER 73, 218d-219a; NUMBER 75,
223cd
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458d-459b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 222b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 149
56b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3025-3072] 73b-
74b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311a-314b; 318d-
319a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 77c-81b;
89b-d; BK m, 122b-c; BK vu, 275a-276b;
301b-302b; BK ix, 365d-366a; BK xi, 520a-
521 b; EPILOGUE it 669b-c
9 to 10
CHAFFER 19: DUTY
371
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
95b-100c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 807a-808a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 452c-d; 573c;
624a 625b / War and Death, 758c-759d esp
759c-d; 764c-765a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 780b-802a,c esp 781a-d, 783c-789b,
791b d, 793d 794a, 800c-801b / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 853a-b
9. The duties of command and obedience in
family life
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:18-25; 9:18-29 /
Exodus, 20:12; 21:1-21,26-27 / Leviticus, 19:3
/ Deuteronomy, 5:16; 15:12-18; 21*15-23;
22-13-30; 24. 1-4,14-15; 25-5-10; 27:16,20,22-
23 / Ruth I Proverbs, 20.20; 30:17
APOCRYPHA. Ecclcuasticus, 3 i-i8;4 30; 7-19-28;
30:1-13; 33.24-31 — (D) OT, Ecclesiasttcus,
3:1-20; 4:35; 7-21-30; 30.1-13; 33.25-33
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 15 3-6 / // Corin-
thians, 12*14 / Ephesians, 5 22-25; 6-1-9 /
Colossians, 3.18-4:1 / / Timothy, 5:8 / Titus,
2-9-11 / Philemon / I Peter, 3:1-7
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK i-n 183a-192d
5 SOPHOCLFS Oedipus at Colonus [421-460]
118a-b / Antigone 131a-142d esp [631-680]
136c-137a / Trachimae 170a-181a,c esp [1157-
1258] 180a-181a,c
5 ARibiot'HANrs: Clouds [791-885] 498b-499b;
[1321-1451] 504c-506b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 56c; BK in, 104c-
105a, BK vin, 281c
7 PLATO Laws, BK iv, 683b-c; BK xi, 779b-
781c / Seventh Letter, 803d-804a
9 ARibiorLh Ethics, BK vin, CH 9 [ii59b25-
n6oa9] 411d-412b; CH 10 [n6ob23]-CH n
[n6ia29J 413a-c / Politics, BK i, CH 12-13
453d-455a,c
14 PLUT\RCH Agis, 654c-655a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 3-8 9b-
lOd; BK XIH, par 47, 123d/ City of God, BK
xix, CH 14-16, 520c-522a
20 AQUINAS : Summa T/ieologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4 318b-321a
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Man of Law [4701-4707]
239a / Wife of Bath's Prologue [5583-6410]
256a-269b esp [5893-5914] 261a-b, [6385-6410]
269a-b / Tale of Wife of Bath [6619-6627]
273a-b / Clerks Tale 296a-318a esp [9053-
9088] 317a-318a / Merchant's Tale 319a-338a
esp [9249-9266] 321a / Franklin's Tale [11,041-
no] 351b-352b / Tale of Mehbeus, par
13-16 404b-407b / Parson's Tale, par 79-80,
541a-b
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 109c-110b; 121a;
155b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
219b-222b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 184a-191c; 410a-422b;
427d-430a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors, ACT n, sc
i [7-43] 152a-c / Taming of the Shrew 199a-
228a,c esp ACT v, sc n [136-179] 227d-228a,c
/ Romeo and Juliet, ACT in, sc v [127-197]
308c-309b / Midsummer-Night's Dream, ACT
i, sc i [1-121] 352a-353c / Merchant of Venice,
ACT i, sc n 408b-409c / 1st Henry IV, ACT n,
sc in 443b-444b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT i, sc HI [175-189]
210d-211a / King Lear 244a-283a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 75c / New
Atlantis, 207b-209d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK iv [288-301] 158b-
159a; [440-502] 162a-163a; [634-638] 166a;
BK vin [452-594] 242a-245a; BK x [144-156]
277b; [867-936] 293b-294b / Samson Agonis-
/w[87i-902]358b-359a;(997-io6o]361b-362b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 52-cn
vn, SECT 86 36a-44a; CH xv, SECT 169-170
64c-65a; SECT 173-174 65c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 6b-c; 21a-22d; lOOb-
102a; 105a-107b; 108c-110c; 120c-121a,c;
124a-125c; 126d-127b; 136b-c; 283c-d; 312c-
313a; 321b-324b; 340c-341d; 359b-362c
38 MONTESQUIFU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 22d-23a;
BK xxiu, 187b,d-189d; BK xxvi, 216a-b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 357a-b, 364d-365b /
Political Economy, 367a-368c / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 387d-388a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b-84a, 86b-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 404d; 419a-422d esp
419b-c, 420a-d; 445c-446a
43 MILL: Liberty, 317c-318a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 174
61b; ADDITIONS, in 134d-135a / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 211c-213a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 249b-d;
267c-d; BK vi-vn, 271c-276b; BK vn, 291a-
292b; 301b-302d; BK vin, 305b-307a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 244a-c /
New Introductory Lectures, 876c
10. Political obligation: cares, functions, loy-
alties
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:13-17 / Leviticus,
19:9-20,32-37; 25:14-55 / Numbers, 35 /
Deuteronomy, 5:17-21; 15; 17:8-20; 19; 22:1-
4; 23:15-25; 24:10-13; 27:17-19,24-25 / Prov-
erbs, 3.27-28; 16:10-15; 28.15-18; 29-2,4,12,
14 / Jeremiah, 29:7— (D) Jeremias, 29:7 /
Zechanah, 8:16-17— (D) Zachanas, 8:16-17
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 5.21-24; 22:17-21 /
Marl(, 12:14-17 / Lu^e, 20:20-26 / Romans,
13:1-7 / Titus, 3:1 / / Peter, 2:13-19
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [1-172] 57a-58d
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1-77] 27a-
28a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1-77] 99a-d /
Antigone [631-680] 136c-137a / Philoctetes
182a~195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [297-331] 261a-b /
Iphigema at Auhs [1368-1401] 437c-d
372
THE GREAT IDEAS
10
(10. Political obligation: caresf functions, loyal-
ties.)
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 223c-d; 239a-c
6 THUCYDiDES-.Peloponncsian War, BK i, 355b-c;
359b-360c; 370d; 378c-d; BK n, 395d-399a;
402b-c; 403b-c; 406a-407b; BK m, 430c,
432c-d; BK vi, 513a; BK vii, 555d-556a
7 PLATO: Apology, 206a-d / Cnto 213a-219a,c
esp 216d-219a,c / Republic, BK iv, 342a-d;
344a; BK vn, 390b-391b; 401a-b / Seventh
Letter, 802b-804b; 814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK n, CH 17 [1391*20-26]
638c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 23 128c-d;
BK in, CH 22 195a-201a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK ix, SECT 42 295c-296a,c
13 VIRGIL. Aeneid, BK in [90-98] 149b; EK iv
[189-278] 172a-174b; BK vi [845-853] 233b-
234a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 45a-c,
48a-b / Numa Pompihus, 51c-52b / Solon,
71d / Marcus Cato 276b,d>290d esp 282a /
Crassus-Nicias, 455d-456d / Agesilaus, 480b,d-
481a; 486d-487b / Cato the Younger 620a-
648a,c esp 626d-627b, 632b-c / Cleomenes,
659d-660a / Galba, 859a-b
ISTAcnus: Annals, BK n, 32b-d / Histories,
BK i, 211c-212b; BK n, 234b-235a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 15 17a-b/
City of God, BK xix, CH 6 514b-515a
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 13,
A 5, REP 3 675c-676b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 5, REP 3 58b-59d; Q 96, A A 4-6 233a-
235d; Q 105, AA 1-3 307d-318b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, vi [76-
151] 61c-62c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH ix-x 14c-16d pas-
sim; CH xiv 21b-22a; CH xvn, 24a-b; CH
xvm, 25a-b; CH xxr, 32d-33a
23HoBBEs: leviathan, PART i, 86c-96b; PART
11, 101a-104d; 110b-117b, 132b-136b; 138c-d;
143c-d; 152d-160a; 164a,c; PART in, 165a;
199b-204a; 245c-246a,c; PART iv, 270c-d;
273b-c; CONCLUSION 279a-283a,c
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
127b,d-130a; 131b,d-133b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7a-d; 24c-25c; 48a-51a
passim; 67c-d; 303a-c; 381a-388c esp 383c-d,
386b-d; 486b-488b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT v, sc n [71]-
sc in [146] 347a-349c / 1st Henry IV, ACT i,
sc ii [218-240] 437c-d; ACT in, sc n [93-161]
453d-454c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT iv, sc v 494b-
496d; ACT v, sc n [35-145] 498b-499b; sc v
[60-75] 502a / Henry V, ACT iv, sc i [123-301]
552d-554c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT n, sc in
366a-369a; ACT v, sc in [93-209] 388a-389b /
Henry Vlll, ACT i, sc n [18-102] 552d-553d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 331a-
336a; 340b-343a; 345a-348c; 352b-356d;
360d-364a; 366d-369b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, la-2c; 24b;
74b-75a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 51, SCHOL
439d
32 MILTON* Paradise Lost, BK n [430-456] 120b-
121a / Samson Agonistes [843-902] 358a-
359a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a; 16c-18c / Civil Gov-
ernment, CH 11, SECT 4-6 25d-26c; CH vi, SECT
57-63 36d-38c; CH vm, SECT 96-98 47a-c;
SECT 11^-122 51b-53c; CH ix, SECT 128-
131 54b-d; CH xi, SECT 134-135 55b-56b; CH
XH, SECT 143 58c-d; CH xin-xix 59b-81d
passim
36 SWIFT Gulliver, PART 11, 75b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, 12d-
13c; BK xi, 68b,d-75a; BK XH, 93c-95b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 356b-359a; 366c-d /
Political Economy 367a-385a,c passim, esp
369c, 370b-373b, 377b-c / Social Contract,
BK i, 388c-391b; 392b-393c; BK n, 396d-
398b; BK in, 414d; 419a; 421c-423a; BK iv,
427b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 303b-
304c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 130b-d; 242c-246c
passim; 288b-289a; 292b-d; 338d-339c;
342a-c; 577c-d; 630d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 102d-103a; 504c-
505a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 433a-b; 438d-439a;
457a-458a,c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 5a-9d passim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.. lla-20a,c passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 40, 130c-132a; NUM-
BER 44, 147a-b; NUMBER 62, 190a-b; NUM-
BER 65 198a-200c passim; NUMBER 70, 212c-
213c; NUMBER 75, 223c-d; NUMBER 76, 225d-
226b; NUMBER 85, 256d-257a
43 MILL: Liberty, 272b-c; 290d-291a; 302d-303a;
317c-319d / Representative Government, 348c;
350a; 355b-362c; 392b 393c; 401a-406a;
410a-d; 436b-c; 439b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 145b; 247c-d; 355b-d;
379bc
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
290-296 97d-99b; par 299 99c-100b; par 309-
311 103b-104a; par 324 107a-d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 17ib-c; PART i, 211b-214d;
PART iv, 342c-d; 365b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART ix [10,252-259] 249b-
250a; [10,455-500] 254b-255b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 89b-d; BK v,
206d-207a; 232a-234a esp 233b-234a; BK ix,
365d-366a; BK xi, 475b-476c; EPILOGUE i,
668a-669c; 670d-671a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 757b-c
11
CHAPTER 19: DUTY
373
11. Duty to God: piety and worship
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4 '2-5 ; 8 .18-22 ; 127-8 ;
13:1-4; 22:1-19 esp 22:18; 28:18-22 / Exodus^
12-13; 35~4° / LeviteM passim, csp 1-7, 16,
23 / Numbers, 9:1-14; 19 / Deuteronomy, 6; 8;
10-12; 23:21-23 / Joshua, 22:1-6; 24:14-28—
(D) Josue, 22:1-6; 24:14-28 / Judges, 11:28-
40/7 Samuel, 15.10-35— (D) I Kings, 15:10-
35 / II Kings, 12:1-16— (D) IV Kings, 12:1-16
/ / Chronicles, 16:29— (D) / Paralipomc-
non, 16-29 / // Chronicles, 1-7; 29-31— (D)
II Parahpomenon, 1-7; 29-31 / Ezra—(D)
I Esdras / Nehemiah—(D) I! Esdras / Psalms
passim / Ecclesiastes, 5:2-7; 12:13— (D) EC-
clesiastes, 5*1-6; 12.13 / Isatah* i 11-20— (D)
Isaias, 1:11-20 / Daniel, 9 / Micah, 6:8— (D)
Micheas, 6 -8
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4 5-11,19; 12 8-10— (D) OT,
Tobias, 4:6-12,20, 12:8-10 / Judith, 4; 8-9—
(D) OT, Judith, 4; 8-9 / Ecclesiasticus, 18:22-
24; 35*4-12— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18:22-
24; 35:6-15 / Baruch, i; 4:1-3— (D) OT,
Baruch, i; 4:1-3 / Bel and Dragon, 2-28— (D)
OT, Daniel, 14.1-27 / I Maccabees, 4:38-61—
(D) OT, / Machabees, 438-61
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11; 5:33-36;
6*1-8,16-18; 7:21; 18:23-35; 22:21,34-40 /
Mar^, 12*28-34 / Luke, 2 21-24; 4*I~I3'» 9'23~
26,57-62; 10:25-42; 177-10; 18:1-14; 20:25
/ Acts, 5:17-32; 20:22-24 / Romans, 12-13
/ Ephesians, 4 esp 4*17-32 / Colossians, 3 /
/ Timothy, 2.1-8 / // Timothy / James, 5:13-
18 / I John esp 2:3-11, 2:15, 3:23, 47-5:57
II John
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [206-222] 5b; BK ix [485-
514] 62a-b; BK xxiv [424-431] 175d / Odyssey,
BK xin [125-184] 256b-257a
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c esp
[600-709] 8d-10b / Agamemnon [369-398]
56a-b / Eumemdes [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [863-910]
107b-c / Oedipus at Colonus [461-509] 118b-d
/ Antigone 131a-142d esp [441-470] 134d-
135a, [i347~I353l 142d / AJax l748-779l
149c-d; [1316-1421] 154b-155a,c / Electra
[1058-1097] 164d-165a / Philoctetes [1440-
1444] 195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [1-41]
258a-b, [513-563] 262d-263b / Electra [167-
212] 328c-d / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c / Hecuba
[799-805] 359d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds 542a-563d esp [1170-
1266] 557b-558b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 171d-172a; BK vi,
201d-202c; BK vin, 282b c; BK ix, 308a-c
7 PLATO: Euthyphro 191a-199a,c / Apology,
206b-d / Timaeus, 447a / Laws, BK iv, 682d-
683b; BK x, 769c-771b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH n [105*2-6] 148c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vn, CH 9 [1329*26-34]
533d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK vi [56-79]
81a-b
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 16 121d-122d;
CH 27, 132c-133a; BK u, CH 16, 158b d; BK
in, CH 24 203c-210a; BK iv, CH 3 224b d; CH
12 242d-244a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 17 25Sd-
256d; BK n, SECT 13 258c; BK v, SECT 7 269d;
BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECT 40 295b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK v [42-103] 188a-190a
14 PLUTARCH: Aemihus Paulus, 214b-d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 282d-283b
16 KEPLER Harmonies of 'the World, lOlla
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 4 2a; BK
in, par 15 17a-b / City of God, BK vn, CH
27-31 259c-262a; BK x, CH 1-7 298b,d-303a;
CH 16 308b-309c; CH 19 310d-311b; BK xix,
CH 14-16, 520c-522a; CH 19 523b-d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 10 627b; CH 22-30 629b-
633b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
A i, ANS 325c-326c; PART i-n, Q 19, A 5, REP
1-2 705d-707a; A 6, ANS and REP 2 707a-708a;
Q 21, A 4 719d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
AA 4-5 210c-212c; Q 96, A 4 233a-d; QQ 98-
108 239b-337d; PART n-n, Q 4, A 7, REP 3
407d-409a; Q 16 454c-456d; Q 22 480d-482c;
Q 44 592d-598c, QQ 183-189 625a-700d; PART
in, Q 25 839c-845a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xin
[103-129] 73a-b; xvn [82]-xvm [75] 79b-80c;
xxx-xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, in [i]-v [87]
109b-113a passim; vn [25-33] 115c; [64-102]
115d-116a; xxvi [115-117] 147a
22 CHAUCER. Second Nun's Tale [15,829-16,021]
468a-471b
23HoBBFs: Leviathan, PART i, 80c; PART n,
137b-138b; PART ii-in, 159d-167b; PART in,
177c-180d; 198a-207b; 240a-246a,c; PART iv,
261d262a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 152b-156d; 233a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard U, ACT i, sc n [1-41]
322d-323a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Henry VIII, ACT in, sc n
[435-457] 573c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a;
lOOd-lOla
31 DESCARTES. Meditations, 69b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 41 462d-463b
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xvi 66b-67a / Paradise Lost
93a-333a esp BK i [242-283] 98b-99b, BK iv
[411-439] 161b-162a, [720-739] 168a-b, BK v
[136-210] 178a-179b, [506-543] 186a-187a, BK
vii [449-518] 227a-228b, BK vnr [311-333]
239a-b, [630-643] 246a, BK ix [647-654] 261b,
BK xi [133-161] 302a-b, BK xn [386-410]
327b-328a / Samson Agonistes [1334-1409]
368b-370a / Areopagitica, 402a-b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 78b-80b / Pensfcs,
476 256b-257a; 482 258a; 489,491 259a; 539
265b
374
THE GREAT IDEAS
11
(11. Duty to God: piety and worship.)
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 2a-b; 3b-4a; lOd-lla; 15d-
16a; 16c-17b / Civil Government^ CH n, SECT
6 26b-c; CH vi, SECT 56 36d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 255a-268a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 187d-188a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 435a-439c
passim
40 GIB BON: Decline and Pall, 81d-82b; 180c-
182c csp ISlb-c; 184d-185d; 191a-194a passim;
226a-b; 291d-292d; 350b-d; 533b-d; 593b,d-
599a passim, esp 593b,d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226c-227b; 232c-
233c; 259b-260a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 325a-327d; 345c-d /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 383b,d-384a,c /
Judgement, 502d-503a; 504b-505a; 509a-c;
593a-d; 611a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 296b-d; 310d-311a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 84b-c; 262b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i,
225b
48 MELVILLE : Moby Dic{, 30a-36b; 39a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK r, 50b-c; BK in,
122b-c; BK v, 218b-220a; BK vi, 271c-d; 273c-
274a,c;BKXi,476c-480a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv, 83c-
84a; BK v, 127b-137c; BK vi, 164a-165a; 167b-
170b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the issue between the ethics of duty and the ethics of happiness or pleas-
ure, see HAPPINESS 3; PLEASURE AND PAIN 6-6a, 8b.
Matters relevant to this issue, see DESIRE 20, 33; GOOD AND EVIL 33-3^2); JUSTICE ic-if,
4; LAW 33(1), 4-43, 4C~4d; TEMPERANCE 3; VIRTUE AND VICE id, 6a; WILL 8b(i), 8c-8d.
Other treatments of conscience, both psychological and ethical, see HONOR 2a; PUNISHMENT
5c; SIN 5; TEMPERANCE 3.
The consideration of duty in relation to law, justice, and rights, see GOD 3d; JUSTICE ic, 3,
rib; LAW 2, 43, 4c~4d, 6a; RELIGION 2; WILL 8d.
The conflict between duty and desire or love, see DESIRE 6a~6b; LOVE 3c.
The treatment of specific duties, domestic, political, and religious, see CITIZEN 4; FAMILY 6d;
GOD 3d; JUSTICE nb; RELIGION 2; STATE 8a; TRUTH 8e.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works arc divided into two groups:
L Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
EPICTETUS. The Manual
HOBBES. Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Govern-
ment and Society, CH 13
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK HI, PART 11,
SECT vn-x
FIELDING. Amelia
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART in
KANT. Lectures on Ethics, pp '11-47, 116-253
- . Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone
DOSTOEVSK.Y. Crime and Punishment
CICERO. De Minibus (On the Supreme Good)
- . De Officiis (On Duties)
SENECA. Moral Essays
MAIMONIDES. Eight Chapters on Ethics
BOCCACCIO. Patient Griselda
BEAUMONT and FLETCHER. The Maid's Tragedy
SANDERSON. De Obligatione Conscientiae (On the Ob-
ligations of Conscience)
CORNEILLE. Le Cid
. Horace
. Polyeucte
J. TAYLOR. Of Holy Living
. Ductor Dubitantium
RACINE. Andromaque
BAXTER. Chapters from A Christian Directory
PUFENDORF. De Qffkw Hominis et Civis Juxta L>-
gem Naturalem (&/" the Duties of Man and of the
Citizen According to Natural Law)
CHAPTER
J. BUTLER. Fifteen Sermons upon Human Nature, m,
X, XIII
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, in, PART in, CH 5-8
D. STEWART. Outlines of Moral Philosophy t PART n,
CH 2
J. G. FICHTE. The Vocation of Man, PART in
WORDSWORTH. Ode to Duty
BE NTH AM. Deontology
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK n, CH 5-12;
BK v, CH 2, 10-17
MAZZINI. The Duties of Man
MAURICE. The Conscience
P. A. JANET. The Theory of Morals, BK n, CH 2
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK n, CH 5;
BK III, CH 2
BRADLEY. Ethical Studies, iv-v
T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obliga-
tion, (A)
GUYAU. Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni
sanction
19: DUTY 375
NIETZSCHE. The Genealogy of Morals, n
BRENTANO. The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and
Wrong, par 1-13
SPENCER. The Principles of Ethics, VOL n, PART iv,
CH 9-29; PART v-vr
DEWEY. 'The Idea of Obligation," in Outlines of a
Critical Theory of Ethics
. The Study of Ethics, CH 7-8
BOSANQUET. Science and Philosophy, 16
CROCE. The Philosophy of the Practical, PART i, SECT
ii ; PART n, SECT i (iv); SECT n (i); PART HI (iv)
ROYCE. The Philosophy of Loyalty
MOORE. Prmcipia Ethica, CH 4
. Ethics, CH 4-5
PRICHARD. Duty and Interest
N. HARTMANN. Ethics, VOL i, Moral Phenomena,
SECT 4-6
KIRK. Conscience and Its Problems
Ross. The Right and the Good, i-n, vn
BERGSON. Two Sources of Morality and Rehgiont CH i
MUIRHEAD. Rule and End tn Morals
Chapter 10: EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
'""p'HE great books assembled in this set are
JL offered as means to a liberal or general
education. The authors of these books were
educated men; more than that, they typified
the ideal of education in their various epochs.
As their writings reveal, their minds were large-
ly formed, or at least deeply impressed, by
reading the works of their predecessors. Many
of them were related as teacher and student,
sometimes through personal contact, sometimes
only through the written word. Many of them
were related as divergent disciples of the same
master, yet they often differed with him as
well as with one another. There is scarcely one
among them— except Homer— who was not
acquainted with the minds of the others who
came before him and, more often than not,
profoundly conversant with their thought.
Yet not one of the writings in this set is
specifically a treatise on education, except Mon-
taigne's essay Of the Education of Children.
Some of these authors speak more or less fully
of their own education, as does Marcus Aurehus
in the opening book of his Meditations, Augus-
tine in his Confessions, Descartes in his Dis-
course, and Boswell. Others refer to their edu-
cational experience in fictional guise, as does
Aristophanes in the argument in the Clouds
between the Just and Unjust Discourses; or
Rabelais when he tells of Gargantua's school-
ing in Gargantua's letter to Pantagruel. Some-
times they report the way in which other men
were trained to greatness, as does Plutarch;
or, like Gibbon, Hegel, and Mill, they de-
scribe and comment on the historic systems of
education.
In still other instances the great books con-
tain sections or chapters devoted to the ends
and means of education, the order of studies,
the nature of learning and teaching, the train-
ing of statesmen and citizens; as for example,
376
Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Augustine's
Christian Doctrine, Bacon's Advancement of
Learning, Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations,
Hegel's Philosophy of Right, and the psychologi-
cal writings of James and Freud. But in no case
is education the principal theme of these books,
as it is for most of the works cited in the list of
Additional Readings, among which will be
found treatises on education by authors in this
set.
EDUCATION is not itself so much an idea or a
subject matter as it is a theme to which the
great ideas and the basic subject matters are
relevant. It is one of the perennial practical
problems which men cannot discuss without
engaging in the deepest speculative considera-
tions. It is a problem which carries discussion
into and across a great many subject matters —
the liberal arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic;
psychology, medicine, metaphysics, and theol-
ogy; ethics, politics, and economics. It is a
problem which draws into focus many of the
great ideas — virtue and truth, knowledge and
opinion, art and science; desire, will, sense,
memory, mind, habit; change and progress;
family and state; man, nature, and God.
This can be verified by noting the diverse
contexts in which education is discussed in the
great books. In each connection we shall find
some of the special questions which together
make up the complex problem of education.
For example, the nature of teaching and learn-
ing is examined in the wider context of psy-
chological considerations concerning man's
abilities, the way in which knowledge is ac-
quired, and how it is communicated by means
of language or other symbols. Different con-
ceptions of the nature of man and of the rela-
tion of his several capacities surround the ques-
tion of the ends of education. In this context
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
377
questions also arise concerning the parts of
education — the training of man's body, the
formation of his character, the cultivation of
his mind—and how these are related to one
another.
The whole theory of the virtues and of habit
formation is involved in the question whether
virtue can be taught or must be acquired in
some other way, and in related questions about
the influence of the family and the state on
the growth of character. These questions are
also asked in terms of general political theory.
Different views of the state are involved in
questions about the division of responsibility
for education among various agencies. Ques-
tions about the purpose of education, and what
sort of education shall be given to the diverse
classes in the state, are differently raised and
differently answered in the context of discus-
sions of different forms of government.
Though they are far from exhaustive, these
examples should nevertheless suffice to make
the point that there can be no philosophy of
education apart from philosophy as a whole.
It may therefore not be a disadvantage to find
the discussion of education in the great books
almost always imbedded in the context of some
more general theory or problem.
ONE OPINION FROM which there is hardly a
dissenting voice in the great books is that edu-
cation should aim to make men good as men
and as citizens. "If you ask what is the good of
education," Plato writes, "the answer is easy —
that education makes good men, and that good
men act nobly, and conquer their enemies in
battle, because they are good." Men should
enter upon learning, Bacon declares, in order
"to give a true account of their gift of reason,
to the benefit and use of men"; while William
James stresses the need for "a perfectly-rounded
development." Thus it would seem to be a
common opinion in all ages that education
should seek to develop the characteristic ex-
cellences of which men are capable and that its
ultimate ends are human happiness and the
welfare of society.
Within this area of general agreement there
are, of course, differences which result from the
different views that are taken of man's relation
to the state or to God. If the good of the state
takes precedence over individual happiness,
then education must be directed to training
men for the role they play as parts of a larger
organism. Education then serves the purpose of
preserving the state. Of all things, Aristotle
says, "that which contributes most to the per-
manence of constitutions is the adaptation of
education to the form of government. . . . The
best laws," he continues, "though sanctioned
by every citizen of the state, will be of no avail
unless the young are trained by habit and edu-
cation in the spirit of the constitution."
Rousseau seems to take a similar view when
he calls for a system of public education run
by the state. Its object is to assure that the
citizens are "early accustomed to regard their
individuality only in its relation to the body
of the state, and to be aware, so to speak, of
their own existence merely as a part of that
of the state." Taught in this way, the citizens,
Rousseau claims, "might at length come to
identify themselves in some degree with this
greater whole, to feel themselves members of
their country, and to love it with that ex-
quisite feeling which no isolated person has
save for himself."
If happiness cannot be fully achieved on
earth, then whatever temporal ends education
serves must themselves be ordered to eternal
salvation, and the whole process of human
development must be a direction of the soul
to God. "What did it profit me," Augustine
asks in his Confessions, "that all the books I
could procure of the so-called liberal arts, I,
the vile slave of vile affections, read by myself
and understood ? . . . For I had my back to the
light, and my face to the things enlightened;
whence my face, with which I discerned the
things enlightened, was not itself enlightened.
Whatever was written, either on rhetoric, or
logic, geometry, music and arithmetic, by my-
self without much difficulty or any instructor,
I understood, Thou knowest, O Lord my God;
because both quickness of understanding and
acuteness in discerning, is Thy gift; yet did I
not thence sacrifice to Thee." Wherefore, Au*
gustine concludes concerning this stage of his
learning, "it served not to my use but to my
perdition." But Augustine does not therefore
conclude that, under no circumstances, can
liberal education be put to good use. In his
378
THE GREAT IDEAS
treatise On Christian Doctrine, he considers in
detail how the liberal arts, which serve so well
in the study of Sacred Scripture, may also serve
to bring the soul to God.
SUCH DIFFERENCES DO NOT, however, annul
one consequence of the general agreement,
namely, the conception that education is con-
cerned with the vocation of man, and pre-
pares him in thought and action for his purpose
and station in life. In these terms Adam Smith
argues for a minimum general education. He
claims that "a man without the proper use of
the intellectual faculties of a man, is, if pos-
sible, more contemptible than even a coward,
and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a
still more essential part of the character of
human nature." He explicitly points out that
this is the condition of "the great body of the
people,'* who, by the division of labor, are con-
fined in their employment "to a few very sim-
ple operations," in which the worker "has no
occasion to exert his understanding, or to exer-
cise his invention in finding out expedients for
removing difficulties which never occur." The
result, according to Smith, is that "the torpor
of his mind renders him, not only incapable
of relishing or bearing a part in any rational
conversation, but of conceiving any generous,
noble, or tender sentiment, and consequently
of forming any just judgment concerning
many even of the ordinary duties of private
life."
When the vocation of man is thus under-
stood, a general or liberal education is voca-
tional in that it prepares each man for the com-
mon conditions and callings of human life. In
this sense specialized training, which by im-
plication at least seems to be the object of
Smith's criticism, is not vocational. It fits a
man only for some specialized function, ac-
cording to which he or his social class is differ-
entiated from some other man or class.
In our day, the word "vocational" is used
in the opposite sense to mean specialized train-
ing, whether it is preparation for the least
skilled of trades or for the most learned of
professions. Since all men are not called to the
practice of law or medicine— any more than all
arc called to productive work in the various
arts and crafts, or the tasks of commerce and
industry— the training they may need to per-
form these functions does not fully develop
their common humanity. It is not adequate to
make them good as men, as citizens, or as
children of God.
The traditional meaning of the word "lib-
eral" as applied to education entails a distinc-
tion between free men and slaves, Slaves, like
domesticated animals, are trained to perform
special functions. They are not treated as ends,
but as means, and so they are not educated for
their own good, but for the use to which they
are put. This is true not only of slaves in the
strict sense of household chattel; it is also true
of all the servile classes in any society which
divides its human beings into those who work
in order to live and those who live off the work
of others and who therefore have the leisure in
which to strive to live well.
In accordance with these distinctions, Aris-
totle divides education into "liberal" and "il-
liberal." Certain subjects are illiberal by na-
ture, namely, "any occupation, art, or science,
which makes the body or soul of the freeman
less fit for the practice or exercise of virtue."
In this category Aristotle includes "those arts
which tend to deform the body, and likewise
all paid employments, for they absorb and
degrade the mind."
It is not only the nature of the subject, but
also the end which education serves, that de-
termines whether its character is liberal or
illiberal. Even a liberal art becomes, in Aris-
totle's opinion, "menial and servile . . . if done
for the sake of others." A man's education "will
not appear illiberal" only so long as "he does
or learns anything for his own sake or for the
sake of his friends, or with a view to excel-
lence." In other words, to be liberal, education
must serve the use of leisure in the pursuit of
excellence. It must treat man as an end, not as
a means to be used by other men or by the
state.
It follows that any society which abolishes
the distinction of social classes and which calls
all men to freedom, should conceive education
as essentially liberal and for all men. It should,
furthermore, direct education, in all its parts
and phases, to the end of each man's living well
rather than to the end of his earning a living
for himself or others.
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
379
IN THE CLASSIFICATION of the kinds of educa-
tion, the word "liberal" is frequently used in a
more restricted sense to signify not all education
designed for free men, but only the improve-
ment of the mind through the acquisition of
knowledge and skill. In this sense liberal educa-
tion is set apart from physical education which
concerns bodily health and proficiency, and
moral education which concerns excellence in
action rather than in thought.
These divisions are clearly made, perhaps for
the first time, in Plato's Republic. The educa-
tion described there begins in the early years
with music and gymnastic. Gymnastic "pre-
sides over the growth and decay of the body."
Music, which includes literature as well as the
arts of harmony and rhythm, is said to educate
its students "by the influence of habit, by
harmony making them harmonious, by rhythm
rhythmical," and its function is to develop
moral as well as aesthetic sensibilities.
The second part of Plato's curriculum,
"which leads naturally to reflection" and draws
"the soul towards being," consists in the mathe-
matical arts and sciences of arithmetic, geome-
try, music, and astronomy. The program is
capped by the study of dialectic, to which all
the rest is but "a prelude"; for "when a person
starts on the discovery of the absolute by the
light of reason only, and without any assistance
of sense, and perseveres until by pure intelli-
gence he arrives at the perception of the ab-
solute good, he at last finds himself at the end
of the intellectual world."
Up to this point, the program can be taken
as liberal education in the narrow sense of learn-
ing how and what to think. The fifteen years of
experience in civic affairs and the tasks of gov-
ernment, which Plato interposes at the age of
thirty-five, seem to function as another phase
of moral training. This period provides "an
opportunity of trying whether, when they are
drawn all manner of ways by temptation, they
will stand firm or flinch."
To the extent that physical training aims,
beyond health, at the acquirement of skill in
a coordinated use of one's body, it can be an-
nexed to liberal rather than moral education.
Plato notes, for example, that gymnastic should
not be too sharply distinguished from music
as "the training of the body" from the "train-
ing of the soul." Gymnastic as well as music, he
claims, has "in view chiefly the improvement
of the soul," and he considers the two as bal-
ancing and tempering one another.
Whether they produce competence in gym-
nastic or athletic feats, or, like the manual arts,
proficiency in productive work, all bodily skills,
even the simplest, involve the senses and the
mind as well as bones and muscles. They are
arts no less than music or logic. Apart from their
utility, they represent a certain type of human
excellence, which will be denied only by those
who can see no difference between the quality
of a racehorse and the skill of his rider. Whether
these skills as well as other useful arts are part of
liberal education in the broader sense depends,
as we have seen, on the end for which they are
taught or learned. Even the arts which arc
traditionally called liberal, such as rhetoric or
logic, can be degraded to servility if the sole
motive for becoming skilled in them is wealth
won by success in the law courts.
IN THE TWO traditional distinctions so far dis-
cussed, "liberal education" seems to have a
somewhat different meaning when it signifies
the opposite of servile training and when it
signifies the opposite of moral cultivation. In
the first case, the distinction is based upon the
purpose of the education; in the second, it
refers to the faculties or functions being cul-
tivated. When the second is stated in terms of
the distinction between the intellectual and
the moral virtues, liberal (i.e., intellectual)
education is conceived as aiming at good habits
of thinking and knowing, and moral education
is thought of as aiming at good habits of will,
desire, or emotion, along with their conse-
quences in action.
Although he does not use these terms, Mon-
taigne seems to have the contrast between
moral and intellectual training in mind when
he criticizes the education of his day for aiming
"at nothing but to furnish our heads with
knowledge, but not a word of judgment and
virtue." It is, to him, a "pedantic education,"
which not only fails to achieve the highest edu-
cational purpose, but also results in a great
evil, in that "all knowledge is hurtful to him
who has not the science of goodness."
A too sharp separation of the intellectual
380
THE GREAT IDEAS
and the moral may be questioned, or at least
qualified, by those who, like Socrates, tend to
identify knowledge and virtue. Yet they sel-
dom go to the opposite extreme of supposing
that no distinction can be made between the
task of imparting knowledge to the mind and
that of forming character. Socrates, for exam-
ple, in the Meno, recognizes that a man cannot
be made temperate, courageous, or just in the
same way that he can be taught geometry.
From another point of view, the notion of
moral training is questioned by those who, like
Freud, think that the patterns of human desire
or emotion can be beneficially changed apart
from moral discipline. It is the object of psy-
choanalysis, he writes, "to strengthen the ego,
to make it more independent of the super-ego,
to widen its field of vision, and so to extend its
organization that it can take over new portions
of the id." To do this is radically to alter the
individual's behavior-pattern. "It is reclama-
tion work," Freud says, "like the draining of
the Zuyder Zee." Emotional education, so
conceived, is therapeutic— more like preven-
tive and remedial medicine than moral training.
Religious education is usually regarded as
both intellectual and moral, even as the science
of theology is said to be both speculative and
practical. Citing the admonition of St. James,
"Be ye doers of the word, and not hearers
only," Aquinas holds that religious education
is concerned with the knowledge not only of
"divine things" but also of the "human acts"
by which man comes to God, Since man is
infinitely removed from God, he needs for this
purpose the grace of God, which, according to
Aquinas, "is nothing short of a partaking of the
divine nature."
Both on the side of man's knowledge of God
and on the side of his love and worship of God,
religious education involves the operation of
supernatural factors— revelation, grace, sacra-
ments. Hence God is Himself the primary
source of religious education. But as the dis-
penser of the sacraments whereby "grace is m-
strumen tally caused," the church, according to
Aquinas, functions inst rumen tally in the serv-
ice of the divine teacher.
THE CONCEPTION OF THE means and ends of
moral education will differ with different ethi-
cal theories of the good man and the good life,
and according to differing enumerations and
definitions of the virtues. It will differ even
more fundamentally according to whether the
primary emphasis is placed on pleasure and
happiness or duty. The parties to this basic
issue in moral philosophy, which is discussed
in the chapters on DUTY and HAPPINESS, in-
evitably propose different ways of forming
good character— by strengthening the will in
obedience to law, or by habituating the ap-
petites to be moderate or reasonable in their
inclinations.
On either theory, the basic problem of moral
education is whether morality can be taught
and how. The Greeks formulated this question
in terms of virtue, by asking whether such
things as courage and temperance are at all
teachable, as geometry and horsemanship
plainly are. The problem remains essentially
the same if the question is how the will can be
trained. Can it be trained by the same methods
as those which work in the improvement of the
understanding ?
The answer to the question, whichever way
it is formulated, depends on the view that is
taken of the relation between moral knowl-
edge and moral conduct. Do those who under-
stand the principles of ethics"or who know the
moral law necessarily act in accordance with
their knowledge ? Can a man know what is good
or right to do in a particular case, and yet do
the opposite? St. Paul seems to suggest this
when he says, "For the good that I would I do
not: but the evil which I would not, that I do."
If something more than knowledge or straight
thinking is needed for good conduct, how is it
acquired and how can one man help another to
acquire it ? Certainly not by learning and teach-
ing in the ordinary sense which applies to the
arts and sciences. Then how — by practice, by
guidance or advice, by example, by rewards and
punishments; or if by none of these, then by a
gift of nature or by the grace of God ?
These questions are necessarily prior to any
discussion of the role of the family, the state,
and the church in the process of moral training.
They also provide the general background for
the consideration of particular influences on
character formation in men and children, such
things as poetry and music, or laws and cus-
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
381
toms. Ail of these related 'problems of moral
education have a political aspect, which ap-
pears in the issue concerning the state's right
to censor or regulate the arts for morality's
sake; in the question of the primacy of the
family or the state in the moral guidance of the
young; in the distinction between the good
man and the good citizen or ruler, and the
possible difference between the training appro-
priate for the one and for the other.
THE MAIN PROBLEM of intellectual education
seems to be the curriculum or course of study.
The traditional attempts to construct an ideal
curriculum turn on such questions as what
studies shall be included, what shall be their
order, and how shall they be taught or learned.
A variety of answers results from a variety of
views of man's faculties or capacities, the nature
of knowledge itself, the classification and order
of the arts and sciences. Especially important
are the various conceptions of the nature and
function of the liberal arts. Subordinate ques-
tions concern the place of the fine and useful
arts in liberal education, and the role of ex-
perience and experiment — both in contrast to
and in cooperation with the role of books and
teachers.
In addition to the problem of the curriculum
and its materials the theory of intellectual edu-
cation necessarily considers methods of teach-
ing and learning. Here the various proposals
derive from different views of the learning
process— of the causes or factors at work in
any acquisition of skill or knowledge.
The contribution of the teacher cannot be
understood apart from a psychological analysis
of learning, for the teacher is obviously only
one among its many causes. It makes the great-
est difference to the whole enterprise of learn-
ing whether the teacher is regarded as the
principal cause of understanding on the part
of the student; or whether the teacher is, as
Socrates describes himself, merely "a midwife"
assisting the labor of the mind in bringing
knowledge and wisdom to birth, and "thor-
oughly examining whether the thought which
the mind . . . brings forth is a false idol or a
noble and true birth."
This Socratic insight is later reformulated in
the comparison which Aquinas makes, in his
tract Concerning the Teacher^ between the art
of teaching and the art of healing. Both are co-
operative arts, arts which succeed only as "min-
isters of nature which is the principal actor,"
and not by acting, like the art of the cobbler or
sculptor, to produce a result by shaping plastic
but dead materials.
The comparison which Hippocrates makes of
instruction in medicine with "the culture of
the productions of the earth" exhibits the same
conception of teaching. "Our natural disposi-
tion," he writes, "is, as it were, the soil; the
tenets of our teacher are, as it were, the seed;
instruction in youth is like the planting of the
seed in the ground at the proper season; the
place where the instruction is communicated
is like the food imparted to vegetables by the
atmosphere; diligent study is like the cultiva-
tion of the fields; and it is time which imparts
strength to all things and brings them to ma-
turity."
This conception of teaching as a cooperative
art, analogous to medicine or to agriculture,
underlies the principles of pedagogy in the
Great Didactic of Comcnius. It gives signifi-
cance to the distinction that Aquinas makes be-
tween learning by discovery, or from experi-
ence, and learning by instruction, or from a
teacher— even as a person is healed "in one way
by the operation of nature alone, and in
another by nature with the administration of
medicine."
In addition to the technical considerations
raised by the nature of the learning process,
the discussion of teaching deals with the moral
or emotional aspect of the relation between
teacher and student. Without interest, learn-
ing seldom takes place, or if it does, it cannot
rise above the level of rote memory. It is one
thing to lay down a course of study; another to
motivate the student. Though he does not
hesitate to prescribe what is to be learned by
the student, Plato adds the caution that there
must be no "notion of forcing our system of
education."
More than interest is required. Teaching,
Augustine declares, is the greatest act of char-
ity. Learning is facilitated by love. The cour-
tesies between Dante and Virgil in the Divine
Comedy present an eloquent picture of love
between student and teacher, master and dis-
382
THE GREAT IDEAS
ciple. Not only love, but docility, is required
on the part of the student; and respect for the
student's mind on the part of the teacher. In-
tellectual education may not be directly con-
cerned with the formation of character, yet the
moral virtues seem to be factors in the pursuit
of truth and in the discipline of the learning
process.
WE HAVE ALREADY noted some of the political
problems of education. Of these probably the
chief question is whether the organization and
institution of education shall be private or pub-
lic. Any answer which assigns the control of
education largely or wholly to the state must
lead to a number of other determinations.
Who shall be educated, all or only some?
Should the education of leaders be different
from the education of others? If educational
opportunity is to be equal for all, must the
same kind as well as the same quantity of edu-
cation be offered to all? And, in every case, to
what end shall the state direct the education
of its members— -to its own welfare and secur-
ity, or to the happiness of men and the greater
glory of God ? Should education always serve
the status quo by preserving extant customs
and perpetuating existing forms of govern-
ment; or can and should it aim at a better so-
ciety and a higher culture?
These are some of the questions with which
statesmen and political philosophers have dealt,
answering them differently according to the
institutions of their time and in accordance
with one or another theory of the state and its
government. There are still other questions.
Is freedom of expression, in teaching and dis-
cussion, indispensable to the pursuit of truth
and the dissemination of knowledge ? To what
extent shall the state control the content and
methods of education or leave such determina-
tion to the teaching profession ? How shall pub-
lic education be supported ? Should it be car-
ried beyond childhood and youth to all the
ages of adult life; and if so, how should such
education be organized outside of schools ?
Mill, for example, holds it to be "almost a
self-evident axiom that the State should re-
quire and compel the education, up to a certain
standard, of every human being who is born
its citizen." Yet he deprecates the idea of a
"general state education" as a "mere contriv-
ance for moulding people to be exactly like
one another."
Discussing the pro's and con's of this issue,
Mill touches upon most, if not all, of the ques-
tions just raised. He believes that the difficul-
ties could be avoided if the government would
leave it "to parents to obtain the education
where and how they pleased, and content itself
with helping to pay the school fees of the
poorer classes of children, and defraying the
entire school expenses of those who have no
one else to pay for them." Schools completely
established and controlled by the state, he
maintains, "should only exist, if they exist at
all, as one among many competing experiments,
earned on for the purpose of example and
stimulus, to keep the others up to a certain
standard of excellence."
So far as the problem of adult education
concerns citizenship, Mill's answer, like Mon-
tesquieu's and Plato's before him, is that noth-
ing can take the place of active participation
in political life. Men become citizens by living
and acting as citizens, under the tutelage of
good laws and in an atmosphere of civic vir-
tue. So far as the problem of adult education
concerns the continued growth of the mind
throughout the life of mature men and women,
the answer is not to be found in the great books
in the words of their authors. Yet the great
books as a whole may constitute a solution to
that problem.
The authors of these books, from Homer to
Freud, are the great original teachers in the
tradition of our culture. They taught one
another. They wrote for adults, not children,
and in the main they wrote for the mass of men,
not for scholars in this or that specialized field
of learning.
The books exhibit these teachers at work in
the process of teaching. They contain, more-
over, expositions or exemplifications of the lib-
eral arts as the arts of teaching and learning in
every field of subject matter. To make these
books and their authors work for us by working
with them is, it seems to the editors and pub-
lishers of this set of books, a feasible and de-
sirable program of adult education.
CHAWB* 20: EDUCATION 3*3
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The ends of education 384
i a. The ideal of the educated man 385
ib. The disadvantages of being educated
2. The kinds of education: physical, moral, liberal, professional, religious 386
3. The training of the body and the cultivation of bodily skills: gymnastics, manual work
4. The formation of a good character, virtue, a right will
40. The possibility and limits of moral education: knowledge and virtue 387
4^. The influence of the family in moral training 388
4<r. The role of the state in moral education : law, custom, public opinion
4^. The effect upon character of poetry, music, and other arts: the role of history and
examples 389
5. The improvement of the mind by teaching and learning 390
50. The profession of teaching: the relation of teacher and student
5^. The means and methods of teaching
5^. The nature of learning: its several modes 391
5^. The order of learning: the organization of the curriculum 392
5<?. The emotional aspect of learning: pleasure, desire, interest
5/i Learning apart from teachers and books: the role of experience 393
6. The acquisition of techniques: preparation for the vocations, arts, and professions 394
7. Religious education
ja. God as teacher: divine revelation and inspiration
jb. The teaching function of the church, of priests and prophets 395
8. Education and the state 396
80. The educational responsibility of the family and the state
8£. The economic support of educational institutions
8^. The political regulation and censorship of education
%d. The training of the prince, the statesman, the citizen: aristocratic and demo-
cratic theories of education
9. Historical and biographical observations concerning the institutions and practices of
education 397
384
.THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand sideof the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e g., Iliad, BK u [265-283) 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MEN i : Nehemtah, 7 45— (D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS- The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The ends of education
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [430-441] 61c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a*506d esp [866-
1114] 499a-502b
7 PLATO' Protagoras, 45d-46d / Apology, 201b-c
/ Republic, BK ii-in, 320c-339a passim, esp BK
in, 333b-c, 338a-339a; 341b c, BK vi-vn,
383d-398c / Timaeus, 474b-d / Laws, BK i,
648b-649d; BK n, 653a-c; 656b-c, BK vn 713c-
731 d passim; BK xn, 796b-799a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 2 143d-144a /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 1-2 499a-501c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639*1-15] 161a-b / Ethics, BK i, CH 2 339b-d;
CH i} [1102*5-25] 347b-c / Politics, BK n, CH 5
[i263bj6-i264Ri] 459a; BK vn, CH IJ-BK VIH,
CH 7 536b-548a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK in [1053-1075] 43c-d; BK v [1-54]
61a-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS Discourses, BK i, CH 22 127c-128c;
BK in, CH 15 190a-191a; CH 21 193d-195a;
CH 24 203c-210a esp 208d-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3 263b-
264a; SECT 16 264d; BK x, SECT 11-12 298b-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vm [508-519] 272b-273a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 63d-64a/ Cono-
lanus, 174b,d-175a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14 4c-d;
par 16 5a-b; par 19 5d; par 24 7a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i
3b-4a; Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a
23 HOB BBS- Leviathan, PART n, 153a-156b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81a-83b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a esp 60c-61c;
64c-66b; 69d-72a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc i [1-40] 202c-203a
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART i, 145d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, la-28d esp
9c-d, 16d-17a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a; in, 3c-d / Dis-
course, PART i, 42d-43a; 44a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv 447b-
c; ix 448a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 385b; 390b-391a;
394b-395b; 397a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxni, SECT 8 249c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165a-167a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 417b-419b
10 to \b
CHAPTER 20fEDUCATION
385
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b,d-
16a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 346d-347a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 340b-343d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 223a-d / Fund. Prin.
Metaphystc of Morals, 266a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 303b-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 344b-c; 424b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 20 17a;
PART HI, par 187 65a-c; ADDITIONS, 97 132c-
133a
50 MARX: Capital, 238b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-c; BK vi,
244d-245d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 274b-275a; 711b-712b
54 FREUU- New Introductory Lectures, 868d 871a
esp 870a-871a
la. The ideal of the educated man
7 PLATO: Lysis, 16c-18b / Laches, 37c-d / Re-
public, BK ii, 319c-320c; BK in, 338a-339a;
BK vn 388a-401d csp 390b-391b / Ttmaeus,
454a / Laws, BK i, 649b-d; BK n, 653a-654a;
BK vi, 704a-b; BK xn, 796b-799a,c
8 ARISTOTLE. Topics, BK i, CH 3 144a-b / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 1-2 499a-501c esp CH 2
[982*5-201 500b-c
9 ARISTOTLE* Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639*1-15] 161a-b / PolltlCS, BK VII, CH I3-BK
VHI, CH 7 536b-548a,c passim / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 8 U3&5b32-39] 608a-b; BK n, en 6
[1384*33-35] 630d; CH 8 [i385b24-28] 632c;
CH 23 [1399*12-17] 647c
12 EPIC FETUS • Discourses, BK i, CH 27 132b-133b;
BK in, CH 10 185d-187a, CH 15 190a-191a;
CH 21 193d-195a; BK iv, CH 6 230b-232c
12AuRELius- Meditations, BK i 253a*256d; BK
n, SECT 17 259b-d; BK iv, SECT 3 263b-264a;
SECT 16 264d; BK x, SECT 11-12 298b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81a-83b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 59b-61c; 63d-80b csp
70d-72b, 74b-75a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc i [1-40] 202c-203a / Love's Labour's Lost,
ACT iv, sc n [22-34] 266c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, la-28d esp
17b-27c; 86b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 3c-d
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 397a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 34-37 177a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 1-4
451a-452c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 99d-100a; 274b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 346d-347b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 340b-343d
esp 343c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88c-d; 644b-645d
csp 644d-645a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 223a-d / Fund. Prm.
Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261d / Practical
Reason, 337a-338c / Judgement, 508c-509a
43 MILL: Liberty, 294b-296d / Utilitarianism,
451c-452b
44 BOSWELL:/O&«<W, 130b; 283c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 15
118d; 68 126d-127a; 98 133a; 119 136b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1765-1775] 42b
50 MARX: Capital, 176d-178a; 238b-c
52 DOSFOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, EPILOGUE,
411b-412d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 736b-737a
Ib. The disadvantages of being educated
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [276-305] 214c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d
6 THUCYDIDBS: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370a-c
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 47a-b / Gorgias, 272b
9 ARISTOTLE. Rhetoric, BK n, CH 21 [1394*29-34]
642a; [i394b25~32] 642c; CH 22 [i395b27-32J
643d, CH 23 [1399*12-17] 647c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 21 193d-
195a; CH 24, 205c-206a; 207d-208a; BK iv,
CH i, 221b-c; CH 8 235b-237d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3
257a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 25-26 7a-c;
BK iv, par 28-31 26a-27a
22 CHAUCER- Miller's Tale [3448-3464] 217a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56d; PART n,
150c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
77b-78b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 55d-62a; 75a-77d; 150d-
151a; 232d-240a; 321a-c; 397a-398c; 448b-
449a; 502c-504c; 508a-512a; 520b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
[92-1 17] 58d-59a / Love's Labour's Lost, ACT i,
sc i [55-94] 254d-255b, [143-147] 255d; ACT v,
sc n [69-72] 274d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, la-28d esp
2c-17b, 30b-c; 73d-74c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2a-b / Discourse, PART
i, 42b-c
35 LOCKE' Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 20 llOc-llla; BK n, CH xxxm, stcr 3
248c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 58a-b; PART HI,
94b-95a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 99d-100a; 158a-161d
esp 158c-159a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344d-345c; 346d-348a;
362a-d; 363a-366d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337a-d;
340b-c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 304d-305a; 358a /
Judgement, 608b-c
44 BQSWELL: Johnson, 201b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [354-417] lla-12b;
[614-807] 17a-21a; [1583-1 606] 38b-39a; [1803-
1815] 43a; PART n [4917-4922] 122a; [6228-
6238] 152a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 19c-20b; BK v,
215b-c
386
THE GREAT IDEAS
2/o 4
2* The kinds of education: physical, moral,
liberal, professional, religious
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 46b-d / Republic, BK ii-rn,
320c 339a esp BK in, 333b-339a; BK vi, 380d-
381a; BK VH, 391b-401a / Sophist, 555b-c /
Laws, UK i, 649b-d; BK n, 653a-663b csp
662d-663b; BK VH, 717b-d; 728b-730d; BK
xn, 797b-798b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vn, CH 15 [1334^-28]
539b-d; BK vin, CH 2-3 542b-543d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 15 190a-
191a
13 VIRGIL: Acncid, BK ix [590-620] 295a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR HI 10a-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 7-9 14c-
15b; BK iv, par 28-31 26a-27a / Christian Doc-
trine, BK n, CH 8-42 639d-656d; BK iv 675a-
698a,c
20 AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologtca, PART 1-11, Q
105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 57b-61c esp 60b-61c;
63d- 75a passim
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 30b-c; 53d-
54b
31 DFSCARTI s. Discourse, PART i, 42d-43a
33 PASCAL: Pen*ees, 34-37 177a-b
36 SWIFF Gulliver, PART iv, 166b-167a
38 MoNrtsQuiFu- Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PARI in, par 197
67a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 237d-238c
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK i, 47b-c; BK vr,
244d-245d
3. The training of the body and the cultivation
of bodily skills: gymnastics, manual
work
5 ARIMOPHANLS: Clouds [866-1114] 499a-502b
csp [1002 1024] 500d-501a
7 PLAIO: Protagoras, 46c / Gorgias, 261a-262a;
289d-290a / Republic, BK n, 310c-d; 320c-
321a; BK in, 334b-335b; BK vi, 380d-381a,
BK VH, 391c-d; 398c-399d / Timaeus, 475b-d /
Statesman, 599d-600a / Laws, BK i, 644b-646a;
BK n, 653b-654a; 663a-b; BK VH, 717b-d;
721d-722c; 726a-727c; BK vin, 734a-735a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VH, CH 3 [246*io-bi9J
329c-330a / Heavens, BK n, en 12 [292*i4-bi8]
383d-384b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 6 [no6a35-b8]
352a/Po////a,BKiv, CH i [i288bio-2o]487a-b;
BK vn, CH 15 [i334b7~28] 539b-d; CH 17
1*336*4- 39] 541a-c; BK vin, CH 3-4 542d-S44c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 52 109b-110a,
par 55, lllc; par 58 112b-113a / Aphorisms,
SECT i, par 3 131a-b; SECT n, par 49-50 133d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 15, 190a-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK ix [590-620] 295a-b
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgu*, 40c-42a / Conolanus,
175b / Phikpocmen, 293d-294a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n, CH 8, 86d-87b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A i, ANS 6a-7b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
28a-29b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 43d; 66c-67a; 73b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 53d-54a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 166b-167a
38 ROUSSEAU Inequality, 335a-b; 348d-349a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 42d-43c; 53a;
BK v, 337d-338a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 5a-b
46 HEGLL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 52,
25c / Philosophy of History, PART n, 267b-268b
49 DARWIN Descent of Man, 269b-271a; 278c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 164b-166a; 170c-171b, 237d-
240c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 74a-75a; 332a; 774a
4. The formation of a good character, virtue,
a right will
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b /
Hecuba [592-602] 357d-358a
5 ARISTOPHANES Clouds [866-111 }] 499a-502b
7 PLATO: Laches, 30a-b / Protagoras, 45d-46d /
Euthydemus, 66b-67b / Phacdrus, 128a-d /
Meno 174a-190a,c / Republic, BK n, 314b-c,
BK ii-in, 320c-339a / Timaeus, 474c-d / Law*
640a-799a,c esp BK i, 644b-645c, 649b-650b,
651a-c, BK n, 653a-b, 656b-c, BK vi, 706c,
BK vii 713c-731d / Seventh Letter, 801b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics , BK i, CH 13 [no2b28-
1103*3] 348c; BK n, CH 3 [no4b4-i4]350a, BK
in, en 12 [ni9a35-bi9] 366a,c / Politics, BK n,
CH 7 461d-463c; BK vn, en 13 -BK vin, CH 7
536b-548a,c
12 LUCRLTIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1-30]
30a-b; BK v [1-54] 61a~d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPIC FETUS. Discourses 105a 245a,c esp BK i,
CH 1-5 105a-110c, CH 18 124a-125a, BK i, CH
24-BK n, CH 2 129a-141c, BK n, CH 21- 24
166c-174b, BK HI, CH 3 178d-180a, CH 8 11
184b-187b, CH 13 188b-189c, CH 23-26 201a
213a,c, BK iv, CH 3-7 224b-235a,cn 9-13 237d-
245a,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations 253a-310d esp BK i,
SECT 7-9 253b-254a, SECT 1 1 254b, SKCT 14- 16
254b-255d, BK 11, SECT 17 259b-d, BK iv,
SECT 18 264d, BK v, SECT 14 271b, SECT 16
271c-d, BK vi, SECT 12 274c, BK vn, SECT 69
284d, BK vin, SECT i 285a-b, SECT 13 286c,
BK ix, SECT 41 295c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK ix [590-620] 295a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 63d-64a / Peri-
cles, 121a-122b / Conolanus, 174b,d-175a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xin, 125d-126a
17 PLOTINUS: first Ennead, TR in, CH 2 lOd, CH
6 lld-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13-31 4b-9a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 96,
A 2, ANS 231c-232b, Q 99, A 6, ANS 250a-251a;
Q 100, A 9 261 b- 262 b; Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b-
321a; Q 108, A 3 334a 336b
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
387
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Wife of Bath [6691-6788]
274b-276a / Clerks Tale [8031-8037] 298a;
[8269-8317] 302b-303a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81a-83b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 16c; 43a-c; 55d-62a esp
60c-61c; 63d-75a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 76a-81c esp
78d-80b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 394b-395b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 71 197b-198a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 35a-49a,c; 380c-381a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv 13b,d-
18d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 221b-c / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261d; 263a-b,
264b [fn i]; 273d-275d; 278a-b / Practical
Reason, 305d-307d; 3S6a-360d / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 365 b-d; 368d;
376d-377b
43 MILL. Liberty, 303b-d / Utilitarianism, 451c-
452 b; 453a-c; 457c-461c passim, esp 460d-
461a; 463d-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 187
65a-c, ADDITIONS, 15 118d, 97-98 132c-133a /
Philosophy of History, PART in, 312d-313a;
PART iv, 346a c
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 304a-319a esp
304a-305a, 310c-317d, 318d-319a; 592d-593b
51 TOLSTOY. Wai and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d, BK
vi, 244d-245d
52 DosropvsKY. Brothers Karamazov, EPILOGUE,
411b-412c
53 JAMES Psychology, 78b-83b esp 8lb'83a;199b-
204b esp 202a-203b, 661b; 711b-712a; 751b-
752a, 827a
54 FREUD General Introduction, 573c / P2go and
Id, 706b-708c esp 707a-d / War and Death,
757d-759d / Civilization and Its Discontents,
792a-796c esp 794c-795a / New Introductory
Lectures, 844b-c
4a. The possibility and limits of moral educa-
tion: knowledge and virtue
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, i 20-2 22; 4:1-12;
8; 14.16; 15.21
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [373-430] 228b-d /
Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b / Iphtgema at
Auhs [543-572] 429d-430a
5 ARISTOPHANLS: Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO: Charmides, 7b-c / Laches 26a-37d /
Protagoras 38a-64d esp 42d-47c, 56b, 57d,
62a-b / Euthydemus, 66b-67b / Symposium,
166c-167d / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 174a-c,
177d-178b, 183b-190a,c / Apology, 203c-204b
/ Gorgias, 258d-259b, 262d-263c; 277d; 287c-
291b / Republic, BK n, 319d<320c; BK VH
388a-401d esp 389d-391b, 397a-401d; BK x,
439b-441a,c / Timaeus, 474c-475c / Sophist,
556c-558d / Statesman, 607b 608d / Laws,
BK i, 649b-d / Seventh Letter, 801b-802d;
806b-c; 809c-810d esp 810c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 10 [13*16-31] 18d /
Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 25 [69*20-28] 91a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [1094^7-1095*
n] 340a; CH 9 345a-c; BK n, CH 1-4 348b,d-
351b; BK vi, CH 1-2 387a-388b; CH 12-13
393b-394d; BK vn, CH 2-3 395c-398a; BK x,
CH 9 [ii79ft33~b3o] 434a-c / Politics, BK v,
CH 12 [1316*1-10] 518d-519a; BK VH, CH 13
[1332*39-^1 i]537a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [307-322]
34a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 5 llOb-c; CH
17 122d-124a; CH 28 133b-134d; BK n, CH 22
167d~170a; CH 26 174c-d; BK HI, CH 3 178d-
180a, CH 6 181d-182b; CH 8 184b-c; CH 15
190a-191a; BK iv, CH i 213a-223d esp 216c-
218c; CH 4 225a-228a; CH 9 237d-238d; CH 12
242d-244a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
BK V, SECT l6 271C-d, BK VII, SECT 22 281bj
SECT 26 281c, BK ix, SECT 42 295c-296a,c;
BK XII, SECT 12 308b-C
14 PLUTARCH: Dion, 782c-788b
17 PLOTINUS: First Enncad, TR in 10a-12b esp
CH 6 lld-12b
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK x, par 3-6 72a-
73a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 94,
A 3, REP 3 504a-505a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 65,
AA 1-2 70b-72d; Q 95, A i, ANS 226c-227c;
A 3, ANS 228c-229b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 43a-c; 65d-66a; 69d-
72b; 232d-240a, 321a-c; 502c-504c; 509a-512a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT i, sc
n [19-22] 408b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE- Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
be n [163-173] 115b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26c-27a;
69d-70a, 76d-78d
32 MILTON Areopagitica, 390b-391a
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 88 189b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 8 105d-106a; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 71
197b-198a
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV i
451a-b, DIV 3 451d, SECT vm, DIV 66, 480b
37 FIELDING- Tom Jones, 122d-123a; 313a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344d-345c / Political
Economy, 375d-377b
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 34d; 435b-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
258b-c; 260d-261d; 265b, 282b-283d / Prac-
tical Reason, 357c-360d / ?rcf. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 365 b-d; 368d / Judgement,
513d-514b
43 MILL: Liberty, 303b-d; 306c-307a / Utilitar-
ianism, 464b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 132
46b-47a; ADDITIONS, in 134d-135a; 119 136b
388
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The formation of a good character, virtue, a
right will. 4a. The possibility and limits of
moral education: knowledge and virtue.)
49 DARWIN; Descent of Man, 313d-314b; 317c-
319a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov , EPILOGUE,
411b-412d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 806a-808a
54 FREUD. General Introduction, 573c-d; 592b-c;
596b-c; 624d-625b / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 781a-d; 784a-789b; 796d [£112];
800c-801a / New Introductory Lectures, 870a-c
4b. The influence of the family in moral training
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus*, 20:12 / Deuteronomy,
5 16, 6:6-7; 11:18-19; 27:16 / Proverbs, 1:8-9;
3:12; 6:20-24; 13:1,24; 15:5; 19:18; 22:6,15;
23:13-26; 29:15, 17
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4— (D) OT, Tobias, 4 /
Ecclcsiasticus, 7-23-24; 30:1-13— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 7:25-26; 30:1-13
NEW TESTAMENT: Ephesians, 6:1-4 / Colossians,
3 .20-2 1
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45d-47a / Meno, 186a-
187b / Republic, BK v, 366a-c / Ltf«AJ, BK v,
687d-688*; BK vn, 713c-716d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [n8oa25-bi4J
435a-c / Politics, BK iv, CH 11 [i295bi4-i8]
495d; BK vn, CH 17 [i336a23-b3J 541b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d esp
SECT 1-4 253a, SECT 14 254b-c, SECT 16 254d-
255d
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 286c-287b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14-15 4c-
5*; BK n, par 2-8 9b-10d esp par 7 lOb-c;
BK in, par 19-20 18b-19a; BK ix, par 19-22
67a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A i, ANS 226c-227c; Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [12,006-037] 367b-
368a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
83a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 16c; 43a-c; 63d-64b;
66c-67a; 184a-187d; 344a-c; 414a^d; 534c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 251b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 55, SCHOL,
413d; THE AFFECTS, DBF 27 419a-b; PART iv,
APPENDIX, xx 449a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 55-69
36c-40b; CH xv, SECT 170 64d-65a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-30a; PART iv,
166b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 250b-251a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 108c-110c; 136a-c;
217d-219c; 283c-d; 310b-313b; 359b-362c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-327a; 327c-328a /
Political Economy, 376b-377a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 420b-421c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 372c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 173-
175 61a-d; par 239 76d; ADDITIONS, in 134d-
135a; 147 140c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XH,
395b-d
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 17d-18a / Sexual Enlightenment of
Children 119a-122a,c passim / Narcissism, 408b
/ Ego and Id, 704d-707d / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 794c-795a esp 795 b [fn 2] / New
Introductory Lectures, 834b-c; 844b-c; 876b-c
4c. The role of the state in moral education:
law, custom, public opinion
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i,370a-c;
BK n, 396d-397a
7 PLATO. Protagoras, 45b-47c / Apology, 203c-
204b / Gorgtas, 287c-291b / Republic, BK n-
iii, 320c-339a; BK vi, 377a-379c / Timaeus,
474c-d / Statesman, 607a-608a / Laws 640a-
799a,c esp BK i, 643a-644a, 645c-646d, BK in,
676b-c, BK iv, 683d-685a, BK v-vi, 696c-697d,
BK vi, 704a-c, 710d-711c, BK vn 713c-731d,
BK vin, 735c-738c, BK ix, 757a, BK xii, 792c-d
/ Seventh Letter, 800b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99b29~32]
345b; CH 13 [1102*8-25] 347c; BK n, CH i
[iio3b3-7]349a, BK v, CH i [ii29bi2-24]377a;
CH 2 [ri3ob2o-3o] 378b; BK x, CH 9 [ii79b3i-
n8ob28] 434c-435c / Politics, BK n, CH 5
[i263b36-i264ai] 459a; CH 7 461d-463c; BK
vn, CH 13-17 536b-542a,c; BK vm, CH i
542a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 18 264d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [845-853] 233b-234a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Lycurgus-
Numa, 63d-64a / Solon 64b,d-77a,c passim /
Marcus Cato, 284b-286b / Lysander, 361b-d /
Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14-16 4c-
5b; par 19-30 5d-8d; BK vi, par 2 35a-c; par
11-13 38b-39c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH
12-13 662c-663c; CH 18-22 664d-666c
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92,
A i 213c-214c; A 2, REP 4 214d-215a,c; Q 95,
A i 226c-227c; A 3 228c-229b; Q 96, AA 2-3
231c-233a; Q 98, A 6, ANS 244c-245b; Q 100,
A 9 261b-262b; Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi {52-
105] 77b-d
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 149b-c; 154a-
156b; PART iv, 272c
25 MONTAJGNE: Essays, 42b-43c; 46b-48b; 60c-
61d; 63d-64b; 131b-132a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc i [225-270) 181a-c; ACT in, sc n [91-128]
190c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 78d-80a
CHAPTER 20; EDUCATION
389
31 SPINOZA: Ethics* PART HI, THE AFFECTS, DBF
27 419a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [285-306] 325b-
326a / Areopagitica, 383a-395b esp 394b-395a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 6 173a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15c-d / Human Under-
standing, BK i, CH n, SECT 8 105d-106a; SECT
20 HOc-llla; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 71, 197d;
CH xxvm, SECT 10-12 230b-231c esp SECT 12
231b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
66, 480b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 18b,d-
25c; BK vi, 37d-43d; BK xn, 85c-86d; 87c-
88a; BK xiv, 104a-108d; BK xvi, 118a-119d;
BK xix, 138c-142a
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 359d / Political Econ-
omy, 375d-377b / Social Contract, BK iv,
434b-435a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 340c-343d;
346c-347d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23c-d; 92c-94b
passim; 100c401b; 291d-292d
41 GIBBON • Decline and Fall, 93c-94a; 161c-162a;
389c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
263a-b / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
368d / Intro. Metaphync of Morals, 383a-b,
387b; 387d-388a
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 12, 58b-c
43 MILL. Liberty, 269c-270c; 294c-296b; 303b-
306c / Representative Government, 336c-340c
passim, esp 337a-b; 342b-344d passim, 346c-
350a, 381b-382b / Utilitarianism, 456a-d,
457c-458b
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 150-
153 56c-57c; par 239 76d; par 270, 84d-85a;
89a-b; par 315 104c; ADDITIONS, 96-98 132c-
133a; 131 137d; 162, 143b-144a; 183 148d-
149a / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 365c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-317d esp
317a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d;
BK viu, 303a-305b esp 303d-304b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xn,
398a-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a-191a
54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children,
122a,c / Narcissism, 408b / War and Death,
757b-759d passim, esp 75 7c / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 781a-c; 784a-d; 800 b-d / New
Introductory Lectures, 834c
4</. The eflfect upon character of poetry, music,
and other arts: the role of history and
examples
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [430-605] 61c-63b
5 ARISTOPHANES* Acharnians [626-658] 462b-d
/ Wasps [1009-1070] 519d-520c / Frogs [1008-
1098] 576b-577c; [1482-1533] 581d-582a,c
6 HB^ODOTUS: //w/pfy, BK i, 35c-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 46b-c / Phaedrus, 136b-c /
Republic, BK II-HI, 320c-339a; BK iv, 344b-d;
BK vii 388a-401d esp 391b-398c; BK x, 427c-
434c / Ttmaeus, 455c / Laws, BK 11 653a-663d;
BK in, 675c-676b; BK v, 696b-d; BK vii, 717b-
721a; 724b-725d; 726d-728b
9 ARISTOTLE' Politics, BK vn, CH 17 (1336*30-
b24] 541b-d; BK vm, CH 3 542d-543d; CH 5-7
544c-548a,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d esp
SECT 15-16 254c-255d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
vi [845-853] 233b-234a; BK vm [608-731]
275a-278b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 33d-34a; 43b-d / Solon,
76a / Pendes, 121a-122b / Timoleon, 195a-b /
Demetrius, 726a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xiv, 146b-147a; BK xv,
173a-b; BK xvi, 183c; 184a,c
17 PLOTINUS. First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK i, par 20-27 6a-
7d; BK in, par 2-5 13c-14b; BK vi, par 11-13
38b-39c; BK x, par 1-6 71c-73a; par 49-53
83c-85a; BK xi, par i 89b-c / City of God, BK
i, CH 31-33 147d-149a; BK n, CH 8-14 153d-
157c; BK iv, CH 26-27 202a-203c / Christian
Doctrine, UK n, CH 6 638a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q r,
A 2, REP 2 4a-c
21 DANTE. Dwmc Comedy, PURGATORY, xxn
[55-93] 87a-c; PARADISE, i [1-36] 106a-b;
xvn [100-142] 133a-c
22 CHAUCER: Intro, to Man of Law's Prologue
[4465-4510] 234b-235b / Nun's Priest's Tale
[15,444-452] 460a-b / LEnvoi 550a-b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 68b-69a; 197a-199c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT v, sc
i [66-88] 431b-c
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART i, 12b-16c;
186d-187c; PART n, 427c-429a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 4c-6c; 38c-
39d esp 38d-39a; 78a-d; 79c-80a; 85a-c
31 DESCARTES. Discourse, PART i, 43a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 55 413b-
414a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [1-47] 247a-248a
/ Areopagitica, 385a-386b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, n 173b-174a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV i
451a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 250b-251a
37 FIELDING, Tom Jones, 254a-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 17b-
18d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365b-366b / Political
Economy, 376c-377a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337d-338c;
347d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94a-b; 284a>c;
338d-339a; 449a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 40d-41a; 225a-c;
, 311a-312a
390
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The formation of a good character, virtue, a
right will. 44. The effect upon character
of poetry, music, and other arts: the role of
history and example*!)
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
263a-b; 264b [fn i); 266d [fn 2] / Practical
Reason, 325d-327d esp 327b-d; 356a-360d /
Judgement, 504a-b; 513d-514b; 521b-523c;
586d-587a
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 308b-d; 347c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 267a-
268b; 276a-b; PART iv, 347b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 826b-827a
5. The improvement of the mind by teaching
and learning
5a. The profession of teaching: the relation of
teacher and student
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [430-605] 61c-63b
5 ARISTOPHANFS: Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO: Laches, 29d-31b / Protagoras, 38a-47c
esp 39d-41a, 42a-c / Euthydemus 65a-84a,c /
Symposium, 169c-170a / Meno 174a-190a,c esp
179b-183a / Apology, 203a-204c; 206b-208c /
Cnto, 215a-c / Gorgias, 252a-259c; 290b-291b
/ Theaetetus, 515d-517b; 544a-c / Sophist,
556b-559a / Laws, BK vn, 723c-d / Seventh
Letter, 801c-802d; 808b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH i [165*
19-24] 227c; CH 2 [i65*}8-b3] 227d-228a, CH
ii [i7ibi8-35J 236b-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[9817-9! 499d»' CH 2 [982ai3-MJ 500b; [982"
28-30] 500c; BK iv, CH 2 [ioo4bi8~27] 523d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK rx, CH i [ii64a22-b6]
417a-b; BK x, CH 9 [ii8ob28-n8ibi9) 435d-
436a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES: The Oath, xiiia
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1-30]
30a-b; BK v [1-54] 61a-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 17 158d-161a
csp 160b-161a; CH 24 172d-174b; BK in, CH 2
177c-178d; CH 9, 185b-d; CH 21-23 193d'
203b; BK iv, CH 8 235b-237d
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 122d-123d / Alcibiades,
155b,d-158b / Alexander, 542d-544a / Cato
the Younger, 623a-b / Dion, 782c-788b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xni, 125d-126a; BK xiv,
153d-155a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 22 6b-c;
BK iv, par 2 19d; BK v, par 22 33b-c; BK vi,
par 1 1 38b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 4
676d-677a; CH 27 696a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b;
PART i, Q 76, A 2, REP 5 388c-391a; Q 1 06
545c-549a; Q 107, A 3, ANS and REP i 551a-c;
Q in, A j 568c-569b; Q 117, AA 1-2 595d-
598c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thfologica, PART n-ii, Q i,
A 7, REP 2 385c-387a; Q 2, A 3, ANS 392d-393c;
Q 181, A 3 618c-619b; Q 188, A 6, ANS 681b-
682c; PART in SUPPL, o 96, A 7 1061b-l062a;
A ii, ANS and REP 1,5 1063d-1064d; A 12
I064d-1065b
21 DANTE: Dmne Comedy, HELL la-52d passim,
esp i-n la-4a, vn [64]-ix [105] 10b-13b, xv
21a~22c, xxiv [1-78] 34d-35b; PURGATORY
53a-105d passim, esp v [1-21] 59a, xvm [1-96]
79d-80d, xxvii 94c-96a, xxx [22-81] 99c-
lOOb; PARADISE, iv [115-142] llld-112a
22 CHAUCER- Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
lb,d; 18b-25a passim; BK n, 101b-106a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 57b-60c; 64c-79c passim,
esp 70c-72a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 7d-lla;
14c-15a, 16c; 29c-32c; 68b-69b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 42b
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, ix 448a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 398a-b
36 STERNE : Tristram Shandy, 423b-424b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 41a-43b; 45d-46a; 94d-
95a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-d / Political Econ-
omy, 376d-377a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 57b-58b; BK
v, 331b,d-334c; 338c-340b; 354d-355d esp
355c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 669a-671b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 420b-d;
424b-c
44 BOSWELL:/O^O«, 23b-c; 191b-c; 199d-200b;
300a-c
47 GOETHE : Faust, PART n [6689-6818] 164a-166b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d; BK
vni, 306b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 870b-c
£. The means and methods of teaching
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, S0c-52d / Cratylus, 85d-
88a esp 87c-d; 112d-113d / Phaedrus, 131b-
141a,c esp 139b-140b / Meno, 179b-183a /
Apology, 206b-d / Republic, BK vu, 388a-398c
esp 389d-390b; 399c / Theaetetus, 515d-517b,
549c-550a,c / Sophist, 551d; 556b-559a /
Statesman, 590d-591c / Philebus, 610d-613a /
Laws, BK n, 656b-c; BK iv, 684c-685a /
Seventh Letter, 809a-811a esp 809a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
[71*1-10] 97a / Sophistical Refutations, CH 2
[i65*38-b3] 227d-228a; CH 10 [i7i»27-b2]
235d-236a; CH ii [172*15-21] 237a / Heavens,
BK i, CH 10 [279b32-28o»n] 371b-c / Meta-
physics, BK n, CH 3 513c-d / Sense and the
Sensibk, CH i [436bi8-437»i7] 673d-674a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639*i-bi2] 161a-d / Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 [ii39b
18-34] 388b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [921-950]
12b-c; BK iv (1-25) 44a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 24, 172d-
173c; BK in, CH 9, 185b; CH 23, 203a-b
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
391
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennced, TR HI, CH 1-3 lOa-
lla
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13 4b-c;
par 19-20 5d-6a; par 23 6d-7a / Christian
Doctrine, BK 11, CH 6 638a-d; CH 36-37 653d-
654b; BK iv 675a-698a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b;
PART i, Q i, A 5, REP 2 5c-6a; A 9 8d-9c; Q 79,
A 10, REP 3 423d-424d; Q 84, A 3, REP 3
443d-444d; Q 106, A i, ANS 545d-546d; Q in,
A i, ANS 568c-569b; Q 117, A i 595d-597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-H, Q i,
A 7, REP 2 385c-387a; Q 181, A 3, ANS and REP
2 618c-619b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19a; 26d-30c passim
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 57b-61c passim; 63d-80b
passim, csp 73b-74a; 446d-450a; 453c-454d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268c / On
Animal Generation, 336d-337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16c; 31a-d;
39b-d; 61d-62c; 64b-c; 65a-c; 68b-69c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 42b; 42d-43a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 9-10 173b; 40 177b-178a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3c-4a; 7a-b; 15c / Human
Understanding, BK in, CH x, SECT 34 299d-
300a; BK iv, CH vn, SECT n, 340d-341a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART HI, 109b-110b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 417b-418a; 421b-
422b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 42a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-340a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 2d-4a,c / Practical Reason,
335bc
43 MILL: Liberty, 283c-288c esp 284b-d / Repre-
sentative Government, 331a; 424b-c
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 7d-8a; 144c; 191b-c; 199d-
200b; 448a-b; 471d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 175,
61c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [522-601] 15a-16b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 48b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 290a-291a; 692a-b; 711b-
712b
54 FREUD. General Introduction, 449a-451b passim
5c. The nature of learning: its several modes
7 PLATO: Laches, 29d-30b / Euthydemus, 67b-
68d / Cratylus, llld-112d / Phaedrus, 124a-
126c esp 126a-c; 139b-140b/ Meno, 179b-183a;
188d-189a / Phaedo, 228a-230c / Republic, BK
vi-vn, 383d-401d / Theaetetus, 541d-543a /
Philebus, £lOd-613a
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 21 [67*
21-25] 88c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
97a-d; BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c / Sophistical
Refutations, CH 2 [i65»38-b3] 227d-328a /
Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [247bi-248*6] 330b-d;
BK vi n, CH 4 [255*3<>~b23] 340a-c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH i [980*28-981*13] 499a-c; CH
9 [992^4-993*7] 511a-c; BK n, CH 2 [994*25-
30] 512c; BK ix, CH 6 [i048bi8~34] 574a-c;
CH 8 [1049^9-1050*3] 575c-d / Soul, BK n,
CH 5 [4i7»2i-4i8»3] 647d-64Sc / Sense and the
Sensible, CH i [436bi8-437*i7J 673d-674a /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [45i*io-b9]
692b-d; [452*4-?] 693c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 3 [1147*18^23]
397b-c / PoetKS, CH 4 [i448b4-2o] 682c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: The Law, par 2-3 144b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1-25]
44a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 26 131b-
132b; BK in, CH 23, 202d-203a
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger, 620b-c
17 PLOTINUS. First Ennead, TR in 10a-12b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13 4b-c;
par 23 6d-7a; BK iv, par 28-31 26a-27a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 2 624d-625a; BK
n, CH 36-37 653d-654b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 76, A
2, REP 5 388c-391a; Q 84, A 3, REP 3 443d-
444d, Q 117, A i, ANS and REP 4 595d-597c
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q i,
A 7, REP 2 385c-387a; Q 2, A 3, ANS 392d-393c;
PART HI, Q 9, A 4, REP i 766b-767b; Q 12
776c-779d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55d-56a; 66c-d;
68b
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19a; 26d-30c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a passim; 63d-
75a csp 64c-66b; 446a-450a; 453c-454d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268c / On
Animal Generation, 332a-335c esp 334d-33Sc
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 16a; 57d-
58b; 64b-c / Novum Organum, PREF 105a-
106d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, m-iv 3b-7d; xii-xm
18b-27d esp xn, 23c, 24d-25a / Discourse,
PART vi, 61d-62c; 63a-b / Meditations, i 7Sa-
77c / Geometry, BK i, 297a-b; BK in, 341b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 6 173a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; SECT 23 101b-102a, CH in,
SECT 25 120c-d
36 STERNE Tristram Shandy, 221a-222a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 99d-100a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 528c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-15c; 113b414a; 244c-
245c / Judgement, 526a-527b
43 MILL: Liberty, 283c-288c
44 BOSWELLI/O^WOH, 121d; 126d; 257c
45 LAVOISIER '.Elements of Chemistry, PREF, lc-2b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 69,
30b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 245b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 15b-17a; 49b-52b csp 52a;
71a-73b; 83a-b; HOb; 331b-336a passim;
362b-364a; 433a-438a; 443a-444a; 448b-
450a; 664b-665a; 691a-b; 827a-835a
392
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The improvement of the mind by teaching and
learning)
5</. The order of learning: the organization of
the curriculum
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 46b-c / Memo, 179b-183a /
Gorgias, 272b-273b / Republic, BK n, 320c-
321a; BK in, 333b-334b; BK vi, 380d-381a;
BK VI-VH, 383d-401d / Timaeus, 465d-466a /
Sophist, 552b-c / Philebus, 610d-613a / Laws,
BK n, 653a-654a; BK v, 696b-d; BK VH, 728b-
730c; BK xn, 798a-799a,c / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 7
[i89b3O~33] 265 b-c / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3
[995*12-14] 513c; BK iv, CH 3 [ioo5b2~5] 524c;
CH 4 [1006*5-12] 525a-b; BK v, CH i [1013*1-3]
533a; BK vn, CH 3 [io29*35-bi2] 552a; BK ix,
CH 8 [i049b29-io50a3J 575c-d / Soul, BK i,
CH i (402bi 5-403*2] 631d-632a; BK n, CH 2
[413*11-13] 643a
9 ARISTOTLE- Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[639*i2-bi2] 161b-d / Ethics, BK i, CH 3
[i094b28-io95*3] 340a; BK vi, CH 3 [ii39b25-
29] 388c / Politics, BK vn, CH 15 [i334b2o-28]
539c-d; BK vm, CH 3 542d-543d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812b-813d
12 EPICTETU si Discourses, BKI,CH 26l31b-132b;
BK n, CH 25 174b-c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6b passim
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 847b-848a
17 PLOTINUS- First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-4 lOa-llc
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13-31 4b-
9a; BK iv, par 30 26b-c / Christian Doctrine,
BK ii, CH 8-42 639d-656d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b;
PART i, Q i, A 9 8d-9c; o 2, AA 1-2 10d-12c;
Q 10, A i, ANS and REP i 40d-41d; A 2, RFP i
41d-42c; A 6, ANS 45c-46d; Q n, A 2, REP 4
47d-48d; Q 14, A 6, REP 2 80a-81c; Q 18, A 2,
ANS 105c-106b; Q 84, A 3, REP 3 443d-444d,
A 6 447c-449a; Q 85, A i 451c-453c; A 3 455b-
457a; A 8 460b-461b; Q 117, A i, ANS 595d-
597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 100,
A 6, ANS and REP 2 257c-258c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 59b-c; 71c-d;
72a<d; PART iv, 268c-269b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19d; 25a-30c; BK n, 75c-77a; 78b-80d;
, 82c-83b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 63d-80b passim, esp 69d-
70c
28 HARVEY; On Animal Generation, 332a-336a
esp 334c-d, 335c-336a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 4c-5b; 14c-
15a; 30b-c; 31a-d; 44c; 56b-66a; 68c-69c;
79c-80a; 85a-c / Novum Organum, PREF 105a-
106d; BK i, APH 19-36 108b-109b; APH 90
124d-125a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv-vi 5a-10a; vm-x 12a-
17a; xni 25b-27d / Discourse, PART i, 42b-
44a; PART n, 47a-b; PART vi, 61d-62c /
Geometry, BK i, 297a-b; 298b; BK HI, 341 b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; SECT 20 lOOc-d; SECT 23
101b-102a; CH HI, SECT 13 116a-b; BK n, CH i,
SECT 6-8 122b-123a; SECT 22 127a; CH xi,
SECT 8-9 145b-c; BK in, CH n, SECT 7 254a-b;
CH in, SECT 7-9 255d-256c; CH v, SECT 15
267c-d; CH ix, SECT 9 286d-287b; BK iv, CH
vii, SECT 9 338d-339b; SECT n 340a-342d
passim, esp 340d-341a; CH xn, SECT 3 358d-
359c
36 SWIFT • Gulliver, PART n, 78b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 421b-422b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 334c-337b;
338c-d;342b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 294a-b / Judgement,
551a-552c, 572a-b
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, llb-d; 15a-c; 23d-24b;
121d; 128c; 135b-c; 273a-b; 309c-d; 448a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 213c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1868-2045] 44b-48a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
291d-292b
53 JAMES- Psychology, 317b-319a; 323a-b; 360a;
406a-b;453a-457aesp453bf456b-457a;503b;
524b-525a; 711b-712b
54 FREUD. Civilization and Its Discontents, 768b-c
5e. The emotional aspect of learning: pleasure,
desire, interest
7 PLATO Republic, BK vi, 374a-375a; BK vn,
388a-389c; 399b-401a esp 399c; BK ix, 421a-
422b / Laws, BK n, 660b / Seventh Letter,
808b-809a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-
27] 499a
9 ARISTOTLE Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5 [644b
22-645*37] 168c-169b / Ethics, BK vii, CH 12
[1153*22-24] 404c; BK x, CH i [1172*16-21]
426a / Politics, BK vm,cH5 [1339*25-31] 544d;
[i339bio-2o] 545a; CH 6 [1340^25-30] 546b /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [i37ift30-33] 614d; BK
HI, CH 10 [i4iob9-i2] 662c / Poetics, CH 4
[i448b4-i9] 682c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES : The Law, par 2 144b
10 GALFN. Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 10, 207d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [41-53]
Ic-d; BK ii [1023-1047] 28a-b; BK in [1-30]
30a-b; BK iv [1-25] 44a-b
12 EPICTETUS • Discourses, BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-3 lOa-lla
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 14-16 4c-
5b; par 19-27 5d-7d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; PART
i-n, Q 3, A 8, ANS 628d-629c; Q 30, A i, REP i
749a-d; Q 37, A i 783d- 784c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi [112-142]
39b-c; PURGATORY, xx [i24)-xxi [75)84c-85d;
PARADISE, iv [115-142] llld-112a
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
391
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52d-53b; PART n,
154a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
190a-191a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays* 70d-74a; 244d-246a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc i [1-40] 202c-203a
28 HARVEY: On Ammal Generation, 331c-332a
30 BACON. Advancement of learning, 79b-c
31 DESCARTES: Geometry, BK i, 297a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART m, PROP 55, SCHOL
413b-d, THE AFFECTS, DEF 2J 419a-t>
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 440b-
442a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxin, SECT 15 250c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 7b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-d; 338c-339a
42 KANT: Judgement, 551d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 7d-8a; llb-d; 14b; 15a-c;
130b; 135b-136a; 151d; 199d-200b; 273a;
309c-d; 360d; 423c; 448a-b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, ld-2a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 175,
61c-d; par 197 67a-b
47 GOETHE. Faust, PART i [354-736] lla-19b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d; BK
vin, 306b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 271b-275a esp 274b-275a;
290a-291a, 433a-434a; 448b-449b; 524a-525a;
711b-712b
5f. Learning apart from teachers and books:
the role of experience
APOCRYPHA. Ecclesiasttcus, 25-3-6— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 25.5-8
4 HOMER: Odyssey 183a-322d
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [160-257] 53d-54d
7 PLATO: Laches, 29d-30b; 37c-d / Gorgias,
253a / Republic, BK in, 333b-d; 337b-d; BK v,
366a-c; BK vi, 377a-379c; BK vn, 401a /
Theaetetus, 535d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 63d-
64b / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i 97a-d;
BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c / Physics, BK i, CH i
259a-b / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2
[316*5-14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[980*22-981*13] 499a-c; BK ix, CH 8 [1050*10-
15] 575d / Soul, BK i, CH i (402bi 1-403*2]
631d-632a; BK in, CH 8 [432*3-9] 664c
9 ARISTOTLE : Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [i094b28-io95*3]
340a; CH 4 [1095*30-^3] 340c-d; BK n, CH i
[1103*14-17] 348b; BK vi, CH 8 [1142*12-19]
391b; CH ii [ii43*25-bi3] 392d-393a; BK x,
CH 9 [n8obi3-23] 435b-c; [n8i*i8-b6] 436a /
Politics, BK in, CH 16 [1287*32-33] 485d; BK
vni, CH 6 546b-547b
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 10 94d-95a /
The Law, par 3-4 144c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [925-1457]
73b-80a,c passim, esp [1448-1457] 79d-80a,c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vm [508-519] 272b-273a
14 PLUTARCH: Demosthenes, 691b,d-692b; 692d-
695d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13 4b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 3 676a-d
19 AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologica, PART i, Q 84,
A 6 447c-449a; Q 85, A i 451c-453c; Q 87,
AA 1-3 465a-468a passim; Q 94, A 3, REP 3
504a-505a; Q 117, A i, ANS and REP 4 595d-
597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 9,
A 4, REP i 766b-767b; Q 12, A i, REP i 776c-
777b; A 2 777b-778b; A 3, REP 2 778b*779a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi [49-142]
38c-39c
23HoBBis: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART i,
60a-61a; 66c-68b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagrucl, BK i,
29d-30c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-c; 66b-69d; 74d-
7ba; 395b-398c; 520d-522d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT iv,
sc in [296-365] 27lc-272a / Henry V, ACT i,
sc i [22-66] 533b-c / As You Like It, ACT iv,
sc r [1-26] 617a-b
28 GILBERT. Loadstone, PREF, la-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268c / On
Animal Generation, 331b-332a; 333b-d;411c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 16a; 16c;
30d-31a; 82c-d / Novum Organum, BK i, APH
97-98 126c-127b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3b; xn, 22c-23a /
Discourse, PART i, 43a; 44a-c; PART HI, 50b-
51a, PART vi, 61d-62c/ Geometry, BK i, 297a-b;
BK m, 341b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b388b
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 6 173a / Vacuum, 355a-358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
i-xii 121a-148d passim; CH xxm, SECT 3
204c-d; BK in, CH HI, SECT 7-8 255d-256a;
BK ivf CH xn, SECT 9-13 360d-362d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30-31
418c~d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
65, 479d-480a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 12d; 99d-100a; 142c-d;
274c; 296b,d-297c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334c
39 SMITH . Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-15c; 146a449d esp
148b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 287b-c; 288a-b; 294c-295a /
Representative Government, 341d-343a passim;
418b-d / Utilitarianism, 456a-d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 257c; 378b-c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, Id-
2b; PART HI, 87b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 197
67a-b / Philosophy of History, PART i, 230c-
231b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [522-^01] 15a-16b
394
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 7 a
(5. The improvement of the mind by teaching and
learning. 5/ Learning apart from teachers
and books: the role of experience.)
48 MELVILLE: Moby DicJ{, 82a; 243a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 424a-b; BK
xin, 584c-585b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 362b-364a passim; 453b-
454a; 767b-768a; 852b-862a esp 852b-853a,
856b 857a, 859b 860a
6. The acquisition of techniques: preparation
for the vocations, arts, and professions
5 ARISTOPHANES* Clouds 488a-506d esp [461-
509] 494b-d, [723-812] 497b-498c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 136a-b / Gorgias, 258d-262a
esp 260a-d / Republic, BK 11, 319a-c; BK in,
337b-338a; BK v, 366a-c; BK vi, 377d-378c /
Philebus, 633a-d / Laws, BK i, 649b-c; BK iv,
684d-685a
8 ARISTOTLE* Topics, BK i, CH 3 144a-b
9AnisrOlLt, EthlCS, BK I, CH 13 fllO2aI7~22]
347c; BK u, en i 348b,d-349b; en 4 3SOd-
351b; BK x, en 9 [u8obi3-n8ibi3] 435b-
436a,c passim / Politics, BK iv, CH i [i288bio-
20] 487a-b; BK vin, CH 6 546b-547b / Atheni-
an Constitution, CH 42, par 3 572c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 1-4
la-2c; par 9 3b-d / Epidemics, BK in, SECT
in, par 1 6 S9b-c / Articulations, par 10, 94d /
The Law, par 2-5 144b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1091-
1104] 75b-c; (1241-1408] 77b-79b
13 VIRGIL. Aeneid, BK vin [512-517] 272b
14 PLUTARCH' Demosthenes, 692c-695d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 3
676a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q i,
A 7, REP 2 385c-387a
24 RABELAIS' Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
27d-30c; BK n, 76b-77a; 85c-87c esp 87a;
BK iv, 232a-233b
29 GhRVANii-s Don Quixote, PART i, 82b 83c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30b-c;
53d-54b; 82c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 66c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 42d-43c;
51c-58b esp 51c-53b, 54c-55a; BK v, 301a-
305c; 339b-c; 342d-343c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 5a-c; 245b-d;
411d-412c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 75d-78b passim;
298a 300a esp 299c-300a; 311d-312a; 355a-c;
508d-509d
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Mffaphysic of Morals,
253c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 415a-417c
passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 197
67a-b; par 252 78d-79a; par 296 99a-b;
ADDITIONS, 126 137a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1868-2050] 44b-48b
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 278c d
50 MARX. Capital, 81d; 165c-166a; 170c-171c;
237d-241a esp 240c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 774a
54 FREUD: "Wild" Psycho* Analysis, 130b-c /
General Introduction, 449a-452a passim
7. Religious education
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 12-24-27; 18:19-20;
24.12 / Deuteronomy, 4*9-10,14; 5:31; 6:1,6-
9, u 18-21; 31*9-13 / Joshua, 8-30-35— (D)
]osue, 8:30-35 / // Kings, 23.1-2— (D) IV
Kings, 23.1-2 / // Chronicles, 34-29-30— (D)
II Parahpomenon, 3 1 '29-30 / Nehemiah, 8 —
(D) 77 Esdras, 8 / Psalms, 78:1-4— (D) Psalms,
77 -i-4
Ntw TLSTAMENT: Ephesians, 6 '4
7 PLATO: Laws, BK x 757d-771b; BK xn, 797b-
798b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22 195a-
201a
18 Auc.usTiNh. Christian Doctrine 621a-698a,c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a; Q in, A i, ANS 351d-
352d; A 4 354c-355d; PART n-ii, Q 2, A 6,
ANS 395b-396a; Q 16, A 2, ANS and REP 2
455c-456d; Q 188, A 5 679d-681a; A 6, ANS
681b-682c; PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 7 1061b-
1062a
23HoBBrs- leviathan, PART u, 123a-b; 153a-
156b passim, esp 154d-155a; PART HI, 208d-
209a, 211b-c; 241c-242a; PART iv, 269a
24 RABELAIS Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
24c-d;27a;BKii,82c-83b
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 185-194 205a-209b, 285
224a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3c-4a; 7a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv,
202b-c
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 343b,d-356d
passim; 357c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82d; 601 b-c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 325a-327d esp 326b-
327a
43 MILL. Liberty, 285b; 290a-292a passim / Rep-
resentative Government, 437d-438b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 151b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
150d-153d
la. God as teacher: divine revelation and in-
spiration
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9.1-17 / Exodus,
4:10-17; 20:1-20 / Deuteronomy, 4:1-5,10-13;
5:1-20 esp 5:4-11 / / Kings, 8:35-36— (D) III
Kings, 8:35-36 / Job, 33^4-171 34'3I-32J
38-41 / Psalms, 25:4-5,8-9,12; 32:8-9; 94:10-
13; 143— (D) Psalms, 24:4-5,8-9,12; 31 8-9;
93:10-13; 142 / Proverbs, 6-23 / Isaiah, 28:9-
i$—(D)Isaias, 28:9-13 / Darnel, 2:19-23
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 17:6-14 — (D) OT,
Eccksiasttcus, 17:5-12
la to
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
395
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew passim, csp 4:23,
7:28-29, 10:1-20, 11:25 / Marl^ passim, csp
4:1-2 / Luty passim, csp 2-41-50 / John pas-
sim, csp 3:2, 15:15, 18:37 / Romans, 1:16-20 /
/ Corinthians, 2 / Galatians, 1.11-12 / Ephe-
sians, 3.2-5 / II Timothy, 3:15-16 / I John,
2:24-27
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 7 lOb-c;
BK iv, par 30-31 26b-27a; BK vi, par 8 37b-c,
BK xi, par 2-5 89c-90c; BK xin, par 16-18
114d-115c / City of God, BK vn, CH 30, 261b;
BK x, CH 13 307 b-c; BK xi, CH 2-4 323a-324d;
BK xx, CH 28 556c-557a / Christian Doctrine^
BK n, CH 15 643c-644a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i 3a-
lOc; Q 3, A i, REP 1-5 14b-15b; Q 12, A 13 61c-
62b; Q 32 175d-180d passim; Q 46, A 2 253a-
255a; Q 57, A 3, REP i 297b-298a, Q 68, A i,
ANS 354a-355c, Q 89, A i, Rtp 3 473b-475a;
Q 94, A 3 504a-505a; Q 105, A 3 540c-541b;
Q 106, A 3, ANS S47c-548b; Q 113, A i, REP 2
576a-d, Q 117, A i, REP i 595d-597c; A 2, REP
1-2 597c-598c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 63,
A 3 65a-d; Q 68 87c-96c, Q 91, AA 4-5 210c-
212c; QQ 98-108 239b-337d esp Q 98, A 2
240c-241b, Q 107, A i 325c-327b; Q in, A 4
354c-355d, PART u-n, Q i, A 7, REP 3 385c-
387a; Q 4, A 4, REP 3 405a-406a; PART in, Q i,
A 3, ANS 704d-706a; Q 3, A 8 729b-730b; Q 7,
A 7 750a-d; Q 11, A 6, REP 2 775d-776b; Q 12,
A 3, ANS and REP 1-2 778b-779a; A 4, ANS and
REP i 779a-d
21 DAN IE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xix [r-
99] 135a-136a, xxiv-xxvi 142d-147b passim,
esp xxiv [52-147] 143b-144a, xxv [64-96]
145a-b
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,787-816]
467a-b
23HoBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 137b-138b;
160b-c; PART in, 165a-167b; 176d-177b;
181a-186c; 205b-d, 241c-242a; CONCLUSION,
281d-282a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 239 b-c; 267c-268a;
273a-b
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 19b-c; 38a;
54b-c; 95b-101d
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK v [2i9]-BK vm
[653] 180a-246b esp BK vm [283-451] 238b-
242a, BK xi [99]-BK xn [649] 301b-333a
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 185 205a; 622 286a; 642-692
290b-301a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH
xvi, SECT 14 371b-c; CH xvm-xuc 380d-388d
passim, esp CH xvm, SECT 2-5 381a-382d,
SECT 7 383b, CH xix, SECT 4 385a~b, SECT 14
387d-388a, SECT 16 388c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 307d-308a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 231a-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 455a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of 'History ', INTRO, 159b-d;
PART in, 306d-308a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 50b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c; BK vi, 150d-153d
Ib. The teaching function of the church, of
priests and prophets
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 4:10-17; 24:12 / Deu-
teronomy, 4:1-5; 5:4-11; 17:9-13; 24:8; 31:9-
13; 33:8-10 / Joshua, 8.30-35— (D) ]osue,
8:30-35 / / Samuel^ 12:20-25— (D) / Kings,
12:20-25 / / Kings, 8:35-36— (D) /// Kings,
8-35-36 / H Kings, 17:26-28; 23:1-2— (D)
IV Kings, 17:26-28; 23*1-2 / // Chronicles,
177-9; 187-24; 34-29-30— (D) II Parah-
pomenon, 17:7-9; 18:7-24; 34-29-30 / Ezra,
7:9-10— (D) I Esdras, 7:9-10 / Nehemiah, 8—
(D) // Esdras, 8 / Isaiah passim— (D) Isaias
passim / Jeremiah passim— (D) Jeremias pas-
sim / Eze^iel passim— (D) Ezechiel passim /
Daniel passim— (D) Daniel, 1-1-3:23 passim;
3 91-12-13 passim / Hosea passim— (D) Osee
passim / Joel passim / Amos passim / Obadiah
passim— (D) Abdias passim / Jonah passim—
(D) Jonas passim / Mtcah passim, esp V9~12 —
(D) Micheas passim, esp 3.9-12 / Nahum pas-
sim / Habafyul{ passim — (D) Habacuc pas-
sim / Zephaniah passim— (D) Sophonias pas-
sim / Haggai passim— (D) Aggeus passim /
Zechariah passim— (D) Zachanas passim /
Malachi passim— (D) Malachias passim
APOCRYPHA: Song of Three Children passim— (D)
OT, Daniel, 3.24-90 passim / Susanna passim
— (D) OT, Daniel, 13 passim / Bel and Dragon
passim— (D) OT, Daniel, 14 passim
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 7:28-29; 10; 23;
28*18-20 / MarJ(, 1:1-11; 6-7-13; 13.9-13;
16:14-20 / Lu^e, 9:1-6; 10*1-20 /John, 21-15-
17 / Romans, 10:14-18 / / Corinthians, 14 / //
Corinthians, 3-4 / Ephesians, 3-1-12; 4:11-15 /
/ Timothy, 3.2; 4 / // Timothy, 2.24-26;
4:1-5 / Titus passim
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xx, CH 9, 538d-
539a / Christian Doctrine, BK H, CH 15 643c-
644a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q i,
A i, REP 3 385c-387a; Q 184, A 5, ANS 633c-
634c; Q 185, A 3, ANS 643a-644a; Q 187, A i
663c-665a; Q 188, A A 4-6 678b-682c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 96, A 7 1061b-1062a; AA 11-12 1063d-
1065b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xn [22-
105] 123d-124d; xxix [67-126] 151a-c
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [477-528] 167b-168a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 123a-b; PART
in, 166a-b; 182d-183a; 208d-211c; 224d-225c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [656-749] 313b-
315b; [802-834] 316b-317b; BK xn [235-248]
324b
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 585-588 277a-b; 622 286a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 7d-8c; lOd-lla; 18c /
Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvm, SECT
4 381d-382a; SECT 6 382d-383a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 343b,d-348a
396
THE GREAT IDEAS
(7. Religious education. lb. The teaching func-
tion of the church, of priettt and prophets)
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 194d; 302d-304a
passim, csp 303d; 307d-308a; 355b-d; 601b-c
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 230c-231d; 522d-
523a
43 MILL: Liberty, 285b / Representative Govern-
ment, 341a-c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 313d-316d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 308b c
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vi, 245a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
152a-153a; 164a-165a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 793c
8, Education and the state
Sa. The educational responsibility of the fam-
ily and the state
7 PLATO: Cnto, 217a-b / Laws, BK VH, 721d-
722c; BK vin, 723c-d, BK xi, 778d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [ii79b3i-n8ob
13] 434c-435b / Politics, BK i, CH 13 [i26ob
9-19] 455c; BK vin, CH i 542a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 4 253a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-45b esp 40c-41a /
Lycurgus-Numa, 63d-64a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 95,
A i, ANS 226c-227c; Q 105, A 4, ANJ» and REP 5
318b-321a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 155b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 344a-c
30 BACON- 'New Atlantis, 207c-d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 58-59
37b-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART iv,
166b
38 ROUSSEAU. Political Economy, 376b-377a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 338c-339a;
340c-343d
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 86b-c, 92c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 420b-421c
43 MILL: Liberty, 317d-319b passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 174
61b; par 239 76d; ADDITIONS, 111-112 134d-
135a; 147 140c
50 MARX: Capital, 176d-178a; 195b-196d; 237d-
241d; 245a-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b-c
54 FRFUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 17d-18a
8*. The economic support of educational in-
stitutions
7 PLATO: Apology, 209 b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30c-31a
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART in,
106ab
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 56b*58b;
BK vt 331b,d-356d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 669d-670d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 298c
43 MILL- Liberty, 317d-319b passim / Representa-
tive Government, 382c-383b
44 Bos WELL '.Johnson, 300a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 325d
8c. The political regulation and censorship of
education
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [366-384] 459c-d;
[497-508] 460d-461a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK ii-m, 320c-339a; BK iv,
344b-d; BK v, 365d-366c; BK x, 427c-434c
csp 432d-434c / Statesman, 601c-602c / Laws,
BK n, 654c-655b; BK in, 675c-676b, BK vn
713c-731d; BK vin, 732c-d; BK xi, 782d-783b
9 ARISTOTLE. Politics, BK i, CH 13 [i26ob9~i9]
455c; BK v, CH n [i3i3a38-b5] 516a; BK vn,
CH 17 [i336ft3o-b24J 541b-d; BK vin, CH i
[1337*10-19] 542a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c pas-
sim / Solon, 76a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 56d-57b; BK iv, 67c;
72b-73a; BK xiv, 152d-153c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK 11, CH 9 154a-c;
CH 12-14 155c-157c; BK vin, CH 13 273b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 102d-103a; 114d-
115a; 123a-b; 150c-151a; PART in, 224d-225d,
CONCLUSION, 282d'283a
29 CERVANTES. Don Quixote, PART i, 117d-119d;
184a-187c
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 7a / New
Atlantis, 210d-214d esp 213d, 214b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b esp 384b-
389a, 398a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b~31a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv 13b,d-
18d; BK xn, 90b-c
38 ROUSSEAU. Social Contract, BK iv, 434b-435a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 347c-d
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 148a-b;355b-d
42 KANT Pure Reason, 220b-221b; 223a-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, i
17a
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b-293b passim; 317d-319b
passim / Representative Government, 343 b;
344b-c; 368c-369a; 387b-c; 437d-438b
44 ROWLLL. Johnson, 222d-223b, 512c-d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 270,
89a-b / Philosophy of History, PART i, 213b-
214a; 217c-218a
Sd. The training of the prince, the statesman,
the citizen: aristocratic and democratic
theories of education
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 38:24-34— (D) OT,
Ecclesiastics, 38 .'25-39
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c / Clouds
488a-506d
6 THUCYDIDES: Pehponnesian War, BK i, 370a-c;
BK n, 396d-397a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43a-47c / Republic, BK
n-iii, 320c-339a; BK in, 340b-341a; BK v,
366a-c; BK vi-vn, 383b-401d csp BK vn, 389d-
401d / Timaeus, 442c-d / Statesman, 607b-
Uto 9
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
397
608d / Laws 640a-799a,c csp BK i, 640d-641a,
644b-645c, BK m, 672d-676b, BK iv, 683d-
685a, BK v-vi, 696c-697d, BK vi, 704a-c,
706c, BK vii-vin, 713c-735b, BK xn, 784d-
785b, 796b-799a / Seventh Letter, 801c-802d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 13 [i26ob9-i9]
455c; BK ii, CH 5 [1264*12-40] 459b-c, CH 7
[i266b26-i267a2] 462b-c; BK in, CH 4 [1277*
I4_bI3] 4743-0; CH 18 [i288a34-b3l 487a,c; BK
iv, CH 9 [i294bi8-28] 494c-d; CH 15 [1300*3-8!
500d, BK v, CH 9 [1310*12-36] 512b-c, BK vii,
CH 14 537b-538d; BK vin 542a-548a,c /
Athenian Constitution, CH 42 572b-d / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 8 [n65b32-39] 608a-b
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK in, SECT 5 261a
13 VIRGIL: Aenetd, BK vni [508-519] 272b-273a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Lycurgus-
Numa, 63d-64a / Solon 64b,d-77a,c passim,
esp 64b,d-65c, 74b-75b / Pericles, 122d-123d /
Alcibiades, 156b-I58b passim / Lysander,
354b,d-355a / Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a / Alex-
ander, 542d-544a / Dion, 781b,d-788b
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK xn, llld; BK xni, 125d-
126a; BK xiv, 153d-155a / Histories, BK iv,
267c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vin [115-
148] 118b-c
23 MACHIAVELLI* Prince la-37d esp CH vi, 8c-d,
CH xiv-xix 21b-30a
23 HOBBES Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART i,
94b-c, PART n, 114d-115a, 128c-130a, 150c-
151a; 153a-156b; 158b-d; 164a,c; PART iv,
273a-c; CONCLUSION, 282d-283a
24 RABLLAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19d; 24a-30c, BK n, 75a-77a, 78b-83b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 60a-62a; 63d-64d; 71d-
72b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc n [218-
240] 437c-d / Henry V, ACT i, sc i [22-66]
533b-c / As You Like It, ACT i, sc i [1-28]
597a-b
29 CERVANTES: Dow Quixote, PART u, 332c 336a;
362a-c
30 BACON* Advancement of Learning, 20b*28d;
94b-95a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384b-389a
36 SWIFT Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART iv,
166b-167a
38 MONTESQUIEU' Spirit of Laws, BK iv 13b,d-
18d
38 ROUSSEAU. Political Economy, 372a-377b csp
375d-377b / Social Contract, BK in, 414b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 303b-304c;
337d-338c; 340c-343d; 346c-347d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 62a-c, 86c, 260a-b;
275c-276b, 284a-c; 435b-c; 534a-c; 633b;
669b
41 GIBBON. Declme and Fall, 15b-c; 298c; 508c-
509d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 3$,
113b-c; NUMBER 53, 168b-169b; NUMBER 56
174d-176d esp 175d-176a; NUMBER 62,
190b-d; NUMBER 84, 253d<254b
43 MILL: Liberty, 284d 285b; 298b-299a, 302a-c;
317d-323a,c / Representative Government, 336c-
341d; 344b-c; 349a-350a; 351b-c; 357c; 362c-
366a; 375a-377a; 380c-389b passim, esp 382c-
383b, 401a-406a passim, csp 405d-406a; 407d-
408b; 415a-417c; 418b-d; 420b-d; 424b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 201 b-c; 307d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
151-153 57a-c; par 209 69d; par 296-297
99a-b; ADDITIONS, 98 133a; 169 145d; 171
146b-c / Philosophy of History \ PART i, 212d-
214d; 243b-c; PART n, 281d; PART iv, 368b
50 MARX: Capital, 237d-241d esp 238b-c, 240c-
241a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427c;
429b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d
54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children,
122a,c
9* Historical and biographical observations
concerning the institutions and practices
of education
5 ARISTOPHANES' Clouds 488a-506d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32a b
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BKI, 370a-c;
BK n, 396d-397a
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 290b-291b / Laws, BK i,
644b-646b; BK in, 672d-673d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 9 [1294**! 8-28]
494c-d;sK vii, CH 14 [1333*41 -i334*io]538b-d;
BK vni, CH i [1337*19-33] 542b; CH 4 544a-c
10 HIPPOCRATES: The Oath, xiiia
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d
14 PLUTARCH* Lycurgus, 38a-45b passim / Alci-
biades, 155b,d-158b / Marcus Cato, 286c-
287b / Alexander, 542d-544a / Demosthenes,
691b,d-692b / Dion, 782c-788b
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK i, par 14-31
4c-9a; BK in, par 6-7 14b-d
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART n, 155d-156b; PART
iv, 267c-269c
24 RABELAIS* Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19d; 24a-30c; BK n, 75c-83b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 57b-63d; 68b-69a; 77d-
80b; 194c-199c, 395b-401a
29 CERVANTES* Don Quixote, PART i, xia-xvid
30 BACON* Advancement of Learning la-lOld pas-
sim, esp 8c-d, 29c-32c / Novum Organum, BK
i, APH 78 119b-c; APH 80-81 120a-c; APH 90
124d-125a
31 DESCARTES' Discourse 41a-67a,c / Medita-
tions, i 75a-77c / Objections and Replies, 278a-
293a,c passim
32 MILTON- Areopagitica, 384b-389a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 626 286b
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 25 120c-d
36 SWIFT Gulliver, PART i, 3a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15c;
16al8d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335a b / Political Econ-
omy, 37 7a
398 THE GREAT IDEAS 9
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 40a-41a; 210c-d;
(9. Historical and biographical observations con- 298a-300c; 325d-328a,c; 452a-b; 522b-528a,c
cerning the institutions and practices of 43 MILL: uDeny^ 288a-b
education.) 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 7b-9b; llb-12c; 15a-17b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 57b-58b; 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 98
BK v, 303b-304c; 334c-340c; 354d-355d 133a / Philosophy of History, PART i, 213b-c;
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 23d-24a; 245b-d; PART iv, 325d
260a; 344c-347b passim; 355b-d; 364a-c; 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [354-685] lla-18a
543d; 644b-c; 668d-671b passim
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Matters relevant to physical education or the training of bodily skills, see ART 90; HABIT 53;
LABOR 2b.
Matters relevant to moral education, see ART ica; CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 5b; GOOD AND
EVIL 6a; HABIT 5b; HISTORY 2; KNOWLEDGE 8b(i); PLEASURE AND PAIN loa; POETRY 93;
PUNISHMENT 33; VIRTUE AND VICE la, 4-4^ 4d(2), 4d(4), 8b; and for the training of
specific virtues, see COURAGE 6; TEMPERANCE 4.
Matters relevant to liberal education or intellectual training, see ART 6b; HABIT 43-4^ 5d;
HISTORY 2; KNOWLEDGE 93; MAN 6a; MIND 4a~4c; PLEASURE AND PAIN loa; POETRY 5a,
93; TRUTH 3d(3); VIRTUE AND VICE 40-4^, and for discussions of the liberal arts, see
LANGUAGE la, 7-8; LOGIC 3-3^ MATHEMATICS ib; RHETORIC ib, 2c-2d, 6.
Matters relevant to professional education or training in the useful arts and crafts, see
LAW 9; MEDICINE i, 2c; PHILOSOPHY 5; RHETORIC 6; STATE 8c.
Matters relevant to religious education, see GOD 6c(i)-6c(3); KNOWLEDGE 6c(^); PROPH-
ECY ic-id; RELIGION ia-ib(3), 5c; THEOLOGY 2, 4a~4c; VIRTUE AND Viet 8b, 8e;
WISDOM ic.
The consideration of factors involved in learning and teaching, see EMOTION 5d; EXPERIENCE
2~3b; HABIT 43-4^, KNOWLEDGE 43-40, 93; LANGUAGE 8; LOGIC 4; MIND 4c; PLEASURE
AND PAIN 4c(2); TRUTH 3d(3), 8c; VIRTUE AND VICE 40-4^
The role of the family in education, see FAMILY 2c, 6d; VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(i).
The role of the state in education, see LAW 6d; VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(3), 73; and for the
problem of education in relation to different forms of government, see ARISTOCRACY 5;
CrnztN 6; DEMOCRACY 6; MONARCHY 33; STATE 8c.
The discussion of freedom in the communication of knowledge and art, see ART lob; KNOWL-
EDGE 9b; LIBERTY 23; OPINION 5b; POETRY 9b; TRUTH 8d.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
F. BACON. "Of Custom and Education," "Of Stud-
*• ies," in Essays
PLUTARCH. "A Discourse Touching the Training of MILTON. Of Education
Children," in Moraha LOCKE. Some Thoughts Concerning Education
AUGUSTINE. Concerning the Teacher SWIFT. An Essay on Modern Education
AQUINAS. Concerning the Teacher ROUSSEAU. Emile
. Summa Thcologica^ PART n-n, QQ 166-167 GOETHE. William Meister
CHAPTER 20: EDUCATION
399
KANT. Educational Theory
FARADAY. "Observations on Mental Education/'
in Lectures on Education
]. S. MILL. "Professor Sedgwick's Discourse on the
Studies of the University of Cambridge," in VOL i,
Dissertations and Discussions
. Inaugural Address
. Autobiography
II.
XENOPHON. The Education of Cyrus
CICERO. DC Oratore (On Oratory)
QUINTILIAN. Institutio Oratona (Institutes of Ora-
tory), BK i; BK II, CH 1-3; BK X, CH I
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK in,
CH 27-32
MARTIANUS CAPELLA. De Nuptiis Philologiae et
Mercurtt
CASSIODORUS. Institutiones (An Introduction to Dt-
vine and Human Readings)
HUGH OF SAINT VICTOR. Dtdascaltcon: De Studio
Legendt
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogicon
T. MORE. Utopia, BK i
LUTHER. To the Councilmen of All Cities m Germany
That They Establish and Maintain Christian Schools
CASTIGLIONE. The Boof( of the Courtier
ERASMUS. The Education of a Christian Punce
. De Puerts Statim ac Liberahter Instttuendts (On
Liberal Education)
ELYOT. The Governour
VIVES. On Education
IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA. Constitutions
LYLY. Euphues
COMENIUS. The Great Didactic
. School of Infancy
FENELON. A Treatise on the Education of Daughters
. Adventures of Telemachus
CHESTERFIELD. Letters to His Son
VOLTAIRE. "University," in A Philosophical Dic-
tionary
HELVETIUS. A Treatise on Man
FRANKLIN. Autobiography
LESSING. The Education of the Human Race
GODWIN. An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, BK
v, CH 2
SCHILLER. Letters upon the Esthetic Education of Man
PESTALOZZI. How Gertrude Teaches Her Children
HERB ART. The Science of Education
JEAN PAUL, Levana
J. G. FICHTE, Addresses to the German Nation, ii-in,
ix-xiv ,
DE QUINCEY. Letters to a Young Man Whose Edu-
cation Has Been Neglected
FROEBEL. The Education of Man
EMERSON. The American Scholar
DICKENS. Nicholas Nidtfeby
WHEWELL. Of a Liberal Education
. The Elements of Morality^ BK v, CH 15
SCHOPENHAUER. "On Education," in Studies in Pes-
simism
I. H. NEWMAN. The Idea of a University
. University Sketches
SPENCER. Essays on Education and Kindred Subjects,
PART i
MEREDITH. The Ordeal of Richard Feverel
ARNOLD. Culture and Anarchy
NIETZSCHE. On the Future of Our Educational Insti-
tutions
S. BUTLER. The Way of All Flesh
BAIN. Education as a Science
CLIFFORD. "Virchow on the Teaching of Science,"
m VOL n, Lectures and Essays
T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obliga-
tion, (L)
H ADAMS. The Education of Henry Adams
MONTESSORI. Method of Scientific Pedagogy
BRYCE. The Functions of a University
SHAW. Pygmalion
T. VEBLEN. The Higher Learning m America
WHITEHEAD. The Organization of Thought, CH 1-5
. The Aims of Education
KELSO. The Doctrine of the English Gentleman in the
Sixteenth Century
GORKY. Forty Years — theLifeofClimSamghin> VOLI,
Bystander
B. RUSSELL. Education and the Good Life
. Sceptical Essays, xiv
Pius XL Dwini lllius Magistri (Encyclical on
Christian Education of Youth)
ORTEGA Y GASSET. Mission of the University
RANK. Modern Education
JAEGER. Paideia
T. S. ELIOT. "Modern Education and the Classics,"
in Essays, Ancient and Modern
DEWEY, The School and Society
. Interest and Effort in Education
. Democracy and Education
. Experience and Education
RICHARDS. Interpretation in Teaching
LIVINGSTONE. On Education
MEIKLEJOHN. Education Between Two Worlds
HUTCHINS. The Higher Learning in America
. Education for Freedom
MARITAIN, Education at the Crossroads
VAN DOREN. Liberal Education
BARZUN. Teacher in America
HOOK. Education for Modern Man
CONANT. Education in a Divided World
Chapter ir. ELEMENT
INTRODUCTION
THE words "atom" and "element" express
basic notions in the analysis of matter. To
some extent their meaning seems to be the
same. Atoms or elements are usually under-
stood to be ultimate units, the parts out of
which other things are formed by combination.
But as soon as further questions are asked—
about the divisibility or indivisibility of these
units, or about their number and variety—we
are confronted with differing conceptions of
the atom, and with a theory of the elements
which is opposed to the atomic analysis of
matter.
Even when the two notions are not opposed
to one another, they are not interchangeable.
"Atom" has a much narrower meaning. It
usually designates a small particle of matter,
whereas "element" signifies the least part into
which anything at all can be divided. It is this
broader meaning of "clement" which permits
Euclid to call his collection of the theorems in
terms of which all geometric problems can be
solved, the "elements" of geometry. According
to Aristotle, this is true, not only of geometrical
proofs, but also "in general of the elements of
demonstration; for the primary demonstra-
tions, each of which is implied in many demon-
strations," he says, "are called elements of
demonstration." From this it follows that ele-
ments will be found in any subject matter or
science in which analysis occurs, and not only
in physics.
"An element," writes Nicomachus in his In-
troduction to Arithmetic, "is the smallest thing
which enters into the composition of an object,
and the least thing into which it can be ana-
lyzed. Letters, for example, are called the ele-
ments of literate speech, for out of them all
articulate speech is composed and into them
finally it is resolved. Sounds are the elements of
all melody; for they are the beginning of its
composition and into them it is resolved. The
so-called four elements of the universe in gen-
eral are simple bodies, fire, water, air, and earth;
for out of them in the first instance we account
for the constitution of the universe, and into
them finally we conceive of it as being re-
solved."
This explains why books in so many different
fields have the word "element" in their titles.
There are the elements of grammar or logic, the
elements of language or music, the elements of
psychology or economics. Elements in one sub-
ject matter or science are analogous to elements
in another because in each sphere they stand to
everything else as the simple to the complex,
the pure to the mixed, the parts to the whole.
Thus the factors of price may be said to func-
tion in economic analysis as do the parts of
speech in grammatical analysis.
Another illustration comes from the theory
of the four bodily humors in ancient physiol-
ogy. In the traditional enumeration, which
goes back to Hippocrates, they are blood,
phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile, and they
function analytically as do fire, water, air, and
earth in ancient physics. They "make up the
nature of the body of man," according to a
Hippocratic treatise on the nature of man,
"and through them he feels pain or enjoys
health." Perfect health is enjoyed by a man
"when these elements are duly proportioned
to one another in respect of compounding,
power, and bulk, and when they are perfectly
mingled." Galen, in an analysis of tempera-
ments, explains all varieties of temperament and
all complexions of physique in terms of these
humors, either by their mixture or by the pre-
dominance of one or another. Thus the san-
guine, phlegmatic, choleric, or melancholic
temperament is accounted for by the excess of
one and a deficiency of the other humors.
400
CHAPTER 21: ELEMENT
401
Still another physiological application of the
notion of element is to be found in the ancient
division of tissue into flesh and bone, or in the
more elaborate modern analysis of the types of
cells which comprise all living matter.
THESE ILLUSTRATIONS indicate that the irre-
ducibihty of elements to anything simpler than
themselves does not necessarily mean that they
are absolutely indivisible. Cells can be further
divided into nucleus, protoplasm, and mem-
brane without ceasing to be the elements of
tissue. The parts of speech —nouns, verbs, ad-
jectives— can be further divided into syllables
and letters without ceasing to be the elements
of significant utterance. Letters, treated as the
elements of language, can be physically divided.
The fact that terms are sometimes regarded as
the logical elements out of which propositions
and syllogisms are formed does not prevent a
distinction from being made between simple
and complex terms. Nicomachus calls the tri-
angle elementary among all plane figures, "for
everything else is resolved into it, but it into
nothing else"; yet the triangle is divisible into
the lines which compose it and these lines in
turn are divisible into points.
When Nicomachus says that the triangle is
the element of all other figures "and has itself
no element," he does not mean that the tri-
angle is absolutely indivisible, but only rela-
tively so. Relative to the analysis of plane fig-
ures, there is no simpler figure out of which the
triangle can be formed. Similarly, relative to
the analysis of significant speech, there is no
simpler part than the word. Relative to the
analysis of melody, there is no simpler part than
the tone. Musical tones may be physically, but
they are not musically, complex.
THE DEFINITION OF element can also be ap-
proached by comparing its meaning with that
of principle and cause. All three terms are
brought together by Aristotle in the beginning
of his Physics, when he declares that we attain
"scientific knowledge" through acquaintance
with the "principles, causes, and elements" of
things.
The word "principle" occurs almost as fre-
quently as "element" in the titles of books
which claim to be basic expositions or analyses.
The two words are often used as synonyms.
Lavoisier, for example, says that we can use
"the term dements ', or principles of bodies, to
express our idea of the last point which analysis
is capable of reaching."
To discover any difference in the meaning of
"element" and "principle," it is necessary to
specify their correlatives precisely. Out of ele-
ments, compounds or mixtures are formed.
From principles, consequences are derived. In
logic, for example, we say that terms are the
elements of propositions (the proposition 'Soc-
rates is a man' comprising the terms 'Socrates'
and 'man'), but we say that axioms arc the
principles from which conclusions are derived.
This docs not prevent the same thing from be-
ing viewed in different connections as both ele-
ment and principle — as an element because it
is the simple part out of which a more complex
whole is composed, and as a principle because it
is the source from which something else is de-
rived. The parts of speech in grammar are the
elementary components of phrases and sen-
tences; they are also the principles from which
the rules of syntax arc derived.
The third notion which belongs with ele-
ment and principle is cause. Its correlative is
effect. Again it can be said that that which is an
element in one connection and a principle in
another can be regarded as a cause from still a
third point of view. In Aristotle's physical trea-
tises, for example, matter is regarded in all three
ways: it is an element of all bodies, for they are
substances composed of matter and form; it is a
principle of change, since from matter, form,
and privation change is derived; it is a cause
(i.e., the material cause) of certain results.
But it must also be observed that everything
which is any one of these three is not necessar-
ily both of the others also. Since an element,
according to Aristotle, is a "component im-
manent in a thing," anything that is an extrin-
sic principle or cause cannot be an element.
Thus the action of one body upon another is a
cause and a principle, but not an element, Re-
ferring to these distinctions, Aquinas declares
that "principle is a wider term than cause, just
as cause is more common than element." The
chapters on CAUSE and PRINCIPLE tend to sub-
stantiate this observation about the scope of
these ideas in the tradition of western thought.
402
THE GREAT IDEAS
THE BASIC ISSUES concerning elements occur
in the analysis of matter. Before Plato and
Aristotle, the early Greek physicists had asked
such questions as, From what do all things
come ? Of what are all things made ? A number
of answers were given, ranging from one kind of
ultimate, such as earth or fire, through a small
set of ultimate kinds, to an infinite variety.
The classical theory of the four elements is the
middle answer, avoiding the extremes of unity
and infinity.
According to Galen, it was Hippocrates who
"first took in hand to demonstrate that there
are, in all, four mutually interacting qualities"
and who provided "at least the beginnings of
the proofs to which Aristotle later set his hand"
in developing the theory of the four elements.
Galen also indicates that it was a subject of
controversy among the ancients whether the
"substances as well as the qualities" of the
four elements "undergo this intimate mingling"
from which results "the genesis and destruc-
tion of all things that come into and pass out
of being."
Aristotle, in his treatise On Generation and
Corruption, enumerates the various senses in
which the physicist considers elements. "We
have to recognize three 'originative sources*
(or elements)," he writes: "firstly, that which
is potentially perceptible body; secondly, the
contrarieties (e.g., heat and cold); and thirdly,
Fire, Water, and the like." The "potentially
perceptible body" is identified with prime mat-
ter, and, since this "has no separate existence,
but is always bound up with a contrariety,"
it can be ruled out from the usual notion
of element. The elementary qualities, the
"contrarieties" named secondly, arc the hot
and cold and dry and moist. The so-called
elements, Fire, Air, Water, and Earth, are left
to the last, and are mentioned "only thirdly,"
Aristotle says, because they "change into one
another . . . whereas the contrarieties do not
change."
The elementary qualities "attach them-
selves" by couples to the "apparently 'simple*
bodies." In consequence, Aristotle writes, "Fire
is hot and dry, whereas Air is hot and moist . . .
and Water is cold and moist, while Earth is
cold and dry." Each of them, however, "is
characterized par excellence by a single quality."
In terms of these simple bodies and the ele-
mentary qualities all other material things can
be explained.
In contrast to the elements stand the mixed,
or compound, bodies, in the constitution of
which two or more elements combine. There
may be many kinds of mixed bodies, but none
is irreducible in kind, as are the four elements;
any mixed body can be divided into the differ-
ent kinds of elementary bodies which compose
it, whereas the elementary bodies cannot be
divided into parts which are different in kind
from themselves, A living body, for example,
may contain parts of earth and water, but the
parts of earth are earth, the parts of water,
water.
It is precisely the mode of divisibility that
Aristotle declares is "the fundamental ques-
tion." In answering this question he opposes the
theory of the four elements to another Greek
account of the constitution of matter — the
atomic theory, developed by Leucippus and
Democritus, and expounded for us m Lucretius'
poem On the Nature of Things.
ACCORDING TO the Greek atomists, matter is
not infinitely divisible. "If nature had set no
limit to the breaking of things," Lucretius
writes, "by this time the bodies of matter could
have been so far reduced ... that nothing
could within a fixed time be conceived out of
them and reach its utmost growth of being."
There must then be "a fixed limit to their
breaking"— a limit in physical division which
ultimately reaches units of matter that are ab-
solutely indivisible. Lucretius calls them "first
beginnings ... of solid singleness, . . . not com-
pounded out of a union of parts, but, rather,
strong in everlasting singleness" — the "seeds of
things," or atoms. The Greek word from which
"atom" comes literally means uncuttable.
From this it is evident that Aristotle can
deny the existence of atoms while at the same
time he affirms the existence of elementary
bodies. The elements, unlike the atoms, are not
conceived as indivisible in quantity, but only
as incapable of division into diverse kinds of
matter.
In the Greek conception of atom and ele-
ment, the difference between them lies in this
distinction between quantitative and qualita-
CHAPTER 21 .-ELEMENT
403
tive indivisibility. The atom is the least quan-
tity of matter. It cannot be broken into quan-
titative parts. The elementary body is not
atomic. It is always capable of division into
smaller units, but all of these units must be of
the same kind as the elementary body under-
going division.
The element is indivisible only in the sense
that it cannot be decomposed into other fy.nds
of matter, as a mixed body can be decom-
posed into its diverse elements. The atom can-
not be divided in any way. Only compound
bodies can be divided into their constituent
atoms, all of which are alike in kind, differing
only quantitatively — in size, shape, or weight.
Different kinds of matter occur only on the
level of compounds and as the result of diverse
combinations of atoms.
This last point indicates another contrast
between atoms and elements in ancient physi-
cal theory. The elements are defined, as we have
seen, by their qualitative differences from one
another; or, more strictly, according to combi-
nations of elementary sensible qualities— hot
and cold, moist and dry. By virtue of the quali-
ties peculiar to them, the four elements stand
in a certain order to one another. Water and
air, according to Plato, are "in the mean be-
tween fire and earth" and have "the same pro-
portion so far as possible; as fire is to air so is
air to water, and as air is to water so is water to
earth." The quality which two of the elements
have in common provides the mean. Thus fire
and air are joined by the common quality of
hot; air and water by moist; and water and
earth by cold.
When their analysis reached its greatest re-
finement, the ancients recognized that the
earth, air, fire, and water of common experience
do not actually have the purity requisite for
elements. They are "not simple, but blended,"
Aristotle writes, and while the elements "are
indeed similar in nature to them, [they] are
not identical with them." The element "corre-
sponding to fire is 'such-as-fire,' not fire; that
which corresponds to air is 'such-as-air,' and so
on with the rest of them." Thus the four ele-
ments are only analogous to, for they are purer
than, ordinary earth, air, fire, and water; yet
their names continued to be used as symbols
for the true elements, a connotation which is
still retained when we speak of men struggling
against or battling with "the elements."
"It WILL NO DOUBT be a matter of surprise,"
Lavoisier writes in the Preface to his Elements
of Chemistry, "that in a treatise upon the ele-
ments of chemistry, there should be no chapter
on the constituent and elementary parts of
matter; but I shall take occasion, in this place,
to remark that the fondness for reducing all the
bodies in nature to three or four elements,
proceeds from a prejudice which has descend-
ed to us from the Greek philosophers. The
notion of four elements, which, by the variety
of their proportions, compose all the known
substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis,
assumed long before the first principles of ex-
perimental philosophy or of chemistry had
any existence."
This does not mean that Lavoisier entirely
rejects the notion of elements in chemical anal-
ysis. On the contrary, he says that "we must
admit, as elements, all the substances into which
we are capable, by any means, to reduce bodies
by decomposition." His quarrel with the an-
cients chiefly concerns two points. The first is
on the number of the elements, which he thinks
experiment has shown to be much greater than
the four of classical theory. The second is on
the simplicity of the experimentally discovered
elements. They can be called atoms or simple
bodies only if we do not thereby imply that we
know them to be absolutely indivisible— either
qualitatively or quantitatively. We are not en-
titled "to affirm that these substances we con-
sider as simple may not be compounded of two,
or even of a greater number of principles"
merely because we have not yet discovered
"the means of separating them."
In modern physics and chemistry, the dis-
tinction between element and atom seems to
be abolished. The same unit of matter is at once
both an atom and an element. The table of
atomic weights is also a chart of the elements.
The classification of atoms is both quantitative
and qualitative— qualitative in the sense that
the atoms of different elementary kinds of mat-
ter differ in their active properties.
According to the ancient meaning of the
terms, the molecule would seem to be both a
mixture and a compound— mixed, in that it can
404
THE GREAT IDEAS
be broken up into other fynds of matter; corn-
found, in that it can be divided into smaller
units of matter. But in modern theory the
meanings of "compound" and "mixture" have
also changed, the molecule being classified as a
compound rather than a mixture. The combi-
nation of the elements to form molecular com-
pounds is determined by the proportion of
their weights or valences rather than by a fu-
sion of their qualities.
The most radical change in theory is not
this, however; nor is it the increase in the num-
ber of the elements from four to more than
ninety-four; nor the ordering of the elements
by reference to their atomic weights rather
than ,by the contrariety of their qualities. It
results from the discovery that an atom is not
ttncuttable and that new elements can be pro-
duced by atomic fission. Faraday's experimen-
tal work in iom^ation and in electro-chemical
decomposition lies at the beginning of the
physical researches winch have penetrated the
interior structure of the atom and isolated
smaller units of matter. Even before atoms
were experimentally exploded, analysis had pic-
tured them as constituted by positive and neg-
ative charges.
As the result of his researches, Faraday, for
example, conceives of atoms as "mere centres
of forces or powers, not particles of matter, in
which the powers themselves reside." The atom
thus ceases to be "a little unchangeable, im-
penetrable piece of matter," and "consists of
the powers" it exercises. What was ordinarily
referred to "under the term shape' becomes
the "disposition and relative intensity of the
forces" that are observed.
With Faraday it is evident that the meaning
of "atom" has departed far from the sense in
which Lucretius speaks of "units of solid single-
ness" or Newton of "solid, massy, hard, im-
penetrable, movable particles . . . incompara-
bly harder than any porous bodies compounded
of them; even so very hard as never to wear or
break in pieces; no ordinary power being able
to divide what God himself made one in the
first creation." With the conception of the ele-
ments as different kinds of atoms; then, with
the discovery of radio-active elements under-
going slow disintegration; finally, with the pro-
duction of isotopes and new element through
atomic change; the meaning of "element" has
moved equally far from its original sense.
Do THESE ALTERED meanings change the basic
issues m the philosophy of nature? Are these
issues resolved or rendered meaningless by ex-
perimental science?
The central point in the theory of elements
is an irreducible qualitative diversity in kinds
of matter. The elements of modern chemistry
may no longer be elementary types of matter in
the strict sense of the word; but the kind of dif-
ference which would be strictly elemental may
be found in the distinction of the positive, the
negative, and the neutral with respect to the
electrical charge of sub-atomic particles.
Similarly, the central point in atomism as a
philosophy of nature is the existence of ab-
solutely indivisible units or quanta of matter;
in other words, the denial that matter is in-
finitely divisible, that any particle, no matter
how small, is capable of being broken into
smaller parts. The strict conception of the
atom is, therefore, not invalidated by the ex-
perimental discovery that the particles called
"atoms" are not atomic, that they are them-
selves complex structures of moving particles,
and that they can be physically divided.
It makes no difference to the philosophical
atomist whether the particles which constitute
molecules or the particles— the electrons and
protons, the neutrons and mesons— which con-
stitute "atoms," are atomic. Even if further ex-
perimental work should succeed in dividing
these "sub-atomic" particles, the question
could still be asked: Is matter infinitely divisi-
ble, regardless of our actual power to continue
making divisions ad infimtuml Since the ques-
tion, when thus formulated, cannot be put to
experimental test, the issue concerning atoms
would remain.
That issue would not refer to any particle of
matter defined at a certain stage of physical
analysis or experimental discovery. It would
consist in the opposition of two views of the
nature of matter and the constitution of the ma-
terial universe: the affirmation, on the one
hand, that truly atomic particles must exist;
and the denial, on the other, that no particle
of matter can be atomic. The affirmative argu-
ments of Lucretius and Newton make the con-
CHAPTER 21: ELEMENT
405
stancy of nature and the indestructibility of
matter depend on the absolute solidity and
impenetrability of matter's ultimate parts. The
negative arguments of Aristotle and Descartes
proceed from the divisibility of whatever is
continuous to the conclusion that any unit of
matter must have parts.
The philosophical doctrine of atomism, in the
form in which Lucretius adopts it from Epicu-
rus, insists upon void as the other basic princi-
ple of the universe. "Nature," he writes, "is
founded on two things: there are bodies and
there is void in which these bodies are placed
and through which they move about." Com-
pound bodies are divisible because the atoms of
which they are composed are not absolutely
continuous with one another, but are sepaiated
by void or empty space. That is why they are
not solid or impenetrable, as are the atomic
particles which arc composed of matter en-
tirely without void. In Newton's language
hardness must be "reckoned the property of all
uncompounded matter," for if "compound
bodies are so very hard as we find some of them
to be, and yet are very porous," how much
harder must be "simple particles which are
void of pores."
The opponents of atomism tend to deny the
existence not only of atoms, but of the void as
well. Descartes, for example, denies that there
can be "any atoms or parts of matter which are
indivisible of their own nature. . . . For how-
ever small the parts are supposed to be, yet
because they are necessarily extended we are
always able in thought to divide any one of
them into two or more parts." For the same
reason, he maintains, there cannot be "a space
in which there is no substance . . . because the
extension of space or internal place is not dif-
ferent from that of body." The physical world,
on this view, is conceived as what the ancients
called a plenum, continuously filled with mat-
ter. This controversy over void and plenum is
elaborated in the chapter on SPACE.
Although he uses the language of the a torn -
ists, Faraday seems to agree with Descartes
rather than with Newton. He pictures matter
as "continuous throughout," with no distinc-
tion between "its atoms and any intervening
space." Atoms, he thinks, instead of being ab-
solutely hard, are "highly elastic," and they are
all "mutually penetrable.** He compares the
combination and separation of two atoms with
"the conjunction of two sea waves of different
velocities into one, their perfect union for a
time, and final separation into the constituent
waves." Such a view of the constitution of mat-
ter, Faraday writes, leads to "the conclusion
that matter fills all space, or at least all space to
which gravitation extends."
The very continuity— the voidlessness or
lack of pores — which the opponents of atom-
ism insist is the source of matter's infinite divis-
ibility, the atomists seem to give as the reason
why the ultimate particles are without parts,
hence simple, solid, and indivisible.
ON STILL OTHER POINTS, there is disagreement
among the atomists themselves. Not all of
them go to the extreme of denying existence or
reality to anything immaterial; nor do all insist
that whatever exists is either an atom or made
up of atoms and void. In the tradition of the
great books, the extreme doctrine is found in
Lucretius alone. Though it is shared by Hobbes,
and is reflected in the Leviathan, it is not ex-
pounded there. It is developed in his treatise
Concei nmg Body.
For Lucretius, the atoms are eternal as well
as indestructible. The "first beginnings" of
all other things are themselves without be-
ginning. "In time gone by," Lucretius writes,
"they moved in the same way in which now
they move, and will ever hereafter be borne
along in like manner" through an endless suc-
cession of worlds, each of which comes to be
thiough a concourse of atoms, each in turn
perishing as with decay that concourse is dis-
solved. Newton writes in what seems to be a
contrary vein. "It seems probable to me," he
says, "that God in the beginning formed mat-
ter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, mova-
ble particles." "All material things," he contin-
ues, "seem to have been composed of the hard
and solid particles above mentioned, variously
associated m the first Creation by the counsel
of an intelligent Agent."
Nor does Newton appeal to the properties
and motions of the ultimate particles except to
explain the characteristics and laws of the phys-
ical world. Unlike Lucretius and Hobbes, he
does not— and there seems to be some evidence
406 THE GREAT IDEAS
in the Optics that he would not—reduce the smells of bodies." Furthermore, the distinction
soul of man to a flow of extremely mobile which is here implicit — between primary and
atoms, or attempt to account for all psycho- secondary sense qualities — is not peculiar to
logical phenomena (thought as well as sen- atomism. It can also be found in a critic of
sation and memory) in terms of atom buffeting atomism like Descartes,
atom. The atomistic account of sensation is, nevcr-
The atomic theory of the cause of sensation theless, of critical significance in the contro-
is not limited to the materialists. Writers like versy concerning this type of materialism. Cnt-
Locke, who conceive man as having a spiritual ics of atomism have contended that the truth
nature as well as a body, adopt an atomistic of atomism as a materialistic philosophy can be
view of the material world. "The different mo- no greater than the measure of its success in ex-
tions and figures, bulk and number of such par- plaining sensation— the source upon which the
tides," he writes, "affecting the several organs atomist himself relies for his knowledge of na-
of our senses, produce in us those different sen- ture— in terms of the properties and motions of
sations which we have from the colours and particles themselves imperceptible.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The concept of element 407
2. The comparison of element, principle, and cause
3. The theory of the elements in natural philosophy, physics, and chemistry 408
30. Element and atom: qualitative and quantitative indivisibility
3^. The enumeration of the elements: their properties and order
y. The mutability of the elements: their transmutation
$d. Combinations of the elements: compounds and mixtures 409
4. The discovery of elements in other arts and sciences
5. The theory of atomism: critiques of atomism 410
50. The conception of atomic bodies: imperceptible, indestructible, and indivisible
5^. Arguments for and against the existence of atoms: the issue concerning the
infinite divisibility of matter
y. Atoms and the void as the ultimate constituents of reality
5</. The number, variety, and properties of atoms: the production of sensible things
by their collocation 411
5*. The atomistic account of sensation and thought: the idola
5/". The atomic constitution of mind and soul: its bearing on immortality
5£. The explanation of natural phenomena by reference to the properties and mo-
tions of atoms
5^. The atomistic account of the origin and decay of the world, its evolution and
order 412
CHAPTER 21 : ELEMENT 407
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in53 JAMES . Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends m the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesof thenght-handsidcof
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in thekwerhalf
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
1. The concept of element Q ?4| A If REP 3 Q25c-926c; Q 91, A 5, ANS and
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 455d-456a / Theaetetus, REP 4 1024a-1025b
544d-547c esp 544d-545a, 54 7a / Laws, BK x, 31 DESCARTES: Rules, vm, 14b-c; xir, 22b-c
761b-d 42 KANT: Pure Reason, lOOc-d; 103a; 105b-106a;
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 13 204c-206a 137a-140c
esp [i5obi8-26] 205b-c / Physics, BK i, CH i 45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 3b-4a
259a-b / Heavens, BK HI, CH 3 [302aio}-cH 4 esp 3d-4a
[302b2o] 393c-394a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 53 JAMES- Psychology, 327a-331b passim
[983*24]-^ 5 [986b8] 501c-504c; CH 6 [987^ . . .
I9]-CH 7 [988*31] 505d-506c; CH 8 506d-508c; 2* ™* comparison of element, principle, and
CH 9 [992*1-9] 510b; [992*18-993*10] 510b- cause
Sllc esp [992bi8-993*io] 511a-c; BK HI, CH i 7 PLATO- Ttmaeus, 455d
[995^7-29] 514b; CH 3 [998*20-^4] 517a-b, 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 4-9
BK v, CH 3 534c-d; CH 4 [ioi4b27-34] 535a-b, 262a-268d passim / Generation and Corruption,
CH 25 [io23bi7~25] 545b-c; BK VH, CH 7 555a- BK n, CH i [329*24-^2] 429a-b / Metaphysics,
556b; CH 10 558a-559d; CH 17 [1041^11-33] BK i, CH 6 [987bi9~23] 505d; [988*7-16]
565d-566a,c; BK x, CH i [i052b8-i4] 579a; 506a-b; BK in, CH 3 [998a20-bi3) 517a-b; BK
BK xii, CH 4-5 599d-601a; BK xiv, CH 2 v, CH 1-3 533 a - 534 d; CH 24 545a b; BK vn,
[io88bi4-28] 620d-621a / Soul, BK i, CH 5 CH 16 [i040bi6-23] 564d; CH 17 [io4ibn-33J
[410*12-23] 640a-b 565d-566a,c; BK vni, CH 3 [i043b5-i4] 567d-
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*18-24] 568a; BK x, CH i [io52b8-i4J |579a; BK xn, CH
445b i 598a-c; CH 4-5 599d-601a esp CH 4 [io7ob
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 829a; 833a-b 2^-35] 600b
17 PLOTINUS : Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c 17 PLOTINUS : Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3, 79c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 16, 522a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 33, A
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 66, A 2 i, REP i 180d-181c
345d-347b; Q 91, A i, ANS and REP 3 484a-485b 45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, 3d-4a
408
THE GREAT IDEAS
3to3c
3. The theory of the elements in natural phi-
losophy, physics, and chemistry
7 PLATO: PW0,240d-242b/ Timaeus, ^Sb-d;
455c-462b / Philebus, 618c-619a / Laws, BK x,
760a-761d
8 ARISTOTLE. Physics, BK i, CH r [i84aio]-cH 2
[i84b2|] 259a-c; CH 4-9 262a-268d / Heavens,
BK in -iv 389b,d-405a,c / Generation and Cor-
ruption 409a-441a,c csp BK 11, CH 1-3 428b,d-
431a / Meteorology 445a-494d
10 GALPN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2-3 167 b-
169a; CH 6 169c-170c; BK n, CH 4, 186d-187b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [635-920]
8d-12b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH i, 35a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; PART in SUPPL, Q 74 925b-
935a,c passim; Q 91, A 4 1022d-1023d; A 5,
ANS and REP 4 1024a-1025b
28 GILBERT* Loadstone, BK HI, 60c-d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry la-159d
passim
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 383b-386c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 876a
3*. Element and atom: qualitative and quanti-
tative indivisibility
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i84bi5~22]
259b c / Heavens, BK HI, en 4 [303*3]-^ 5
(304b23J 394b-396a; CH 7 [305^7 3o6b2]
397a-d; BK iv, en 2 [308^29-$ IOHI 3] 400b-
401c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 4 [9^5^-191
503c-d, BK v, CH 3 [ioi4b}-6] 534d, CH 25
545b-c/So«/, BKI, CH2 [4o$b28-404ll5]633a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [599-920]
8b 12b esp [705-920] 9c-12b
17 PLOTINUS. Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 45 HOb;
APH 66, 114d-115a
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 161d-163a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, 3b-
4a; PART in, 87c-d; 103b-c; 105d
3^. The enumeration of the elements: their
properties and order
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 98d / Phaedo, 247b-248c /
Timaeus, 448b-d; 458b-460b / Philebus, 618c-
619a / Laws, BK x, 760a-761d
8 ARISTOTLE. Physics, BK in, CH 5 [204bio-205a
6] 282c-283a; BK iv, CH i [2o8b8-22] 287b /
Heavens, BK i, CH 1-8 359a-369a; CH 9 [278b
22-35] 370a; BK n, CH 3 377c-378a; BK HI,
CH i 389b,d-391c; CH 3-5 393c-396a; BK in,
CH 7 [3o6ai]-BK iv, CH 6 [3i3b24] 397b-405a,c
csp BK iv, CH 3-5 401c-404d / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH i 409a-410c; BK n, CH
1-3 428b,d-431a / Meteorology, BK i, CH 2-3
445b-447d; BK iv, CH i [378bio-26] 482b,d-
483a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [983*24]-^ 5
[986b8] 501c-504c; CH 7 foSS^^i] 506b-c;
CH 8 506d-S08c; BK v, CH 4 [ioi4b27-35J
535a~b / Soul, BK i, CH 2 [404b7-3i] 633d-
634a; CH 5 [409b 18-4 11*7] 639c-641a; BK in,
CH i [424b2o~425ai3] 656b,d-657a / Sense and
the Sensible, CH 2-5 674a-683b passim
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH i
[646ai2-b2o] 170a-d; CH 2 [648a2o]-cH 3
[649b22] 172c-174b / Generation of Animals,
BK in, CH ii [76^7-24] 302c-d
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2-3, 167d-
169a, CH 6 169c-170c; BK n, CH 4, 186d-187a;
CH 8, 193b-d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 829a
12 LUCRETIUS' Nature of Things, BK i [705-715]
9d; [763-788] lOb-c
12 EPICIETUS. Discourses, BK in, CH 13, 188d-
189a
13 VIRGIL. Aeneid, BK vi [724-731] 230b
17 PLOTINUS Second Ennead, TR i, CH 3 36b-d;
CH 6 7 37d-39c / Fourth Ennead, TR vn, CH 2
192a-b / Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 9, 285d-
286a, TR VH, CH ii 326d-327d
18 AUGUSIINE: City of God, BK VIH, CH 2 265b-
266a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 66,
A I, CONTRARY and REP tO CONTRARY 343d-
345c; A 2 345d 347b; Q 71, A i, REP 2 367a-
368b, Q 91, A i, ANS and REP 3 484a-485b;
Q 115, A 3, REP 2 588c-589c
20 AQUINAS' Summa Thcologica, P\RT in SUPPL,
Q 74 925b-935a,c passim, csp A 5 929d-931b;
Q 79, A i, REP 4 951b-953b, Q 91, A 4 1022d-
1023d
28 Gn BERT: Loadstone, BK i, 13b-d; BK in,
60c-d
28HARVLY: On Animal Generation, 491a-b;
496a-c
30 BACON. Novum Organum, BK i, APH 45 llOb;
APH 66, 114d-115a; BK ii, APH 40, 171a-173a
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK in [708-721] 150b-
151a
45 LAVOISIER. Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 3b-4a;
PARI i, 29d-33b; PART ii, 53a-55a, 57c-65a,c
45 FARADAY • Researches in Electricity, 383b-386c
51 TOLSTOY* War and Peace, BK vi, 248d-249a
3c. The mutability of the elements: their trans-
mutation
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 456b-c; 458d-460b
8 ARISTOTLE. Heavens, BK i, CH 3 360d-362a;
BK in, CH i [298*24-299*1] 389b,d-390b, CH
2 [3oib33~302a9] 393b; CH 6 [304b23)-cH 8
[3o6b29] 396a-398a / Generation and Corrup-
tion, BK i, CH i 409a-410c; CH 6 [322bi-2i]
420b-d; BK ii, CH 4-6 431b-435a / Meteorol-
ogy, BK i, CH 3 J339B36-b3] 445d / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 8 [989*18-29] 507b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2, 167d-
168b; BK ii, CH 3, 185c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [635-829)
8d-lla; BKV [235-305] 64a-65a; [380-415] 66a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ii, SECT 3 257a-b;
BK w, SECT 46 267c; BK v, SECT 13 271b;
BK vn, SECT 18 281a; SECT 23 281b; SECT 25
281c; SECT 50 283a; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c
CHAPTER 21: ELEMENT
409
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 66,
A 2, ANS 345d-347b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART in SUPPL,
Q 74, AA 1-6 925c-932b passim; Q 91, A 5, ANS
and REP 4 1024a-1025b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [121-
148] 116b-c
22 CHAUCER: Canon's Yeoman's Prologue 471b-
474a / Canon's Yeoman's Tale 474b-487a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 14b-c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 531a b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 148a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299d-300a
44 Bos WELL \ Johnson, 262c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PARTI, 41 b-c
3</. Combinations of the elements: compounds
and mixtures
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 448b-d, 449c-450a; 452d-
454a, 460b-462c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 14 [151*20-32]
206a / Physics, BK in, CH 5 [204bio-22] 282c-d;
BK vii, CH 3 [246b2-i9] 329c-330a / Heavens,
BK i, CH 2 [268b27-269a3o] 360a-c; CH 5
[27148-23] 362d-363a; BK in, CH 3 [302*10]-
CH 4 [302b28] 393c-394a; CH 8 [3o6b22-29]
398a; BK iv, CH 4 [3iia3o-bi4] 402d-403a /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH i [314*25-
b2] 409c; CH 2 [315*28-33] 410d; CH 10 426c-
428d; BK n, CH 6-8 433d-436d / Meteorology,
BK III, CH 6 [378*1 }]-BK IV, CH 12 [390b2l]
482c-494d / Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 17 [i04ib
12-33] 565d-566a,c / Soul, BK i, CH 2 [404b7~
29] 633d-634a; Uo5b8-3i] 634d-635a; CH 5
[409bi8-4iia7] 639c-641a; BK in, CH 13
[435*n-b4] 668a-c / Sense and the Sensible,
CH 2-3 674a-678b
9 ARIS TOTLE • Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640^-18] 163a-b; BK 11, CH i [646*i2-b2o]
170a-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 15 5c-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 2-3 167b-
169a, CH 6 169c-170c; BK n, en 8, 193b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [635-920]
8d-12b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 13, 189a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK x, SECT 7, 297b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 929b-930a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 6-8 37d-
39d; TR vn, CH 1-2 62d-64b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 2 265b-
266a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 71,
A i 367a-368b; Q 76, A 4, REP 4 393a-394c;
Q 91, A i 484a-485b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A i, ANS 710a-711c; PART in SUPPL, Q 74, A i,
REP 3 925c-926c; A 4, ANS 928d-929d; A 5
929d-931b; Q 79, A i, REP 4 95lb-953b; Q 80,
A 3, REP 3 958b-959c; Q 82, A i, ANS 968a-
970c; Q 91, A 5 1024a-1025b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vii [121-
148] 116b-c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK i, 13b-14d; BK H,
29c-30a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 495c 496d
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66 114d-
115c; BK ii, APH 7 139c-140a; APH 40, 171a-
173a; APH 48, 181a-184a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 367a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 65
425d-426a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 22c-
52a,c; PART n, 54b,d-55d; 57c-86a,c; PART
in, 87c-d; 103b-c; 105d; 117a-128c esp 117a-
118a
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 309a-312a;
312c-313d; 314a-b; 315a-b; 327a-422a,c pas-
sim, 541b,d-584a,c passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 248d-249a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 104a-105a; 876a
4. The discovery of elements in other arts and
sciences
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 104c-110d esp 106a-107b /
Republic, BK in, 333c-d / Theaetetus, 544c-
548c / Philcbus, 615c-617d; 618d-619b; 635b-
639a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [1*17-19] 5b / In-
terpretation, CH 4 [i6b27~35] 26a / Prior Analyt-
103c; CH 23 [84bi9-85«i] 115c-116a; CH 27
119b / Topics, BK i, CH 4-9 144b-147b esp CH
4 [ioibn-25] 144b-c; BK vi, CH i [139*24-32]
192a; CH 13 204c-206a / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH 5 [985b22-986a2i] 503d-504b; CH 6 [987b
19-23] 505d; [988*7-16] 506a-b; CH 9 [992b
i8-993aio] 511a-c; BK HI, CH 3 [998a2o-bii]
517a-b; CH 6 [ioo2bn-25] 521b-c; BK v, CH 3
534c-d; BK xn, CH 4-5 599d-601a / Soul> BK i,
CH 2 [404^-29] 633d-634a; CH 5 [409^3-411*
23] 639d-641b; BK in, CH 5 [430*10-14] 662c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK n, CH i
[646aio]-cH 2 [647b3o] 170a-172a / Politics, BK
i, CH i [i252ai8-24] 445b; BK in, CH i [i274b
31-1275*2] 471b; CH 3 [i276B34-bi5] 473b-c /
Rhetoric, BK in, CH 13 667b-d / Poetics, CH 6
684a-685a; CH 20 692b-693a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 6 169c-
170c; BK n, CH 6 188c-191a; BK in, CH 15,
215a-b
11 EUCLID: Elements la-396b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK n, 829b-d
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK i [823-829]
lla; BK n [688-699] 23d
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1016b-1017a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 16, 522a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A i, REP 3 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q
179, A 2, REP 2 607a-c; PART in SUPPL, Q 80,
A 3 958b-959c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
138a-d
410
THE GREAT IDEAS
5/05*
(4. The discovery of elements in other arts and
sciences.)
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 316d / On
Animal Generation, 429c-438c csp 432d-433b;
488d-496d esp 490d-491c, 494a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 52b d;
76d-77c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, vi, 8b-9a; vin, 14b-c;
xn, 21b-24c / Discourse, PART vi, 62a / Ob-
jections and Replies, 128a-129a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH 11,
SECT 1-2 127d-128b; CH vn, SECT 10 133a-b;
CH xn, SECT 1-2 147b-d; SECT 8 148c-d; CH
xv, SECT 9 164b-d; CH xvi, SECT i 165c-d;
CH xxi, SECT 75 200b-d; BK HI, CH iv, SECT
15-16 263a-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 20b-23b esp
20b-21c, 22b-c
46 HKGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 341
HOc
50 MARX: Capital, 6b-c; 19c-26d passim, esp
20b-22a, 25d-26d; 62a; 85d-88d esp 85d,
88c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 469a-470c;
BK xiv, 589c-590c; EPILOGUE n, 694d-695c
53 JAMES: Psychology, xiiib; 18b-19b; 116b-117a;
126a; 150a
54 FREUD- War and Death, 758a
5. The theory of atomism: critiques of atom-
ism
7 PLAIO. Sophist, 567a-568a
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i84bi5~22]
259b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 7 [275b3o~276*i8]
367a-b; BK in, CH 4 [303*3-b8] 394b-d; BK
iv, CH 2 [3o8b29~3io*i4] 400b-401c / Genera-
tion and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 410d-413c;
CH 8 [325a23-bii] 423d-424b / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 4 [985^-19] 503c-d
10 GALEN: Natural Vacuities, BK i, CH 12-14
172d-179d; BK n, CH 6 188c-191a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things la-97a,c
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3, 263b-c;
BK ix, SECT 39 295a; BK x, SECT 6 297a-b
17 PLOIINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7, 52c /
Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 78d; CH 3 79b-c /
Fourth Ennead, TR vn, CH 2-4 192a-193c
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 115,
A i, ANS and REP 3,5 585d-587c
25 MONTAIGNE • Essays, 263a
28 HARVLY: On Animal Generation, 355b-d;
495c-496d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 8 140b
34 NEWT ON: Principles, BK in, RULE in 270b-
27la / Optics, BK in, 531b-542a
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK iv, CH HI,
SECT 25-26 321a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 161d-163a
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 850b,d-
85Sa,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
34 Id
53 JAMES: Psychology, 876a; 882a-884b
5a. The conception of atomic bodies: imper-
ceptible, indestructible, and indivisible
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK i,
CH i [314*22-24] 409b-c / Metaphysics, BK vn,
CH 13 [1039*2-11] 562d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12 172d-
173c, BKII, cn6l88c-191a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i (146-328)
2d-5a; [483-634] 7a-8d
17 PLOTINUS. Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7, 52c
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, PROP 73, SCHOL
133b-134a; BK HI, RULE in 270b-271a / Op-
tics, BK in, 537a-b; 541b; 543a
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK iv, CH HI,
SECT 25 321a-b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 386c-d;
850b,d-855a,c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 68a
56. Arguments for and against the existence of
atoms: the issue concerning the infinite
divisibility of matter
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK HI, CH 6-7 284b-286c
/ Heavens, BK in, CH 6 [3Q4b23-305aio]
396a-b; BK iv, CH 4 [3ii*3o-bi] 402d-403a /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [3i5b25~
3i7ai7J 411b-413a; cn8 423b-425d / Sense and
the Sensible, CH 6 [445b4~4 46*20] 683b-684c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-328]
2d-5a; [483-920] 7a-12b, BK n [62-141] 15d-
16d
12 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK x, SECT 6 297a-b
17 PLOTINUS- Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7
52a-c / Third Ennead, IR i, CH 3 79b-c /
Fourth Ennead, TR n, CH i, 139d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 3, REP 3 32c-33c, A 4, ANS 33d-34c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 139c-
141d, 147d-148b; 151d-153a
30 BACON. Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66, 115c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 15, SCHOL
360b-361d
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK HI, RULE in 270b-
271a / Optics, BK ii, 478b-485b; BK in, 537a-
541 b esp 541 b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH
xvn, SECT 12 170d; CH xxix, SECT 16 237b-
238a; BK iv, CH x, SECT 10, 351c~352a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 47
421c-422a
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 131c; 137a-140c; 152d;
161d-163a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103d
45 LAVOISIER. Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
9a-d
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 386c-d;
850b,d-855a,c
5c. Atoms and the void as the ultimate con*
stituents of reality
7 PLATO: Sophist, 567a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 5 [188*18-23]
263c; BK iv, CH 6-9 292c-297c / Heavens, BK
5d to 5g
i, CH 7 [275b3o-276*i8] 367a-b; CH 9 [279*12-
18] 370b-c; BK in, CH 6 [305*14-22] 396b-c;
BK iv, CH 2 [3o8b29~3 10*14] 400b-401c; CH 5
[3i2b2o-3i3*i4] 404b-d / Generation and Cor-
ruption, BK i, CH 8 423b-425d / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 4 [985b3~i9] 503c-d; BK iv, CH 5
[1009*22-37] 528d; BK vu, CH 13 [1039*2-11]
562d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173a;
BK n, CH 6 188c-191a esp 189a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [265-634]
4b-8d csp [418-448] 6b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
141c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organutn, BK n, APH 8 140b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK HI, PROP 6, COROL
m-iv 281 b / Optics, BK HI, 528b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 850b,d-
855a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 106a; 882a-883a
5</. The number, variety, and properties of
atoms: the production of sensible things
by their collocation
8 ARISTOTLE Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i84bi5~22]
259b-c, CH 5 [188*18-25] 263c; BK m, CH 4
[203*33~b2] 281 b / Heavens, BK i, CH 7 [275b
30-276*18] 367a-b; BK in, CH 4 [303*3-b8]
394b-d; CH 7 [}O5b27-3o6*i] 397a-b; BK iv,
CH 2 [308^9-310*14] 400b-401c / Generation
and Corruption, BK i, CH i [314*22-24] 409b-c;
CH 2 [315*34-316*4] 410d-411c; CH 10 [327b
34~328ai8] 427b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 4
[985^-19] 503c-d
10 GALEN: 'Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12,
173a-b, BK n, CH 6, 189a-190a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [62-141]
15d-16d; [184-250] 17b-18b; [333-599] 19b-
22c; [730-1022] 24b-28a
17 PLOTINUS • Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3, 79b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 495c-496a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK HI, 536b-537b; 539a-b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH HI, 566b-569b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvi, SECT 2 217b-d; BK iv, CH xx, SECT 15,
393b
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
104, 498c
45 LAVOISI ER : Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 13a-d
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 850 b,d-
855a,c
53 JAMES : Psychology, 104a-b; 876a
5e. The atomistic account of sensation and
thought: the idola
7 PLATO- Meno, 177b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [398-443]
20a-c; [865-990] 26a~27c; BK in [231-395]
33a-35a; BK iv [26-906] 44b-56a esp [26-268]
44b-47d, [722-817] 53d-54d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 78d; CH
3 79b-c / Fourth Ennead, TR vu, CH 6-8, 194b-
196c
CHAPTER 21: ELEMENT
411
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 84, A
6, ANS 447c-449a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 518b-519b; 522a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH
iv, SECT 10 261b-d; BK iv, CH x, SECT 5
350a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 98a-117b esp 98b-103b,
115a
5/. The atomic constitution of mind and soul:
its bearing on immortality
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK i, CH 2 [403^8-404*
15] 633a-b; [405*8-13] 634b; CH 3 [406^5-
26] 636a-b; CH 4 [409*10]-^ 5 [409bi8]
639a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12 172d-
173c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [94-869]
31b-41a csp [161-322] 32b-34b; BK iv [916-
961] 56b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7, 52c;
TR ix, CH 5, 68b / Third Ennead, T» i, CH 3
79b-c / Fourth Ennead, TR vn, CH 2-4 192a-
193c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 93 431b;
SECT 141 441a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 126c-d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 95a-118b esp 95b-98a,
103a-106b, 117a-118b
5g. The explanation of natural phenomena by
reference to the properties and motions
of atoms
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK iv, CH 2 [3o8b29-
310*14] 400b-401c; CH 4 [3ii*30-bi] 402d-
403a; CH 5 [3i2b2o]-cn 6 [3i3b25] 404b-
405a,c / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH
2 410d-413c; CH 8 423b-425d
10 GALEN- Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 172d-
173b; CH 14, 177a-178d; BK n, CH 6 188c-
191a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [265-328]
4b-5a; BK n [184-215] 17b-d; [333-477] 19b-
21a; [522-540] 21c-d; [757-771] 24c-d; BK iv
[524-614] 51a-52b; BK vi 80a-97a,c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 78d; CH
3 79b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 115,
A i, ANS and REP 3,5 585d-587c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 34c-35a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 139c-
141d; 151d-153a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 355b-d;
495c-496d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 45b-c
34 NEWTON: Principles, lb-2a / Optics, BK HI,
531b-542a
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH HI, 566b-569b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH m,
SECT 25-26 321a-c
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity > 850b,d-
855a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 882a-884b
412 THE GREAT IDEAS 5h
(5. The theory o/ atomism: critiques of atomism.) 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 10
274b-c
5 A. Th« atomistic account of the origin and de- 17 PLOTINUS . Third Ennead, TR i, CH 3 79b-c
cay of the world, its evolution and order 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q 47, A
12 LUCRFHUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1008- i, ANS 256a-257b; A 3, ANS 258c-259a
1037] 13c-d; BK ii [1023-1174! 28a~30a,c; BK 34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 541b
v [55-508] 61d-67c 53 JAMES: Psychology, 95b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The discussion of the ideas most closely associated with element, see CAUSE; PRINCIPLE.
Matters relevant to the conception of elements or atoms as simple parts of a whole, see
, ONE AND MANY ab-2c; and for another discussion of the distinction between elements
or atoms and compounds or mixtures, see CHANGE 93; MATTER 2.
The problem of the transmutation of the elements, see CHANGE loa.
The issue concerning the divisibility of matter and the existence of a void, see INFINITY
4b; ONE AND MANY 33(3); SPACE 2b(i)-2b(3); and for the question of the number of
the elements or of the atoms, see INFINITY 5-5 b; QUANTITY 7.
. Other considerations of atomistic materialism, see MATTFR 33, 6; MECHANICS 4c; MIND 2e;
SOUL 3d; WORLD ib, 4c.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
r
,\ Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II, Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
MAXWELL. Scientific Papers, LXXIII
*•' HERSCHEL. Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects,
AUGUSTINE. De Gcnesi ad Litteram xi
AQUINAS. De Mixtione Elcmentorum LANGE. The History of Materialism
DB&CARTBS The Principles of Philosophy, PART 11, 20; MENDELEYEV. The Principles of Chemistry
PART HI, 48-102; PART iv, 1-19, 31-48, 61-132, CLIFFORD. "Atoms," m VOL i, Lectures and Essays
201-203 STALLO. Concepts and Theories of Modern Physics,
HOBBES. Concerning Body CH 7-8, 13
KANT. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Set- WHITEHEAD. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
ence, DIV 11 Natural Knowledge, CH 5
MARX. Uber die Differenz der dcmotyitischen und PLANCK. The Origin and Development of the Quan-
epikureischen Naturphilosophie turn Theory
EDDINGTON Stars and Atoms
'*• B. RUSSELL. The Analysis of Matter, CH 3
EPICURUS. Letter to Herodotus BOHR. The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution
SfiXtos EMPIRICUS. Against the Physicists . On the Application of the Quantum Theory to
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART n, Atomic Structure
CH 10 . Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature
JOHN OF SMNT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho- JEANS. The Universe Around Us, CH 2
misticus, Philosophia Naturaks, PART in, Q 10 C. G. DARWIN. The New Conceptions of Matter
BOYLE. The Sceptical Chymtst SODDY. The Interpretation of the Atom
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under- STRANATHAN. The "Particles" of Modern Physics
standing, APPENDIX, CH 3 SMYTH. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes
T*-i Monadology, par 1-9 GAMOW. Atomic Energy in Cosmic and Human
VOLTAIRE. "Atoms," m A Philosophical Dictionary Life
DALTON", A New System of Chemical Philosophy ANDRADB. The Atom and Its Energy
WHEWBLL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, HfecHT, Explaining the Atom
VOL i, BK vi G. THOMSON. The Atom
Chapter 11: EMOTION
INTRODUCTION
THE emotions claim our attention in two
ways. We experience them, sometimes in
a manner which overwhelms us; and we analyze
them by defining and classifying the several
passions, and by studying their role in human
life and society. We seldom do both at once,
for analysis requires emotional detachment, and
moments of passion do not permit study or
reflection.
With regard to the emotions the great books
are similarly divided into two sorts — those
which are theoretical discussions and those
which concretely describe the passions of par-
ticular men, exhibit their vigor, and induce
in us a vicarious experience. Books of the
first sort are scientific, philosophical, or theo-
logical treatises. Books of the second sort are
the great epic and dramatic poems, the novels
and plays, the literature of biography and
history.
We customarily think of the emotions as
belonging to the subject matter of psychology
— proper to the science of animal and human
behavior. It is worth noting therefore that this
is largely a recent development, which appears
in the works of Darwin, James, and Freud. In
earlier centuries, the analysis of the passions
occurs in other contexts: in treatments of rhet-
oric, as in certain dialogues of Plato and in
Aristotle's Rhetoric; in the Greek discussions of
virtue and vice; in the moral theology of Aqui-
nas and in Spinoza's Ethics; and in books of po-
litical theory, such as Machiavelh's Prince and
Hobbes' Leviathan.
Descartes' treatise on The Passions of the Soul
is probably one of the first discourses on the sub-
ject to be separated from the practical consider-
ations of oratory, morals, and politics. Only
subsequently do the emotions become an ob-
ject of purely theoretic interest in psychology.
But even then the interest of the psychiatrist or
psychoanalyst — to the extent that it is medical
or therapeutic — has a strong practical bent.
In the great works of poetry and history no
similar shift takes place as one goes from Homer
and Virgil to Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, from
Greek to Shakespearean tragedy, from Plu-
tarch and Tacitus to Gibbon. What Words-
worth said of the lyric poem— that it is "emo-
tion recollected in tranquillity" — may not ap-
ply to the narratives in an identical sense. Yet
they too re-enact the passions in all their vi-
tality. Their pages are filled with the emotions
of men in conflict with one another or suffering
conflict within themselves.
This is no less true of historical narrative than
of fiction. The memorable actions of men on
the stage of history did not occur in calm and
quiet. We would certainly not remember them
as well if the historian failed to re-create for us
the turbulence of crisis and catastrophe, or the
biographer the storm and stress which accom-
panies the inward resolution of heroic lives.
It is impossible, of course, to cite all the rele-
vant passages of poetry and history. In many
instances, nothing less than a whole book would
suffice. The particular references given in this
chapter, which are far from exhaustive, have
been selected for their peculiar exemplary sig-
nificance m relation to a particular topic; but
for the whole range of topics connected with
emotion, the reader should certainly seek fur-
ther in the realms of history and poetry for the
raw materials which the scientists and philoso-
phers have tried to analyze and understand.
To the student of the emotions, Bacon rec-
ommends "the poets and writers of histories"
as "the best doctors of this knowledge; where
we may find painted forth with great life, how
affections are kindled and incited; and how
pacified and refrained; and how again con-
tained from act and further degree; how they
413
414
THE GREAT IDEAS
disclose themselves; how they work; how they
vary; how they gather arid fortify; how they
are enwrapped one within another; and how
they do fight and encounter one with an-
other; and other like particularities."
FOUR WORDS— "passion," "affection" or "af-
fect," and "emotion"— have been traditionally
used to designate the same psychological fact.
Of these, "affection" and "affect" have ceased
to be generally current, although we do find
them in Freud; and "passion" is now usually
restricted to mean one of the emotions, or the
more violent aspect of any emotional experi-
ence. But if we are to connect discussions col-
lected from widely separated centuries, we
must be able to use all these words inter-
changeably.
The psychological fact to which they all refer
is one every human being has experienced in
moments of great excitement, especially during
intense seizure by rage or fear. In his treatise On
the Circulation of the Blood, Harvey calls atten-
tion to "the fact that in almost every affection,
appetite, hope, or fear, our body suffers, the
countenance changes, and the blood appears to
course hither and thither. In anger the eyes are
fiery and the pupils contracted; in modesty the
cheeks are suffused with blushes; in fear, and
under a sense of infamy and of shame, -the face
is pale" and "in lust how quickly is the member
distended with blood and erected!"
Emotional experience seems to involve an
awareness of widespread bodily commotion,
which includes changes in the tension of the
blood vessels and the muscles, changes in heart-
beat and breathing, changes in the condition
of the skin and other tissues. Though some de-
gree of bodily disturbance would seem taJbe an
essential ingredient in all emotional experience,
the intensity and extent of the physiological
reverberation, or bodily commotion, is riot the
same or equal in all the emotions. Some emo-
tions are much more violent than others. This
leads William James to distinguish what he calls
the "coarser emotions ... in which every one
recognizes a strong organic reverberation" from
the "subtler emotions" in which the "organic
reverberation is less obvious and strong.*' *
This fact is sometimes used to draw the line
between what are truly emotions and what are
only mild feelings of pleasure and pain or en-
during sentiments. Nevertheless, sentiments
may be emotional residues — stable attitudes
which pervade a life even during moments of
emotional detachment and calm — and pleasure
and pain may color all the emotions. "Pleasure
and pain," Locke suggests, are "the hinges on
which our passions turn." Even though they
may not be passions in the strict sense, they
are obviously closely connected with them.
THAT THE EMOTIONS are organic disturbances,
upsetting the normal course of the body's func-
tioning, is sometimes thought to be a modern
discovery, connected with the James-Lange
theory that the emotional experience is nothing
but the "feeling of ... the bodily changes"
which "follow directly the perception of the
exciting fact." On this view, the explanation of
emotion seems to be the very opposite of "com-
mon sense," which says, "we meet a bear, are
frightened, and run." According to James,
"this order of sequence is incorrect," and "the
more rational statement is that we feel . . .
afraid because we tremble." In other words, we
do not run away because we are afraid, but are
afraid because we run away.
This fact about the emotions was known to
antiquity and the Middle Ages. Aristotle, for
example, holds that mere awareness of an ob-
ject does not induce flight unless "the heart is
moved," and Aquinas declares that "passion is
properly to be found where there is corporeal
transmutation." He describes at some length
the bodily changes which take place in anger
and fear. Only very recently, however, have
apparatus and techniques been devised for re-
cording and, in some cases, measuring the phys-
iological changes accompanying experimentally
produced emotions—in both animals and men.
Modern theory also tries to throw some light
on these organic changes by pointing out their
adaptive utility in the struggle for existence.
This type of explanation is advanced by Dar-
win in The Expression of Emotions in Man
and Animals, and is adopted by other evolu-
tionists. "The snarl or sneer, the one-sided un-
covering of the upper teeth," James writes, "is
accounted for by Darwin as a survival from the
time when our ancestors had large canines, and
unfleshed them (as dogs now do) for at tack. . . .
22: EMOTION
415
The distention of the nostrils in anger is inter-
preted by Spencer as an echo of the way in
which our ancestors had to breathe when, dur-
ing combat, their 'mouth was filled up by a part
of the antagonist's body that had been seized*
. . . The redding of the face and neck is called
by Wundt a compensatory arrangement for
relieving the brain 'of the blood-pressure which
the simultaneous excitement of the heart
brings with it. The effusion of tears is explained
both by this author and by Darwin to be a
blood-withdrawing agency of a similar sort."
Reviewing statements of this sort, fames is
willing to concede that "some movements of
expression can be accounted for as weakened
repetitions of movements which formerly (when
they were stronger) were of utility to the sub-
ject" \ but though we may thus "see the reason
for a few emotional reactions," he thinks
"others remain for which no plausible reason
can even be conceived." The latter, James sug-
gests, "may be reactions which are purely me-
chanical results of the way in which our nervous
centres are framed, reactions which, although
permanent in us now, may be called accidental
as far as their origin goes."
Whether or not all the bodily changes which
occur in such emotions as anger or fear serve
the purpose of increasing the animal's efficiency
in combat or flight — as, for example, the in-
crease of sugar in the blood and the greater sup-
ply of blood to arms and legs seem to do— the
basic emotions are generally thought to be con-
nected with the instinctively determined pat-
terns of behavior by which animals struggle to
survive. "The actions we call instinctive,"
fames writes, "are expressions or manifestations
of the emotions'^ or, as other writers suggest,
an emotion, whether in outward expression or
in inner experience, is the central phase of an
instinct in operation.
The observation of the close relation between
instinct and emotion does not belong exclu-
sively to modern, or post-Darwinian, thought.
The ancients also recognize it, though in differ-
ent terms. Following Aristotle's analysis of the
various "interior senses,'/ Aquinas, for example,
speaks of the ''estimative power" by which ani-
mals seem to be innately prepared to react to
things useful or harmful. :
"If an animal were moved by pleasing and
disagreeable things only as affecting the sense"
—that is, the exterior senses— "there would be
no need to suppose," Aquinas writes, "that an
animal has a power besides' the apprehension of
those forms which the senses perceive, and in
which the animal takes pleasure, or from which
it shrinks with horror." But animals need to
seek or avoid certain things on account of their
advantages or disadvantages, and such emo-
tional reactions of approach or avoidance re-
quire, in his opinion, a sense of the useful and
the dangerous, which is innate rather than
learned. The estimative power thus seems to
play a role which later writers assign to instinct.
The relation of instinct to the emotions and to
fundamental biological needs is further con-
sidered, from other points of view, in the chap-
ters on DESIRE and HABIT.
LIKE DESIRE, emotion is neither knowledge
nor action, but something intermediate be-
tween the one and the other. The various pas-
sions are usually aroused by objects perceived,
imagined, or remembered, and once aroused
they in turn originate impulses to act in certain
ways. For example, fear arises with the percep-
tion of a threatening danger or with the imagi-
nation of some fancied peril. The thing feared
is somehow recognized as capable of inflicting
injury with consequent pain. The thing feared
is also something from which one naturally
tends to flee in order to avoid harm. Once the
danger is known and until it is avoided by
flight or in some other way, the characteristic
feeling of fear pervades the whole experience.
It is partly a result of what is known and what
is done, and partly the cause of how things
seem and how one behaves.
Analytically isolated from its causes and ef-
fects, the emotion itself seems to be the feeling
rather than the knowing or the doing. But it
is not simply an awareness of a certain bodily
condition. It also involves the felt impulse to
do something about the object of the passion.
Those writers who, like Aquinas, identify
emotion with the impulse by which "the soul
is drawn to a thing," define the several passions
as specifically different acts of appetite or de-
<sire^$pecific tendencies to action. Aquinas, for
instance, adopts the definition given by Dam-
ascene: "Passion is a movement of the sensi-
416
THE GREAT IDEAS
live appetite when we imagine good or evil."
Other writers who, like Spinoza, find that
"the order of the actions and passions of our
body is coincident in nature with the order of
the actions and passions of the mind," stress the
cognitive rather than the impulsive aspect of
emotion. They accordingly define the passions
in terms of the characteristic feelings, pleasant
and unpleasant, which flow from the estima-
tion of certain objects as beneficial or harmful.
Spinoza goes furthest in this direction when he
says that "an affect or passion of the mind is a
confused idea . . . by which the mind affirms of
its body, or any part of it, a greater or less power
of existence than before."
There seems to be no serious issue here, for
writers of both sorts acknowledge, though with
different emphasis, the two sides of an emotion
—the cognitive and the impulsive, that which
faces toward the object and that which leads
into action. On either view, the human pas-
sions are regarded as part of man's animal na-
ture. It is generally admitted that disembodied
spirits, if such exist, cannot have emotions. The
angels, Augustine writes, "feel no anger while
they punish those whom the eternal law of God
consigns to punishment, no fellow-feeling with
misery while they relieve the miserable, no fear
while they aid those who are in danger." When
we do ascribe emotions to spirits, it is, Augus-
tine claims, because, "though they have none of
our weakness, their acts resemble the actions to
which these emotions move us."
In connection with the objects which arouse
them, the emotions necessarily depend upon
the senses and the imagination; and their per-
turbations and impulses require bodily organs
for expression. That is why, as indicated in the
chapter on DESIRE, some writers separate the
passions from acts of the will, as belonging to
the sensitive or animal appetite rather than to
the rational or specifically human appetite.
Even those writers who do not place so high an
estimate on the role of reason, refer the emo-
tions to the animal aspect of human behavior,
or to what is sometimes called "man's lower
nature." When this phrase is used, it usually
signifies the passions as opposed to the reason,
not the purely vegetative functions which man
shares with plants as well as animals.
There seems to be no doubt that emotions
are common to men and animals and that they
arc more closely related to instinct than to
reason or intelligence. Darwin presents many
instances which, he claims, prove that "the
senses and intuitions, the various emotions and
faculties, such as love, memory, attention, cu-
riosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man
boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even
sometimes in a well-developed, condition in
the lower animals." Where Darwin remarks
upon "the fewness and the comparative sim-
plicity of the instincts in the higher animals . . .
in contrast with those of the lower animals,"
James takes the position that man "is the ani-
mal richest in instinctive impulses." However
that issue is decided, the emotions seem to be
more elaborately developed in the higher ani-
mals, and man's emotional life would seem to
be the most complex and varied of all.
The question then arises whether particular
passions are identical— or are only analogous
—when they occur in men and animals. For ex-
ample, is human anger, no matter how closely
it resembles brute rage in its physiology and
impulses, nevertheless peculiarly human? Do
men alone experience righteous indignation be-
cause of some admixture in them of reason and
passion? When similar questions are asked
about the sexual passions of men and animals,
the answers will determine the view one takes
of the characteristically human aspects of love
and hate. It may even be asked whether hate,
as men suffer it, is ever experienced by brutes,
or whether certain passions, such as hope and
despair, are known to brutes at all?
IN THE TRADITIONAL theory of the emotions,
the chief problem, after the definition of emo-
tion, is the classification or grouping of the pas-
sions, and the ordering of particular passions.
The vocabulary of common speech in all ages
and cultures includes a large number of words
for naming emotions, and it has been the task of
analysts to decide which of these words desig-
nate distinct affects or affections. The precise
character of the object and the direction of the
impulse have been, for the most part, the cri-
teria of definition. As previously noted, it is
but recently that the experimental observation
of bodily changes has contributed to the differ-
entiation of emotions from one another.
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION
417
Spinoza offers the longest listing of the pas-
sions. For him, the emotions, which are all
"compounded of the three primary affects, de-
sire, joy, and sorrow," develop into the follow-
ing'forms: astonishment, contempt, love, ha-
tred, inclination, aversion, devotion, derision,
hope, fear, confidence, despair, gladness, re-
morse, commiseration, favor, indignation, over-
estimation, envy, compassion, self-satisfaction,
humility, repentance, pride, despondency, self-
exaltation, shame, regret, emulation, gratitude,
benevolence, anger, vengeance, ferocity, au-
dacity, consternation, courtesy, ambition, lux-
uriousness, drunkenness, avarice, lust.
Many of the foregoing are, for Hobbes, de-
rived from what he calls "the simple passions/*
which include "appetite, desire, love, aversion,
hate, joy, and grief." There are more emotions
in Spinoza's list than either Aristotle or Locke
or James mentions, but none which they in-
clude is omitted. Some of the items m Spino-
za's enumeration are treated by other writers
as virtues and vices rather than as passions.
The passions have been classified by reference
to various criteria. As we have seen, James dis-
tinguishes emotions as "coarse" or "subtle" in
terms of the violence or mildness of the accom-
panying physiological changes; and Spinoza
distinguishes them according as "the mind pass-
es to a greater perfection" or "to a less perfec-
tion." Spinoza's division would also seem to
imply a distinction between the beneficial and
the harmful in the objects causing these two
types of emotion, or at least to involve the
opposite components of pleasure and pain, for
in his view the emotions which correspond to
"a greater or less power of existence than be-
fore" are attended in the one case by "pleasur-
able excitement" and in the other by "pain."
Hobbes uses another principle of division.
The passions differ basically according to the
direction of their impulses— according as each
is "a motion or endeavor ... to or from the
object moving." Aquinas adds still another cri-
terion—"the difficulty or struggle ... in ac-
quiring certain goods or in avoiding certain
evils" which, in contrast to those we "can
easily acquire or avoid," makes them, there-
fore, "of an arduous or difficult nature." In
these terms, he divides ail the passions into the
"concupiscible," which regard "good or evil
simply" (i.e., love, hate, desire, aversion, joy,
sorrow), and the "irascible," which "regard good
or evil as arduous through being difficult to
obtain or avoid" (i.e., fear, daring, hope, de-
spair, anger).
Within each of these groups, Aquinas pairs
particular passions as opposites, such as joy and
sorrow, or hope and despair, either according
to the "contrariety of object, i.e., of good and
evil ... or according to approach and with-
drawal." Anger seems to be the only passion
for which no opposite can be given, other than
that "cessation from its movement" which
Aristotle calls "calmness" and which Aquinas
says is an opposite not by way of "contrariety
but of negation or privation."
Using these distinctions, Aquinas also de-
scribes the order in which one passion leads to or
generates another, beginning with love and
hate, passing through hope, desire, and fear,
with their opposites, and, after anger, ending
in joy or despair. On one point, all observers
and theorists from Plato to Freud seem to
agree, namely, that love and hate lie at the root
of all the other passions and generate hope or
despair, fear and anger, according as the aspira-
tions of love prosper or fail. Nor is the insight
that even hate derives from love peculiarly
modern, though Freud's theory of what he
calls the "ambivalence" of love and hate to-
ward the same object, seems to be part of his
own special contribution to our understanding
of the passions,
THE ROLE OF THE emotions or passions in hu-
man behavior has always raised two questions,
one concerning the effect of conflict between
diverse emotions, the other concerning the con*
flict between the passions and the reason or will.
It is the latter question which has been of the
greatest interest to moralists and statesmen.
Even though human emotions may have in-
stinctive origin and be innately determined,
man's emotional responses seem to be subject
to voluntary control, so that men are able to
form or change their emotional habits. If this
were not so, there could be no moral problem
of the regulation of the passions; nor, for that
matter, could there be a medical problem of
therapy for emotional disorders. The psycho-
analytic treatment of neuroses seems, more*
418
THE GREAT IDEAS
over, to assume the possibility of a voluntary,
or even a rational, resolution of emotional con-
flicts—not perhaps without the aid of thera-
peutic efforts to uncover the sources of con-
flict and to remove the barriers between re-
pressed emotion and rational decision.
The relation of the passions to the will, es-
pecially their antagonism, is relevant to the
question whether the actions of men always
conform to their judgments of good and evil,
or right and wrong. As Socrates discusses the
problem of knowledge and virtue, it would
seem to be his view that a man who knows
what is good for him will act accordingly. Men
may "desire things which they imagine to be
good/* he says, "but which in reality are evil."
Hence their misconduct will be due to a mis-
taken judgment, not to a discrepancy between
action and thought. Eliminating the case of
erroneous judgment, Socrates gets Meno to
admit that "no man wills or chooses anything
evil."
Aristotle criticizes the Socratic position which
he summarizes in the statement that "no one
. . . when he judges acts against what he judges
best— people act badly only by reason of igno-
rance." According to Aristotle, "this view plain-
ly contradicts the observed facts." Yet he ad-
mits that whatever a man does must at least
seem good to him at the moment', and to that
extent the judgment that something is good or
bad would seem to determine action accord-
ingly. In his analysis of incontinence, Aristotle
tries to explain how a man may act against what
is his better judgment and yet, at the moment
of action, seek what he holds to be good.
Action may be caused either by a rational
judgment concerning what is good or by an
emotional estimate of the desirable. If these
two factors are independent of one another—
more than that, if they can tend in opposite
directions— then a man may act under emo-
tional persuasion at one moment in a manner
contrary to his rational predilection at another.
That a man may act either emotionally or
rationally, Aristotle thinks, explains how, un-
der strong emotional influences, a man can do
the very opposite of what his reason would tell
him is right or good. The point is that, while
the emotions dominate his mind and action, he
does not listen to reason.
These matters are further discussed in the
chapter on TEMPERANCE. But it should be
noted here that the passions and the reason, or
the "lower" and the "higher" natures of man,
are not always in conflict. Sometimes emotions
or emotional attitudes serve reason by support-
ing voluntary decisions. They reinforce and
make effective moral resolutions which might
otherwise be too difficult to execute.
THE ANCIENTS DID not underestimate the force
of the passions, nor were they too confident of
the strength of reason in its struggle to control
them, or to be free of them. They were ac-
quainted with the violence of emotional excess
which they called "madness" or "frenzy." So,
too, were the theologians of the Middle Ages
and modern philosophers like Spinoza and
Hobbes. But not until Freud— and perhaps
also William James, though to a lesser extent-
do we find in the tradition of the great books
insight into the pathology of the passions, the
origin of emotional disorders, and the general
theory of the neuroses and neurotic character as
the consequence of emotional repression.
For Freud, the primary fact is not the con-
flict between reason and emotion, or, in his
language, between the ego and the id. It is
rather the repression which results from such
conflict. On the one side is the ego, which
"stands for reason and circumspection" and has
"the task of representing the external world,"
or expressing what Freud calls "the reality-
principle." Associated with the ego is the super-
ego— "the vehicle of the ego-ideal, by which
the ego measures itself, towards which it
strives, and whose demands for ever-increasing
perfection it is always striving to fulfill." On
the other side is the id, which "stands for the
untamed passions" and is the source of in-
stinctual life.
The ego, according to Freud, is constantly
attempting "to mediate between the id and
reality" and to measure up to the ideal set by
the super-ego, so as to dethrone "the pleasure-
principle, which exerts undisputed sway over
the processes in the id, and substitute for it the
reality-principle, which promises greater se-
curity and greater success." But sometimes it
fails in this task. Sometimes, when no socially
acceptable channels of behavior are available
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION
419
for expressing emotional drives in action, the
ego, supported by the super-ego, represses the
emotional or instinctual impulses, that is, pre-
vents them from expressing themselves overtly.
Freud's great insight is that emotions re-
pressed do not atrophy and disappear. On the
contrary, their dammed-up energies accumu-
late and, like a sore, they fester inwardly. To-
gether with related ideas, memories, and wishes,
the repressed emotions form what Freud calls
a "complex," which is not only the active nu-
cleus of emotional disorder, but also the cause
of neurotic symptoms and behavior— phobias
and anxieties, obsessions or compulsions, and
the various physical manifestations of hysteria,
such as a blindness or a paralysis that has no
organic basis.
The line between the neurotic and the nor-
mal is shadowy, for repressed emotional com-
plexes are, according to Freud, also responsible
for the hidden or latent psychological signifi-
cance of slips of speech, forgetting, the content
of dreams, occupational or marital choices, and
a wide variety of other phenomena usually re-
garded as accidental or as rationally deter-
mined. In fact, Freud sometimes goes to the
extreme of insisting that all apparently rational
processes— both of thought and decision— are
themselves emotionally determined; and that
most, or all, reasoning is nothing but the ration-
alization of emotionally fixed prejudices or be-
liefs. "The ego," he writes, "is after all only a
part of the id, a part purposively modified by
its proximity to the dangers of reality."
The ancient distinction between knowledge
and opinion seems to be in essential agreement
with the insight that emotions can control the
course of thinking. But at the same time it de-
nies that all thinking is necessarily dominated
by the passions. The sort of thinking which is
free from emotional bias or domination may
result in knowledge, if reason itself is not de-
fective in its processes. But the sort of thinking
which is directed and determined by the pas-
sions must result in opinion. The former is
reasoning; the latter what Freud calls "ration-
alization" or sometimes "wishful thinking."
BECAUSE THEY CAN be ordered when they get
out of order, the emotions raise problems for
both medicine and morals. Whether or not
there is a fundamental opposition between the
medical and the moral approaches to the prob-
lem, whether psychotherapy is needed only
when morality has failed, whether morality is
itself partly responsible for the disorders which
psychotherapy must cure, the difference be-
tween the medical and the moral approaches is
clear. Medically, emotional disorders call for
diagnosis and therapy. Morally, they call for
criticism and correction.
Human bondage, according to Spinoza, con*
sists in "the impotence of man to govern or
restrain the affects ... for a man who is under
their control is not his own master." A free man
he describes as one "who lives according to the
dictates of reason alone," and he tries to show
"how much reason itself can control the af-
fects" to achieve what he calls "freedom of
mind or blessedness." While moralists tend to
agree on this point, they do not all offer the
same prescription for establishing the right re-
lation between man's higher and lower natures.
The issue which arises here is also discussed
in the chapters on DESIRE and DUTY. It exists
between those who think that the passions are
intrinsically evil, the natural enemies of a good
will, lawless elements always in rebellion against
duty; and those who think that the passions
represent a natural desire for certain goods
which belong to the happy life, or a natural
aversion for certain evils.
Those who, like the Stoics and Kant, tend to
adopt the former view recommend a policy of
attrition toward the passions. Their force must
be attenuated in order to emancipate reason
from their influence and to protect the will
from their seductions. Nothing is lost, accord-
ing to this theory, if the passions atrophy and
die. But if, according to the opposite doctrine,
the passions have a natural place in the moral
life, then the aim should be, not to dispossess
them entirely, but to keep them in their place.
Aristotle therefore recommends a policy of
moderation. The passions can be made to serve
reason's purposes by restraining them from ex-
cesses and by directing their energies to ends
which reason approves.
As Aristotle conceives them, certain of the
virtues— especially temperance and courage-
are stable emotional attitudes, or habits of emo-
tional response, which conform to reason and
420
THE GREAT IDEAS
carry out its rule. The moral virtues require
more than a momentary control or moderation
of the passions; they require a discipline of them
which has become habitual. What Aristotle
calls continence, as opposed to virtue, consists
in reason's effort to check emotions which are
still unruly because they have not yet become
habituated to reason's rule.
The fact of individual differences in tempera-
ment is of the utmost importance to the moral-
ist who is willing to recognize that universal
moral rules apply to individuals differently ac-
cording to their temperaments. Both psychol-
ogists and moralists have classified men into
temperamental types by reference to the dom-
inance or deficiency of certain emotional pre-
dispositions in their inherited makeup. These
temperamental differences also have a medical
or physiological aspect insofar as certain ele-
ments in human physique — the four bodily
humors of the ancients or the hormones of
modern endocrinology— seem to be correlated
with types of personality.
ONE OF THE GREAT issues in political theory
concerns the role of the passions in human asso-
ciation. Have men banded together to form
states because they feared the insecurity and
the hazards of natural anarchy and universal
war, or because they sought the benefits which
only political life could provide ? In the polit-
ical community, once it is formed, do love and
friendship or distrust and fear determine the
relation of fellow citizens, or of rulers and ruled ?
Should the prince, or any other man who
wishes to get and hold political power, try to
inspire love or to instill fear in those whom he
seeks to dominate? Or are each of these emo-
tions useful for different political purposes and
in the handling of different kinds of men?
Considering whether for the success of the
prince it is "better to be loved than feared or
feared than loved," Machiavelh says that "one
should wish to be both, but, because it is diffi-
cult to unite them in one person, it is much
safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two,
cither must be dispensed with. , . . Neverthe-
less," he continues, "a prince ought to inspire
fear in such a way that, if he does not win love,
he avoids hatred; because he can endure very
well being feared whilst he is not hated."
According to Hobbes, when men enter into a
commonwealth so that they can live peacefully
with one another, they are moved partly by
reason and partly by their passions. 'The pas-
sions that incline men to peace,*' he writes,
"are fear of death; desire of such things as are
necessary to commodious living; and a hope by
their industry to obtain them." But once a
commonwealth is formed, the one passion which
seems to be the mainspring of all political ac-
tivity is "a perpetual and restless desire of
power after power, that ceaseth only in death";
for a man "cannot assure the power and means
to live well, which he has present, without the
acquisition of more."
Not ail political thinkers agree with the an-
swers which Machiavelli and Hobbes give on
such matters; nor do all make such questions
the pivots of their political theory. But there is
general agreement that the passions are a force
to be reckoned with in the government of men;
that the ruler, whether he is despotic prince or
constitutional officeholder, must move men
through their emotions as well as by appeals to
reason.
The two political instruments through which
an influence over the emotions is exercised are
oratory (now sometimes called "propaganda")
and law. Both may work persuasively. Laws,
like other discourses, according to Plato, may
have preludes or preambles, intended by the
legislator "to create good-will in the persons
whom he addresses, in order that, by reason of
this good- will, they will more intelligently re-
ceive his command." But the law also carries
with it the threat of coercive force. The threat
of punishment for disobedience addresses itself
entirely to fear, whereas the devices of the ora-
tor— or even of the legislator in his preamble —
are not so restricted. The orator can play upon
the whole scale of the emotions to obtain the
actions or decisions at which he aims.
Finally, there is the problem of whether the
statesman should exercise political control over
other influences which affect the emotional life
of a people, especially the arts and public spec-
tacles. The earliest and perhaps the classic
statement of this problem is to be found in
Plato's Republic and in his Laws. Considerations
relevant to the question he raises, and the im-
plications of diverse solutions of the problem,
are discussed in, the chapters on ART, LIBERTY,
and POETRY.
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION 421
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The nature and causes of the emotions or passions 422
i a. Emotion in relation to feelings of pleasure and pain 423
ib. Bodily changes during emotional excitement
ic. Instinctive emotional reactions in animals and men 424
2. The classification and enumeration of the emotions
20. Definitions of particular passions
2b. The order and connection of the passions 425
2C. The opposition of particular emotions to one another
3. The disorder or pathology of the passions
30. Madness or frenzy due to emotional excess: excessively emotional or emotionally
over-determined behavior
3^. Rationalization or the emotional determination of thought 426
y. Particular emotional disorders: psychoneuroses due to repression
(1) Hysterias 427
(2) Obsessions and compulsions
(3) Phobias and anxieties
(4) Traumas and traumatic neuroses
3^. The alleviation and cure of emotional disorders
4. The moral consideration of the passions 428
40. The conflict between reason and emotion
(1) The force of the passions 429
(2) The strength of reason or will 430
\b. The treatment of the emotions by or for the sake of reason
(1) Moderation of the passions by reason: virtue, continence, avoidance of sin
(2) Attenuation and atrophy of the passions: the liberation of reason 431
4^. The moral significance of temperamental type or emotional disposition 432
5. The political consideration of the passions
50. The causes of political association: fear or need 433
5^. The acquisition and retention of power: love or fear
y. The coercive force of law: fear of punishment 434
5</. The devices of oratory: emotional persuasion
5<?. The regulation of art for the sake of training the passions
422
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, tne
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b reicr to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, m$3] AMES- Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7 45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS- The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the woik or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1, The nature and causes of the emotions or
passions
7 PLATO- Republic, BK iv, 350c-353d; BK ix,
416b-c; 42la-b / Timaeus, 466b-d / Philebus,
621c-622b, 627c-628a; 628d-630c / Laws, BK
ix, 748a
8ARISTOILF' Soul, BK I, CH I [403a2-b3]
632a-c; CH 4 [4o8tt34-b3i] 638b-d; BK in, CH
3 [427b2i-24] 660a; CH 9 [432b26-433*2] 665c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH n
[692*22-27] 224b-c / Ethics, BK n, CH 5
[iio5bi9-no6*6] 351b-c / Politics, BK vn, CH
7 [i327b40-i328fti8] 532a-c / Rhetoric, BK n,
CH i [i378*2o]-CH n [n88b3o] 623b-636a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [136-160]
31d-32a; [231-322] 33a-34b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [724-734] 230b
17 PLOTINUS. First Ennead, TR i, CH i la-b; CH 5
2d-3c, CH 9-11 4c-5c/ Third Ennead, TR vi, CH
3-4 108a-109b / Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 18
166d-167b; CH 20-21 167d-168c; CH 28 172a-
173b/ Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 19-22 262a-264c
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-
289a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A A 2-3 429c-431d; PART i-n, QQ 22-48 720b,d~
826a,c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 82, A i, ANS 968a-970c; Q 86, A 3, ANS and
REP 3-4 994d-996a,c
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, INTRO, 47c-d; PART i,
61a-65b esp 61a-c, 68b-c; 77b-c; PART n, 162c
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 55b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 82d-83a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 3 373d;
PART in 395a-422a,c esp 395a-d, DBF 1-3
395d-396a, PROP i 396a-c, PROP 3 398b-c,
PROP 56 414a-d, THE AFFECTS 416b-422a,c;
PART iv, DBF 7 424b; PROP 1-4 424c-425d;
PROP 9-13 426d-428a; APPENDIX, i-n 447a-b;
PART v, AXIOM 2 452c; PROP 34 460c-d
35 LOCKE : Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx
176b-178a esp SECT 3 176d; CH xxxni, SECT
5-15 248d-2SOc
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality* 338c-d
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
378b-c / Intro. Metaphysic of 'Morals, 385a-d;
386b-d / Judgement, 483d-484b; 508d [fn i]
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 17, 69c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 49b-50a; 87b; 209a-b;
327b-328a, 738a-766a esp 738a-b, 742a-746a,
758a-759a, 761a-765b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 4d-5a / Interpretation of Dreams,
363c-d / Repression, 424d-425b / Uncon-
la to \b
Xious, 432c-433d esp 433b / General Introduc-
tioii, 608d; 623 b-c / Inhibitions, Symptoms,
and Anxiety, 720c-72lb; 736d-741c / New
Introductory Lectures, 837 b-d
la. Emotion in relation to feelings of pleasure
and pain
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120b-c / Phaedo, 220b-
221a / Republic, BK iv, 352d / Timacus, 463d-
464b / Philebus, 628d-630c / Laws, BK ix,
748a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK iv, CH 5 [i25b28-34]
175a; CH 6 [12-^26-^2] 177b / Soul, BK 11, CH
2 [413^7-24] 643d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 3 [iio4b29~
H05ai6] 350b-c; CH 5 [no5bi9-28] 351b; BK
vii, CH 6 [ii49b20-24] 400b / Politics, BK v,
CH 10 [i3i2b24~3}] 515b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH n
[1370*28-1372*1] 613c-615c passim; BK n, CH
i [i378a2o]-cH n [i388b30] 623b-636a pas-
sim
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1073-
1085] 58a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 184a-c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 18-20
166d-168b; CH 28 172a-173b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 2-4 13c-
14b; BK vni, par 7-8 54c-55a; BK x, par 39
81b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
2, A 6, ANS and REP 2 619d-620d; Q 22, A i,
ANS 720d-721c; Q 23 723c-727a; QQ 31-39
752b-792d; Q 48, A i 822d-823b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-62c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 4-57 398d-
415b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx
176b-178a passim, esp SECT 3 176d; CH xxi,
SECT 40 187d-188b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i
413a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 298d-300a; 341c-
342a / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385a-
386b / Judgement, 477b-478a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 197a-b; 391b-392a; 739b-
740a; 754b-758a passim; 808a-812b passim,
esp 808b-809a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 378b-d / In-
stincts, 418d-420b esp 420a / Repression 422a-
427a,c esp 422a-d, 424d-425c / General Intro-
duction, 608d / Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
639a-641a esp640b-d; 641d-643c / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 720a-721c; 736d-
737b; 739b-c; 752c-754a,c passim
Ib. Bodily changes during emotional excite-
ment
7 PLATO: Ion, 145a-b / Symponum, 155c-157a /
Ttmaeus, 466c-d / Philebus, 628c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [9b9~34] 14c-
15a / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*3~b3] 632a-c; CH 4
22: EMOTION 423
[4<j8*34-b3i] 638b-d; BK HI, CH 9 [432b26-
433*1] 665c / Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2
[453*15-31] 695b-d / Dreams, CH 2 [460*32-
bi8]704b-c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK iv, CH i
(524bi7-i9] 50c; BK v, CH 18 [550*29-31] 77b;
BK vi, CH 18 [572*8^28] 97d-98c; BK ix, CH
37 [62ib28-^22*io] 147c / Parts of Animals, BK
11, CH 4 [650^8-^51*15] 175c-176a; BK iv, CH
5 [679*5-31] 209a-c; CH n [692*22-27] 224b-c
/ Motion of Animals, CH 7 [70ib^)-cn 8 [702*
21] 236d-237c; CH n 239a-d / Ethics, BK iv,
CH 9 [ii28bio-i4] 375d-376a; BK vii, CH 3
[1147*14-17] 397b
10 HIPPOCRATES: Sacred Disease, 158a; 159d-
160a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1057] 57d
14 PLUTARCH: Demetrius, 740d-741a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 3, 108a b /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 23 153d-154b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 75,
A 3, REP 3 380c-381b; PART i-ii, Q 17, A 7,
REP 2 690d-692a; Q 22 720b,d-723b passim,
esp A 2, REP 3 721c-722c; Q 35, A 8, ANS 779c-
780c; Q 37, A 2, ANS 784c-785b; A 4 785d-
786d; Q 41, A i, ANS 798b-d; Q 44, A i 807a-
808b; A 3 809a-c; Q 48, A 2 823b 824c; A 4
825b-826a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 70, A 2, REP 2,5 896a-897d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
15a-b; BK HI, 192b-193a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 345b-c; 405b-d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 271a-b; 288b;
292d-293a; 296d / Circulation of the Blood,
322c-d / On Animal Generation, 431d-432a
30 BACON* Advancement of learning, 49b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99d-100a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, DEF 3-posTULATE i
395d-396a; PROP 2, DEMONST and SCHOL,
396d; PART iv, PROP 7-8 426a-c; PART v,
pREF451a-452c; PROP 34, DEMONST 460c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 17 177d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 234a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 234a-b; 253d
42 KANT: Judgement, 509c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 169d-170b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 274a; 546b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 48c; BK iv,
178d-179a; BK vi, 247d-248a; 256b-c; 264c-d;
BK vni, 334a; BK ix, 350d-354a passim, esp
351d-352a, 353b-d; BK XHI, 567d-568c; BK
xv, 616a-618b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 198a; 327b-328a; 694a-
699a; 738a-766a esp 738b-745b, 754b-759a
54 FREUD: Hysteria, 59c / Interpretation of
Dreams, 323b / Unconscious, 433d [fn 2] /
General Introduction, 608d~609a / Inhibi-
1 tions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 736d-738a esp
424
THE GREAT IDEAS
Ictola
(1. The nature and causes of the emotions or
passions.)
If. Instinctive emotional reactions in animals
and men
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, llld-112c csp
112c; BK vn, 236c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 157b-159b csp 158a-159a;
165b-166b / Republic, BK 11, 320b-c / Laws,
BK vi, 712b
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 27
(70b6-39) 92c-93a,c
9 ARISTOTLE. History of Animals, BK iv, CH i
[524bi7-i9] 50c; BK v, CH 8 [542*i7~b4] 68d-
69a; CH 18 (55oa29-3i] 77b; BK vi, CH i8-BK
VH, CH 2 97b-108c passim, esp BK vi, CH 18
97b-99c, BK vn, CH i 106b,d-108a; BK ix,
CH i [6o8*2i-b2o] 133b,d-134a; CH 37 [62ib28-
622*10] 147c / Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 5
[679*5-32] 209a-c; CH n [692*22-27] 224b-c /
Generation of Animals, BK HI, CH 2 [753*6-17]
294a-b / Ethics, BK HI, CH 8 [ui6b24-i 117*3]
363a-b; BK vn, CH 6 [ii49b24~i 150*8] 400b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12,
173a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 23 128c-d;
BK in, CH 7, 183c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ix, SECT 9 292b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 78,
A 4, ANS 411d-413d; Q 82, AA 2-3 429c-431c;
Q 96, A i, REP 2 510b-511b; PART i-n, Q 17, A
2, REP 3 687d-688b; Q 40, AA 2-3 793d-795a;
Q 41, A i, REP 3 798b-d; Q 46, A 4, REP 2
815b-d; A 5, REP i 815d-816d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvin
[10-75] 80a-c
22 CHAUCER: Nun's Priest's Tale [15,282-287]
457b / Manciple's Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 184a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 346a-347d;
349a-350a; 361b-362a; 381b-c; 402a-d; 405c-
406a; 476c-477a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99d-100a; 102b-
103a/ Objections and Replies, 156a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 57, SCHOL
415b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
80 486c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-346d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124b; 174b; 347a-c; 386a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 144a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 287d-291a csp
289a-291a; 304b-313a csp 305c-309a, 312b,d
[fni7];371c-372c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 499c-500c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 49b-51a; 198a-199a; 204b-
211a passim, csp 206a, 208a-209b; 700a-738b
csp 717a-731b, 734b-735a, 738a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 591d-592c;
607d-609b csp 608d-609b; 613a; 615b-616c;
623 b-c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety,
721a-b; 737c-739c; 752a-c / Civilization and
Us Discontents, 782a-b,d [fn ij; 787a-b; 789b-
791 d csp 789c-790b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 840a-853b csp 840b-c, 846b-849b,
851a-c
2. The classification and enumeration of the
emotions
7 PLATO: Phikbus, 628d-630c
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK n, CH 5 351b-c/ Rhet-
oric, BK i, CH ii, [1378*20-30] 623b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 2 429c-430c; PART i-n, Q 23 723c-727a, Q
24, A 4 729c-730a; Q 30, A 2, ANS and REP i
749d-750d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62c-64a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, THE AFFECTS 416b-
422a,c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 1-3 176b-d; SECT 18 178a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 127b; 656a; 742a-743a;
745b-746a;766a
2a. Definitions of particular passions
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 103b-d / Phaedrus, 120a-c /
Symposium 149a-173a,c esp 161d-168a / Eu-
thyphro, 193d-194b / Apology, 202a / Philebus,
628d-630c / Laws, BK i, 650a; 651a-c
8 ARISTOTLE- Topics, BK n, CH 7 [ii3*33-b3]
158d-159a; BK iv, CH 5 [i25b28~34] 175a; CH
6 [127^6-32] 177b; CH 13 [151*14-19] 205d-
206a; BK vin, CH i [i56a26-b3J 212b-c / Soul,
BK i, CH i [403*25-33] 632b-c
9 ARISTOTLE. Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH n
[692*22-27] 224b-c / Ethics, BK in, CH 6
[1115*7-14] 361a-b; CH 8 [m6b24-i 117*3]
363a-b; BK iv, CH 9 [1128^0-14] 375d-376a;
BK vin, CH 6 [1158*10-14] 409d-410a; BK ix,
CH 10 [1171*11-13] 424d, CH 12 [117^29-33]
425d / Politics, BK v, CH 10 [i3i2b24~33]
515b / Rhetoric, BK n, CH i [i378*2o]-cH n
[1388^0] 623b-636a
17 PLOIINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 28 172a-
173b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 13 lld-
12a; BK in, par 2 13c-d; BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a csp par n 21d-22a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
26-48 733d-826a,c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-65b esp
61a-62c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-6c; 25c-26d; 344a-
347c; 409d-434d passim, csp 424d-425a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT HI, sc in [165-
192] 223d-224a; [322-357] 225c-226a; sc iv
[155-162] 229a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 11-59 399d-
416b; THE AFFECTS 416b-422a,c; PART iv,
APPENDIX, xxi-xxv 449a-c
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 262 221a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 3-18 176d-178a
2b to
CHAP?** DEMOTION
425
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 453a-456a; 502a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 198d-199a; 237b-c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 345c-346d
42 KANT: Fund. Prtn. Metaphystc of Morals, 259a;
259d-260b [fn 2] /Judgement, 502d-503d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308d-309a; 312b,d
[fn27];313a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKXII, 561 b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 717a-736b passim, esp
717a-721a, 733b-73Sa; 738b-741b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 418c-421a,c / General Intro-
duction, 558d; 607d-609c; 612c-614b; 623b-c /
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 641 b-c / Group
Psychology, 673b-674a; 681c-683a; 693a-
694d passim / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and
Anxiety, 736d-739c; 751a-754a,c esp 753d-
754a,c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 783c;
795d-796b; 798a
2b. The order and connection of the passions
7 PLATO: Philebus, 628d-630c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK n, CH 7 [ii3a33-b3]
158d-159a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 2-4 13c-
14b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 81, A
2 429c-430c; PART i-n, Q 25 730b-733d, Q 27,
A 4 739c-740a; Q 29, A 2 745c-746b, Q 30, A
2 749d-750c; Q 32, AA 3-4 760d-762a; Q 33, A
2 766a-767a; Q 36, A 2 781c-782b; Q 40, A 7
797a-c; Q 43, A i 805d-806b; Q 45, A 2 810d-
811b; Q 46, AA 1-2 813b-814d; Q 48, A i 822d-
823b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-65b esp 61a-
62c
25 MONTAIGNE' Essays, 105c-107a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, 395a-422a,c esp
PROP 11-59 399d-416b, THE AFPECIS 416b-
422a,c; PART iv, DEF 5 424b; PROP 7 426a-b
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 262 221a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 3-18 176d-178a
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 237b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 742a-b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 415d-421a,c esp 420c-
421a,c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 659b-c /
Group Psychology, 677c-678c / Ego and Id,
709d-710c / War and Death, 758a-b; 766a>b
2c. The opposition of particular emotions to
one another
7 PLATO: Symposium, 153b-157a / Phaedo,
220b-221a / Republic, BK iv, 350d-353d
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 7 [431*8-16]
663c-d;[43ib2-9]664a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK ir, CH i [1378*20]-^!
n [i388b3o] 623b-636a passim
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1073-
, 1085] 58a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 7-11
2Qd*22a esp par 11 21d-22a; BK x, par 39
81b-c
19 AQUINAS: $umma Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 23,
AA 2-4 724c-727a; Q 25, A 4 733a-d; Q 29,
AA 2-3 745c-747a; Q 32, A 4 761c-762a; Q 35,
A 6 777b-778c; Q 46, A i, REP 2 813b-814a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART r, 61b-d; 62b-c;
63b-d; CONCLUSION, 279a-c passim
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 17 401d-402a;
PROP 51 411c-412a; PART iv, DEP 5 424b;
AXIOM 424c; PROP i, SCHOL-PROP 7 424d-
426b; PROP 9-18 426d-429d esp PROP 15-18
428a-429d; PROP 60 442d-443a; APPENDIX,
xxi-xxv 449a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xx,
SECT 3-18 176d-178a passim
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 127b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312b,d [fn 27]
53 JAMES: Psychology, 197b-198a; 708a-709a;
720b; 729a-b; 734b-735a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 415d-421a,c passim, esp
419d-421a,c / Beyond the Pleasure Princi-
ple, 659b-c / Group Psychology, 677c-678c /
Ego and Id, 709c-710c / War and Death,
758a-b
3. The disorder or pathology of the passions
da. Madness or frenzy due to emotional excess:
excessively emotional or emotionally
over-determined behavior
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [1-445] 3a-7c; BK ix [189-
429] 59a-61c
5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe [1010-1063] 80a-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [282-332]
145c-146a / Electra 156a-169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c / Electra 327a-
339a,c / Bacchantes [1024-1297] 348c-351a /
Heracles Mad [815-1015] 371d-373d / Orestes
394a-410d esp [1-424] 394a-398b
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK in, 95d-98a; 103b-d;
BK vn, 222c-d
7 PLATO: Charmides, 2b-c / Lysis, 14b-15d /
Protagoras, 59b-61c / Phaedrus, 120a-129d /
Ion, 145a-c / Symposium, 168c / Phaedo, 220d-
221a; 232d-233c / Timaeus, 474b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Dreams, CH 2 [46oa32-bi8j 704b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 3 [1147*14-17]
397b / Politics, BK viu, CH 7 [i34ib33-i342b
18] 547c-548a,c esp [1342*6-12] 547d / Poetics,
CH 17 [1455*29-36] 690c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [31-93]
30b-31b; [1045-1075] 43c-d; BK iv [1073-
1120] 58a-d
13 VIRGIL: Acncid, BK iv [296-303] 175a;
[450-477] 179b-180b; BK vn [323-474] 245a-
249a; BK xii [1-80] 354a-356a; {593-611]
370a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 206b
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q to,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 664d-665c; Q 28, A 3, ANS
742a-d; Q 37, A 2, ANS and REP 3 784c-785b;
A 4, REP 3 785d-786d
426
THE GREAT IDEAS
3a to Ic
( 3 . The disorder or pathology of the passions. 3a.
Madness or frenzy due to emotional excess;
excessively emotional or emotionally over-
determined behavior?)
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida la-155a csp
BK iv, STANZA 32-49 92b-95a, BK v, STANZA
33-39 124b-125b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 63b; 68b-71a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
192b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-6c; lOb-llb; 25c-
26d; 166a-167a; 275c-d; 289b-290a; 344a-
347c; 418c-d; 420d-421d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT in, sc ir
[104-195] 87b-88a; ACT v, sc vi [61-93] 103d'
104a / Richard III 105a-148a,c / Romeo and
Juliet 285a-319a,c csp ACT HI, sc in [1-115]
304d-306a / Merchant of Venice, ACT iv, sc i
[40-62] 426a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet 29a-72a,c csp ACT
iv, sc v 59c-62a / Othello 205a-243a,c esp
ACT iv, sc i 229d-233a / King Lear 244a-
283a,c esp ACT i 244a-254c, ACT n, sc iv [274-
289] 261c-d, ACT in, sc iv 264a-266b, ACT iv,
sc vi [80-207] 274b-275c / Macbeth, ACT v,
sc i 306b 307a; sc in [37-46] 308a / Antony
and Cleopatra, ACT n, sc v 322a-323d / Timon
of Athens, ACT iv, sc III-ACT v, sc iv 410c-
420d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 83a-c;
88c-89a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 7d-8c / Human Under-
standing, BK n, CH xxi, SECT 12 180d-181a;
SECT 69 196d-197a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 231c-232b; 234a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 216a-c; 509d-510c
esp 509d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 481d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv,
323a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3374-3413] 82b-83a;
[4405-4612] 110a-114b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic[ esp 135a-136b, 148b-
150a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 51d; BK in,
119a-120c; 159b-162b esp 160d; BK iv, 178b-
179a; BK v, 207b-208a; 233b-234a; BK vi,
238a-c; 245d-246a; 266c-d; 271b-273c; BK
vii, 277a-278a; 292b-296a; BK vm, 305b-
307d; BK ix, 350d-354a; BK xi, 505a-511b;
531a~532a,c; BK XH, 549d-551c; BK xm,
567d-568c; BK xv, 616a-617a; 642d-643b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, 4a-d;
BK n, 17b-21b; 21d<22b; 41c-45d; BK HI 46a-
82a,c esp 50c-62a; BK vm, 200c<201c; 206a-
207d; 228d-235d; BK ix, 259c-265a; BK xii,
395a-396a;397c-398d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 204b; 653a-b; 716b; 718a-
719a; 750a-b; 754a; 797a-b
54 FREUD: Hysteria, 27a-c / Interpretation of
Dreams, 210c-d; 328a-b / General Introduc-
tion, 547b-549d / Group Psychology, 670d-
671c; 675b-676b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and
Anxiety, 743b-744a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 787a-b
3£. Rationalization or the emotional determi-
nation of thought
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
427d-428a; BK iv, 474a-c; BK v, 506b; 507a-c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 118d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 16 [i287a20-b5]
485c-486a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [1356*11-18]
595c; BK 11, CH i [1377^8-1 378*5] 622d-623a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1141-
1191] 59a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52d-53a; 58a;
68c; 78a-b; PART n, 154a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
148d-150d; 154a-156c; 159d-163c; 166a-168a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 210b-212a; 273b-276a;
447c-448c; 490d-491d
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 306a-c;
309d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38d-39a;
66c-d / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 49 Ilia
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 39, SCHOL
408b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 82-87 186b-189a; 99-100
191a-192b / Geometrical Demonstration, 439b-
44 2a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 2d-3a / Civil Government,
CH n, SECT 13 28a-b / Human Understanding,
BK n, CH xxxin, SECT 1-9 248b-249d; BK iv,
CH xx, SECT 12 392c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 6,
453c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29c-30b; NUMBER 31,
103c-104a; NUMBER 50, 162a-b
43 MILL- Liberty, 270a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 82d-83a; BK
HI, 134a-c; BK iv, 170d-171c; BK v, 233b-234a;
BK vi, 238a-b; BK x, 426b; BK xi, 497c-499c;
505a-511b esp 509c-510d; BK xm, 585b,
EPILOGUE n, 686c-687a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 371b; 374a-377a passim,
esp 376b-377a; 439a; 643a-646a; 652a-657b
54 FREUD' Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 13d-14a / Interpretation of Dreams,
210c-d; 379a-380d / General Introduction,
486b-488b esp 487d-488a / Group Psychology,
682b-c / War and Death, 760d-761a / New
Introductory Lectures, 874a-879b esp 874a-d,
878b-879b
c. Particular emotional disorders: psycho-
neuroses due to repression
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 244b-253b esp 248a; 645b-
646a; 746b-748a; 749a-750b; 753b-754b;
759b-760a; 799b-807a; 838a-839b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis la-20d esp 4d-5a, 7a-9a, 14b49a /
3c(i) to 3d
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION
427
Hysteria 25a-118a,c csp 35b-c, 37d-38d, 52c-
53c, 65a-72b, 81c-87a, lllb-115a / Interpreta-
tion of Dreams, 320b-c; 328c; 380d-382a /
Narcissism, 402c-404d / Repression 422a-
427a,c / Unconscious, 432d-436b / General
Introduction, 545a-638a,c esp 557b-569c,
585b-600d, 604c-606a, 611a-615a, 632b-
635d / Group Psychology, 690a-691c esp
690c-d; 695b-696a,c / Ego and Id, 712c-
71 5c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety
718a-754a,c esp 720a-723d, 728b-731d, 741d
[fn i], 745d-747b, 750a-d / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 792b-799a esp 797a-b, 798d-
799a / New Introductory Lectures, 840a-846a;
851d-852d;859c-860c
Hysterias
10 HIPPOCRATES: Regimen in Acute Diseases, AP-
PENDIX, par 35 43d
53 JAMES Psychology, 131b-137b esp 135a, 137a;
248a-252a; 747b [£113]; 768b-770a esp 770b
[fn 3]; 789b-790b [fn 2]; 802b-803a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, la-5d esp 4c-5d / Hysteria, 25a-62b
esp 35b-c, 37d-38d, 53b-c; 72d-73b; 76c-d,
81d-83c; 97b-99c; lllb-118a,c / Interpretation
of Dreams, 200a-d / Repression, 426b-c / Un-
conscious, 434c-436a esp 435d-436a / General
Introduction, 572a-b; 586d-587b; 610d-612b
passim / Ego and Id, 713d-714a / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 718c-719c; 728b-729a;
741c-742a; 747c-748a; 750b
3c(2) Obsessions and compulsions
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-93]
30d-31b; [1053-1075] 43c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT v, sc i 306b-
307a, sc in [37-46] 308a
29 CERVANTES' Don Quixote, PART i, 2b
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART iv, PROP 44, SCHOL
437d-438a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 139 196b-199a; 142-143
199b-200a
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 138c-139a
48 MELVILLE Moby Dic\ esp 135a-136b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 513d-515a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 733b [fn i); 801a-805b
54 FREUD: Hysteria, 83d-86a; 90a-b; 99c-102a /
Repression, 426d-427a,c / Unconscious, 436b /
General Introduction, 550d-557b esp 551b-
552c; 561c-562c; 568a-569a; 572b-c; 587b-c;
600d; 612a-b / Ego and Id, 713c-715c pas-
sim / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 718b-
719b passim; 721c; 723c-d; 729a-733c;
735c-d; 747c-d; 750b-d / New Introductory
Lectures, 841 b-c
3c(3) Phobias and anxieties
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [102-158]
2b-3a; BK in [59-93] 30d-31b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 35,
A 8, ANS 779c-780c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 68d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxni, SECT 10 249d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 210b-211a;
BK xv, 618a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK ix,
260d-262a; BK xi, 318a-348d; BK xii, 376b-d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 722a-725a passim, esp
723a, 724b; 733b [fn i]
54 FREUD: Hysteria, 83d-86a passim, csp 84d-
85a; 87a-97b / Interpretation of Dreams,
205a-c; 235b-d; 276c; 370b-373a / Repression,
425d-426b / Unconscious, 434c-435d / General
Introduction, 607b-615b esp 610d-612d; 623b-c
/ Ego and Id, 715d-717a,c / Inhibitions, Symp-
toms, and Anxiety, 720a-754a esp 724a-728b,
733c-742a, 744b-748b / New Introductory
Lectures, 840a-846a
3c(4) Traumas and traumatic neuroses
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 3a-5a esp 4b-c; 14d-15a / Hysteria,
25a-30a esp 26a-c, 27c-d / General Introduc-
tion, 558a-d; 603a-b / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 641a-d; 648d-650c / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 735d-736c; 741a-b;
744b-745d; 749b-c; 751b-752b / New Intro-
ductory lectures, 817c-818b; 845b-846a
3</. The alleviation and cure of emotional dis-
orders
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [31-93]
30b-31b esp [87-93] 31b; BK vi '[1-42]
80a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 38
786d-789d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 37c-39a; 401b-406a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT v, sc i 306b-
307a; sc in [37-46] 308a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxni, SECT 13 250a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 13b-c; 127a-b; 284c-d;
297d-298a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 357b-358b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 271b c;
BK xii, 551c-554a; BK xv, 614a-d; 616a-618b
esp 617a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 21 d-
23c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 132b; 135a-b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, la-4d; 6c-7a; 10c-13d; I4d-l$a; 18a-
20d / Hysteria, 25a-81c passim, esp 30d-31a,
59d-60a, 62c-72d, 75d-81c; 106c-lllb / Psycho-
Analytic Therapy 123a-127a,c/ "Wild" Psycho-
Analysis 128a-130d / General Introduction,
546b-c; 550a-c; 560b-561b; 603b-604c; 623c-
638a,c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 643d-
644d; 651c-d / Ego and Id, 712c-713a / In-
hibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 748b-d /
New Introductory Lectures, 840a; 851d-852d;
864a-873d csp 871a-873d
428
THE GREAT IDEAS
4/0
4. The moral consideration of the passions
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 275d-277c / Republic, BK iv,
350c-353d; BK x, 433d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH I-BK in, CH i
348b,d-357b passim; BK in, CH 6-BK iv, CH
9' 361a-376a,c; BK v, CH 8 [1135^7-1136*9]
383c~384a; BK vn 395a-406a,c; BK x, CH
8 [ii78ft8-2i] 432d / Politics, BK vn, CH 15
[1334^8-28] 539b-d / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 12-14
636a-638a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [288-322]
33d-34b
12EpicTETUs: Discourses 10Sa-245a,c passim,
csp BK i, CH 3-5 108b-110c, CH 22 127c-128c,
CH 25, 129d-130a, BK n, CH 5, 142c-143b, CH
13 152c-153d, CH 17-18 158d-162b, BK in, CH
15, 190c-d, BK iv, CH 4-6 225a-232c, CH 9
237d-238d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations 253a-310d passim
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK ix, CH 4-6 287a-
289b; BK xiv, CH 3-9 378a-385b / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 24 630c-631a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 24
727a-730a;Q34768c-772b
20 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i~ii, Q 56,
A 4 32b-33c; Q 58, A 2, ANS 42a-43a; A 3, REP
2 43b-44a; Q 59 45d-49d; Q 60, A 2 50d-51b;
AA 4-5 52b-54d; Q 62, A 2, REP 1,3 60d-61b,
Q 63, A 4, ANS 65d-66c; Q 64, A i 66d-67c;
Q 66, A 3, ANS and REP 2 77c-78b; Q 67, A i
81c-82c
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 61d-62a; 79a-80a;
85d; 95d-96b; PART n, 138d-139a; PART iv,
272c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26a 27c;
78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, i-m
447a-b; xxxn 450c-d; PART v, PROP 1-4
452d-453d esp PROP 4, SCHOL 453b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensfcs, 203 211a; 262 221a; 412-413
242a; 423 243b; 502 260b-261a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331a; 343b-346d;
362a-d / Political Economy, 375d-376b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals,
253a-279d esp 256a-c, 259b-c, 264d-265b,
266d-267d, 268d-271d; 284d-285a / Practical
Reason, 297a-307d esp 298a-300a, 304a-307d;
321b-329a esp 321b-324b; 341c-342a; 356a-
360d / Intro. Metaphy sic of Morals, 385c-386d;
389a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 295b-297b / Utilitarianism,
457c-461c; 464d-465c; 469b-471b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 150
56c-57a / Philosophy of History, PART i,
251b-c; PART iv, 321b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-319a csp
311a-d, 313d-314b, 318d-319a; 592b-593b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 81b-83a; 202a-203a; 798b-
808a csp 807a-808a; 816a-818a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 386c-387a /
General Introduction, 501d-504b csp 503d-
504b; 624d-625b / War and Death, 757d-761c
4a. The conflict between reason and emotion
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [655-663]
120b-c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120b-c; 128a-129c / Repub-
lic, BK iv, 350c-355a; BK ix, 416a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH n 239a-d /
Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [i 1 02bi 3-1103*10] 348a-d;
BK in, CH i [mi*35-b4] 357b; BK vn 395a-
406a,c / Politics, BK in, CH 15 [1286*17-20]
484b-c; [1286*33-37] 484d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [307-322]
34a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 5 257b-c;
SECT 10 257d-258a; SECT 16-17 259a-d; BK
in, SECT 4 260b-261a; SECT 12 262b-c; BK v,
SECT 8-9 269d-270c; BK vn, SECT 55 283b-c;
SECT 68-69 284c-d; BK vm, SECT 39 288c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv 167a-186b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 3, ANS and RLP 2 430c-431d; Q 95, A 2, ANS
and REP i 507c-508a; Q in, A 2, ANS 569c-
570b; PART i-ii, Q 9, A 2 esp REP 3 658d-659c;
Q 10, A 3, ANS and REP 2 664d-665c; Q 17,
A 7 690d-692a; Q 33, A 3 767a-d; Q 34, A i,
REP i 768c-769d; Q 48, A 3 824c-825b
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 61,
A 3, ANS 56b-57a; Q 77 144d-152a esp A 2
145d-147c, A 4 148b-149a, A 7 150d-151c;
Q 80, A 2 160d-161c; Q 91, A 6 212c-213c; Q 93,
A 6 219d-220d; Q 94, A 6, ANS 225d-226b;
PART ii-n, Q 186, A 4, ANS 655c-656b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 57d-58a; 58c-d;
PART n, 105d-106a; 141a-b, 151b-c
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 20d-22a; 159a-167a esp
161a-c, 165c466a; 184b-d; 200d-205b; 273b-
276a, 486b-495a
27 SHAKFSPFARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT 11,
sc ii 113c-115d; ACT in, sc 11 [74-81] 121a /
Othello, ACT i, sc in [306-337] 212b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 55b-d;
66c-d; 67a-b; 78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 1-18 424c-
429d; PROP 59-73 442b-447a; APPENDIX, i-
in 447a-b; xxxn 450c-d; PART v, PROP 1-20
452d-458a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [500-643]
243a-246a; BK xii [80-110] 321a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 104 193a; 412-413 242a; 423
243b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 13
28a-b / Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 54 192b-c; BK iv, CH xx, SECT 12 392c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 3
451 d
42 KANT: Iniro. Metaphy sic of Morals^ 385c-
386b / Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 65b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI,
312d-313a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3217-3373} 79a-82a
esp [3217-3250] 79a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic)(, 411a-412a
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION
429
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 318d-319a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 799a-808a esp 799a-b,
807a-b; 816a-819a csp 816a 817a
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 433b-c / General Intro-
duction, 501d-504b esp 503 b-c, 504b; 589c-
593b passim / Ego and Id, 702c-d; 704a<c;
708b-c; 715a-716c / Inhibitions, Symptoms,
and Anxiety, 721d-722c / New Introductory
Lectures, 837b-839b esp 838a-d; 843d-846a
esp 845b
4a(l) The force of the passions
OLD TESTAMENT. Genesis, 4 1-16; 25:29-34; 34;
39:7-20 / Exodus, 32.15-20 / / Samuel, 18:6-
12; 19 8-10— (D) I Kings, 18-6-12; 19-8-10 /
II Samuel, n; 13— (D) // Kings, u; 13 / Job,
5-2 / Proverbs, 15*13; 27:4
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:18-32 / II Corin-
thians, 7:8-16 / / Timothy, 6:9-10 / / John,
* iS-^S-'M-16
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xn [153-200] 251d-252b
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [627-641] 217c / Hippoly-
tus 225a-236d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, lOOb-lOlb; BK
vii, 218c; 222c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK HI,
438a-b
7 PLATO: Charmides, 2b-c / Protagoras, 59b-
61c / Phaedrus, 120a-122a / Symposium,
168a / Phaedo, 232d-234c / Republic, BK i,
296b-c; BK ix, 416a-418c / Timaeus, 474b-d /
Laws, BK vin, 735a-738c passim
8 ARISTOTLE. Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2
[453ai5-3i] 695b-d / Dreams, CH 2 U6oa32-
bi8] 704b~c
9 ARISTOTLE. History of Animals, BK vn, CH i
[58ibu-22] 107b / Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94b
29-1095*12] 340a-b; BK in, CH i [i 109^0-
inobi5l 355b,d-356b; [ima2i-b3] 357a-b;
BK iv, CH 9 [ii28bi5~2o] 376a; BK vi, CH 5
[ii40b8-i9] 389b-c; BK vn, CH i-io 395a-
403c passim; BK vin, CH 3 [ii56a3i-b5] 408a;
BK ix, CH 8 [ii68bn-28] 422a~b; BK x, CH 9
[ii79b4-n8oa24] 434b-435a / Politics, BK i,
CH 2 [1253*31-37] 446d; BK HI, CH 15 [1286*
16-20] 484b-c; [1286*33-37] 484d; CH 16
[i287a28-32] 485d; BK v, CH 10 [1312^5-33]
515b; CH u [1315*25-31] 518a-b; BK vn, CH
7 [i327b4o-i328ai8] 532a-c / Rhetoric, BK u,
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [307-322]
34a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK u, SECT 10 257d-
258a; BK vn, SECT 55 283b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv 167a-186b; BK xn
[1-80] 354a-356a; [593-611] 370a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 139a-c / Conolanus
174b,d-193a,c / Lysander, 362b-365a / Pom-
pey, 533a-c / Antony 748a-779d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 58a; BK XIH, 137b-c/
Histories, BK iv, 267d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 9-14
21b-23a; BK vi, par 11-13 38b-39c; BK vni,
par lo-n 55c-56b / City of God, BK iv, CH 3
190a-c; BK xix, CH 15 521a*c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 3, REP 1-2 430c-431d; Q in, A 2, ANS 569c-
570b, PART i-n, Q 6, AA 6-7 649a-650d; Q 9,
A 2 658d-659c; Q 10, A 3 664d-665c; Q 24,
A 2, ANS 727d-728c; Q 37 783c-786d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 72,
A 2 112b-113a; Q 73, A 5 123a-d; Q 74, AA
5-10 131d-137c; Q 77 144d-152a; Q 82, A 3
169c-170b; Q 83, A 4 173c-l74b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-8b; vn
[97J-VIH [64] lOc-llc
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a; 89a; PART
n, 104d; 105c; 138d-139a; 141a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-6c; 20d-22a; 25c-
26d, 36c-41a passim, esp 39b-40a; 109a-c; 159a-
167a; 184a-d; 200d-205b csp 203c-205b;
232b-238d passim; 273b-276a; 346b-347c;
350d-354b; 402c-404b; 418c-d; 420d-421d;
435b-d;491c-495a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT i, sc in
73d-74b / Romeo and Juliet 285a-319a,c /
Merchant of Venice, ACT i-iv 406a-430c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida 103a-
141a,c / Othello 205a-243a,c / Antony and
Cleopatra 311a-350d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c-d
30 BACON • Advancement of learning, 67a-b; 78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 1-18 424c-
429d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vni [561-594]
244b-245a; BK ix [990-1066] 269a-270b; BK
xii [80-110] 321a-b / Samson Agomstes [521-
576] 351a-352a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 360 235a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 39 187c-d; SECT 54 192b-c; BK iv, CH
xx, SECT 12 392c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 3
451d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 239b-243a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 109c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329b
42 KANT: Intro, Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-
386b / Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER i, 29d-30a; NUMBER 6,
40a-b; NUMBER 50, 162a-b; NUMBER 55, 173a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 174b-c; 176d; 214b-c;
341c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 167c-
168a; PART HI, 300c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1110-1117] 27b-28a;
[3217-3373] 79a-82a; PART n [6566-6569] 161a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 135a-136b; 411a-412a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311d-312b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
in, 122b-c; BK vi, 2Sld-252d; EPILOGUE i,
655c-656b
430
THE GREAT IDEAS
4«(2) to 4W1)
(4a. The conflict between reason and emotion.
4a(l) The force of the passion*)
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
4a-d; BK u, 39b-40a; BK in, 50c-62a; BK vii,
177c; BK xii, 397c-398d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 799a-b
54 FREUD: Hysteria, llOc / General Introduction,
502a-504b esp 503d-504a / Group Psychology,
690a-c / Ego and Id, 701d-702d; 715d-716a /
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 745d-
747b / War and Death, 760d-761a / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 787 b-c / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 837b-839b esp 838c-839b
4a(2) The strength of reason or will
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK iv [265-295] 201d-202a;
BK ix [82-104] 230a; BK xix [203-219] 291b
7 PLATO: Symposium, 168a-173a,c / Apology,
205d-206d / Crito, 214d-215d / Phaedo, 220b-
221a; 225b-226c; 232b-234c; 250b-251d /
Laws, BK i, 649d-650b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 8 [n68b28-
1160*11] 422b-d / Politics, BK i, CH 5 [1254°
jS-bgj 447d-448a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [307-
322] 34a-b
12EriCTETUs: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
BK u, CH 23 170a-172d
12AuRELius- Meditations, BK vii, SECT 55
283b-c; BK vm, SECT 39 288c; BK ix, SECT 7
292b; BK xi, SECT 18 304b-305b
14 PLUTARCH- Pericles, 139a-140d
ISAucusriNn: Confessions, BK vi, par 11-13
38b-39c; par 16 40a-c, BK vm, par 10-11 55c-
56b; par 19-27 58b-60c / City of God, BK ix,
CH 4-5 287a-289a; BK xiv, CH 8-9 381c-
385b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 3 430c-431d; Q in, A 2, ANS 569c-570b,
PART i-n, Q 10, A 3 664d-665c; Q 17, A 7 690d-
692a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART n, 141a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 20d-22a; 36c-41a esp
39b-40a; I59a-167a; 184a-d; 200d-205b;
273b-276a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT i, sc in [322-
3371 212b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 15-17 428a-d;
PROP 59-73 442b-447a; APPENDIX, I-HI
447a-b; xxxn 450c-d; PART v 451a-463d
32 MILTON: Comus [414-475] 42b-44a / Paradise
Lost, BK vm [500-617] 243a-245b
33 PASCAL. Penstcs, 350 234a
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK u, CH
xxi, SECT 54 192b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344d-345c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164a-165c; 235c-d /
Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 259a-c;
264d-265b; 271c-d; 279b; 2 82 d- 283d; 284d-
285a / Practical Reason, 303b*304b; 314a-d;
315b-c; 346b,d [for] / Prrf. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 365b-366a / Intro. Meta-
physic of Morals, 386b d / Judgement, 483d-
484b; 586a-587a; 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Representative Government, 332c-d /
Utilitarianism, 463d-464c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312a-c; 3l3d-314a;
318d-319a
53 JAMES. Psychology, 798b-800a; 807a-808a
54 FREUD: Hysteria, llOc / Interpretation of
Dreams, 384c-385c; 386d-387a / JJncon-
scious, 433b-c / Group Psychology, 690a-c / Ego
and Id, 702c-d; 715c-716c / Inhibitions, Symp-
toms, and Anxiety, 721d-722c; 744a / War and
Death, 760d-761a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 800d-801a / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 837d-839b; 845b; 880a
4b. The treatment of the emotions by or for
the sake of reason
46(1) Moderation of the passions by reason:
virtue, continence, avoidance of sin
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:14,17; 23:4-5 /
Leviticus, 19:17-18 / Numbers, 15*37-41 / Deu-
teronomy, 5.18,21 / Psalms, 32.8-10; 37:1-8—
(D) Psalms, 31-8-10; 361-8 / Proverbs, 7,
15:1; 23; 30 7-9 / Ecclesiastes, 7-8-9— (D)
Ecclesiastes, 7:9-10
APOCRYPHA Ecckstasticus, 18-30-33; 31; 38*16-
23— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18:30-33; 31;
38-16-24
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:21-26,43-48 /
I Corinthians, 13:4-8 / Ephesians, 4:31-32 /
Colossians, 3:5-15 / / Thessalomans, 4:3-8 /
7 Timothy, 6:3-12 / Titus, 2:11-14; 3:I~7 /
James, 4.1-7/7 Peter, 2:11-12
5 ARISTOPHANES- Clouds [866-1114] 499a-502b
7 PLATO: Charmides, 5a-b / Laches, 31d-37a /
Protagoras, 59b-64a / Phaedrus, 120b-c / Sym-
posium, 153b-157a; 168a-173a,c / Phaedo,
225b-226c; 233c-234c / Republic, BK HI,
325b-326b; BK iv, 346a-356a; BK ix, 416a-c;
BK x, 431b-434a / Timaeus, 466a-467a / Laws,
BK i, 649d-650b; BK vn, 713c-716a esp 715d-
716a, BK vm, 735c-738c
8 ARISTOTLE. Topics, BK iv, CH 5 [i25b2o-28]
174d-175a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 13 347b-348d;
BK n, CH I-BK in, CH i 348b,d-357b; BK in,
CH 6-BK iv, CH 9 361a-376a,c; BK vii 395a-
406a,c; BK ix, CH 8 [n68b28-n 69*11] 422b-d /
Politics, BK i, CH 5 [i254fti8-b8] 447d-448a /
Rhetoric, BK u, CH 14 637d-638a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 826d-827a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK u [i-^i]
15a>d; BK in [307-322] 34a-b; [1053-1094]
43c-44a,c; BK v [1-54] 61a-d; [1117-1135] 75d;
BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH 3 108b-c; BK n, CH 2 140c-141c; CH 11,
151a-b; CH 18 161a-162b
4W1) to
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION
431
12 AUREUUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 5 2S7b-c;
BK iv, SECT 24 265c-d; BK vn, SECT 55
283b-c; BK vm, SECT 39 288c; BK ix, SECT 7
292b
14 PLUTARCH: Dion, 798b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK H, par 2-4 9b-d;
BK in, par i 13b-c; BK iv, par 25 25c; BK vi,
par 18-26 40d-43a; BK vin, par 1-2 52c-53b;
par lo-n 55c-56b; par 25-27 60a-c / City of
God, BK iv, CH 3 190a-c; BK ix, CH 5-6 288b-
289b; BK xiv, CH 6-9 380b-385b, BK xix, CH
15 521a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 24
630c-631a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 95,
AA 2-3 507c-509b; Q 98, A 2 csp REP 3 517d-
519a; PART i-n, Q 20, A 4, ANS 714c-715b;
Q 24 727a-730a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 56,
A 4 32b-33c; Q 59 45d-49d; Q 60, A 4-0, 61, A 5
52b-59d; Q 64, AA 1-2 66d-68b; Q 65, A i
70b-72a; PART in, Q 15, AA 4-9 790d-795b
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
[19-75] 80a-c
22 CHAUCER- Tale of Mehbeus, par 4-7 401b-
402b / Parson's Tale, par 12, 503b-504a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 93d-94a; 95d-
96b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
234a-240a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 20d-22a; 89b-91b;
159a-167a; 184a-d, 200d-205b; 232b-238d;
251a-c; 346b-347c; 353c-354b; 402c-404b;
431c-432d; 486b-495a
26 SHAKESPEARE Romeo and Juliet, ACT 11, sc
vi [1-15] 300c / Henry V, ACT i, sc i [24-69]
533b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc in [5-51]
34c-d; ACT in, sc n [68-79] 49c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27b-c;
67a-b; 71d-72b; 78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 1-18 424c-
429d esp PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 59-73
442b-447a; APPENDIX 447a-450d; PART v
451a-463d esp PROP 1-20 452d-458a, PROP
38-42461d-463d
32 MILTON Paradise Lost, BK vin [500-617]
243a-245b; BK xi [334-369] 306b-307a; [527-
551] 310b-311a / Samson Agomstes [541-576]
351b-352a / Areopagitica, 390a-391a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 104 193a; 203 21 la; 413
242a; 423 243b; 502-503 260b-261a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 46-54 189d-192c csp SECT 54 192b-c;
SECT 69 196d-197a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 32a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
256b / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
368d-369a / judgement, 586d-587a
44 EOSWELL: Johnson, 92b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 105
133d-134a / Philosophy of History, PART in,
312d-313a; PART iv, 365d-366a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 3lOc-319a esp
313d-314b, 318d-319a; 322c-d; 592b-c; 593a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 122b-c;
BK v, 201a-c; BK vi, 245b-c; 247d-250a; EPI-
LOGUE i, 655c-656b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164a-167a
53 JAMES. Psychology, 807a-808a; 816a-819a esp
817a-818a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 9a; 20a-c / Hysteria, HOc / Narcis-
sism, 407b-408a / Ego and Id, 702c; 706d-
707d; 715a-716a / War and Death, 757d-
759c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 773 b-c /
New Introductory Lectures, 838c-839b, 844b-c
£(2) Attenuation and atrophy of the passions:
the liberation of reason
7 PLATO- Phaedo, 233c-234c / Republic, BK i,
295d-296c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK n, CH 13 [i389bi2-
1390^4] 637a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1-54]
61a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH 4 108d-110a, BK n, CH 2 140c-141c; CH
17-18 158d-162b; BK in, CH 8 184b-c, CH 22
195a-201a; BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a; CH 12
242d-244a
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK n, SECT 2 257a;
SECT 5 257b-c; SECT 10 257d-258a; SECT 16-
17 259a-d; BK in, SECT 4 260b-261a; SECT 6
261a-c; SECT 12 262b-c; BK iv, SECT 39
267a; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; SECT 26 272c;
BK vi, SECT 40-46 277d-278d; BK vn, SECT
55 283b-c; SECT 68-69 284c-d; BK ix, SECT 7
292b
17 PLOFINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 4-5 108c-
109d esp CH 5, 109c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-
289a; BK xiv, CH 8-10 381c-385d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 24 630c-631a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 24,
A 2 727b-728c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
152a-d; 188d-191c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 89b-91b; 99b-100a;
107a-112d; 165d-167a; 200d-205b; 232b-238d
esp 235c-236a; 251a-c; 402c-404b; 432b-d;
486b-495a esp 491d-495a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26b-c; 71d-
72b
32 MILTON: Comus [414-475] 42b-44a; [706-
755] 49a-50a / Areopagitica, 390a-391a
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 413 242a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344d-345c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 32a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256b / Practical Reason, 346b,d [fn i] / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 378d-379a /
Judgement, 586a-587a
432
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4b. The treatment of the emotions by or for the
take of reason. 46(2) Attenuation and
atrophy of the passions: the liberation of
reason.)
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xni, 577a-578b;
BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 751a-752a; 753b-754b;
760a-b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 20b-c / Hysteria, HOc / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 745d-746c / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 773b-c / New Intro-
ductory lectures, 839d-840a
4c. The moral significance of temperamental
type or emotional disposition
7 PLATO. Charmides, 3b-d / Republic, BK i,
296b-c; BK 11, 319c-320c; BK in, 338a-339a /
Timaeus, 474b-d / Statesman, 607a-608d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 (9b34-io*6]
15a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 9 [ii28bio-2o]
375d-376a; BK vi, CH 13 [ii44bi-i7] 394b; BK
vii, CH 4 [1148*18-22] 398c; CH 5 399a-d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [1369*5-29] 612b-c; BK
n, CH 12-14 636a-638a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [288-
322] 33d-34b
12 EPICTEFUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 5 HOb-c;
BKII, CH 15 155c-156b
17 PLOTINUS: First Enncad, TR in, CH 1-3 lOa-
lla / Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 1-2 246c-
247b
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologtca, PART I-H, Q 46,
A 5, ANS and REP i 815d-816d
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A i, ANS 12b-13c; Q 63, A i 63a-64a; Q 65, A i,
ANS 70b-72a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxx
[100-145] lOOb-d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BKIII, ST\NZA
129 71a-b / Wife of Bath's Prologue [6191-
6208] 266a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 68b-c; 77c-78a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 200d-205b esp 203a-
204a; 434d-435d; 491d-495a csp 494d-495a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT HI, sc n
335b-337d / 1st Henry IV, ACT in, sc i [146-
189] 451c-452a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT iv, sc v
494b-496d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT iv, sc iv [32-66]
59a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 49b-50b;
76d-77c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv
102b,d-108d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 435b-d
42 KANT: Fund, Prin. Metaphysic of 'Morals, 256a;
258b-c / Practical Reason, 356a-360d
43 MILL: Liberty, 303d-304d / Representative
Government, 346c-348c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 150
56c-57a / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
323b-c; 357b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vm, 321d-322d;
336b-337d; BK ix, 362d-363a; BK xi, 514c-d;
519a-c; 527b-528b; EPILOGUE i, 655c-656b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
38a-40c; BK in, 48b-50b; 53a-60a esp 54a-b,
57b-c; 69c-71c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 799b-808a passim, esp
802b-803a, 806b-807a
5. The political consideration of the passions
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
6THUCYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
436d-438b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin-ix, 404a-418a pas-
sim, esp BK vnr, 404d-405c, 407a-408a,
409d-411a, BK ix, 416a-418a / Laws, BK i-n,
643c-663d esp BK i, 651a-652d; BK in,
665a-c; 668a-670c; 671a-672c; 674c-675c, BK
iv, 681b-d; 682b; BK v, 686d-691b esp 689c-
690c; BK vi, 707c-708a; BK vii, 718c-719d,
726d-728b; BK vm, 732d-738c esp 735c-
736c, 738a-c, BK ix, 747d-748d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH i [ii2ib28-3o]
368c / Politics, BK n, CH 9 [1271*9-17] 467b;
BK in, CH 15 [1286*17-20] 484b-c; [1286*33-
37] 484d; CH 16 [i287ft28~39] 485d; BK v
502a-519d passim, esp CH 2-3 503b-505b, CH
lo-n 512d-518c, BK vn, CH 7 [i327b40-i3288
18] 532a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Cleomenes, 659d-660a / Dion,
784d-785a
15 TACITUS. Histories, BK in, 257c-d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, 3a-37d passim
23 HOBBES Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d, PART i,
85c-d; 90b-d; 93d-94a; 95d-96b; PART n,
104b-d, 105c-106b; 113b; 140c-142a, 151b-c,
PART iv, 272c; CONCLUSION, 279a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc v
406d-408a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d;
78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 46 410c; PART
iv, PROP 35, SCHOL 433d-434a; APPENDIX,
vin-xvii 447d-448d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 291-338 225a-233a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 136-137
56c-57b
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART i, 28b-29a; 37a-b;
PART in, 112a-114b; 119b-121a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6a-b;
BK in, 9a; lOa; lOc-lla; 12b-d; BK v, 18d-
19d; BK vn, 47c-48a; BK xm, 96a; BK xix,
135d-139c passim; BK xxvni, 259b; BK xxix,
269a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368a-b; 375d-
376b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4d-5a
CHAFER 22: EMOTION
433
43 FEDERALIST: NU\U»R i 20a-31« passim; NUM-
BER 5-6 37a-41c passim, esp NUMBER 6, 40a-b;
NUMBER 10 49c-53a csp 50a-d; NUMBER 15,
65b d; NUMBER 17 69a-70d; NUMBER 27,
95c-d; NUMBER 31, 103d-104a; NUMBER 34,
HOc-d; NUMBER 46, 150b-152a; NUMBER 49,
160b-161a; NUMBER 50, 162a-b; NUMBER 55,
173a-b; NUMBER 63, 192c-193a; NUMBER 70,
211d-212a; NUMBER 76, 225d-226a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 329b-c;
336c-337a; 346c-348c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b-
167c; PART i, 241d-242a; PART in, 300c-d;
PART iv, 323b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 201a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-
802a,c esp 780c-d, 781c, 783c-784b, 785d-
787c, 792a-b, 800c-802a,c
5a. The causes of political association: fear
or need
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 23b-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 402b-
404a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45b / Republic, BK 11,
311b-c; 316c-319a
9 ARISTOTLE. Politics, BK in, CH 6 [i278bi5-3o]
475d-476a; CH 9 [1280*32-1281*2] 477d-478c;
BK v, CH 8 [1308*25-30] 510b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
1027] 74b-c
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK in, 51b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, CH 30 147b-d
23 HOBBFS- Leviathan, PART i, 77a; 77c; 84c-87b
esp 86b; 90b-91b; PART n, 99a-101a; 109b-c;
116c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 1-2
434d-436a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government,
CH n, SECT 13-15 28a-c; CH vin, SECT 95
46c-d; CH ix 53c-54d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, UK i, 2b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 354c-355a / Political
Economy, 3701^374a-b / Social Contract, BK
i, 393b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-c;
311b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435c-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50a-d; NUMBER 15,
65b-d; NUMBER 17 69a-70d passim; NUMBER
27, 95c-d; NUMBER 29, lOla; NUMBER 46,
150b-152a; NUMBER 51, 163b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-425b /
Utilitarianism, 471a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 183
64a; par 261, 83c-d / Philosophy of History,
PART n, 262a; 283b-c; PART in, 289b-d; PART
iv, 328b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-310d; 321b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
133c-d passim; BK vi, I58b-159a
54 FREUD: Croup Psychology 664a-696a,c csp
665c, 672a-676b, 687b-c / Civilization and Us
Discontents, 781d-782d; 783b-c; 785c-788d;
796a-b / New Introductory Lectures, 884a
\b. The acquisition and retention of power.
love or fear
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 95d-96b; 103d-
104a; 107c-d
6 THUCYDIDES : Pcloponnesian War, BK i,368b-d;
BK n, 402a-404a; BK in, 425d-426d; BK vi,
519a-520d; 523c-524c; BK vm, 580b-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 3Hc-312b / Laws, BK
in, 671a-c; 674c-d; BK iv, 682b / Seventh Let-
ter, 806d-807a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v, CH 2 [1302*16]-
CH 3 [1302^4] 503b-504b; CH 8 |
510b-c; CH 10 512d-515d; CH n
I3i5bn]516a-518c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 4, 225a-
226c; CH 9 237d-238d
14 PLUTARCH: Conolanus, 180d-181b / Pyrrhus
314b,d-332d esp 319b-321a / Lysander, 362b-
365a / Sulla, 384a-c / Crassus 438b,d-455a,c /
Sertorius, 462a-c; 466d-467a / Agesilaus, 482d-
484a / Pompey, 517d-518a; 533a-c / Caesar,
577d-583a / Cleomenes, 659d-660a / Cicero,
717a-b / Demetrius, 737b-d / Dion, 784d-
785a / Artaxerxes, 856b-c
15 TACITUS. Histories, BK n, 224d-225a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vi, 9b-d; CH vn,
llb-c; 12b-d; CH xvn 23d-24d; CH xix 26a-
30a; CH xx, 31b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART i,
76d; PART n, lOOd; 109b-c; 156c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
132a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 51a-55d passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT v, sc in
[238-270] 146b-c / 1st Henry IV, ACT in, sc n
[39-84] 453b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT iv, sc in [37-
ii4]303d-304c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 40d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 78a-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, 12b-
13c; BK iv, 15a-c; BK v, 26d-27d; BK vi, 43c-d;
BK xn, 93d-94a; 94c-95a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 412d-413a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 348a-349c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 263a-b; 436a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 549a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 39a-b; NUMBER 15,
65b-d; NUMBER 17, 69a-d; NUMBER 72,
217a-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 354b-355b /
Utilitarianism, 462d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in,
287a-d; PART iv, 365d-366b
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 669a-c; 686c-689b
csp 687a-b
434
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The political consideration of the passions.)
5c. The coercive force of law: fear of punish-
ment
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1047-1090] 152a*b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 233a-d
CTHUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK 11,
396c-d; 400d-401a; BK in, 426b; 426d; 427c-
428d csp 427d-428a
7 PLATO- Protagoras, 45b-d / Gorgias, 293b-d /
Laws, BK in, 674d-675c / Seventh Letter, 807a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 8 [ni6*i5-b3]
362b-d; BK x, CH 9 [ii79bi2-i 180*24] 434b-
435a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1136-
1160] 76a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Agesilaus, 494a-c / Cleomenes,
659d-660a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 57b-58d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 92,
A 2, ANS and REP 4 214d-215a,c; Q 95, A i,
ANS and REP i 226c-227c; Q 99, A 6 250a-251a;
Q 100, A 7, REP 4 258c-259c; Q 107, A i, REP 2
325c-327b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xn, 18a; CH xvn,
24b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 87c; 89a-b;
91a-b; PART H, 99a-b; 113b; 116c d; 132a;
141b; PART iv, 273b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a;
78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
33 PASCAL- Provincial Letters, 109a; 116b-117a /
Penstes, 297-304 227a-228a; 878 345a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a / Civil Government, CH
ix, SECT 125-131 54a-d
36 SWII-T: Gulliver, PART i, 28a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 37d-
38b, 38d-39c; BK xxv, 212b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d; 359d-360b /
Political Economy, 370d-373a / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 406c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 92a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphy sic of Morals, 253d-
254b / Practical Reason, 321b-329a esp 325d-
326b / Intro. Metaphy sic of Morals, 383a-b
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 15, 65a-d; NUMBER 16
66c-68d passim, esp 67d-68a; NUMBER 17,
69d-70a; NUMBER 27, 95b-96a
43 MILL Liberty, 295d-296a / Representative
Government, 329c-330a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 328b-
329c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 314a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
30d-31a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 757c
5d. The devices of oratory: emotional per-
suasion
5 EURIPIDES- Orestes [866-956] 402d-403d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470&-4B7a,c
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
425c-d; 426c; BK vn, 557a-b; 559d-560b
7 PLATO- Euthydemus, 74d-75a / Apology, 208c-
209b; 210b-d / Gorgias, 260c-262a; 280d-
283c, 291b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*13-
1355*3] 593b-594a; CH 2 [1356*13-18] 595c;
BK n, CH i-n 622b,d-636a; BK in, CH 7
[i4o8a23-b2i] 659b-660a; CH 14 [1415*25]-^
15 [i4i6bi4] 668c-670c; CH 16 [1417*37^7]
671c-d; CH 19 [i4i9bio-27] 674c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 129b-130b / Sertorius,
462a-c,466d-467a/ Caesar, 577d-583a/ Cams
Gracchus, 681b,d-685c
15 TACITUS' Histories, BK i, 207d-208a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 99,
A 6, ANS 250a-251a
23 MACHIAVELLI Prince, CH vi, 9c
23 HOBBLS- Leviathan, PART i, 67c; PART n,
105d-106b; 127d-129d; CONCLUSION, 279a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 147b-148a; 306a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT in 580b-
587a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 24d-25c;
66b-67c; 78a-b
40 Gi B BON Decline and Fall, 303c-304a
42 KANT Judgement, 535 b-c
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER i 29a-31a passim; NUM-
BER 24, 87b-88c passim; NUMBER 58, 181b-c;
NUMBLR 62, 190b
43 MILL- Liberty, 292b-293b
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, PART n, 273d-
274a; 279d-280b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [521-557] 15a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 570c-571b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 533a-534d;
BK xv, 622a-c
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450b
5e. The regulation of art for the sake of train-
ing the passions
7 PLATO- Republic, BK n-in, 320c-339a; BK iv,
344b-d; BK x, 431b-434a / Laws, BK vn,
717b-721a; 726d-728b
9 ARISTOTLE Politics, BK vn, CH 17 [i336bi2-
23] 541c-d; BK vin, CH 5 [i339bii-i^4obi9]
545a-546a; CH 7 547b-548a,c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2
lOa-d
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART i, 184a-187c
passim
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384b-386b; 387b-
394b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 17b-
18d
44 Eosw ELL: Johnson, 308b-c
CHAPTER 22: EMOTION 435
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general theory of instinct, sec HABIT 3-36; and for the consideration of instinctual drives,
see DESIRE 2a, 33.
The relation of pleasure and pain to the emotions, see PLEASURE AND PAIN 43.
The conception of the emotions as forms of animal appetite or sensitive desire, see DESIRE
3b(i);WiLL2b(2).
The analysis of the one emotion which is held to be the root of all the others, see LOVE
2a-2a(3).
Other discussions of the conflict between the passions and reason, or between one emotion
and another, see DESIRE 3d, 43, 6c; DUTY 8; MIND pb-pc; OPPOSITION 43-40, 4d.
Other discussions of emotional disorder from a psychological or medical point of view, see
DESIRE 4a~4d; MEDICINE 6c(2); MIND 8b; ONE AND MANY 3^5); OPPOSITION 4c.
The influence of the emotions upon imagination or thought, see DESIRE 53-5 b, 6c; MEMORY
AND IMAGINATION 8c, 8d(i); OPINION 2a; TRUTH 3d(2).
The moral problems raised by the conflict between reason and emotion, see DESIRE 6a-6b;
DUTY 4~4b; LIBERTY 33-3^ MIND 9C-pd; SIN 5; SLAVERY 7; TYRANNY 5d; VIRTUE AND
VICE 53.
The significance of the passions in relation to law, government, and the state, see LAW 5, 6a;
PUNISHMENT ic-id; STATE 3e~3f; and for the problem of political censorship or regulation
of the arts because of their emotional influence, see ART lob; LIBERTY 2a; POETRY yb.
The consideration of emotion by the orator, see RHETORIC 40.
Emotion in relation to artistic inspiration or expression, see ART 8; POETRY 3.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boo^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
H. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
GOETHE. Sorrows of Young Werther
*• HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, iv, B (3)
PLUTARCH. "Whether the Passions of the Soul or DOSTOEVSKY. Notes from Underground
Diseases of the Body Are Worse," in Moraha C. R. DARWIN. The Expression of Emotions in Man
EPICTEFUS. The Manual and Animals
AUGUSTINE. Of Continence W. JAMES. Collected Essays and Reviews, xv, xxv
AQUINAS. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate, QQ FREUD. The Predisposition to Obsessional Neurosis
25-26
F. BACON. "Of Anger," in Essays jj
DESCARTES. The Passions of the Soul
PASCAL. Discours sur les passions de V amour CICERO. Tusculan Disputations, m-iv
HOBBES. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, BEN JONSON. Every Man in His Humour
PART i, CH 12 BURTON. The Anatomy of Melancholy
. The Whole Art of Rhetoric, BK n, CH 1-13 MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la veritt, BK v
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK n, PART in SHAFTESBURY. Characteristics of Men, Manners, Of in-
. A Dissertation on the Passions ions, Times
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART HUTCHESON. An Essay on the Nature and Conduct of
i, SECT n the Passions and Affections
STERNE. A Sentimental Journey COLLINS. The Passions
436
THE GREAT IDEAS
VOLTAIRE. "Passions, " in A Philosophical Dictionary
T, REID, Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, in, PART n, CH 3-7
BROWN. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, VOL in, pp 26-473
D. STEWART. Philosophy of the Active and Moral
Powers of Man
W. HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic,
VOL i (41-46)
COMTE, System of Positive Polity, VOL w, Theory of
the Future of Man, en 2
LorzE. Microcosmos, BK n, CH 5
BAIN, The Emotions and the Will
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of the Unconscious, (B)
ii-m
FRAZER, The Golden Bough, PART vi, CH 8
WUNDT, Outlines of Psychology, (12-13)
BRADLEY. Collected Essays, VOL u (23)
STRINDBERG. The Dance of Death
TITCHENER. Lectures on the Elementary Psychology of
Peeling and Attention
CANNON, Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and
Rage
CRILE. The Origin and Nature of the Emotions
CARLSON. The Control of Hunger in Health and
Disease
PARETO, The Mind and Society, VOL HI, CH 9
PROUST, Remembrance of Things Past
JUNG. Psychological Types
McTAGGART. The Nature of Existence, CH 41, 57
B, RUSSELL. The Analysis of Mind, LECT 3, 14
. Sceptical Essays, vi
Chapter 'Ly. ETERNITY
INTRODUCTION
THE notion of eternity, like that of infinity*
has two meanings. One meaning may refer
to something positive, yet both seem to be for-
mulated by the human mind in a negative way.
We grasp one meaning of eternity by saying
that there is no beginning or end to time's
process. The other sense of eternity we con-
ceive by denying time itself and, with it, change
or mutability.
Considering eternity as infinite duration,
Locke says that we form this notion "by the
same means and from the same original that we
come to have the idea of time . . . viz., having
got the idea of succession and duration ... we
can in our thoughts add such lengths of dura-
tion to one another, as often as we please, and
apply them, so added, to durations past or to
come. And this we can continue to do, with-
out bounds or limits, and proceed in infimtum"
The unimaginabihty of the infinite is no
different in the sphere of time than in that of
space or number. The difficulty, Locke points
out, is the same in all three cases. "The idea
of so much is positive and clear. The idea of
greater is also clear." But these do not yet give
us the idea of the infinite. That only comes with
"the idea of so much greater as cannot be com-
prehended, and this is plainly negative, not
positive . . . What lies beyond our positive idea
towards infinity,'* Locke continues, "lies in ob-
scurity, and has the indeterminate confusion
of a negative idea, wherein I know I neither
do nor can comprehend all I would, it being
too large for a finite and narrow capacity."
In insisting that we can have no positive idea
of infinity — whether of space, time, or number
— Locke's point seems to be that it is beyond
our finite capacity to form an image of an in-
finite object. But though our imaginations may
be limited in this way, we do seem able to con-
struct—in a negative manner—conceptions
that go beyond experience, and have some
meaning even if they lack imaginative content.
Locke indicates this other aspect of the matter
when he criticizes those who assert dogmatically
that "the world is neither eternal nor infinite."
It seems to him that the world's eternity or the
world's infinity is "at least as conceivable as
the contrary."
It may not be inconsistent, therefore, to say
that infinite time, while unimaginable, remains
quite conceivable; for to say that eternity is
conceivable is simply to say that endless time
is neither more nor less possible than time with
a beginning and an end. The first conception
is as meaningful as the second. It is in fact
formed from the second by negation— by sub-
stituting the word "without" for "with" with
respect to "a beginning and an end." But un-
like our conceptions, our images cannot be
formed by negation. When we imagine, as when
we perceive, the object before us is positive
and definite. We cannot imagine, as we cannot
experience, a duration, or a span of time, with-
out a beginning and an end.
WITH REGARD TO the other traditional mean-
ing of "eternity," Locke takes a different posi-
tion. It too might be defended as a negative
conception, so far as human comprehension is
concerned, since it involves the denial of time
itself, i.e., of a duration comprising a succession
of moments. But here Locke says that there is
"nothing more inconceivable to me than dura-
tion without succession. ... If our weak appre-
hensions," he continues, "cannot separate suc-
cession from any duration whatsoever, our idea
of eternity can be nothing but of an infinite
succession of moments of duration, wherein
anything does exist."
Nevertheless, Locke affirms that "we can
easily conceive in God infinite duration, and
437
438
THE GREAT IDEAS
we cannot avoid doing so." Whether he means
by this that God's eternity involves temporal
succession, must be determined by an inter-
pretation of the passage in which he maintains
that "God's infinite duration being accompa-
nied with infinite knowledge and infinite pow-
er, he sees all things past and to come; and they
are no more distant from his knowledge, no
farther removed from his sight, than the pres-
ent; they all lie under the same view."
If this passage means that time stands still
for God in a single moment in which all things
arc co-present, then Locke may not be as reso-
lute as Hobbcs in rejecting the theologian's
conception of God's eternity. Criticizing the
Scholastics, Hobbes says that "for the meaning
of Eternity, they will not have it be an endless
succession of time." Instead, "they will teach
us that eternity is the standing still of the pres-
ent time, a Nunc-stans (as the Schools call it)."
This, Hobbes thinks, "neither they nor anyone
else understands, no more than they would a
Hic-stans for an infinite greatness of place."
A theologian like Aquinas tries to avoid the
difficulty which Hobbes finds mthis conception
by distinguishing between the now of eternity
and the now of time. "The now of time is the
same," he writes, "as regards its subject in the
whole course of time, but it differs in aspect."
Furthermore, "the flow of the now, as altering
in aspect, is time. But eternity remains the
same according to both subject and aspect; and
hence eternity is not the same as the now of
time."
The notion of the eternal as the timeless and
the immutable docs not belong exclusively to
Christian theology. In the tradition of the
great books it is found, for example, in Plato
and Plotinus. Eternity, according to Plotinus,
is "a Life changelcssly motionless and ever
holding the Universal content in actual pres-
ence; not this now and now that other, but
always all; not existing now in one mode and
now in another, but a consummation without
part or interval. All its content is in immediate
concentration as at one point; nothing in it
ever knows development: all remains identical
within itself, knowing nothing of change, for
ever in a Now since nothing of it has passed
away or will come into being; but what it is
now, that it is ever."
Eternity so conceived is perhaps even more
unimaginable than the eternity which is in-
finite time. We may feel that we have some
sense of an infinite duration when we talk, as
Ivan does m the Brothers Karamazov, about a
billion years or "a quadrillion of a quadrillion
raised to the quadrillionth power." Infinite
time is like that, only longer. But because all
our experience is temporal through and
through, it is more difficult to get any sense of
that which is both absolutely timeless and
endlessly enduring.
Poets, and sometimes philosophers turned
poets, have struggled to give this concept imag-
inative content by contrasting "the white radi-
ance of eternity" with a "many-colored glass,"
or by speaking of time itself as "the moving
image of eternity." When Dimmler in War and
Peace tells Natasha that "it is hard for us to
imagine eternity," she replies that it does not
seem hard to her— that eternity "is now today,
and it will be tomorrow, and always, and was
there yesterday and the day before. . . ."
These and similar attempts may not succeed
as much as the insight that if we could hold the
present moment still, or fix the fleeting instant,
we could draw an experience of the eternal from
the heart of time. "The now that stands still,"
Aquinas writes, "is said to make eternity ac-
cording to our apprehension. For just as the
apprehension of time is caused in us by the
fact that we apprehend the flow of the now,
so the apprehension of eternity is caused in us
by our apprehending the now standing still."
To UNDERSTAND the opposed views that con-
stitute the major issues with regard to eternity,
it is necessary to hold quite separate the two
meanings of the word which have run side by
side in the tradition of western thought. The
first of these two senses, signifying interminable
time, is the meaning of "eternity" which has
greatest currency in popular speech. This is the
meaning which appears in the chapters on
INFINITY and TIME. It is also the sense in which
philosophers and theologians debate the prob-
lem of the eternity of the world — whether the
world ever began or will ever end.
Since that which exists interminably is im-
perishable, the word "eternal" is also applied
to substances which are thought to be ever
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
439
lasting. Thus Ptolemy, and the ancients gen-
erally, think of the heavenly bodies as "beings
which are sensible and both moving and moved,
but eternal and impassible." Aristotle calls the
heavenly bodies "eternal and incorruptible."
For Lucretius and the atomists, the atoms and
the atoms alone are eternal. They are, he says,
"everlasting, though all things else are dis-
solved." Unless they were eternal, "all things
before this would have utterly returned to
nothing," If the atomic particles "were to wear
away, or break in pieces," Newton argues, "the
nature of things depending on them, would be
changed. . . . And therefore, that nature may
be lasting, the changes of corporeal things are
to be placed only in the various separations and
new associations and motions of these perma-
nent particles."
The heavenly bodies and the atoms may be
thought everlasting, but they are not immu-
table m ail respects, for local motion is of their
very essence. Imperishable in existence, they
are also endlessly in motion. In Aristotle's view,
local motion can be perpetual or eternal only
if it is circular. Circular motion alone has
neither beginning nor end.
The eternal circular motion of the heavens,
according to Aristotle, in turn communicates
an eternal cyclical movement to the rest of
reality. "Since the sun revolves thus, the sea-
sons in consequence come-to-be in a cycle ....
and since they come-to-be cyclically, so in their
turn do the things whose coming-to-be the
seasons initiate." Such an eternal return, it
would seem, is also applied by Aristotle to hu-
man things, for he writes that "probably each
art and each science has often been developed
as far as possible and has again perished."
SINCE THE HEAVENS and the atoms are in mo-
tion, even though their motion is everlasting
or eternal, they cannot be eternal m the second
meaning of "eternity," which is the very oppo-
site of the first, not a variation or extension of
it. In this meaning, the eternal is aa existence
absolutely immutable — a being which neither
comes to be nor passes away, nor changes, nor
moves in any respect whatsoever. Aquinas uses
the word in this sense when he says that "the
nature of eternity" consists in "the uniformity
of what is absolutely outside of movement."
He also includes in this meaning of "eter-
nity" the notion of intcrrninability; for, he
writes, "as whatever is wholly immutable can
have no succession, so it has no beginning, and
no end." Yet Aquinas preserves the sharp dis-
tinction between the two meanings when he
differentiates the sense in which the world
might be called eternal and the sense in which
he would attribute eternity to God alone.
"Even supposing that the world always was,
it would not be equal to God in eternity," he
writes; for "the divine being is all being simul-
taneously without succession, but with the
world it is otherwise."
The conception of eternity as absolutely im-
mutable existence is found in the ancient pagan
writers. Plotinus, as we have already seen, makes
immutability the mark of eternity. The un-
moved prime mover of Aristotle and the Pla-
tonic Ideas or Forms also possess this charac-
teristic. But it is the Jewish and Christian
theologians who make eternity in this sense one
of the prime attributes of God.
Augustine, for example, invokes God as
"that everfixed Eternity" in whom "nothing
passeth, but the whole is present." Since time
is for him inconceivable apart from change or
motion, that which exists immutably does not
exist in time. Referring to God's eternity, he
says, "Compare it with the times which are
never fixed, and see that it cannot be com-
pared. . . . Thy years neither come nor go;
whereas ours both come and go, that they all
may come. . . .Thy years are one day; and Thy
day is not daily, but To-day. . . . Thy To-day
is Eternity."
Time and eternity are here conceived as two
distinct orders of reality. The temporal order
is the order of things in change or motion, the
eternal the realm of the fixed or permanent,
the immobile and immutable. "As eternity is
the proper measure of being," Aquinas writes,
"so time is the proper measure of movement."
The eternal and the temporal are similarly
distinguished by Plato in terms of the realms
of being and becoming— "the world of immu-
table being" and "the world of generation." In
the one we find "the parts of time, and the past
and the future," which do not apply to the
other. "We unconsciously but wrongly transfer
them," Plato declares, "to the eternal essence
440
THE GREAT IDEAS
. . . but the truth is that 'is' alone is properly
attributed to it, and 'was' and *will be' are only
to be spoken of becoming in time, for they are
motions, but that which is immovably the same
cannot become older or younger by time . . .
nor is it subject at all to any of those states
which affect moving and sensible things of
which generation is the cause."
For vSpinoza, the distinction consists in two
ways of viewing the order of nature. "Things
are conceived by us as actual in two ways," he
writes; "either in so far as we conceive them to
exist with relation to a fixed time and place,
or in so far as we conceive them to be contained
in God, and to follow from the necessity of the
divine nature." Only in the second way do "we
conceive things under the form of eternity."
We can view things under the aspect of eter-
nity only insofar as we know God and, through
knowing God, are able to know all things ac-
cording as "their ideas involve the eternal and
infinite essence of God."
The separation of time and eternity into dis-
tinct spheres of reality, or even into distinct
ways of conceiving the whole of being, is chal-
lenged by thinkers who find the eternal within
the process of time. For both Jew and Christian,
the eternal God intervenes directly in the
temporal order. The most radical form which
this fusion takes is perhaps exemplified in the
doctrine of the Incarnation of Christ, when
"the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among
us."
Whitehead challenges the sharpness of the
separation from another point of view. He not
only makes "eternal objects" ingredients in
actual occasions or temporal events; but since
the events which constitute the process of
change are themselves unchangeable, they are
for him eternal— even though they have their
being within the sphere of change.
A similar point seems to be made in Aris-
totle's theory of change. When change is con-
ceived as consisting in a transformation of mat-
ter, it is the thing composed of matter and form
which changes, and neither the matter nor the
form. Matter as matter, Aristotle writes, "does
not cease to be in its own nature, but is nec-
essarily outside the sphere of becoming and
ceasing to be." The remark would seem to hold
true as well of the form as form.
As indicated in the chapter on CHANGE, the
Aristotelian analysis of motion finds in matter
or the substratum of change, and in the con-
trary forms from which and to which a motion
takes place, the elements of permanence under-
lying change. When a green leaf turns red, for
instance, green has not changed into red; the
leaf has changed from one color to another.
The changing leaf is not eternal, but red and
green are, since they are incapable of change.
This is the sense of eternity in which the un-
changing instant is eternal, or the past is eter-
nal, even though both are somehow elements
or aspects of time and the process of change.
The past may be eternal but it no longer
exists. The passing moment may be eternal,
but it has no duration. Lack of existence and
lack of duration together distinguish that
meaning of "eternal" in which it merely sig-
nifies the unchanging, from the meaning in
which it signifies that which exists or endures
forever without changing. It is only in the
second of these two meanings that the eternal
can be conceived as that which exists entirely
outside the realm of time.
As WE HAVE ALREADY observed, the basic phil-
osophical and theological issues concerning
eternity cannot be intelligibly stated unless
these meanings of "eternity" and "the eternal"
are kept distinct.
The traditional problem of the eternity of
the world asks, for example, not whether the
order of nature is free from change or succes-
sion, but whether the changing physical uni-
verse ever had a beginning or ever will end.
As indicated in the chapters on CHANGE, TIME,
and WORLD, it is a question of the infinity of
time; or, in another formulation, a question of
the interminability of change or motion.
Aristotle appears to answer these questions
affirmatively, especially in the last book of his
Physics where he claims to demonstrate the im-
possibility of there having been a beginning to
motion. Aquinas, on the other hand, doe/not
think that the eternity of the world can be
demonstrated; and of Aristotle's arguments he
says that they are not "absolutely demonstra-
tive, but only relatively so — viz^ as against the
arguments of some of the ancients who asserted
that the world began to be in some actually
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
441
mpossible ways." In support of this conten-
lon, he cites a remark made by Aristotle in
he Topics, that among "dialectical problems
vhich we cannot solve demonstratively," one
s "whether the world is eternal."
For Kant the problem is typically dialectical,
t occurs as part of the first antinomy in the
Transcendental Dialectic, the thesis of which
sserts that "the world has a beginning in time"
ind the antithesis that "the world has no be-
;inning, but is infinite in respect both to time
,nd space." The fact that apparently cogent ar-
guments can be marshalled for both of these
ontradictory propositions shows, in Kant's
>pmion, that the reasoning on either side is
lot demonstrative, but only dialectical and,
& he says, "illusory."
The Jewish and Christian doctrine of the
vorld's creation by God might seem to require
he denial of the world's eternity. But in fact
he theologians find either alternative com-
>atible with divine creation, which they con-
eive as the cause of the world's being, not
iccessarily of its beginning. Augustine, for ex-
mple, examines the sense in which the world
5 held by some to be co-eternal wiiji God, even
hough made or created by God. 4*1 1 is as if a
oot," he interprets them to say,T*had been
Iways from eternity in the dust; there would
Iways have been a print underneath it; and
'et no one would doubt that thisllrint was
nade by the pressure of the focfe, nbr that,
hough the one was made by the other, neither
vas prior to the other." So, he goes on, it might
Iso be said that the world has always existed
nd yet is always, throughout eternity, created,
.£., caused to exist, by God.
Commenting on this passage, Aquinas adds
he observation that if an "action is mstanta-
icous and not successive, it is not necessary for
he maker to be prior m duration to the thing
nade." Hence it does not follow necessarily,
ie writes, "that if God is the active cause of
he world, He must be prior to the world in
luration; because creation, by which He pro-
luced the world, is not a successive change"
—but an instantaneous act.
Writing both as a philosopher and as a theo-
ogian, Maimomdes — many centuries before
Cant stated his antinomy— thinks he is able to
how that the question of infinite time and
endless motion "cannot be decided by proof,
neither in the affirmative nor in the negative.*'
Just as for Augustine and Aquinas, so for him
it is indifferent— from a philosophical point of
view — whether the created world and its Crea-
tor are co-eternal or whether, as Genesis says,
"in the beginning God created heaven and
earth."
But both alternatives are not equally ac-
ceptable to the theologian. Since there is no
proof on either side "sufficient to convince us,"
Maimomdes writes, "we take the text of the
Bible literally, and say that it teaches us a
truth which we cannot prove" — namely, that
the world had a beginning in time. Aquinas
comes to the same conclusion. "That the
world did not always exist," he writes, "we hold
by faith alone." It is not "an object . . . of dem-
onstration or science." For Christian and Jew
alike, the religious dogma that the world is not
only created by God, in the sense of depending
for its existence upon God as cause, but was
also initiated by God, or caused to begin to
exist and move, is based on the revealed word
of God in Holy Writ.
Those who, on philosophical grounds, deny
creation ex nihilo also deny the world's begin-
ning. Pursuant to his theory of the world as a
necessary and perpetual emanation from the
One, Plotmus, for example, declares that "the
Kosmos has had no beginning . . . and this is
warrant for its continued existence. Why
should there be in the future a change that has
not yet occurred?" For Spinoza likewise, "all
things which follow from the absolute nature
of any attribute of God must for ever exist";
and to this extent at least, the world is eternal
and uncreated.
The man of faith, however, believes in a God
who is free to create or not to create, not one
from whom the world emanates as a necessary
effect from its source. When, therefore, he af-
firms that God freely chose to produce the world
out of nothing, he seems to meet the question,
"What was God doing before He made heaven
and earth?" To the questioner Augustine does
not wish to give "the jesting answer — said to
have been given by one who sought to evade
the force of the question— 'He was getting
Hell ready for people who pry too deep/ "
Instead he points out that the question itself
442
THE GREAT IDEAS
is illicit for it assumes a time before time be-
gan. "If before heaven and earth were made,"
he writes, "there was no time, then what is
meant by the question 'What were You doing
then? If there was not any time, there was not
any 'then.' " In the phrase "before creation"
the word "before" has no temporal significance.
It signifies a different kind of priority — the
sense in which eternity precedes time, the sense
in which Augustine says of God that "it is not
in time that You are before all time You
are before all the past by the eminence of Your
ever-present eternity."
TURNING FROM eternity in the sense of infinite
time to the eternal in the sense of the timeless
and unchanging, the great question is whether
anything eternal exists. The atoms of Lucretius
are not eternal in this sense, nor are the sup-
posedly imperishable heavenly bodies. Nor is
it sufficient to point out that change itself in-
volves aspects or elements of permanence; for
the question, strictly interpreted, asks whether
anything exists in and of itself which, having no
beginning or end, also has no past, present, or
future— no temporal phases in its continued
endurance. Only such a thing would be utterly
non- temporal or changeless.
Since nothing made of matter is exempt from
motion, it is generally supposed that no ma-
terial thing is eternal in this sense. Not even
God is eternal unless God is absolutely immu-
table as well as spiritual. The angels are spiritual
beings, yet, according to Christian theology,
they cannot be called "eternal" because, in
the first place, they are creatures and had an
origin; and, in the second place, they are sub-
ject to spiritual change even if they are not
involved in the sorts of motion to which bodies
are susceptible. The theologians, therefore, use
the word "aeviternal" to signify the mode of
angelic existence in that it is "a mean between
eternity and time." Aeviternity, Aquinas ex-
plains, has "a beginning but no end," while
"eternity has neither beginning nor end . . .
and time both beginning and end."
THE QUESTION ABOUT the eternal as timeless
and immutable existence has two parts: Does
an immutable God exist? Does anything else
exist which is immutable?
To the first question, it does not suffice to
reply by affirming the existence of God. Some
modern theologians deny God's absolute im-
mutability, and so deny the eternahty of His
being in the precise sense under consideration.
With regard to the second question, we must
observe that, in the tradition of the great books,
cternality has been claimed for two things other
than God, namely, for truth and ideas. What-
ever "is produced by reasoning aright," Hobbes
says, is "general, eternal, and immutable
truth." On somewhat different grounds James
declares, "there is no denying the fact that
the mind is filled with necessary and eternal
relations which it finds between certain of
its ideal conceptions, and which form a de-
terminate system, independent of the order of
frequency in which experience may have as-
sociated the conception's originals in time and
space." He quotes Locke to the effect that
"truths belonging to the essences of things . . .
are eternal, and are to J9e"fbund out only by the
contemplation of those essences."
The common phrase — "the eternal verities"
—which James uses testifies to the prevalence
of the notion that truth itself cannot change,
and that ™en men speak of a new truth or
the growtlf of truth, the change they refer to
is only a*change of mind with respect to what
men thiluc is true or false, not a change in the
truth itJlf. Whatever is true now, always was
true ano^lvfcys will be. Time and change make
no difference to the truth of two plus two equals
four.
But even so it can still be asked how the
truth exists, for the attribution of eternity to
anything also requires us to consider its mode
of being. If, for example, the truth exists only
in the mind, then it exists unchangingly only
in the mind of an absolutely infallible knower,
a mind which neither learns nor forgets, nor
changes in any respect with regard to what it
knows. If God is such a knower, eternal truth
can have existence in God's mind.
The theologians sometimes go further and
identify absolute truth, as they identify ab-
solute goodness, with God. Aquinas writes, for
example, that "if we speak of truth as it is in
things, then all things are true by one primary
truth; to which each one is assimilated accord-
ing to its entity, and thus, although the es-
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
443
nces or forms of things are many, yet the
uth of the divine intellect is one, in con-
rmity to which all things are said to be true."
n this view, it would appear that there are
>t two eternal beings, but only one.
William James finds immutability not only
the truth, but also in the concepts of the
iman mind. "Each conception," he writes,
'ternally remains what it is, and never can
'come another. The mind may change its
ates, and its meanings, at different times; may
op one conception and take up another, but
e dropped conception can in no intelligible
ase be said to change into its successor. . . .
bus, amid the flux of opinions and of physical
ings, the world of conceptions, or things in-
nded to be thought about, stands stiff and
imutable, like Plato's Realm of Ideas."
In the case of ideas, however, the problem
complicated by the question whether ideas
ist in and by themselves, outside the mind
God or man. If, according to a doctrine at-
ibuted to Plato and the Platonists, the Ideas
Forms exist separately, then they constitute
•calm of eternal beings, for their immutability
unquestionable. If, from an opposite point of
ew, the realm of unchanging ideas is identical
th the divine intellect, then no eternal being
beings exist apart from God.
HE PROPOSITION that God is the only eternal
ing, the only uncreated and immutable exist-
ice, is inextncably connected with the propo-
ion that God is the only actually infinite
mg, the ens realissimum having all perfec-
)ns. "Eternity is the very essence of God,"
)inoza writes, "in so far as that essence in-
dves necessary existence." In saying this he
>peals to his definition of eternity, by which
: are to understand "existence itself, so far
it is conceived necessarily to follow from the
finition alone of the eternal thing." For
>inoza, as well as for Aquinas, the same fact
nch makes God eternal— namely, the iden-
y of his essence and existence — also consti-
tes his infinity and uniqueness. It is impossi-
s, Spinoza argues, for there to be two infinite
bstances. For the same reason, there cannot
two eternal beings.
As indicated in the chapter on INFINITY,
icn the word "infinite" is applied to God, the
theologians give it a positive rather than a
negative significance. They mean by it the ac-
tual infinity of perfect being and absolute pow-
er, in sharp distinction from the potential in-
finity by which the mathematicians signify the
lacf^ of a limit in addition or division.
These two meanings of "infinity" seem to par-
allel the two meanings of "eternity" which we
have dealt with throughout this chapter — one
the negative sense in which it means the lac\
of a beginning or an end to time, the other the
positive sense in which God's eternity consists
in that fullness of being which can exist apart
from time and change. Because our intellects
are finite, we may apprehend eternal being in a
negative manner by calling it "timeless" or by
conceiving it as infinite duration, but Spinoza
cautions us against supposing that it can be
"explained by duration or time, even if the
duration be conceived without beginning or
end."
One other theological discussion raises issues
which involve in a unique way the two mean-
ings of eternity. It deals with the revealed doc-
trine of perdition and salvation as eternal death
and eternal life. Is the eternality of Hell and
Heaven equivalent to a period of endless dura-
tion or does it mean — more fundamentally —
the unchanging state of souls after the Last Judg-
ment ?
According to Augustine and Aquinas, the
eternity of Heaven and Hell means the moral
immutability of the immortal soul as well as the
intcrminability of the beatitude it enjoys or the
punishment it suffers. Only in Purgatory does a
change of moral state occur, but the process of
purification which takes place there is always
limited in period. Purgatory is, therefore, not
eternal in either sense.
As Kant sees it, however, the after-life must
not only be interminable, or of infinite duration,
but it must also permit a progressive moral de-
velopment without end. Man is justified, ac-
cording to Kant, "in hoping for an endless du-
ration of his existence" only on the ground that
"the holiness which the Christian law requires
. . . leaves the creature nothing but a progress
in infimtum" From still another point of view,
Dr. Johnson questions the traditional Christian
dogma that the souls of the blessed are secure in
a perpetual state of rectitude— in this respect
444
THE GREAT IDEAS
like the good angels who are confirmed in their
goodness from the first instant of creation.
Boswcll had "ventured to ask him whether,
although the words of some texts of Scripture
seemed strong in support of the dreadful doc-
trine of an eternity of punishment, we might
not hope that the denunciation was figurative,
and would not be literally executed." To this,
Dr. Johnson replied: "Sir, you are to consider
the intention of punishment in a future state.
We have no reason to be sure that we shall then
be no longer able to offend against God. We do
not know that even the angels are quite m a
state of security. ... It may, therefore, perhaps
be necessary, in order to preserve both men and
angels in a state of rectitude, that they should
have continually before them the punishment
of those who have deviated from it."
On Dr. Johnson's theory, the moral condi-
tion of the damned seems to be immutable. It
is irremediable even by the punishments which,
according to him, may exercise some deterrent
effect upon the blessed who, he seems to think,
are not as unalterably set in the path of right-
eousness as the wicked are in their iniquity.
On any of these conceptions of Heaven and
Hell, and of the state of the soul in the after-
life, the meaning of "eternity" is somewhat
altered; for eternal life or eternal death is con-
ceived as having a beginning, if not an end, for
the individual soul. As in the case of all funda-
mental religious dogmas, the truth asserted re-
mains obscure and mysterious. It is not only
beyond imagination, but also beyond any ade-
quate rational conception, analysis, or demon-
stration.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. Eternity as timelessness and immutability or as endless and infinite time: the distinc-
tion between eternity and time 445
la. The priority of eternity to time 446
\b. Aevitcrnity as intermediate between eternity and time
2. The issue concerning the infinity of time and the eternity of the world or of motion
3. The eternity of God 447
4. The things which partake of eternity
40. The imperishability of angels, spiritual substances, souls
4^. The imperishable in the physical order: matter, atoms, celestial bodies 448
4r, The immutability of truth and ideas
qd. The eternity of Heaven and Hell: everlasting life and death 449
5. The knowledge and imagery of eternity
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
445
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER • Iliad, BK 11 [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGL SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, m53 JAMES '.Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; eg., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) II Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
. Eternity as timelessness and immutability or
as endless and infinite time: the distinc-
tion between eternity and time
APOCRYPHA Ecdesiasticus, 18.10— (D) OT, Ec-
clesiasticus, 18 8
7 PLATO. Timaeus, 450b-451d
8 ARISTOTLE Interpretation, CH 13 [23*18-26]
35b-c / Physics, BK iv, CH 12 [22iai9]-cn 13
[222b29] 301a-302c; BK vi, CH 2 [233*i3~bi6]
315a-c; CH 7 [2^23-238*19] 321a-c; CH 10
[24ibn-2o] 325d; BK vm, CH 1-2 334a-337b;
CH 6 344b-346b; CH 8 348b-352a / Heavens,
BK i, CH 12 372d-375d esp [282*22-283*2]
373d-374c, [283b7~22] 375c-d; BK n, CH 3
[286*8-13] 3?7c / Generation and Corruption,
BK n, CH 9 [335a33-b2] 436d-437a / Meta-
physics, BK v, CH 5 [ioi5b9~i6] 536a; BK ix,
CH 8 [io5ob6-2o] 576b-c; BK xi, CH 10 [1067*
33-38] 596a; BK xn, CH 6 [io7ib2-n] 601b;
CH 7 [1072*18-23] 602a-b; [1073*3-11] 603a-b;
BK xiv, CH 2 [io88bi4-28] 620d-621a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 15
275a-b
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR v, CH 7 20a-c /
Third Ennead, TR vn 119b-129a / Fourth
Ennead, TR iv, CH 6-8 161b-162d; CH 15-16
165c-166b
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK vn, par 21 49d-
50a, BK xi 89b-99b esp par 8-17 91b-93c, par
39-41 98c-99b; BK xn, par 13-20 102a-103d,
par 40 109b-110a; BK xin, par 44 122d / City
of God, BK xi, CH 5-6 324d-325d; CH 21
333a-d; BK xn, CH 12-19 349b-355a
19 AQUINAS: Stimma Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
AA 1-5 40d-45c esp A 4 43b-44b; Q 14, A 9,
ANS 83b-d; A 13, ANS and REP 3 86d-88c; Q 42,
A 2, REP 2-4 225d-227a; Q 46, A 2, REP 5
253a-255a; Q 79, A 8, RCP 2 421c-422b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [106-
108] 69d; PARADISE, xxix [10-45] 150b-c
23 HOB BBS* Leviathan, PART iv, 271b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292d-294a
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 366d-367a
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48, HOd
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 216d-217c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 8 355c; PROP 20,
COROL 2 364a; PART n, PROP 44, COROL 2 and
DEMONST 390a; PART v, PROP 23 458b-d;
PROP 29, DEMONST 4S9CJ PROP 34, SCHOL 460d
32 MILTON: On Time 12a-b / Paradise Lost, BK
x» [553-5561 331a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 121 195a; 205-206 211a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 26-27 160c-161a; SECT 30-31 161c-162a;
CH xv, SECT 3-8 162d-164b; SECT n-12 165a-c;
446
THE GREAT IDEAS
\ato2
(1. Eternity a$ timelessness and immutability or
as endless and infinite time: the distinc'
tion between eternity and time.)
CM xvn 167d-174a passim, esp SECT 5 168d-
169a, SECT 10 I70b-c, SECT 16 172a-b; CH
xxix, SFCT 15 237a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 26d; 130b-133c; 135a-
137a,c; 152c; 160b-161d; 185a-b
46 HFGEL- Philosophy of History, INTRO, 206c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 295b-c;
KPILOCUE ii, 681a
la. The priority of eternity to time
7 PLATO: Timacus, 450c-451a
8 ARISTOTLE. Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 8 [io50b
2-28]576bd
17 PI.OTINUS. Third Ennead, TR vn, CH i 119b-c;
CH 6, 122c-d; CH n, 126a; CH 13, 128c /
Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 15-16 165c-166b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 21 49d-
50a; BK xi, par 12-16 92b-93a; BK xn, par 40
109b-110a / City of God, BK xi, CH 4-6 324a-
325d; BK xii, CH 12 349b-350a; CH 15-17
351b-354a
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22,
A i, REP 2 127d 128d, Q 46 250a-255d, Q 61,
A 2 315c-316a
21 DANTP- Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxix [10-
45] 150b-c
32 MIL i ON: Paradise Lost, BK v [577 599] 187b-
188a, HK vn [70-108] 218b-219b
42KANr: Pure Reason, 135a-137a,c; 160b-161d
csp 161d
Ib, Aeviternity as intermediate between eter-
nity and time
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK xii, par 9 lOlb-c;
par 12-15 101d-102c, par 18-22, 103b-104a /
Ctty of God, UK xn, CH 15 351b-352d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART j, Q 10,
A 2, RLP 1-2 41d-42c; A 3, ANS 42c-43b; AA 5- 6
44b-46d
2. The issue concerning the infinity of time and
the eternity of the world or of motion
OLD TRSIAMLNI. Genesis, 1:1-2 / Nehemiah, 9 6
-(D) // Esdras, 9:6 / Job, 38:1-13 / Psalms,
90:2; 95:4-5; 102:25-26; 104:5-6; 119-90-91;
136:5-9; 148:1-6— (D) Psalms, 89-2; 94*4-5;
101:26-27; 103:5-6; 118:90-91; 135:5-9; 148:1-
6/ Proverbs, 3:19; 8:22-29 / Isaiah, 45.12,18;
48.13; 65 17-25— (D) Isatas, 45:12,18; 48.13;
65:17-25 / Jeremiah, 51:15— (D) Jeremtas,
51-15
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 7:17-18— (D)
OT, Boot( of Wisdom, 7:17-18 / Ecclesiasti-
cus, 23:19-20, 24 9— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
23:28-29; 24:14 / // Maccabees, 7:23— (D)
OT, II Machabees,-j\2^
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 13:24-30,36-43,49-
5°I 24:3~35 / Mark 13:3-33 / Lu^e, 21 15-33 /
John, 1:1-3 / Colossians, 1:16-17 / Hebrews,
i :io~i2 / // Peter, 3:3-13 / Revelation, 10:5-6—
(D) Apocalypse, 10:5-6
7 PLATO. Phaedrus, 124b-c / Timaeus, 447b-c;
450b-451a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH u [i04bi3~i8]
148a-b / Physics, BK iv, CH 13 [222a2o-b8]
302b; BK vm, CH 1-2 334a-337b; CH 6 344b-
346b; CH 8 348b-352a / Heavens, BK i, CH 2
[269b2-io] 360c-d; CH 3 [270^-26] 361c-362a;
CH 9 [279fti2]-cn 12 [283^2] 370b-375d /
Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10-11
437d-441a,c / Meteorology, BK i, CH 14 [352*
16-353*27] 458b-459a,c; BK rr, CH 3 [350^2-
357*4] 462b-c / Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 8
[io5ob2o-28] 576c-d; BK xi, CH 6 [1063*13-16]
59Ib; CH 10 [1067*33-38] 596a; BK xii, CH 6-8
601b-605a csp CH 7 [io72*i9-bi4] 602b-d,
[1073*5-1 i]603b
9 ARISTOTLE- Motion of Animals, CH 4 [699^4-
700*6] 234d-235a, CH 6 [700^9-70 1*7] 236a-b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK i [146-264]
2d-4b; [483-634] 7a-8d; [951-1051] 12d-14a;
BK ii [89-141] 16a-d, [294-307] 18d-19a; [569-
580] 22b; [1048-1063] 28b-c; [1105-1174] 29a-
30a,c; BK v [1-431] 61a-66d esp [55-70] 61d-
62a, [235-246] 64a-b, [351-379] 65c-66a, BK
vi [535-607] 87c-88b
12 AURCIIUS Meditations, BK v, SECT 13 271b;
BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; BK ix, SECT 28 293d-
294a
16 Kn>LhR. Epitome, BK iv, 847b-848b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i 35a-39d esp
CH 1-5 35a-37c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK xi 89b-99b esp
par 12-17, 92b-93b, par 40 98d-99a / City of
God, BK xi, CH 4-6 324a-325d; BK xn, CH
10-20 348b-357a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 12, ANS 85d-86d; Q 46 250a-255d esp A i
250a-252d; Q 61, A 2 315c-316a, Q 66, A 4
348d-349d, Q 75, A r, REP i 378b-379c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 91, A 2 1017c-1020c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a, PART ii, 162b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48, llOd
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xm, 27b-c / Objections
and Replies, 228a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [6-10] 93b; BK n
[850-1009] 129b-133a csp [890-969] 130b-
132a; BK v [577-599] 187b-188a; BK vn [70-
108] 218b-2l9b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 121 195a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK HI, 540a-541b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 26 160c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 20a; 26d; 130b-133c csp
130b-131c, 132d-133a; 135a-137a,c; 152a-d;
160b-161d; 239b-c / Practical Reason, 334b-
335c esp 335a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693c-
694a passim
3/o 40
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
447
3. The eternity of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:18 / Deuteronomy,
32:39-40 / Psalms, 9 5-8; 29:10-11; 33:10-11;
48 csp 48.8, 48:14; 90 esp 90:1-6; 93; 102:12-
28; 103:14-18; 136; 145:10-13; 146:5-10— (D)
Psalms, 9:6-9; 28:10; 32:10-11; 47 esp 47:9,
47-15, 89 esp 89:1-6; 92; 101*13-29; 102:14-18;
135; 144:10-13; 145:5-10 / Isaiah, 40:28-29;
43:10-13; 57:15— (D) Isaias, 40.28-29; 43 10-
13; 57.15 / Jeremiah, 10 10— (£)) Jeremtas,
10 10 / Lamentations, 5:19 / Daniel, 6:25-27 /
Malachi, 3-6— (D) Malachias, 3.6
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 3920; 42 21 — (D)
OT, Ecclesiasttcus, 39*25; 42:21-22
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:35 / Colos^ans,
1:16-17 / I Timothy, 1.17 / Hebrews, i 10-12;
13 7-8 / Revelation, 1.17-18; 10 6— (D) Apoc-
alypse, 1:17-18; 10 : 6
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [607-615]
120a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vm, CH 6 [258bio-
259b3i] 344b-345d / Heavens, BK u, CH 3
[286*3-13] 377c / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 5
[ioi5b9~i6] 536a; BK ix, CH 8 [1050^-20]
576b-c; BK XH, CH i [io6ga3o-b2] 598b-c;
CH 6-7 601b-603b; CH 9 605a-d esp [io75a5-
11] 605c-d, BK xiv, CH 2 [io88bi4-28] 620d-
621a / Soul, BK n, CH 4 [4i5a22-b8j 645c-d
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1071b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 5 121c-
122a / SiKth Ennead, *IR vm, CH n 348b-c
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK vn, par 1-4 43b-
44c, par 6 44d-45a, par 16-18 48c-49b, par 21
49d-50a; par 23-24 50b-51a; BK xi, par 12-16
92b-93a; BK xn, par u lOlc-d, par 18 103a-c;
par 40 109b-110a, BK xin, par 44 122d / City
of God, BK xi, CH 21 333a-d, BK xn, CH 14-17
350d-354a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 5-6
625d-626b, CH 22 629b-630a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10
40d-46d; Q 14, A 9, ANS 83b-d; A 13, ANS and
REP 3 86d-88c; Q 18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 22, A i,
REP 2 127d-128d, Q 42, A 2 225d-227a, Q 43,
A 2 230d-231c, Q 61, A 2, ANS 315c-316a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-72]
115d; xin [52-60] 126a; xxiv [130-141] 144a;
xxix [10-45] 150b-c; xxxm 156b-157d esp
[124-141] 157c-d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2987-3040] 209a-
210a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 293d- 294a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52b-c / Med-
itations, in, 84a-87a esp 86a; v, 94a-95a esp
95a / Objections and Replies, 228a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF i 355a; DEF 3,6
355b; DEF 8 355c; PROP 6-8 356b-357d; PROP
lo- 1 1 358a-359b; PROP 19-20 363c-364a;
PROP 33, SCHOL 2, 367d-368c; PART n, PROP
44, COROL 2-PROP 47 390a-391a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [1-12] 135b;
[372-382] 143b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH xv,
SECT 3-4 162d-163b; CH xvn, SECT 16-17
172a-c; SECT 20 172d-173c; BK iv, CH x 349c-
354c passim, esp SECT 3-5 349d-350b, SECT
8-1 1 351a-352a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 175d-176c; 190c; 201b-c /
Practical Reason, 334b-335c; 344b-c / Judge-
ment, 592a-c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b, 206c
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK xv, 631a-c
4. The things which partake of eternity
4^. The imperishability of angels, spiritual
substances, souls
7 PLATO. Phaedrus, 124b-c / Meno, 179d-183a
esp 180a / Phaedo, 223c-246c esp 226c 228b,
230c-232c, 245d-246c / Republic, BK x, 434d-
436a / Timaeus, 452c-d
8 ARISTOTLE* Interpretation, CH 13 [23*18-26]
35b-c/ Metaphysics, BK xn, en 3 [1070*21-27]
599c; CH 8 603b-605a / Soul, BK n, CH 2
[413^4-29] 643d-644a, BK HI, CH 5 [430*20-
25] 662d
12 LUCREIIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [417-869]
35c-41a
16 KFPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 890b-891a
17 PLOIINUS: Fourth Ennead, -IR iv, CH 6 161b-c;
TR vn 191c-200c esp CH 8, 195d-196a, CH 9-15
198b-200c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XH, par 9 lOlb-c;
par 12 101d-102a; par 15-16 102b-103a; par
18-22, 103b-104a, par 28, 105c / City of God,
BK x, CH 31 319b-d; BK xn, CH 15 351b-352d;
BK xin, CH i 360a-b; CH 16-17 367a-368d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PARI i, Q 10,
A 2, REP 1-2 41d-42c; A ^, ANS and REP i
42c-43b; AA 5-6 44b-46d; Q 50, A 5 274b-
275a; Q 61, A 2 315c-316a; Q 75, A 6383c-384c;
Q 104, A i, ANS and REP 1,3 534c-536c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-75]
115d-116a; [121-148] 116b-c; xin [52-72] 126a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART HI, 192c-193c; PART
iv, 250c-251b; 253b-254a
31 DESCARTES Meditations, 73b-c / Objections
and Replies, 127c-d; 216d-217a; 228b
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART u, PROP u 377b-c;
PART v, PROP 23 458b-d; PROP 25 458d-459a;
PROP 29-33 459b-460c; PROP 38-40 461d-
462d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [116-159] 96a-
97a; BK u [81-105] 113a-b; BK v [889-892]
194b; BK vi [296-353] 202b-204a; [430-436]
205b; [853-855] 215a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 194-195, 206b-210b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 141
441a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 186a-b
448
THE GREAT IDEAS
to
(4. The things which partake of eternity. 4a,
The imperishability of angels, spiritual
substances, souls.)
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 121a~128b esp 124d-126c;
203d-204c / Practical Reason, 348d
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK v, 216d-218b;
BK vn, 295b-c; BK xiv, 608a-b
4b. The imperishable in the physical order:
matter, atoms, celestial bodies
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 450c-451a; 457a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH i [193*9-28]
269b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 3 360d-362a, BK i,
CH 9 [279*i2]-BK n, CH i [28^6] 370b-376a;
BK n, CH 6 379c-380c; BK in, CH 6 396a-c /
Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10-11
437d-441a,c csp CH 10 [336b25-34] 438d /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [98^7-984*17] 501d-
502b; BK in, CH 2 [997*34-^12] 516a-b; CH 4
[999br-i6] 518b-c; [1000*5-1001*3] 518d-519d;
BK ix, CH 8 [io5obi6-28] 576c-d; BK xi, CH 2
[1060*3-36] 588a-c; CH 6 [1063*10-16] 591b;
BK xii, CH 3 599a-d; CH 6-8 601b-605a / Soul,
BK n, CH 4 Ui5ft23-b8] 645c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 4 [699^4-
700*6] 234d-235a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [146-264]
2d-4b; [483-634] 7a-8d; BK n [294-307] 18d-
19a; BK v [110-145] 62c-63a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 13, 188d-
189a
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b;
BK iv, SECT 46 267c; BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b;
BK vn, SECT 18 281a; SECT 23 281b; SECT 25
281c; SECT 50 283a; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-6a; BK xin,
429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b-889b; 929b-
930b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i 35a-39d /
Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 7-8 161d-162d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xii, par 8-9
lOla-c; par 14-16 102b-103a; par 22 104a-b;
par 28, 105c; par 40 109b-110a / City of God,
BK xin, CH 17, 367d-368b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 2, REP 2 41d-42c; A 3, ANS 42c-43b; A 4, ANS
43b-44b; A 5, ANS 44b-45c; Q 46, A i, REP 2-3
250a-252d; Q 58, A 3, ANS 301d-302d; Q 63,
A i, REP 2 325c-326c; Q 65, A i, REP i 339b-
340b; Q 66, A 2 345d-347b; Q 75, A 6, ANS
383c-384c; Q 84, A i, REP 3 440d-442a; Q 104,
A i, REP 1,3 534c-536c; Q 113, A i, ANS 576a-d;
Q 115, A3, ANs588c-589c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS and REP i 945a-946b; Q 91
1016al025b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [64-81]
106d-107a
28 HARVBY: On Animal Generation, 390b-d
30 BACON: Not/urn Organum, BK 11, APH 48,
186b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 15, SCHOL 360b-
361d
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 541b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH x,
SECT 10-19 351b-354c passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 346d
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 226b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 18d-19a; 74b-76c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
41b-c
4c. The immutability of truth and ideas
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 100:5; 117:2; 119:160;
146.5-6— (D) Psalms, 99:5; 116.2; 118.160;
145:5-6 / Proverbs, 8*22-30
APOCRYPHA' Wisdom of Solomon, 7*24-26— (D)
OT, Bool^of Wisdom, 7.24-26 / Ecclesiasticus,
24*9— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 24:14
NEW TESTAMENT: II John, 1-2
7 PLATO- Phaedrus, 125a-b / Symposium, 167b-d
/ Meno, 184d / Phaedo, 231b-232b / Timaeus,
447b-d, 457b-458b
8 ARISTOTLE' Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 8
104a-b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [987*29^18]
505b-d; BK n, CH i [99^19-31] 512a-b; BK
in, CH 2 [997*34-bi2] 516a-b; BK ix, CH 10
[io5ib33-io52ai2] 578a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [io96*29~b5]
341c-d; BK vi, CH 3 [in9b 18-24] 388b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-812a;
813d-814a
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 5-8 248a-
250a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8-10 626c-627b;
BK 11, CH 38-39, 654b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 3, REP 3 42c-43b; Q 14, A 13, ANS and REP 3
86d-88c; A 15 89b-90b; Q 16, AA 7-8 99a-100d;
Q 18, A 4 107d-108c; Q 22, A i, REP 2 127d-
128d; Q 44, A 3 240b-241a; Q 84, A i, REP 3
440d-442a; A 2, ANS and REP 3 442b-443c; A 5
446c-447c, Q 86, A 3 463b-d
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 91,
A i 208b-d; Q 93 215b,d-220d; Q 94, A 4, ANS
223d-224d, AA 5-6 224d-226b; PART n-ii, Q
i, A i, CONTRARY 380b-381a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 267b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 276b~285c passim, esp
279b-282a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 56 112a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 216d-
217c; 228a-b; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 8 355c; PROP 8,
SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c; PROP 19, SCHOL 363d; PROP 20, COROL i
364a; PROP 33, SCHOL 2 367d-369a; PART n,
PROP 44, COROL 2-PROP 47 390a*391a
dto5
CHAPTER 23: ETERNITY
449
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [142-151] 114b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
SECT 31 323c-d; CH xi, SECT 14 358b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113c-118a esp 113c-114b,
117b-118a; 173b-174a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a; PART
in, par 270, 85c / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
156d-157b; 168b-d; PART in, 310d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 301a; 879b-882a
</. The eternity of Heaven and Hell: everlast-
ing life and death
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 16 esp 16:10-11; 73
esp 73.24-28; 145:10-13— (D) Psalms, 15 esp
15:10-11; 72 esp 72:24-28; i44:io-i3/ Daniel,
7:13-18 esp 7:18
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1-5 esp 3-5—
(D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 1-5 esp 3-5
NEW TESIAMENT Matthew, 6.19-21; 18.8-9;
25:31-46 / Mark 9:43-50; 10:17-31— (D)
Marl(, 9:42-49; 10:17-31 / Lul^e, 10.25-37 /
John, 6:37-40; 8:51; 10:24-30; ii 23^27; 17:1-
3 / Romans, 6 esp 6:23/7 Corinthians, 15.34-
58/// Corinthians, 4:12-5.10 / Galatiam, 6.8 /
I Peter, i '3-7,22-25 / 7/0/^7,2:16-17; 5-H-J2/
Jude, 5-8 / Revelation, 2:7-11; 3 5; 20-22 esp
20:10-15, 21:4-6, 22-1-5— (D) Apocalypse,
2.7-11; 3.5, 20-22 esp 20 .9-1 5, 21.4-6, 22 I~5
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xm, par 50-53
124c-125a,c / City of God, BK xm, CH 2 360b-
361a; CH 12 365d-366a; CH 14-20 366b-371a;
BK XIII, CH 22-BK XIV, CH I 37lC-377aj BK
xiv, CH 15 388d-390a; BK xv, CH 1-3 397b,d-
399c; CH 6 400c-401b; BK xix, CH 4 511a-
513c; CH lo-n 516c-517b; CH 27-28 529a-
530a,c; BK xxi-xxn 560a-618d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 4 625b-c; CH 21 629b; CH
24, 630d, CH 38-39 635c-636a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 42c-43b; Q 18, A 2, REP 2
105c-106b; Q 23, A i, ANS and REP 3 132c-133b;
Q 66, A 3 347b-348d; Q 75, A 7, REP i 384d-
385c; PART i-n, Q 4, A 7, REP 3 635b-636a;
Q 5, A 4 639a*640b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67
81b-87c; Q 68, A 6 93c-94c; Q 87, AA 3-5 187b-
189c; PART ii-n, Q 18, AA 2-3 462d-464c; Q 19,
A n 472d-473d; Q 26, A 13 519d-520d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i [112-129] 2b-
c; in [1-18] 4a-b; [82-129] 5a-b; iv [13-45]
5c-d; vi [1-57] 8b-9a; vn [16-59] 9d-10a esp
[55-59] lOa; xn [49-51] 16d-17a; xiv [28-42]
19d-20a; xv [22-42] 21b-c; PARADISE, in [34-
90] 109d-110b; vn [64-78] 115d-116a; [121-
148] 116b-c; xiv [1-66] 126d-127c; xv [1-12]
128b-c; xxx-xxxni 151d-157d esp xxxi [31-
93] 153c-154a
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Talc [15,787-800]
467a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 191b*198a; PART
iv, 250c-251b, 253b*255b
25 MONIAIGNE: Essays, 265b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE- Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [42-
63] 115a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 366d-367a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 228b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [84-191] 95b-97b;
[242-330] 98b-100b; BK n [85-92] 113a; [142-
188] 114b-115a; BK in [274-343] 141b-143a;
BK x [782-844] 291b-292b; BK xn [537-556]
331a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 194-195, 206b-210b; 233,
214b-215a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 5b-c; 15d-16a / Human
Understanding, BK n, CH xxi, SECT 38 187b-c;
SECT 62 194c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233d-234d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347c
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 363a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 315d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl(, 347a
5. The knowledge and imagery of eternity
7 PLATO: Apology, 211b-c / Timacus, 450b-451a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 11 [io4bi3-i8]
148a-b / Memory and Reminiscence, CH i
[449b30- 450*10] 690c-d
16 KEPLER. Harmonies of the World, 1048a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR v, CH 7 20a-c /
Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 3 120a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 13 17
92b-93c; BK xn, par 40 109b-110a; BK xm,
par 44 122d / City of God, BK xi, CH 5-6
324d-325d; CH 21 333a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A i 40d-41d; A 2, RLP i 41d-42c; Q 13, A i,
REP 3 62c-63c; Q 42, A 2, RLP 1,4 225d-227a;
Q 46, A i, ANS 250a-252d, A 2 253a-255a; Q 79,
A 9, ANS and REP 3 422b-423d
21 DANTL: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [100-
108] 69d; PARADISE, xxx-xxxni 151d-157d
esp xxxi [31-93] 153c-154a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 271b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-
llla
32 MILTON: On Time 12a-b I At a Solemn Musicl(
13a-b / Sonnets, xiv 66a / Paradise Lost, BK xn
[537-556] 331a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 26-27 160c-161a; SECT 30-31 161c-162a;
CH xv, SECT 3-5 162d-163c; SECT 11-12
165a-c; CH xvn 167d-174a passim, esp SECT 5
168d-169a, SECT 10 170b-c, SECT 16 172a-b;
CH xxix, SECT 15 237a; SECT 16, 237d-238a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 135fi-b
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, 154c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 156d; BK v,
216d-218b esp 217a-c; BK vn, 295b-c; BK ix,
355d-356a
450 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the distinction between eternity as infinite time and eternity as time-
lessness, seeTiME 2; and for the relation of eternity to time, seeTmE 2C.
Another consideration of infinite time, see INFINITY 3e.
The controversy concerning the infinity of time and the eternity of the world or motion,
see ASTRONOMY 8c(i), 8d; CHANGE 13; TIME 2b; WORLD 43; and for the relation of creation
to eternity and time, see GOD 73; TIME 2c; WORLD 46(2).
The notion of permanent elements or principles of change, see CHANGE 2.
Other discussions of the eternity of God, see CHANGE i5c; GOD 4d.
The conception of the angels as aeviternal, see ANGEL 3c; TIME 2a.
The discussion of imperishable or incorruptible bodies, see ASTRONOMY 8a; BEING 7b(3);
CHANGE ice; ELEMENT 53.
The consideration of the eternality of truth and of ideas, see CHANGE 153; FORM 2b; IDEA ic;
IMMORTALITY 6c; TRUTH 5.
The conception of the eternity of Heaven and Hell or of eternal salvation and damnation, see
HAPPINESS 7c; IMMORTALITY 5e~5f; PUNISHMENT 50(1); SIN 6d.
The problem of the knowabihty of the infinite, see INFINITY 6b; KNOWLEDGE 53(4).
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Boo^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
*• standing, BK n, CH 14
AUGUSTINE. On the Immortality of the Soul, CH i . Monadology, par 6
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK n, CH 32-38 VOLTAIRE. "Eternity," in A Philosophical Die-
. On the Power of God, Q 8 ttonary
. De Aetermtate Mundi . The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 14, 16, 20
SPINOZA. Correspondence, xn KIERKEGAARD. "The Expectation of an Eternal
Happiness," in VOL in, Edifying Discourses
"• . Philosophical Fragments
PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (F) . Concluding Unscientific Postscript, pp 345-385,
BOETHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK v, 468-492, 508-513
PROSA 6 WHEWELL. On the Philosophy of Discovery, CH 26
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY. Monologium BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 4-5; BK
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART n, n, CH 18, 26
CH 13-16, 1 8, 22-23 ROYCE. The World and the Individual, SERIES n (3)
BONA VENTURA. Breviloquium, PART vn POHLE. Eschatology
DUNS SCOTUS. Opus Oxomense, BK n, DIST 2, HUGEL. The Mystical Element of Religion
Q 2 BERGSON. The Creative Mind, CH i, 5
. Tractatus de Prtmo Principio (A Tract Con- A. E.TAYLOR. The Faith of a Moralist, SERIES i (3, 6)
cerning the First Principled DEWEY. The Quest for Certainty, CH 2
ECKHART. Sermons and Collations, xxv WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality, PART i, CH 2; PART
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicac, xxx (7-9), n, CH i; PART iv, CH i (5-6); PART v, CH 2
L (3-6) . Adventures of Ideas, CH 11-15
Chapter 14: EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
'TT'HIS chapter belongs to Darwin. Not that
JL his writings, which are cited under almost
all headings, stand alone in the various places
they appear. The point is rather that many of
the topics are dictated by and draw their mean-
ing from his thought, and that he figures in all
the major issues connected with the origin of
species, the theory of evolution, and the place
of man in the order of nature. With respect to
the matters under consideration in this chapter,
the other writers in the tradition of the great
books cannot escape from being classified as
coming before or after Darwin, or as being with
or against him.
Darwin's influence on later writers may be
variously estimated, but it is plainly marked by
their use of his language and their reference to
his fundamental notions. James* Principles of
Psychology, especially in its chapters on instinct
and emotion, views the behavior of men and
animals and the phenomena of intelligence or
mind in evolutionary terms. The writings of
Freud are similarly dominated by the genetic
approach and by an appeal to man's animal
ancestry in order to explain the inherited con-
stitution of his psyche in conformity with the
doctrine of evolution.
Outside psychology the concept of evolution
is reflected in theories of progress or of a dia-
lectical development in history; as, for example,
in the dialectical or historical materialism of
Marx and Engels, which is set forth in the
latter's Dialectics of Nature. An even more
general re-orientation of philosophy, which
stems from an evolutionary way of thinking, is
to be found in the writings of Bergson and
Dewey, such as Creative Evolution and The In-
fluence of Darwin on Philosophy. These, along
with many of the specifically biological works
cited in the list of Additional Readings, give
some measure of the influence of Darwin not
451
only on philosophical thought, but also on the
direction of research mall the biological sciences.
WITH REGARD TO Darwin's predecessors the
question is not so much one of their influence
upon him as of their anticipation, in one way or
another, of his discoveries, his conceptions, and
his theory.
The observation made in antiquity concern-
ing a hillside deposit of marine fossils is some-
times taken as implying an early recognition of
the evolution of terrestrial life. More apposite
perhaps is the statement by Lucretius that "the
new earth first put forth grass and bushes, and
next gave birth to the races of mortal creatures
springing up many in number in many ways
after divers fashions." Lucretius also speaks of
strange monsters which nature did not permit
to survive. "Nature set a ban on their increase
and they could not reach the coveted flower of
age nor find food nor be united in marriage . . .
And many races of living things must then have
died out and been unable to beget and continue
their breed." Those which survived, he adds,
had qualities which "protected and preserved
each particular race."
Apparently susceptible to similar interpreta-
tion are Aristotle's statements that "nature
proceeds little by little from things lifeless to
animal life"; that "there is observed in plants
a continuous scale of ascent toward the animal";
and that "throughout the entire animal scale
there is a graduated differentiation in amount
of vitality and in capacity for motion." Augus-
tine's commentary on the first chapter of
Genesis seems even more explicitly to contem-
plate the successive appearance of the various
forms of life. Plants and animals did not actually
exist when the world began. Though their
causes were created by God and existed from
the beginning, the actual production of plants
452
THE GREAT IDEAS
and animals in their various kinds is, as Aquinas
tells us while summarizing Augustine's view,
"the work of propagation*'— not of creation.
Like Aristotle, both Aquinas and Locke repre-
sent the world of living organisms as a graduated
scale ascending from less to more perfect forms
of life. But where Aquinas tends to conceive
that graduated scale as a hierarchy involving
essential differences, Locke sees an almost per-
fect continuity involving only differences in
degree. "In all the visible world," he writes,
"we see no chasms or gaps." To illustrate this,
he points out that "there are fishes that have
wings, and are not strangers to the airy region;
and there are some birds that are inhabitants
of the water, whose blood is cold as fishes . . .
There are animals so near of km to both birds
and beasts that they are in the middle between
both: amphibious animals link the terrestrial
and aquatic together . . . and the animal and
vegetable kingdoms are so nearly joined, that,
if you will take the lowest of one and the highest
of the other, there will scarce be perceived any
great difference between them: and so on, till
we come to the lowest and the most inorganical
parts of matter, we shall find everywhere that
the several species are linked together, and
differ but in almost insensible degrees."
But for the theory of evolution the observa-
tion of a hierarchy in nature, or even of a con-
tinuity in which the species differ by "almost
insensible degrees," constitutes only back-
ground. What the theory of evolution brings
to the fore is the notion of a developmental or
genetic relation among the various forms of
life. Because it seems to contain this insight,
the anticipation of Darwin to be found in
Kant's Critique of Judgement is perhaps the
most remarkable; even though, in a closely
related passage in which Kant discusses epi-
genesis, he uses the word "evolution" in a sense
quite contrary to Darwin's conception.
"It is praiseworthy," Kant writes, "to em-
ploy a comparative anatomy and go through
the vast creation of organized beings in order
to see if there is not discoverable in it some
trace of a system, and indeed of a system follow-
ing a genetic principle . . , When we consider the
agreement of so many genera of animals in a
certain common schema, which apparently un-
derlies not only the structure of their bones,
but also the disposition of their remaining parts,
and when we find here the wonderful simplicity
of the original plan, which has been able to
produce such an immense variety of species by
the shortening of one member and the length-
ening of another, by the involution of this part
and the evolution of that, there gleams upon
the mind a ray of hope, however faint, that the
principle of the mechanism of nature, apart
from which there can be no natural science at
all, may yet enable us to arrive at some explana-
tion in the case of organic life. This analogy of
forms, which in all their differences seem to be
produced in accordance with a common type,
strengthens the suspicion that they have an
actual kinship due to descent from a common
parent. This we might trace in the gradual
approximation of one animal species to another,
from that in which the principle of ends seems
best authenticated, namely from man, back to
the polyp, and from this back even to mosses
and lichens, and finally to the lowest perceiv-
able stage of nature."
FINDING ANTICIPATIONS of Darwin involves
judgments much more subject to controversy
than tracing his influences. It is questionable,
for example, whether the suggestive passages
in Lucretius and Locke bear more than a super-
ficial resemblance to Darwin's thought. The
matter is further complicated by Darwin's own
sense of his divergence from and disagreement
with his predecessors— both immediate precur-
sors like Buffon and Linnaeus and earlier phi-
losophers and theologians.
Darwin tells us himself of his quarrel with
the theologians. His followers elaborate on the
opposition between his conception of species
and that of Aristotle, an opposition which Dar-
win intimates by the great stress he lays on the
difference between a static taxonomy and a
dynamic or genealogical classification of living
things.
We must therefore try to locate the central
points of Darwin's theory in order to judge
comparable views for their agreement or dis-
agreement.
As the title of his major work indicates, it is
not evolution as a grand scheme of biological,
or cosmic, history, but the origin of species with
which Darwin seems to be principally con-
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
453
ccrned. He is concerned with establishing the
fact that new species do originate in the course
of time, against those who suppose the species
of living things to be fixed in number and im-
mutable in type throughout the ages. He is
concerned with describing the circumstances
under which new species arise and other forms
cease to have the status of species or become
extinct. He is concerned with formulating the
various factors in the differentiation of species,
and with showing, against those who think a
new species requires a special act of creation,
that the origin of species, like their extinction,
is entirely a natural process which requires no
factors other than those at work every day in
the life, death, and breeding of plants and
animals. Only as a consequence of these pri-
mary considerations does he engage in specula-
tions about the moving panorama of life on
earth from its beginnings to its present and its
future.
Darwin looks upon the term "species" as
"arbitrarily given," and for that reason does
not attempt any strict definition of it. He uses
it, moreover, like his predecessors in systematic
biological classification, to signify "a set of in-
dividuals closely resembling each other"— a
class of plants or animals having certain com-
mon characteristics. Darwin would probably
agree with Locke's criticism of those who sup-
pose that our definitions of species grasp the
real essences or relate to the substantial forms
inherent in things. As indicated in the chapter
on DEFINITION, Locke insists that our notion
of a species expresses only what he calls the
"nominal essence" — a set of characteristics we
attach to the name we give things of a sort
when we group them and separate them in our
classifications. "The boundaries of species,
whereby man sorts [things], are made by men,"
he writes; "the essences of the species, dis-
tinguished by different names, are ... of man's
making."
Species is not the only term of classification.
A genus, for example, is a more inclusive group
than a species. Groups which differ specifically
belong to the same genus if their difference is
accompanied by the possession of common
traits. As species differ from one another within
a generic group, so genera are in turn sub-
classes of more inclusive groupings, such as
phyla, families, and orders. But there are also
smaller groupings within a species. There arc
races or varieties and sub-varieties, the mem-
bers of which share the characteristics of the
species but differ from one another in other
respects. Ultimately, of course, within the
smallest class the systematist bothers to define,
each individual differs from every other in the
same group with whom, at the same time, it
shares certain characteristics of the race, the
species, the genus, and all the larger classes to
which they belong.
This general plan of botanical or zoological
classification does not seem to give species pe-
culiar status in the hierarchy of classes or group-
ings or to distinguish it from other classes
except as these are more or less inclusive than
itself. Why then should attention be focused
on the origin of species, rather than of varieties
or of genera ?
One part of the answer comes from the
facts of generation or reproduction. Offspring
tend to differ from their parents, as well as
from each other, but they also tend to re-
semble one another. "A given germ," Aristotle
writes, "does not give rise to any chance living
being, nor spring from any chance one; but
each germ springs from a definite parent and
gives rise to a definite progeny." This is an
early formulation of the insight that in the
process of reproduction, the law of like generat-
ing like always holds for those characteristics
which identify the species of ancestors and
progeny.
In other words, a species always breeds true;
its members always generate organisms which
can be classified as belonging to the same
species, however much they vary among them-
selves as individuals within the group. Further-
more, the sub-groups — the races or varieties —
of a species arc able to breed with one another,
but diverse species cannot interbreed. Organ-
isms different in species either cannot mate
productively at all, or if crossbred, like the
horse and the ass, they produce a sterile hy-
brid like the mule.
In the hierarchy of classes, then, species
would seem to be distinguished from all smaller
groupings by their stability from generation to
generation. If species arc thus self-perpetuating,
they in turn give stability to all the larger
454
THE GREAT IDEAS
groupings~-the getoera, phyla, families— which
remain as fixed from generation to generation
as the species which constitute them. Hence
the question of origin applies peculiarly to
species rather than to varieties or to genera,
On the supposition stated, no origin of
species would seem to be possible except by a
special act of creation. Either all the existing
species of organisms have always existed from
the beginning of life on earth; or, if in the
course of ages new species have arisen, their
appearance cannot be accounted for by natural
generation. By the law of natural generation,
offspring will always be of the same species as
the parent organisms.
Spontaneous generation, of course, remains a
possibility. A new species of organism might
come to be without being generated by other
living organisms. But apart from the question
of fact (/'.<?., whether spontaneous generation
ever does occur), such origin of a form of life
seems to he outside the operation of natural
causes and to imply the intervention of super-
natural power.
The possibility of spontaneous generation
was entertained in antiquity and the Middle
Ages, and was even thought to be supported by
observation, such as that of maggots emerging
from putrefying matter. But modern science
tends to affirm the biogenetic law that living or-
ganisms are generated only by living organisms.
To Kant, the notion that "life could have
sprung up from the nature of what is void of
life," seems not only contrary to fact, but
absurd or unreasonable. Yet, while affirming
the principle that like produces like by insisting
upon "the generation of something organic
from something else that is also organic,"
Kant docs not carry that principle to the point
where it would make the generation of a new
species impossible. "Within the class of organic
beings," he writes, it is possible for one organ-
ism to generate another "differing specifically
from it."
AGAINST THE BACKGROUND of these various
suppositions, Darwin is moved to a new in-
sight by the conjunction of certain types of
fact: the results of breeding under domestica-
tion which exhibit the great range of variation
within a species and the tendency of inbred
varieties to breed true; his own observations
of the geographical distribution of species of
flora and fauna, especially those separated from
one another by impassable barriers; the facts of
comparative anatomy and embryology which
reveal affinities in organic structure and de-
velopment between organisms distinct in
species; and the geological record which in-
dicates the great antiquity of life upon the
earth, which gives evidence of the cataclysmic
changes in the earth's surface (with conse-
quences for the survival of life), and which
above all contains the fossil remains of forms of
life now extinct but not dissimilar from species
alive in the present age.
Briefly stated, Darwin's insight is that new
species arise when, among the varieties of an ex-
isting species, certain intermediate forms be-
come extinct, and the other circumstances are
such that the surviving varieties, now become
more sharply separated from one another in
type, are able to reproduce their kind, and, in
the course of many generations of inbreeding,
also tend to breed true. They thus perpetuate
their type until each in turn ceases to be a spe-
cies and becomes a genus when its own extreme
varieties, separated by the extinction of inter-
mediates, become new species, as they them-
selves did at an earlier stage of history. For the
very same reason that Darwin says "a well-
marked variety may be called an incipient
species," a species may be called an incipient
genus.
The point is misundei stood if it is supposed
that when new species originate from old, both
the new and the old continue to survive as
species. On the contrary, when in the course
of thousands of generations some of the varie-
ties of a species achieve the status of species,
the species from which they originated by
variation ceases to be a species and becomes
a genus.
"The only distinction between species and
well-marked varieties," Darwin writes, "is that
the latter are known, or believed, to be con-
nected at the present day with intermediate
gradations, whereas species were formerly thus
connected ... It is quite possible that forms
now generally acknowledged to be merely
Varieties may hereafter be thought worthy of
specific names; and in this case scientific and
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
455
common language will come into accordance.
In short, we shall have to treat species in the
same manner as those naturalists treat genera
who admit that genera are merely artificial
combinations made for convenience . . . Our
classifications will come to be, as far as they
can be so made, genealogies."
The origin of species thus seems to be identical
with the extinction of intermediate varieties, com-
bined with the survival of one or more of the
extreme varieties. These seem to be simply two
ways of looking at the same thing. Still another
way of seeing the point may be achieved by
supposing, contrary to fact, the survival of all
the varieties ever produced through the breed-
ing of organisms.
"If my theory be true," Darwin writes,
"numberless intermediate varieties, linking
closely together all the species of the same
group, must assuredly have existed; but the
very process of natural selection constantly
tends, as has been so often remarked, to ex-
terminate the parent-forms and the inter-
mediate links." If one were to suppose the
simultaneous co-existence of all intermediate
varieties in the present day, the groups now
called "species" would be continuously con-
nected by slight differences among their mem-
bers and would not, therefore, be divided into
distinct species, as they now are because certain
links are missing.
In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant states
the principle of continuity in the following
manner. "This principle," he writes, "in-
dicates that all differences of species limit each
other, and do not admit of transition from one
to another by a saltus, but only through smaller
degrees of the difference between the one
species and the other. In one word, there are
no species or sub-species which ... are the
nearest possible to each other; intermediate
species or sub-species being always possible, the
difference of which from each of the former is
always smaller than the difference existing
between these." But, Kant adds, "it is plain
that this continuity of forms is a mere idea, to
which no adequate object can be discovered in
experience," partly because "the species in
nature are really divided . . . and if the gradual
progression through their affinity were con-
tinuous, the intermediate members lying be-
tween two given species must be infinite in
number, which is impossible."
The Russian geneticist, Theodore Dobzhan-
sky, gives an interpretation of continuity in
nature which differs from Kant's in that it
follows and applies Darwin's conception of
species and their origin. According to him, if
we suppose the extreme case of all possible
genetic variations being alive on earth to-
gether, the result would be not an infinite
number of species, but no species and genera at
all. The array of plants and animals would
approach a perfectly continuous series in which
there would only be individual differences.
There would be no specific or generic group-
ings of the sort now made in our classification
of the forms of life.
ON DARWIN'S conception of the origin of spe-
cies its causes divide into two sets of factors:
first, those which determine the extinction or
survival of organisms and, with their survival,
their opportunities for mating and reproduc-
tion; second, those which determine the trans-
mission of characteristics from one generation
to another and the vanation of offspring from
their ancestors and from each other. Without
genetic variation there would be no range of
differences within a group on which the factors
of selection could operate. Without the in-
heritance of ancestral traits there would be no
perpetuation of group characteristics in the
organisms which manage to survive and re-
produce.
For Darwin the operation of the first set of
factors constitutes the process of natural selec-
tion. This may take place in many ways:
through geological catastrophes which make
certain areas of the earth's surface uninhabit-
able for all organisms, or for those types which
cannot adapt themselves to the radically
changed environment; through the competi-
tion among organisms for the limited food
supply available in their habitat; through the
struggle for existence in which organisms not
only compete for food but also prey upon one
another; through the sexual selection which
operates within a group when some organisms
are prevented 'by others from mating and
reproducing; and through all the obstacles
which isolate groups from interbreeding, in-
456
THE GREAT IDEAS
eluding geographical and physiological in-
accessibility.
The struggle for existence is not only a
struggle to survive, but also a struggle to re-
produce. Natural selection operates with re-
spect to reproduction as well as survival.
Whether the survival is of the fittest alone, or
whether the multiplication of inferior organ-
isms also gives evolution another direction, has
been disputed since Darwin's day; but ac-
cording to his theory, "natural selection works
solely by and for the good of each being; all
corporeal and mental endowments will tend to
progress toward perfection . . . Thus, from the
war of nature, from famine and death . . . the
production of the higher animals directly fol-
lows."
With respect to the factors of heredity and
variation, tremendous advances since Darwin
in the experimental science of genetics require
revisions in this part of his theory of evolution.
This is particularly true of the researches of
Mendel, Bateson, and Morgan concerning the
ways in which genetic factors operate. But on
one major point in the theory of heredity
Darwin holds a view which later investigations
have tended to confirm. Antedating Weismann,
he nevertheless opposes Lamarck's theory of
the inheritance of acquired characteristics. As
William James expresses it, where Lamarck sup-
poses that environmental influences cause
changes in the structure or functioning of the
organism which then become hereditary, Dar-
win regards the environment merely as a selec-
tive agency, acting upon variations produced
entirely by causes operating in the breeding
process. James thinks "the evidence for Mr.
Darwin's view . . . [was] . . . quite convincing,"
even before it received the support of Weis-
mann's theory, according to which it is "a
priori impossible that any peculiarity acquired
during the lifetime by the parent should be
transmitted to the germ."
The situation is not the same with regard to
Darwin's views on the mechanism of heredity.
Writing before Mendel's classic experiments in
hybridization, Darwin seems to suppose a
blending of hereditary factors; whereas, ac-
cording to Mendel, inheritance is particulate.
Distinct genetic factors combine to produce a
certain somatic result without losing their
separate identities. They can therefore be re-
assorted and enter into new genetic combina-
tions in the next generation. Most important of
all, Darwin thinks that new forms of life arise
gradually as the result of a continuous accumu-
lation of slight and imperceptible variations.
The opposite view is now taken. The discovery
of abrupt mutations in a single generation dis-
countenances Darwin's maxim natura nonfactt
saltum— "nature does nothing by jumps."
These advances in genetics since Darwin's
day do not alter the main outlines of his theory.
The mechanisms of heredity may be much
more complicated than Darwin knew, and
involve much of which he was ignorant, such
as mutation-rates, or the various types, causes,
and effects of hybridization. But that merely
leads to a more elaborate or different explana-
tion of genetic variation in offspring and the
transmission of ancestral traits. No matter how
these are explained, their occurrence is all that
is needed to permit new species to originate
through natural processes of heredity and
selection. "If Darwin were alive today," Julian
Huxley writes, "the title of his book would
have to be not the 'origin' but the 'Origins of
Species.' For perhaps the most salient single
fact that has emerged from recent studies is
that species may arise in a number of quite
distinct ways."
THE READER MUST judge for himself to what
extent Darwin's theory of evolution was an-
ticipated by those \\ho, like Augustine, affirm
the appearance of new species of life on earth at
various stages in its history, or even by a writer
like Kant, who seems to possess the germ of its
insight.
The critical test in every case is whether
those who affirm the occurrence of new species
by natural processes rather than by special
creation, think of them as simply added to the
organic forms already in existence without any
change in the status as species of the pre-exist-
ing forms. Those who think in this way do not
have Darwin's idea of the origin of species; for
in conceiving an increase in the number of
species as merely a matter of addition, they
necessarily attribute stability to each species,
new as well as old. By this test, not even Kant
seems to be near the center of Darwin's hy-
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
457
pothcsis of the origin of species by the extinc-
tion of intermediate varieties.
In comparing Darwin with certain of his
predecessors, notably Aristotle and Aquinas, it
seems necessary to apply another kind of test.
Here the problem is not so much one of dis-
covering affinities or disagreements, as one of
determining whether they are talking about
the same thing and therefore, when they ap-
pear to disagree, whether the issue between
them is genuine. They do not seem to conceive
a species in the same way. Certainly they use
the word differently. This affects the way in
which the whole problem of origins is under-
stood. The controversies concerning the fixity
or mutability of species, concerning evolution
and creation, and concerning the origin of man
involve genuine issues only if those who seem
to disagree do not use the word "species" in
widely different senses.
It is possible that certain forms of life do not
originate by descent from a common ancestor
and do not derive their status as quite distinct
types from the mere absence of intermediate
varieties— varieties which once must have ex-
isted but are now extinct. If such forms were
to be called "species," the word would have a
different meaning from the meaning it has
when applied to types of pigeons, beetles, or
rats.
The first of these two meanings may express
the philosophical conception of a living species
as a class of organisms having the same essential
nature, according to which conception there
never could have been intermediate varieties.
The second meaning may be that of the scien-
tific taxonomist in botany or zoology who con-
structs a system of classification, genealogical
or otherwise. On this meaning, one million
and a half would be a conservative estimate of
the number of plant and animal types classi-
fied by the systematist as "species." In contrast,
the number of species, in the philosophical
sense of distinct essences, would be extremely
small.
Darwin, for example, says, "I cannot doubt
that the theory of descent with modification
embraces all the members of the same great
class or kingdom. I believe that animals are
descended from at most only four or five pro-
genitors, and plants from an equal or lesser
number. Analogy would lead me one step
farther, namely, to the belief that all animals
and plants are descended from some one proto-
type. But analogy may be a deceitful guide."
It is immaterial to the theory of evolution, he
adds, whether this inference, "chiefly grounded
on analogy ... be accepted."
The issue between Darwin and the theo-
logians may or may not be genuine according
to the interpretation of this passage, and ac-
cording to the possibility of a double use of the
word "species" — for both the small number of
progenitors from which all the extant types of
plants and animals have evolved, and for a very
large number of those extant types. If the
theologians use the word "species" in the first
sense, and Darwin in the second, they need not
be in disagreement. The "view of life" which
Darwin attributes to certain eminent authori-
ties, he himself does not flatly reject, namely,
that life, "with its several powers [has] been
originally breathed by the Creator into a few
forms or into one."
Is there common ground here in the ad-
mitted possibility that life may have been
originally created in a small number of distinct
forms and that these are to be regarded as
species in one conception, though not in
another? If so, the affirmation of a certain
fixity to species would apply only to a few
primordial forms. Concerning forms which
have appeared with the passage of time, two
questions would have to be answered. First,
are they species in the philosopher's sense of
distinct and immutable essences, or species in
the scheme of systematic biological classifica-
tion? Second, is their first appearance at an
historical moment due to a special act of
creation, to spontaneous generation, or to
evolution from already existing organic forms
by "descent with modification"?
To join issue with Darwin, it would seem to
be necessary for the person answering these
questions to use the word "species" in the
biologist's sense and at the same time to ac-
count for the historical ongm of the new species
by special creation or spontaneous generation.
But in the tradition of the great books, theo-
logians like Augustine and Aquinas do not
attribute to God any special acts of creation
after the original production of the world,
458
THE GREAT IDEAS
except to explain the origin of individual
human souls.
"Nothing entirely new was afterwards made
by God," Aquinas writes, "but all things
subsequently made had in a sense been made
before in the work of the six days . . . Some ex-
isted not only in matter, but also in their
causes, as those individual creatures that are
now generated existed in the first of their kind.
Species also that are new, if any such appear,
existed beforehand in various active powers; so
that animals, and perhaps even new species of
animals, are produced by putrefaction by the
power which the stars and elements received at
the beginning. Again, animals of new kinds
arise occasionally from the connection of in-
dividuals belonging to different species, as the
mule is the offspring of an ass and a mare, but
even these existed previously m their causes, in
the work of the six days."
WHETHER OR NOT the theologian's conception
of an historical development of the forms of life
conforms to the evolutionist's hypothesis, even
though it does not offer the same type of ex-
planation, is a matter which the reader of the
texts must decide. But one issue, which still
remains to be discussed, can leave little doubt
of a basic controversy between Darwin and
some of his predecessors, especially the theo-
logians.
It concerns the origin and nature of man. It
can be stated m terms of two views of human
nature. One is that man is a species in the
philosophical sense, essentially and abruptly
distinct from brute animals; the other, that
man is a species in the biologist's sense, and
differs from other animals only by continuous
variation.
On the first view, either man would have to be
created, in body as well as soul; or if the human
species has an origin which in part or whole in-
volves the operation of natural causes, it must
be conceived as emerging from a lower form of
life. The rational soul, Aquinas maintains, "can-
not come to be except by creation." But it is
not only man's soul which, according to Aqui-
nas, "cannot be produced save immediately by
God." He also insists that "the first formation
of the human body could not be by the instru-
mentality of any created power, but was im-
mediately from God," He does not reject the
suggestion of Augustine that the human body
may have preexisted in other creatures as an
effect preexists in its causes. But he adds the
qualification that it preexists in its causes only
in the manner of a "passive potentiality," so
that "it can be produced out of pre-existing
matter only by God." A Christian theologian
like Aquinas might entertain the hypothesis of
emergent evolution as applied to the human
organism, but only with the qualification that
natural causes by themselves do not suffice for
the production of man.
On the second view, which is Darwin's, man
and the anthropoid apes have descended from a
common ancestral form which is now extinct,
as are also many of the intermediate varieties
in the chain of development — unless, as it is
sometimes thought, certain fossil remains sup-
ply some of the missing Jinks. "The great break
in the organic chain between man and his near-
est allies, which cannot be bridged over by any
extinct or living species, has often been ad-
vanced," Darwin admits, "as a grave objection
to the belief that man is descended from some
lower form; but this objection," he continues,
"will not appear of much weight to those who,
from general reasons, believe in the general
principle of evolution. Breaks often occur in all
parts of the series, some being wide, sharp and
defined, others less so m various degrees, as
between the orang and its nearest allies — be-
tween the Tarsius and the other Lemundae —
between the elephant, and in a more striking
manner between the Ornithorhynchus or
Echidna, and all other mammals." Further-
more, Darwin insists, no one who has read
Lyell's Antiquity of Man "will lay much stress
... on the absence of fossil remains"; for Lyell
has shown "that in all the vertebrate classes the
discovery of fossil remains has been a very slow
and fortuitous process. Nor should it be forgot-
ten that those regions which are the most likely
to afford remains connecting man with some
extinct ape-like creature, have not as yet been
searched by geologists."
On either of these two conflicting views, the
organic affinities between man and the most
highly developed mammals would be equally
intelligible, though they would be differently
interpreted by Aquinas and Darwin. But ac-
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
459
cording to the doctrine of man's creation by
God, or even on the hypothesis of emergent
evolution, there need not be— strictly speak-
ing, there cannot be— a missing link between
ape and man, for the emergent species is a
whole step upward in the scale of life. Man is
thus not one of several organic types which
have become species through the extinction of
intermediate varieties, and hence he differs
from other animals not in an accidental, but
rather in an essential manner — that is, he dif-
fers in kind rather than degree.
This issue concerning human nature is dis-
cussed from other points of view in the chap-
ters on ANIMAL and MAN. Here the issue,
stated in terms of man's origin, seems to in-
volve three possibilities: special creation, evo-
lution by descent from a common ancestor,
and emergent evolution. But these three
possibilities apply not only to man, but to the
origin of every species which did not exist at
the first moment of life on earth.
The hypothesis of special creation does not
seem to be held by the theologians, at least not
in the tradition of the great books. The hy-
pothesis of emergent evolution raises questions
concerning the factors— natural or super-
natural—which must be operative to cause the
emergence of higher from lower forms of or-
ganic matter. Whether or not Aristotle and
Aquinas can supply an answer to these ques-
tions in terms of their theory of matter's
potentiality for a variety of forms, Darwin's
theory of descent with modification seems to
be definitely opposed to the hypothesis of
emergent evolution. Speaking as a Darwinian,
James says that "the point which as evolution-
ists we are bound to hold fast to is that all the
new forms of being that make their appearance
are really nothing more than results of the
redistribution of the original and unchanging
materials ... No new natures, no factors not
present at the beginning, arc introduced at
any later stage."
In this dispute between two theories of evo-
lution, does not the solution depend in every
case upon a prior question concerning the rela-
tion of the species under consideration—
whether or not it is possible for them to be or to
have been developmen tally connected by in-
termediate varieties? If, for example, the
evidence were to prove that man and ape, as
they now exist in the world, are essentially
distinct— different in kind — then no inter-
mediate varieties could ever have existed to
account for their descent from a common an-
cestor. If, on the other hand, the evidence
were to prove that they differ only in degree,
then no difficulty stands in the way of the
Darwinian hypothesis. The ultimate issue con-
cerning the origin of species would thus seem to
reduce to the problem of which meaning of
"species" applies to the organic types in ques-
tion.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The classification of animals
10. Comparison of genealogical classification with other types of taxonomy: the
phylogenetic series
ib. The criteria for distinguishing races or varieties, species, genera, and all higher
taxonomic groupings
2. Genetic variation in the course of generations
20. Comparison of variation under conditions of natural and artificial breeding
2b. Characteristics which are more and less variable genetically: their bearing on
the distinction of races, species, and genera
3. The process of heredity
30. The inheritance of acquired characteristics: the use and disuse of parts
462
460 THE GREAT IDEAS
PA01
3#. The inheritance and variability of instincts 462
y. Interbreeding and crossbreeding: hybridism and sterility
3</. Atavisms and reversions to ancestral type 463
31. Marked and abrupt mutations in a single generation as opposed to the continuous
accumulation of slight and imperceptible variations
4. The problem of evolution: the origin of plant and animal species
4<a. The question of ultimate origins: the creation of primordial life in one or many
forms; the original generation of life from inorganic matter
4#. The fixity or the mutability of species
4?. The origin of new forms of life: special creation, spontaneous generation, or
descent with modification from older forms
. 4*/. The direction of evolution: progress and recession 464
5. The theory of evolution: the origin of new species from a common ancestry
50. The struggle for existence: its causes and consequences
(1) Natural selection: the survival of the fittest
(2) The extinction of intermediate varieties
(3) Difficulties with the theory of natural selection: its limitations
5& Competition in mating: sexual selection
y. The geographical and physiological factors in breeding: accessibility, fertility, and
sterility
6. The facts of evolution: evidences bearing on the history of life on earth
6a. The geological record: the significance of fossil remains
6b. The geographical distribution of the forms of life in relation to the genealogy of
existing species
6c. Comparative anatomy and embryology: the meaning of rudimentary or vestigial
organs and functions
7. The origin and development of man 465
ja. The doctrine of man's special creation: in body, in soul
7& The theory of the evolutionary origin of man from lower forms of animal life:
descent from an ancestor common to man and the anthropoids
(1) Anatomical, physiological, and embryological evidences of an organic af-
finity between man and other mammalian forms of life
(2) Falcon tological evidences: the missing link in man's ancestry
(3) Psychological evidences: the human mind in relation to animal intelligence
yc. Biological evolution in the course of human generation: from prehistoric to
historic man
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER- Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page, For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand sideofthepage, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given m cer-
tain cases; eg., Iliad, BK n [265-283! 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT' Nehemiah, 7-45 — (D) II Esdras, 7*46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The classification of animals
la. Comparison of genealogical classification
with other types of taxonomy: the phylo-
genetic series
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH 28 546b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[486ai5]-cH 6 [49ia5] 7b-12c esp CH i [486*15-
487*1] 7b-d; BK v, CH i [539*4-15] 65b; BK
viii, CH i (588b4]-CH 2 [590^9] 114d-116c /
Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 2-4 165d-168c /
Generation of Animals, BK n, CH i [732*13-
733bi7] 272c-274a; BK HI, CH 11 [76^14-24]
302c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27,
158b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH vi,
SECT 23 274b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 31 d; 63d-64d;
207a-229a,c esp 207a-212c, 215b-217b, 228c-
229a,c; 238b-239a / Descent of Man, 331a-
341d esp 332b-c, 337a-338c, 340d-341d
Ib. The criteria for distinguishing races or
varieties, species, genera, and all higher
taxonomic groupings
8 ARISTOTLE; Categories, CH 13 [14^2-15*8]
20c-d /Topics, BK vi, CH 6 [144*27-145*2]
197d-198c passim / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 28
546b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH I
[486fti5]-cH 6 [491*5] 7b-12c esp CH i [486*15-
487*1] 7b-d; BK n, CH i [497b4-i8] I9b,d-20a;
BK iv, CH i [52}a3o~b2o] 48b,d / Parts of
Animals, BK i, CH 4 [644*i2-bi5] 167d-168a;
CH 5 [645b2o-28] 169c-d / Politics, BK iv, CH 4
[i290b25-36] 489d-490a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 813a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 50,
A 4, REP i 273b-274b; Q 76, A 5, REP 3 394c-
396a
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi
268b-283a passim, esp SECT 7 270b, SECT
36-37 279a-b; CH x, SECT 21 297a-b; CH xi,
SECT 19-20 304b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 193a-200c esp 195d-200c
/Judgement, 579b-c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 183c-d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 12c-13a; 24a-b;
25d-29a; 30d-31d; 55c-60a passim; 64a; 136b-
137a; 145c-151a passim, esp 146c-d, 147b-
149a, 150c-d; 159c-160a; 207d-229a,c passim,
esp 207d-210b; 234d; 241d-242a / Descent of
Man, 331b-333a passim; 342a-350b passim,
esp342a-b,346d-347d
2. Genetic variation in the course of generations
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin, 403b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK n,
638a-b
462
THE GREAT IDEAS
la to 3c
(2. Genetic variation in the course of generations.)
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29l59b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 79b
42 KANT: judgement, 579b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 6d-7a; 9a-31d esp
9a-12a, 23c-d, 29a-31d; 53b-59d passim; 65a-
79d; 99a-103c csp lOOd, 149b-150c , 182d-183a;
234a-c / Descent of Man, 266a-271a esp 266a-
268a; 275c-d, 284c-285d csp 285b-c; 347d-
348c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 857b-858a
2a. Comparison of variation under conditions
pf natural and artificial breeding
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29
159b-c / New Atlantis, 211c-212a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 7a-b; 9a-31d esp
9a-b, 12a-c, 24a-c; 40a-42d; 53b-55a; 65a-
66a; 117a-c; 149b~d; 233b-d / Descent of
Man, 377a;486d
2b. Characteristics which are more and less
variable genetically: their bearing on the
distinction of races, species, and genera
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 4 167d-
168c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 14-17 272d-273a; SECI 23 -27 274b-276a
passim
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 24c-25b; 71d-75b;
78c-79d; 236b d / Descent of Man, 342a;
372d-375a; 486d-488b
3. The process of heredity
9 ARISTOTLE' History of Animals, BK VH, CH 6
[585b29-586ai4] llld-112b / Parts of Animals,
BK i, CH i [64oai5-28J 162c~d, [6^7-42]
164d-165a / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH
17 (72rb6]-cn 18 [724*13] 261b-264b; BK iv,
CH 3 [767*36]-^ 4 [770*27] 308d-312c
10 HIPPOCRATES • Airs, Waters, Places, par 14
15a b / Sacred Disease, 155d-156a
12 LUCRETIUS* Nature of Things, BK i [159-191]
3a-c, [592 -598] 8b; BK iv [1209-1232] 60a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 367b-368a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 386d-387b;
391c-393b; 395a-396a, 425b-d; 446b-c; 455d-
456a
36 STCRNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192b
42 KAN i . Judgement, 578d-580a esp 579b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 10d-12c esp lla-b,
lld-12a; 69c-71a passim; 222a-224b / Descent
of Man, 375a-383a; 413d [fn 61); 429d-430c;
500a-52Saesp500a-502a,511a-b,529d-531a,c,
590c-d
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 653 b-c
$a. The inheritance of acquired characteristics:
the use and disuse of parts
7 PLATO- Laws, BK vi, 708d-709a
9 A,RISTOTLB: History of Animals, BK VH, CH 6
[585^^37] llid-112a/ Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 17 (72 ibi 8-722*1] 261c-d; CH 18
[724*3-7] 264a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 14
15a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 81,
A 2 164d-165c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 367c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 455d-456a
42 K\N r- Judgement, 580a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, Ic; 10d-12c; 66a-
69c esp 66a-c, 69c; 82d-85c; 103c-116d passim,
esp 115d, 119c-120a; 223c; 227c-228b/D^«i/
of Man, 258d-259a; 269b-271a; 283a-284b;
299a-c, 318a-c; 319a; 320b-321b; 358d-359a;
587d-588a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 52a; 691a-b; 890b-897a
54 FRFUD General Introduction, 594d-595a /
Ego and Id, 707d-708b
3^. The inheritance and variability of in-
stincts
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [741-753]
39c-d
42 K\NT. Judgement, 580a
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, Ilia; 119a-135a,c
esp 121b-122d, 131c-134d; 236d-237a / De-
scent of Man, 288a-d; 292c-d; 304b,d [fn 5];
318a-319a passim; 506d-507a
53 JAMLS: Psychology, 691a-b, 718a-720b esp
718b, 722b-725a passim, 851b; 890b-897a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 591d-592b;
594d-595b, 613a / Beyond the Pleasure Prin-
ciple, 651d-654a / Ego and Id, 707c-708b esp
708b / War and Death, 758a-d esp 758d
3c. Interbreeding and crossbreeding: hybrid-
ism and sterility
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK in, 121d 122a
8 ARISTOTLE Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 8 [i033b
29-ro34fti] 557a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH u
[566^26-30] 92c; CH 23 [577b5]-CH 24 [577^9]
103a-c; BK vin, CH 28 [6o6b20-6o7a9] 132b-c;
BK ix, CH i [608^31-34] 133d; CH 32 [619^-11]
144c / Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [64ib27~39J
164d-165a / Generation of Animals, BK n, CH 4
[7}8b26-35] 279c-d; CH 7 [746*29^20] 287c-
288a; CH 8 288c-290a,c
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK n [700-710]
23d-24a, [920-924] 26d; BK v [878-924] 72c-
73a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 73,
A i, REP 3 370a-371a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 386d-387b;
392b-c; 395b-d; 425c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 30 159c-d
/ New Atlantis, 211c-212a
42 KANT: Judgement, 581d-582a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 426d-427a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 14a-c; 16b-d;
23c-d; 47c-50c; 136a-151d; 230b-231b / De-
scent of Man, 342a-b; 344b-345c csp 345b,d
[fn 14]; 356a-b; 482b-483b x
3d to 4c
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
463
3</. Atavisms and reversions to ancestral type
'"9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vn, CH 6
[585^2-34] 112a / Generation of Animals, BK
i, CH 18 [722Q8-n] 262a; BK iv, CH 3 [y68*9-b4]
309c-310a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1218-
1225] 60a
49 DARWIN- Ongin of Species, 12a-c; 16a-d;
73b-c; 75b-78c; 149d-150c; 236b / Descent of
Man, 271c-275c; 325c; 331b; 375c-d; 557a-c;
587a; 590b-c
2>e. Marked and abrupt mutations in a single
generation as opposed to the continuous
accumulation of slight and imperceptible
variations
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29 159b~c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 3a-b; lOc; 24b-c,
92c-d; 117a-118d; 235b-c; 240d-241a / Descent
of Man, 442a-b , 487a-488a passim ; 538b-539a ;
590d-591a passim
4. The problem of evolution: the origin of
plant and animal species
4a. The question of ultimate origins: the crea-
tion of primordial life in one or many
forms; the original generation of life
from inorganic matter
OLD TFSTAMPNT Genesis, i 11-12,20-28, 2 4-
9,19-23
APOCRYPHA- Wisdom of Solomon, 1:14— (D)
OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 1*14
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH i
[539&i6~bi3]65b-66a;cHii[543bi8-i9]70b;cn
15 [546bi7-35] 73c, CH 15 [547bi2]-cH 16 [548b
7] 74b-75b; CH 19 [55ob3i-55iai3] 77d-78a;
J55ibi9~552b27] 78c-79c, CH 31 [556b25]-cn
32 [557bi4] 83c-84b; BK vi, CH 15-16 95a-96a
/ Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [715*18-
716*1] 255b-256a; CH 16 [721*3-11] 260d-261a;
BK ii, CH i [732b8~i4] 272d-273a; CH 3 [737*
1-5] 277d; BK m, CH 9 299b-300a, CH n [762b
28-763*19] 303d-304b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [783-836]
71b-72a
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK xiu, par 45 123a
/ City of God, BK xii, CH 10, 348b-c; CH n
349a-b; CH 21 357a-b; CH 23-27 357d-360a,c;
BK xiu, CH 24 373d-376a,c
19A9uiNAs: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 69,
A 2 361c-362c; QQ 71-72 367a-369d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, 105a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 299b / On
Animal Generation, 338c-d; 400d-401a; 412c-
413a; 428c-d; 449a-b; 454d-455a; 468b-469c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vii [131-640] 220a-
231a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 542b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 167b
42 KANT: Judgement, 578d-580a csp 579b-580a;
582b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PAWT n [7851-7864! 191b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 2d-4a passim, csp
3c-d; 240c-241d; 243d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 95b-98a csp 95b, 98a
54 FREUD- Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652d
4b. The fixity or the mutability of species
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:11-12,20-28; 2:4-
9,19-23
9 ARISTOTLF: Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i
[715^-17] 255c-d; BK n, CH i [73^24-732*11]
272a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [577-
598] 8a-b; BK 11 [700-710] 23d-24a; B« v
[916-924] 73a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23,
A 7, ANS 138d-140a; Q 98, A i, ANS 516d-
517c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29-30
159b d
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK in, CH
m, SECT 17 258d-259b; CH vr, SCCT 15-17
272d-273a; SECT 23-27 274b-276a passim;
BK iv, CH iv, SECT 13-16 326d-328d pas-
sim
42 KANI-: Judgement, 579b-580b; 581b-582c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, la-5d passim, esp
la-2a, 2d-3b, 5a-b; 7d; 160d-180d passim,
esp 160d, 165d, 167a-c; 239d-240b
4c. The origin of new forms of life: special
creation, spontaneous generation, or
descent with modification from older
forms
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, i '11-12, 20-28; 2:4-
9,19-23
9 ARISTOTLE- Generation of Animals, BK m,
CH n [762b28-763fti9] 303d-304b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK v [783-836]
71b-72a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xii, CH 13, 3$0b-
c; BK xvi, CH 7-8 427a-428c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 69,
A 2, ANS 361c-362c; Q 71, A i, ANS and REP i
367a-368b; Q 72, A i, ANS and REP 5 368b-
369d; Q 73, A i, REP 3 370a-371a; Q 74, A 2,
ANS 373d-375a; Q 115, A 2 587c-588c; Q 118, >
3, REP i 603b-604b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 338d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 29
159b-c
36 SWIFT . Gulliver, PART iv, 167b
42 KANT: Judgement, 578d-580a csp 579b-
580a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, la-5d passim, csp
la-d, 3a, 5c-d; 6d-7d csp 7d; 31d{ 6(>d-61a;
64a; 74a-b; 78a-c; 85b-c; 92d; 182a-184d
esp I83b-184b; 198b-204d csp 198b-c, 204d;
217d 219a; 228c-229a,c esp 228c, 229c; 234d-
243d csp 239b-240d, 242d-243d / Descent of
Man, 253a-c ' ; x
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 689c-
690acsp689d
464
THE GREAT IDEAS
6c
(4. The problem of evolution: the origin of plant
and animal species,)
44. The direction of evolution: progress and
recession
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 79a-80a; PART in,
121a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-d
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, Ic; 41c-42a; 60b-
62a; 63b-64d; 96b 103c esp 96b-98a, 99a-c,
102d-103c; 176b-178a; 243b-d / Descent of
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK v, 217c
53 [AMES, Psychology, 95b
54 FREUD Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
654c esp 653d-654a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 768d-769a
5. The theory of evolution: the origin of new
species from a common ancestry
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 6a-243d esp 6d-7d,
23c d, 32a c, 1 16d-118d, 228c-243d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 95b-98a esp 95b, 98a
5a. The struggle for existence: its causes and
consequences
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK m, 112d-113a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK ix, CH i
[6o8bi9]-CH 2 [6iob2oj 134a~136b
36 SWIFI Gulliver, PART n, 58a-b; 79b
38 ROUSSCAU: Inequality, 334b,d-337d passim;
348d-349d
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 33c-34a
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 7b; 32a-64d esp
33a-b, 38b-39a,c, 63b-64d, 182d-183a, 243c-d
/ DescentofMan, 275d-277c;320a-328c passim,
esp 320a-321b, 328b-c; 350d-351a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 573c; 592a-b /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 791c-d
5<i(l) Natural selection: the survival of the fittest
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 8 [198^6-33]
275d-276a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [855-877]
72b-c
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 335a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 510a-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 2a-b; 7b-d; 32a-c;
40a-64d esp 40a-c, 44d-47c, 63b-64d; 95d-
97a; 134d-135a,c; 214b-d; 233d-239c esp 233d-
234a, 234c, 235b / Descent of Man, 277c-286d
passim, esp 277c-278a, 284c-285c; 320a-328d
esp327c~328c; 424a-425d passim; 430d-432c;
442d-443b; 525b-527c; 554d-555b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 90b-93a esp 92a-b; 94a-b;
208a-209b esp 209b
5*(2) The extinction of intermediate varieties
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [837-877]
72a-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 5a; 52c-53a; 58b-
60a esp 58b-S9a; 63d-64d; 80b-82d; 84a-b;
97a-b; 152a-153a; 168d-171a; 231d-232d/ De-
scent of Man, 341a;350b-356a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 768d-
769a
5<*(3) Difficulties with the theory of natural se-
lection: its limitations
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 80a-ll8d esp
80a-b; 13ic-134c; 152a-153a; 160d-166a,c pas-
sim, esp 165d-166a,c; 230a-233b / Descent of
Man, 284d-285c
5b. Competition in mating: sexual selection
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 361b-363b
28 HARVEY On Animal Generation, 454a-c; 477b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 166a-b
38 ROUSSEAU Inequality, 346b-c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 43d 44c / Descent
of Man, 359c-d, 364a-589d esp 364a-368b,
373b-375a, 381d-383a, 432c-434d, 486a-c,
529a-530c, 561a-d, 582d-585d, 588d 589d,
593d'596a,598a-600a,c
53 JAMLS Psychology, 14b
5c, The geographical and physiological fac-
tors in breeding: accessibility, fertility,
and sterility
12 LUCRCTIUS. Nature of Things, BK n [700-729]
23d-24b; RK v [837-854) 72a-b
42 KANT Pure Reason, 229d
4Q DARWIN' Origin of Species, lOa-c, 47c-52b;
68d-69c; 136a-151d esp 136a-b, 141b-142c,
143b-145c, 150d-151d, 230b-231c / Descent of
Man, 344b-345c, 351c-355d, 365b-c
6. The facts of evolution: evidences bearing on
the history of life on earth
6a. The geological record: the significance of
fossil remains
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 79a-b
42 KANT Judgement, 583d-584c
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, 80c-81a; 152a-180d
esp 179b-180d; 231d-233a, 237a-c; 242c-243a
6b, The geographical distribution of the forms
of life in relation to the genealogy of
existing species
49 DARWIN. Origin of Species, 51a-52b passim;
80c-82d; 181a-206a,c esp 204d-206a,c; 231b-c;
237c-238b / Descent of Man, 343c-344a
6c. Comparative anatomy and embryology: the
meaning of rudimentary or vestigial or-
gans and functions
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 9
[49^26-35] 13c, BK iv, CH 8 [532b34~533Ri4]
59d-60a; BK vn, CH 7 112b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 375 b-c;
451c-453a passim
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 7, 139c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334b,d
7to7c
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
42 KANT: Judgement, 579b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 82d-94c; 177d-
178a; 212a-229a,c; 238c-239a; 241b-d; 242c /
Descent of Man, 255c-265d; 271c-275c passim,
esp 274a-b, 275a-c; 278c-284b; 300a-b; 333b-
334c; 338b-340c; 347d-348c
54 FREUD: Beyond (lie Pleasure Principle, 652a
7. The origin and development of man
7a. The doctrine of man's special creation: in
body, in soul
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:26-27; 27,18,21-23;
5:1-2 / Job, 10:8-12 / Psalms, 8 esp 8:4-6;
100 esp 100:3; 119.73, 139.14-16— (D) Psalms,
8 esp 8:5-7; 99 esP 99:35 n^73» 138:14-16 /
Isaiah, 29:15-16; 43.7; 45.12— (D) Isaias,
29:15-16; 43:7; 45:12 / Jeremiah, 27.5— (D)
Jeremias, 27:5 / Malachi, 2.10 — (D) Mala-
chias, 2 TO
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1.14; 2:23;
6:7; 10 T; 15:10-11— (D) OT, Boofof Wisdom,
1:14, 2:23; 6 8; 10 i ; 15:10-11 / Ecclesiasticus,
17:1; 33*ro— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 17-1;
33:10 / // Maccabees, 7 .23,2%- (D) OT, II
Machabees, 7:23,28
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19 4 / Mar1{, 10.6 /
Acts, 17 24-26 / I Corinthians, 15:45 / Colos-
sians, 3 10
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
CH 6, llla-c, CH 13 120b-c
18 AUGUSTINE* City of God, BK vn, CH 29-30,
261a-c; BK x, CH 31 319b-d, BK xn, CH 20-27
355b-360a,c; BK xin, CH 24 373d-376a,c;
BK xxn, CH i, 586d-587b / Christian Doctrine,
BK I, CH22, 629C
19 AQUINAS: Summa Jheologica, PART i, Q 72,
A i, REP 1,3-4 368b-369d; Q 73, A i, REP 3
370a-371a; Q 75, A 6, REP i 383c-384c; QQ
90-92 480c-491d; Q 118 600a-604b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
90] 77d; xxv [34-78] 91d-92a; PARADISE, vn
[64-78] 115d-116a; [121-148] 116b-c; xiu
[31-87] 125d-126b
22 CHAUCER: MonJ(s Tale [14,013-020] 434b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 176d; PART iv,
251a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 41c; 54b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56a-b / Medi-
tations, in, 87b-88b
32 fyJiLTQN: Paradise Lost, BK i [650-659] 107b;
BK ii [345-353] 118b-119a; BK vn [139-161]
22pa-b; [499-550] 228a-229a; BKVIII [452-499]
242a-243a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6, 26b;
CH vi, SECT5636d
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 187d-188a
41 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 228a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE 11, 689b-d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562d
7b. The theory of the evolutionary origin of
man from lower forms of animal life:
descent from an ancestor common to
man and the anthropoids
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334b,d
,42 KANT: Judgement, 578d-580a esp S79b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [8245-^264] 201a;
[8321-8326] 202b-203a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 253a-34ld esp
253a-254d, 255a-c, 265a-d, 28Sc-286d, 331a-b,
337a-338c, 340d-34ad; 590a-592a;596d-597a,c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE 11, 689c-
690a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 509d-510a; 562d
7A(1) Anatomical, physiological, and em-
bryological evidences of an organic
affinity between man and other mam-
malian forms of life
9 ARISTOTLE. History of Animals, BK n, CH 8-9
24c-25b / Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 10
[689^35] 221d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 451c-453a
passim; 482 b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 334b,d
42 KANT. Judgement, 579b-c
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 255a-265d; 271a-
275c; 278c-284b; 300a-b, 333b-335a; 338d-
340c; 563a-564a; 587b-c; 590b-591d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a-52b passim
7^(2) Paleontological evidences: the missing
link in man's ancestry
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 336a-337a
7^(3) Psychological evidences: the human
mind in relation to animal intelligence
42 K\m: Judgement, 602b,d [In i]
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 287a-320c esp
287a-303d, 319b-d; 591d-592a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 689c-
690a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a-52b passim, esp 41b,
49b, 51a-52b; 95b-98a
7c. Biological evolution in the course of human
generation: from prehistoric to historic
man
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [925-987]
73b-74a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART 11, 79b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329a-330a; 334b,d-
337d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 266a-275d passim;
323b-324d; 336c; 338d-339a; 342a-359d esp
342b-343c, 347b-348c, 356a-359b; 578a-5894
esp 586a-589a; 590c-59lc
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 782a-b
[fn i]; 785b [fn i]
466 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the classification of animals, see ANIMAL 2a-2c; LIFE AND DEATH
and for the distinction between species and genera in relation to definition and classifica-
tion, see DEFINITION la, 20, 2d; RELATION 53(4); SAME AND OTHER 33(1).
Other considerations of the problem of heredity, see ANIMAL 10; FAMILY 6b; HABIT 36.
Matters relevant to the origin of life, and of the major forms of life, see ANIMAL ib, 8a-8b;
LIFE AND DEATH 2, 3a.
Another treatment of the conflict of organisms in the struggle for existence, see OPPOSITION
3C'
Matters relevant to the origin of man and to his affinity with other animals, see ANIMAL ic-
ic(2); MAN la-ic, 4b~4c, 8-8c; MIND 3a~3b; SOUL 2c(2)-2c(3).
Evolution in relation to the idea of progress, see PROGRESS 2; and for matters bearing on social
and mental evolution in human history, see HISTORY 4b; MAN pc; MIND 3c; PROGRESS ib,
6; TIME 8a.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of the Unconscious, (c) x
*• LEWES. Problems of Life and Mind
AUGUSTINE. DC Gcnesi ad Litteram ROMANES. Mental Evolution tn Animals
GOETHE. Metamorphose der Pflanzen S. BUTLER. Darwin Among the Machines
C. R. DARWIN. Foundations of the Origin of Species . Evolution, Old and New
. A Posthumous Essay on Instinct . Note-Boo^s
. The Variation of Animals and Plants Under C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL vi, par 13-17,
Domestication 287-317
ENGELS. Dialectics of Nature FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART n, CH 7; PART vn
WEI SM ANN. Studies in the Theory of Descent
** . Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological
LINNAEUS. Systema Naturae Problems
E. DARWIN. Zoonomia . The Germ-Plasm
BUFFON. "Epochs of Nature," in Natural History T. H. HUXLEY. Man's Place in Nature
LAMARCK. Zoological Philosophy . Darwmiana
CUVIER. The Animal Kingdom . Evolution and Ethics
CHAMBERS. Vestiges of the Natural History ofCrea- Copt. The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution
tion FISKE. Essays: Historical and Literary^ VOL it (9)
TENNYSON. Loclpley Hall VRILS. The Mutation Theory
. In Memoriam DEWEY. The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy,
SPENCER. Progress: Its Law and Cause Title Essay
WALLACE. Contributions to the Theory of Natural HOBHOUSE. Mind in Evolution
Selection . Morals in Evolution
LYELL. Principles of Geology BERGSON. Matter and Memory
. The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of . Creative Evolution
Man DRIESCH. The Science and Philosophy of the Organ-
MENDEL. Experiments in Plant Hybridization ism
BAGEHOT. Physics and Politics POULTON. Essays on Evolution
CHAPTER 24: EVOLUTION
467
GALTON. Natural Inheritance
. Essays in Eugenics
D. H. SCOTT. The Evolution of Plants
BATESON. Problems of Genetics
HENDERSON. The Fitness of the Environment
D. W. THOMPSON. On Growth and Form
SHAW. Man and Superman
. Bac^ to Methuselah
C. L. MORGAN. Emergent Evolution
L. T. MORE. The Dogma of Evolution
SMUTS. Holism and Evolution
McDoucALL. Modern Materialism and Emergent
Evolution
H. G. WELLS, J. HUXLEY, and G. P, WELLS. Repro-
duction, Genetics and the Development of Sex
M. R. COHEN. Reason and Nature, BK n, CH 3
T. H. MORGAN. Evolution and Genetics
. The Physical Basis of Heredity
. The Theory of the Gene
. The Scientific Basis of Evolution
MARETT. Head, Heart and Hands in Human Evo-
lution
DOBZHANSKY. Genetics and the Origin of Species
ADLER. Problems for Thomists: The Problem of Species
MAYR. Systematics and the Origin of Species from the
Viewpoint of a Zoologist
]. S. HUXLEY. Evolution, the Modern Synthesis, CH 10
. Evolutionary Ethics
B. RUSSELL. Religion and Science, CH 3
. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits,
PART I, CH 4
KEITH. A New Theory of Human Evolution
Chapter 2.$:
INTRODUCTION
T^XPERIENCE is regarded as a source of
JL-/ knowledge. It is also spoken of as con tain-
ing what is known.
Sometimes it is identified with sense-percep-
tion; sometimes it involves more— memory and
the activity of the imagination. Sometimes it
includes thoughts, feelings, and desires as well,
all the contents of consciousness, every phase of
mental or psychic life. The temporal flow of
experience is then identified with the stream of
consciousness.
Experience may connote something which is
private or public, subjective or objective —
something which no man can share with an-
other or something which is common to all men
who live in the same world and who are ac-
quainted with the same objects.
There are still other divisions of experience:
intuitive or aesthetic experience, religious ex-
perience, and mystical experience.
Experience is said to be that which makes a
man expert in an art or in a sphere of practical
activity. A man is better able to do or make
that which he has much experience in doing or
making. He is also better able to judge what
should be undertaken or what has been ac-
complished by others as well as by himself. In
this connection experience is called practical,
both because it is the result of practice and be-
cause it is a means to be used in directing action.
But it is also praised for the opposite reason-
as something to be enjoyed for its own sake,
serving no end beyond itself unless it be the
enrichment of life by the widest variety of
experiences.
THESE ARE SOME of the myriad meanings of
"experience" — not all, but those which occur
with major emphasis in the tradition of the
great books. No author uses the word in all
these senses. Some of these senses are contra-
dictory. According to the context of the dis-
cussion or the subject matter under considera-
tion, the same author will shift from one mean-
ing to another.
For example, in his account of the origin of
science, Aristotle says that "out of sense-per-
ception comes to be what we call memory, and
out of frequently repeated memories of the
same thing develops experience; for a number
of memories constitute a single experience."
The further product of experience — "the uni-
versal stabilized in its entirety within the soul"
— is obtained by abstraction and the related act
of induction or generalization. Art or science
arises, Aristotle writes, "when from many no-
tions gained by experience, one universal judg-
ment about a class of objects is produced."
Hence it can be said, he thinks, that from ex-
perience "originate the skill of the craftsman,
the knowledge of the man of science, skill in the
sphere of coming to be and science in the sphere
of being."
In the study of nature, experience, according
to Aristotle, is essential for "taking a compre-
hensive view of the admitted facts" which can
come only from dwelling "in intimate associ-
ation with nature and its phenomena." In the
context of ethical or political problems, he
treats experience as the basis for a prudent
judgment, which is not "concerned with uni-
versals only," but "must also recognize the par-
ticulars." This fact, Aristotle writes, explains
"why some who do not know," but who "have
experience, are more practical than others who
know." In the field of poetry, as in moral mat-
ters, it is the man of experience, according to
Aristotle, who can best judge what is good or
bad; he can "judge rightly the works pro-
duced . . . and understand by what means or
how they are achieved, and what harmonizes
with what," whereas "the inexperienced must
468
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
469
be content if they do not fail to see whether the
work has been well or ill made."
Hobbes and William James also use the word
for the possession of expertness or sound judg-
ment in practical affairs, as well as in connection
with the origin or nature of knowledge. Hobbes,
like Aristotle, says that "much memory, or
memory of many things, is called Experience"
He connects it with prudence. It is that knowl-
edge, he writes, which "is not attained by rea-
soning, but found as well in brute beasts as in
man; and is but a memory of successions of
events in times past, wherein the omission of
every little circumstance altering the effect,
frustrates the expectation of the most prudent.'*
For fames, however, experience is usually
identified with the stream of consciousness.
"Experience moulds us every hour," he writes,
"and makes of our minds a mirror of the time-
and-space-connections between the things in
the world." He distinguishes it from concep-
tion, reasoning, or thought, and associates it
with sensation and feeling. "The way of 'experi-
ence' proper is the front door," he writes, "the
door of the five senses."
For the most part, experience is a term in
psychological analysis, with implications for the
development of theoretic knowledge or prac-
tical wisdom. That is the way it is chiefly used
by Aquinas, Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke,
and Hume, as well as the authors already men-
tioned. It is still a term in the dimension of
psychology when it is used by Plotinus and by
the theologians to discuss the mystical union of
the soul with God.
But with Hume experience also is reality or,
in his phrase, the realm of "matters of fact and
existence," as opposed to "relations of ideas."
He tends to identify the order of nature with
the succession of events in experience, though
he also seems to conceive a "pre-established
harmony between the course of nature and the
succession of our ideas." Nature, he goes on to
say, "has implanted in us an instinct, which
carries forward the thought in a correspondent
course to that which she has established among
external objects."
Hume's difficulty or indecision with regard
to the objectivity of experience does not appear
in Kant, for whom experience ceases to be psy-
chological in any subjective sense of that word.
The order of nature— the object of the theo-
retic sciences— is the order of experience. In
Kant's technical sense of mogliche erfahnmg^
nature is the realm of all possible experience.
His distinction between judgments of percep-
tion and judgments of experience differentiates
what for other writers is subjective sense-expe-
rience, from knowledge of reality or of objects
shared by many minds.
Experience is the domain of such public ob-
jects precisely because its sense-materials arc
formed and ordered by the structure of the
mind itself — by the forms of intuition and the
categories of the understanding in a synthesis
which Kant calls the "transcendental unity of
apperception." Without this synthesis, experi-
ence "would be merely a rhapsody of percep-
tions, never fitting together into any connected
text, according to rules of a thoroughly united
(possible) consciousness, and therefore never
subjected to the transcendental and necessary
unity of apperception."
Though it may not seem possible, William
James goes further than Kant in the conception
of experience as a realm of being. Kant does not
think that all possible experience circumscribes
reality. "That which is not phenomenon," he
writes, "cannot be an object of experience; it
can never overstep the limits of sensibility,
within which alone objects are presented to us."
In contrast to this phenomenal reality with
which he identifies experience, Kant posits a
noumenal world— a world of intelligible or
supra-sensible beings. To this realm, Kant
writes, belong those "possible things which are
not objects of our senses, but are cogitated by
the understanding alone." Since the things
Kant calls ding-an-sich are unconditioned, that
is, not subject as they are in themselves to the
forms of intuition or the categories of the un-
derstanding, they cannot have an empirical or
sensible reality, but only an intelligible exist-
ence.
William James goes further in his Essays in
Radical Empiricism^ when he takes experience
as equivalent to the whole of reality, including
the actual and the possible or imaginary, the
concrete and the abstract, the objective and
the subjective. All differentiations must be
made within experience, and experience itself
is neutral with respect to all distinctions— re-
470
THE GREAT
ceptivc of all. There can be no meaningful dis-
tinction between experience and some other
realm of existence. It is in this ail-inclusive sense
that experience is said to be the central term in
the philosophy of John Dewey when it func-
tions as mind docs for Hegel, substance for
Spinoza, or being for Aquinas and Aristotle.
WE HAVE GONE from one extreme to another
in passing from a purely psychological to some-
thing like a metaphysical conception of expe-
rience. These are opposite in a way which sug-
ges£$,the contrast between the practical and
the aesthetic values of experience— the actively
useful and the intrinsically enjoyable. At least
the metaphysical identification of experience
with all existence seems analogous to the aes-
thetic ideal of a life which embraces every va-
riety of experience.
There is some intimation of this ideal in the
lust for adventure which motivates Odysseus
and his men. Dante, in fact, finds the secret of
Ins character in the ardor of Odysseus "to be-
come experienced of the world, and of the vices
of men, and of their virtue," which leads him
"to pursue virtue and knowledge," even to the
point of his "mad flight."
There is some suggestion of this ideal of ex-
perience in the unbounded vitality of Gargan-
tua and Pantagruel, and in the enterprise of the
Wife of Bath, in Chaucer's tale. But the great
poetic expression of this ideal is written in
Faust— in the worlds of experience Mephistoph-
eles opens to the man who has wagered his soul
for one ultimately satisfying moment.
Whatever to all mankind is assured,
I, in my inmost being, will enjoy and know,
Seize with my soul the highest and most deep;
Men's weal and woe upon m> bosom heap,
And thus this self of mine to all their selves
expanded,
Like them I too at last be stranded.
THE BASIC ISSUE concerning the role of experi-
ence m the origin of, knowledge, especially the
organized knowledge of the arts and sciences,
turns on whether it is the source or only a source.
It is rarely if ever supposed that nothing can be
learned from experience, or that everything
worth learning can come to be known entirely
apart from experience. During the early cen-
turies' of Christianity, devoutly religious men
preached that Gqd has revealed to man all he
needs to know in order to live well and be saved.
But this extreme position rejects the construc-
tions of reason as well as the materials of ex-
perience.
Among philosophers and scientists, concerned
with what man can learn by the exercise of his
own powers, the controversy over experience
usually involves a distinction between the senses
and the reason or intellect. As indicated in the
chapters on IDEA, MIND, and SENSE, whether
this distinction can be validly made is itself a
major issue in the tradition of the great books.
Those who make it, however, tend to regard
experience as something which results from the
activity of the senses. For them the problem is
whether our ideas— the general notions or con-
cepts that enter into our scientific judgments
and reasoning— come from sense-experience,
which either is or originates from the percep-
tion of particulars. The contrast between the
particular and the universal, between percept,
sense-impression, or concrete image on the one
hand, and concept or abstract idea, on the
other, lies at the heart of the problem.
One possibility is that the mind, by processes
of abstraction or induction, somehow draws all
its concepts and generalizations from experi-
ence. Aquinas is representative of this view. He
adopts Aristotle's notion that the intellect is
"like a tablet on which nothing is written."
This tabula rasa depends upon the senses and
the imagination for the materials out of which
concepts are formed. "For the intellect to un-
derstand actually," Aquinas writes, "not only
when it acquires new knowledge, but also when
it uses knowledge already acquired, there is
need for the act of the imagination and of the
other powers,"
Without experience the mind would remain
empty, but experience itself does not fill the
intellect with ideas. The activity of the sensi-
tive faculty is not by itself the cause of knowl-
edge. The perceptions and images furnished by
sense-experience, Aquinas writes, "need to be
made actually intelligible," and this requires
the activity of the intellect, not merely its pas-
sivity in receiving impressions from experience.
For this reason, he concludes, "it cannot be
said that sensitive knowledge is the total and
perfect cause of intellectual knowledge, but
CHAPTER 25-EXPERIENCE
471
rather that it is in a way the material cause."
Although experience is the indispensable source
of the materials on which the intellect actively
works, knowledge worthy of the name of sci-
ence or of art does not come from experience
alone.
Thus we see that those who, like Aquinas,
affirm that there is nothing in the intellect
which was not previously in the senses do not
mean to imply that the materials of sense-
experience reach the intellect untransformed.
On the contrary, the primary contribution of
the intellect is the translation of experienced
particulars into universal notions. Nor do those
who, like Bacon, affirm that the principles of
knowledge are obtained by induction from
experience necessarily imply that all knowl-
edge is directly drawn from experience. To the
extent that deductive reasoning is a way of
learning new truths, the truths thus learned
derive from experience only indirectly. Their
direct source is truths already known, which
must in turn have come from experience by
induction.
Harvey critic^es those who misconceive the
part which reason should play in relation to the
senses. In the field of his own inquiries, "some
weak and inexperienced persons," he writes,
"vainly seek by dialectics and far-fetched argu-
ments, either to upset or establish things that are
only to be founded on anatomical demonstra-
tion, and believed on the evidence of the senses.
. . . How difficult it is,'* he continues, "to teach
those who have no experience, the things of
which they have not any knowledge by their
senses!"
As in geometry, so in all the sciences, ac-
cording to Harvey, it is the business of reason
"from things sensible to make rational demon-
stration of the things that are not sensible; to
render credible or certain things abstruse and
beyond sense from things more manifest and bet-
ter known." Science depends upon both reason
and sense; but sense, not reason, is the ultimate
arbiter of what can be accepted as true. "To
test whether anything has been well or ill ad-
vanced, to ascertain whether some falsehood
does not lurk under a- proposition, it is impera-
tive on us," Harvey declares, "to bring it to the
proof of sense, and to admit or reject it on the
decision of sense."
THE FOREGOING views are not a necessary con-
sequence of the distinction between the facul-
ties of sense and reason. The theory of innate
ideas presents another possibility. As expressed
by Descartes, for example, this theory holds
that there are "purely intellectual [ideas] which
our understanding apprehends by means of a
certain inborn light." Hence it would seem that
experience can be dispensed with, except for
its value in dealing with particulars. But for
most of the writers who take this view, experi-
ence, in addition to providing acquaintance
with particulars, acts as the stimulus or the
occasion for the development of the seeds of
knowledge implanted in the mind at birth. Al-
though he rests his metaphysics on the innate
ideas of self and God, Descartes also appeals to
experimental knowledge in the sphere of natural
science. To answer such a question as, "what is
the nature of the magnet?" the inquirer must
"first collect all the observations with which
experience can supply him about this stone,
and from these he will next try to deduce its
character."
The extreme position which denies any role
to experience can be taken only by those who
think that the growth of actual knowledge
from innate ideas requires no outside impetus;
and perhaps also by those who make ideas the
objects of the mind's intuitive apprehension. It
is questionable whether anyone goes to this
extreme without the qualification that, for par-
ticulars at least, sense-experience is knowledge.
The other extreme — that experience is the
only source of knowledge — is approached by
those who deny the distinction in faculties,
and substitute for the duality of sense and
reason, each with its characteristic contribution
to human knowledge, a distinction between the
function of perceiving and that of reworking
the received materials. Though in different
ways. Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume all
appear to take this position.
They represent, according to James, "the
empirical school in psychology." He tries to
summarize their view by saying that "\iall the
connections among ideas in the mind could be
interpreted as so many combinations of sense-
data wrought into fixity . . . then experience in
the common and legitimate sense of the word
would be the sole fashioner of the mind." If,
472
THE GREAT IDEAS
in other words, all that is done with the sensa-
tions, impressions, or ideas— whatever term is
used for the original data of experience— con-
sists in their reproduction by memory and im-
agination, and their comparison, combination,
and connection in various ways to produce
complex ideas, judgments, and trains of reason-
ing, then the entire content of human knowl-
edge can be reduced to elements derived ex-
clusively from experience.
Whether this position is taken with or without
qualification depends on the disposition that is
made of the problem of universal or abstrac-
tions, which is more fully discussed in the chap-
ters on IDEA, SENSE, and UNIVERSAL. Locke's
treatment of abstract ideas and the special con-
sideration given by Hume to the concepts of
mathematics suggest that there are kinds or
aspects of knowledge which cannot be accounted
for by reduction to experience. Both men in-
troduce a certain qualification upon their em-
piricism. However slight that may be, it does
not appear in Hobbes and Berkeley, for they
completely deny the existence of abstract or
universal notions in the mind. If "abstract,"
"universal," or "general" applies to names
alone, then the mind or understanding adds
nothing to, and does not radically transform,
the materials of experience.
THE CONTROVERSY concerning experience and
knowledge can also be stated in terms of the
opposition between the a priori and the a poste-
riori. These terms are sometimes used to signify
what is possessed before and what comes after
or from experience, and sometimes they are
used to indicate, without reference to the time
order, what is independent of and what is de-
pendent upon experience.
The distinction between the a priori and the
a posteriori is not made in the same way with
respect to propositions or judgments and with
respect to reasoning or inference. The distinc-
tion and its significance for science and phi-
losophy are discussed in the chapters on JUDG-
MENT and REASONING. It is sufficient here to
point out that an a priori judgment is not
determined by experience nor does it need
empirical verification.
It might at first be supposed that those who
agree in thinking that experience is just one —
not the only— source of knowledge would also
agree that some judgments, especially the basic
propositions of science, are a priori. But this
does not appear to be the case. Bacon, for ex-
ample, like Aristotle, holds that the principles
of the various sciences are derived by induction
from experience. "There are and can exist," he
writes, "but two ways of investigating and dis-
covering truth. The one hurries on rapidly from
the senses and particulars to the most general
axioms, and from them, as principles and their
supposed indisputable truth, derives and dis-
covers the intermediate axioms. . . . The other
constructs its axioms from the senses and par-
ticulars, by ascending continually and gradu-
ally, till it finally arrives at the most general
axioms." All axioms, on this view, are a posteriori
propositions.
Descartes and Kant, while differing in the
terms of their analysis, think, as we have seen,
that the mind itself provides the ground for
certain judgments which are therefore a priori.
It does not even seem to be the case that those
who make experience the only source of knowl-
edge regard all propositions as a posteriori.
Hume's treatment of mathematical proposi-
tions and fames' treatment of axioms or nec-
essary truths seem to be the exceptions here.
There is still another way in which the issue
can be stated. The question is whether human
knowledge extends to objects beyond experi-
ence, to things or beings which are not sensible
and which transcend all possible experience.
Again it might be supposed that those who
take an a posteriori view of the origin of knowl-
edge would also limit apprehension to things
expenenceable. But Aristotle and Aquinas seem
to say that the origin of knowledge from experi-
ence does not restrict the knowable to things
capable of being experienced. Aquinas cites
Aristotle's work on the heavens to show that
"we may have a scientific knowledge" of things
we cannot experience, "by way of negation and
by their relation to material things." He would
hold what is true of astronomy to be even more
the case in metaphysics and theology. Even
though all our concepts are abstracted from
experience, we can by means of them reach be-
yond the sensible world to purely intelligible
realities— to immaterial and non-sensible beings
or aspects of being. Locke, who may be thought
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
473
even more emphatic than Aristotle or Aquinas
in his insistence on the empirical origin of
knowledge, goes as far as they do in affirming
man's knowledge of God and the soul.
Hume, in contrast, holds that knowledge
may go beyond experience only if it is knowl-
edge of the relation of our ideas, as exemplified
in the1 science of mathematics. Precisely because
mathematics is not knowledge of matters of
fact or real existence, its propositions are, ac-
cording to Hume, "discoverable by the mere
operation of thought, without dependence on
what is anywhere existent in the universe."
But with regard to "matters of fact," Hume
thinks that "experience is our only guide."
Any science which claims to be knowledge of
reality or existence rather than of the relations
between ideas, is thus limited to the realm of
expcrienceable objects. According as the ob-
jects of a science fall within experience, so also
must its conclusions be verified by reference to
experience. Experience is the ultimate test of
what truth there is in the propositions of natu-
ral science. Only the propositions of mathe-
matics can have a validity which does not re-
quire empirical verification.
By these criteria Hume challenges the valid-
ity of metaphysics or natural theology. Such
disciplines claim to be knowledge of real exist-
ences, but their objects are not expenenceable
and their conclusions cannot be empirically
verified. The existence of God and the im-
mortality of the soul may be objects of faith,
but they are not verifiable conclusions of sci-
ence; nor for that matter can metaphysics give
us scientific knowledge of the ultimate con-
stitution of the physical world if that involves
knowledge of substances and causes which lie
behind the phenomena and outside of experi-
ence. "All the philosophy in the world,'* Hume
writes, "and all the religion . . . will never be
able to carry us beyond the usual course of
experience."
Kant, like Hume, limits theoretic knowledge
to mathematics and the study of nature. A
metaphysics which pretends to know objects
outside the phenomenal order cannot be de-
fended. "The understanding has no power to
decide," he writes, "whether other perceptions
besides those which belong to the total of our
possible experience [exist], and consequently
whether some other sphere of matter exists,"
What transcends all possible experience, in
other words, cannot be known, at least not in
the manner of the speculative sciences; only the
moral sciences, proceeding in a different fashion,
have access to the realm of the supra-sensibk.
Kant's position seems to resemble Hume's.
But it involves a quite different conception of
mathematics and natural science, especially the
latter, which Kant divides into pure and em-
pirical physics. Kant identifies "pure physic"
with the "metaphysic of nature" in distinction
from the "metaphysic of morals," the one a
theoretic, the other a practical science. For
Kant the principles of both mathematics and
pure physics are a pnoti rather than a posteriori',
the objects of both are objects of actual or
possible experience.
IN THE CLASSIFICATION of sciences, the natural
sciences are usually set apart from mathematics,
as well as from metaphysics, by being called
"empirical" or "experimental." These names
signify not merely the inductive method by
which the knowledge is obtained from experi-
ence; they also imply that hypotheses, however
formulated, and conclusions, however reached,
must be verified by the facts of experience.
Newton states it as a rule of reasoning "in ex-
perimental philosophy [that] we are to look
upon propositions inferred by general induction
from phenomena as accurately or very nearly
true, notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses
that may be imagined, till such time as other
phenomena occur, by which they may either
be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions."
In similar tenor, Lavoisier says that "we ought,
in every instance, to submit our reasoning to
the test of experiment, and never to search for
truth but by the natural road of experiment
and observation."
The two words "empirical" and "experi-
mental" should not, however, be used inter-
changeably. No sciencfc can be experimental
without being empirical, but, as the chapter on
ASTRONOMY indicates, the converse does not
appear to be true.
There seem to be three different types of
experience from which knowledge can be de-
rived: (f) the ordinary everyday experiences
which men accumulate without making any
474
THE GREAT IDEAS
special effort to investigate, explore, or test;
(2) the special data of experience which men
collect by undertaking methodical research and
making systematic observations, with or with-
out apparatus; and (3) experiences artificially
produced by men who exercise control over the
phenomena and with respect to which the ob-
server himself determines the conditions of his
experience. "Those experiences which are used
to prove a scientific truth," James writes, "arc
for the most part artificial experiences of the
laboratory, gamed after the truth itself has been
conjectured."
Of these three only the last is an experimental
experience. The first type of experience may be
employed by the scientist, but it is seldom suffi-
cient or reliable enough for his purposes. The
distinction between the empirical sciences which
arc and those which are not experimental turns
on the difference between the second and third
types.
It is not always possible for the scientist to
perform experiments, as, for example, in as-
tronomy, where the phenomena can be me-
thodically observed and exactly recorded, but
cannot be manipulated or controlled. Among
the great books of natural science, the biological
writings of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, and
Darwin, the astronomical works of Ptolemy,
Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton, and the clin-
ical studies of Freud are examples of scientific
works which are more or less empirical, but not
experimental. In contrast, Galileo's Two New
Sciences, Newton's Optics, Harvey's Motion of
the Heart and Blood, Lavoisier's Elements of
Chemistry, and Faraday's Experimental Rese arches
in Electricity represent empirical science which
has recourse to experimentation at crucial
points.
ON THE SIDE OF their production, experiments
are like inventions. They do not happen by
chance or without the intervention of art. They
arc usually performed under carefully controlled
conditions and by means of apparatus artfully
contrived. This explains the interplay between
technology and experimental science. Progress
in each occasions progress in the other.
On the side of their utility, experiments seem
to serve three different though related purposes
in scientific work. In those branches of physics
which are both mathematical and experimental,
the experiment enables the scientist to make
exact measurements of the phenomena and so
to determine whether one or another mathe-
matical formulation fits the observable facts of
nature. Investigating accelerated motion, Gali-
leo seeks not only to demonstrate its definition
and its properties, but also to show that "ex-
perimental results . . . agree with and exactly
correspond with those properties which have
been, one after another, demonstrated by us."
The experiment of the inclined plane yields
measurements which exemplify those ratios be-
tween space and time that are determined by
one rather than by another mathematical defini-
tion of the acceleration of a freely falling body.
The experiment is thus used to decide between
two competing mathematical theories, choosing
that one "best fitting natural phenomena." In
those sciences, Galileo writes, "in which mathe-
matical demonstrations are applied to natural
phenomena . . . the principles, once established
by well-chosen experiments, become the foun-
dation of the entire super-structure."
Concerned with the phenomena of heat,
Fourier makes the same point concerning the
relation of mathematics and experiments.
"Mathematical analysis," he says, "can deduce
from general and simple phenomena the ex-
pression of the laws of nature; but the special
application of these laws to very complex effects
demands a long series of exact observations"
for which experiments are needed.
In addition to testing hypotheses and provid-
ing measurements whereby mathematical for-
mulations can be applied to nature, experiments
function as the source of inductions. A crucial
experiment constitutes a single clear case from
which a generalization can be drawn that is
applicable to all cases. Newton's optical experi-
ments are of this sort. He calls this use of ex-
periments "the method of analysis." It consists
in "making experiments and observations, and
in drawing general conclusions from them by
induction. . . . And although the arguing from
experiments and observations by induction be
no demonstration of general conclusions, yet it
is the best way of arguing which the nature of
things admits of."
A third use for experiments is in the explora-
tion of new fields of phenomena, for purposes
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE 475
of discovery rather than of induction or veri- Experimental exploration, apart from the
fication. Hypotheses may result from such ex- direction of hypotheses, seems to be a procedure
plorations, but in the first instance, the experi- of trial and error. Experimentation in this sense
mentation may be undertaken without the reflects what Hippocrates had in mind when he
guidance of hypotheses. This employment of spoke of "the experiment perilous." In the
experimental technique is illustrated by Fara- work of Hippocrates at the very beginning of
day's remark that "the science of electricity is empirical science, recourse to experiment, far
in that state in which every part of it requires from being the most prized technique, signified
experimental investigation, not merely for the a lack of scientific knowledge. Only the physi-
discovery of new effects, but what is just now cian who could not cure the patient by art
of far more importance, the development of the based on science took the risk of experimenting
means by which the old effects are produced." —of proceeding by trial and error.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. Various conceptions of experience 476
2. Experience in relation to the acts of the mind
2a. Memory and imagination as factors in or products of experience 477
2b. The empirical sources of induction, abstraction, generalization
2c. The transcendental or innate structure of the mind as a condition of experience
2d. The a priori and a posteriori in judgment and reasoning 478
3. Experience in relation to organized knowledge: art and science
3*7. Particular experiences and general rules as conditions of expertness or skill: the
contrast between the empiric and the artist
3^. The issue concerning the role of experience in science 479
4. Experience as measuring the scope of human knowledge
40. The knowability of that which is outside experience: the supra-sensible, the
noumenal or transcendent
4^. Verification by experience: experience as the ultimate test of truth 480
5. The theory of experimentation in scientific method
50. Experimental exploration and discovery: the formulation of hypotheses 481
5#. Experimental verification: the testing of hypotheses
y. Experimental measurement: the application of mathematics
6. The man of experience in practical affairs 482
6a. Experience as indispensable to sound judgment and prudence
6£. The role of experience in politics: the lessons of history
7. Mystical or religious experience: experience of the supernatural
8. Variety of experience as an ideal of human life 483
ic
476 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passage cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER. Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology , 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins m the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO- Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim'* signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited,
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Idea*, consult the Preface.
53 JAMES: Psychology, 185b-187b; 232b-238b esp
1. Various conceptions of experience 235a 236a; 260a-261a; 317b-318a; 852b-858b
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH i [16*3-8] 25a / ^ _ . ... , * i_ • j
Pastor Analytics,** n, CH 19 Ws^oo^] 2. Experience m relation to the acts of the mmd
136b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980^5- 7 PLATO: Mem, 179d-183a/PWo,224a-225a;
98ib9)499b-d 228a^230c / Republic, BK vii, 392c-393c /
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 54, Theaetetus, 534d-536b
A 5 288a-d; Q 58, A 3, REP 3 301d-302d; Q 64, 8 ARISTOTLL: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
A i, REP 5 334a-335c 136a-137a,c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i 499a-
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 500b
in, A 5, ANS and RLP 1,5 359c 360c 12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK iv [379-521]
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 50d; PART u,128c; 49a-51a esp [469-521] 50b-51a
PART iv, 267b 18 AUGUSTINE, Confessions, BK x, par 12-36
^25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 516b-524a 74b-80d esp par 14 74d-75a, par 26 78a-b,
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 334a-335a par 31 79c-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 22c / Discourse, PART 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 54,
If 44a_c A 5 288a-d; Q 58, A 3, REP 3 301d-302d; Q 64,
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 5 373d A i, REP 5 334a-335c; Q 84, AA 5-8 446c-451b;
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH i, PART 1-11, Q 40, A 5 795d-796c; A 6, ANS and
SECTi~8l21a-123aespSECT2l21b-c REP 3 796c-797a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30 418c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT w, DIV 112, A 5, ANS and REP 1,5 359c-360c
20-sEcr vni, DIV 74 458a-484c passim, esp 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-335c
SECT iv, DIV 28-SECT v, DIV 38 460d-466c, esp 334c-d
SECT vn, DIV 58-61 476a-478a 31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 22c-23a / Discourse,
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-15c, 45d-46a; 47d- PART in, 50b-d / Meditations, i 75a-77c esp
48a; 53b-54b; 56d-57b, 58c-59b; 65d-66d; M 75d-76c/ Objections and Replies, 229d-230d
72c-73a; I76d-177a; 225c-226b / Practical 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40-42 387a-
Rcason, 308a-b 388c
2a to 2c
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
477
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding BK n, CH i,
SECT 2-5 121b-122b; SECT 20-25 126d-127d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 14a-c; 22a,c;
23a-24a; 34a-c; 39a-c; 42a; 45d-46a; 47c-48a;
53b-54b; 58a-59b; 61a-64a; 66a~d; 72c-85d
esp 72c-74b; 89c-91d; 93d-94b; 98c; 109d-
HOa; 115b-c; 153a-c; 199b-c / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-b; 282b-c /
Practical Reason, 308a b; 329b-c / Judgement,
461a-462d; 472c-d; 482d-483d; 492c-d; 516b;
551a-552c; 562d-563b; 570b-572b; 603d;
604b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 2b-3a; 149b-152b csp
152a-b; 299b-300a; 314a; 317b-319a; 325a;
369a; 767b-768a; 851a-897b esp 851a-b,
897a-b
2a. Memory and imagination as factors in or
products of experience
7 PLATO- Phaedo, 228a-230c / Theaetetus, 523d-
524b / Philebus, 621a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[99b34-iooR6] 136b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[980*28-981*1] 499a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 12-36 74b-
80d esp par 14 74d-75a, par 26 78a-b, par 31
79c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50d; PART n,
128c; PART iv, 267b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-335c
esp 334c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 40, SCHOL i
387b-388a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK n, CH i, SECT 2-8 121b-
123a; SECT 20-25 126d-127d; CH xn, SECT 1-2
147b-d; CH xvm, SECT i 174a; SECT 6 174c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i 413a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341d-342a
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 41c-42b; 54b-56c; 58a-b;
61a-64a; 66a-d; 76d-77a; 80c-d; 93d-94b;
173b-174a / Practical Reason, 319c-320b /
Judgement, 482d-483d; 492c-d; 493c-d; 506a-
Slla esp 509d-510a; 528d-530b; 542b-543c
53 JAMES: Psychology, lb-3b; 282a-291a esp285b;
327a-329a; 332b<336a; 385a-b; 424b; 433a-
434a; 480a-b; 520a-b; 677b-678a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 363c-364b
2b. The empirical sources of induction, ab-
straction, generalization
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 [46*
18-28] 64a; BK n, CH 23 [68bi5-29J 90b-c /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i [71*1-8) 97a; CH
18 lllb-c; CH 31 120a-c; BK n, CH 2 [90*24-30]
123b-c; CH 7 [92*34-bi] 126b; CH 19 136a-
137a,c / Topics, BK i, CH 12 148d; CH 18
[io8b7-i2] 152d; BK n, CH 7 [ii3'3i-33] 158d;
BK vm, CH i (i55b35-i56*7) 211d-212a; [i$(P
10-18] 212c-d / Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b;
BK vm, CH i [252*1 9-b7] 335d-336b / Heavens,
BK in, CH 7 [306*6-18} 397b-c / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98ob25-98i*i2]499b-c
/ Soul, BK i, CH i [462bi 1-403*2] 631d-632a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [io95*3o-b8]
340c; BK vi, CH 8 [1142*12-19] 391 b; CH n
[n43*34-b6] 392d-393a / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 20
[i393*25-b3] 641a
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK H, CH 27
650a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 79,
AA 3-4 416a-418c; Q 84, A 6 447c-449a; Q 85,
A i 451c-453c; A 3, ANS 455b-457a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART HI, Q 9,
A 4 766b-767b; Q 12 776c-779d passim
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-335c
esp 334c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c;
57b-d; 59c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 19-26
108b-d; APH 51 lllc; APH 69-70 116a-117a;
APH 100-106 127c-128c; BK n, APH 10-15
140c-149a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a; vn, lOc-llc;
xii, 24a-b; xiv, 28a-b / Discourse, PART vi,
61d-62c / Objections and Replies, 167c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART H, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK H, CH xi, SECT 8-9
145b-c; CH xxxn, SECT 6 244b-c; BK in, CH
in, SECT 6-8 255c-256a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 107
433d-434a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT HI, DIV
i9,458a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-b; 45b-46a / Judge-
ment, 562d-563b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 659a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182d-
183c; PART iv, 361a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 303a; 329a-331b; 674a-
677a passim; 858a-865b esp 860b-862a, 864a-
865a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a
2c, The transcendental or innate structure of
the mind as a condition of experience
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c esp 14a-15c,
23a-33d, 41c-42b, 48d-51d, 53b-55a, 56d-
59b, 66d-93c, 99a-101b; 112d-113a; 115d;
128c-d; 166c-171a; 1737); I76d-177a; 192a-b;
199b-c; 207c-d; ^13d-215a / Fund. Prin. Meta-
physic of Morals, 282b-<j; 283b / Practical
Reason, 308a-b; 309d-310a; 350b-c / Judge-
ment, 471b-c; 482d; 492c-d; 515d-516b; 520a;
552b-c; 562d-563b; 570b-572d csp 570c-d,
572b-c; 573a-c; 603d; 604b-c; 612c-d
53 IAMES: Psychology, 23ab*238b esp 232b-233b,
235a-b; 260a-261a; 627a~635a passim, esp
629a-631a; 851fi-890a esp 85 Ib 862 a, 865a-
868a, 881b [fh 3], 889a
478
: THE, GREAT 1D$AS
(2, Experience & relation to the 4(t* of the
mM.)
Id. The a priori and a posteriori in judgment
aod reasoning
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3
[72b25~33] 99c; BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c /
Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b / Metaphysics, BK r,
CH i 499a-500b; BK yn, CH 3 [io29a33^bi2]
552a
19 AQUJNAS: Swnma Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
HEP 2 lOd-lld; A 2 llcM2c; Q 3, A 5, ANS
17c-18b
20 AQUINAS; Summa Theologica, PART i~n, Q 112,
A 5, ANS and REP 1,5 359c-360c
^HABVLY; Ofl Animal Generation, 332a-335c
31 DESCARTES: Rule<, n, 2d-3a / Meditations,
, ' i in 81d-89a esp 88c-d / Objections and Replies,
PROP i-n 132b-c; 215b-c; 224b,d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics t PART i, PROP u 358b-359b;
PART 11, PROP 40, SjCHOi, 2 388a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15-16 98d-99c; SECT 23 101b-102a; BK
iv, CH ix, SECT, i 349a; CH xi, SECT 13-14
357d-358c
35 HUME: Humart Understanding, SECT ,iv, DIV
20 SECT v, DIV 38 458a-466c esp SECT iv, DIV
30, 462a; SECT x, DIV 89 490b-c, SECT xi
497b-503c passim; SECT xn, DIV 131-132
5Q8d-509d passim
42 KAN i. Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c esp 14a-20c,
23a-24a, 25b-26b, 27b-28b, 29d-33d, 35b-
36a, 41c-42b, 46a 48d, 57d-59b, 64b-66d;
lOSb-d, 110a-113b; 115d-120c; 123d-124b,
134c-d; 141d-142c [antithesis]; 146a; 170d-
171a; 172c-173a; 174a; 177d; 179c-182b; 190c-
191a; 192a-b; 199a; 209b-d; 211c-218d; 224a-
227a; 228b-d; 230c 231c; 236d-237a; 244d-
245a / Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-
254d esp 253b, 254c-d; 268b-d; 283b / Prac-
tical Reason, 307d-308b; 309b-d; 329d-330c /
Science of Right, 405 b-d / Judgement, 461 a -
475d esp 465c-467d, 474b-475d; 570b-572b;
600d-603d esp 603a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445d-447a passim;
475b,d [fn i]
40HEOEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182d-
183c
53 JAMES Psychology, 85Ia-890a esp 851a-b,
859a-861b, 889a-890a
3. Experience in relation to organized knowl-
edge: art and science
7 PLATO: Gvrgiast3S3a
8 ARISTOTLE : Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 [46*
18-28] 64a / Posterior Analytics, BK 11, CH 19
136a-137a,c / Heavens, BK HI, CH 7 (306*6-18]
397 b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2
[316*5-14] 411od, / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
49Qa-500b
9 AABTOTLB: Ethics^ BK x, CH 9 [ij8obi3-n8ib
12] 435b-436a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES; Ancient Medicine, par 1-8 la-
st*/ Aphorisms, SBCT i, par i 131a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-105]
108b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan^ PART i, 60c-j61a; PART n,
128d-129b
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 322d-323d;
324c-d / On Animal Generation, 331b-335c
esp 334c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a / No-
^vum Organum, BK i, APH 98 126d-127b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a / Discourse, PART
t ?t 44sfc-^c; PART vi, 61b-d / Meditations, a 75a-
77c esp 75d-76c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART xi, PROP 40, SCHOL 2
388a-b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 396 240b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH i,
SECT 1-8 121a-123a esp SECT 2 121b-c; CH xi,
SECT 15 146d-147a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge^ SECT 30-32
418c-419a;sECT43420d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
20-SECT v, DIV 38 458a-466e passim, esp SECT
v, DIV 36, 465a~d [fn i], 465c; SECT vn, DIV
, 60 477a-c; SECT vm, DIV 65 479b-480a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-15c; 72c-85d esp
72c-74b, 82a-b / Judgement, 562d-563b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 281b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [522-601] 15a-16b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 449c-451b
<z. Particular experiences and general rules as
conditions of expertness or skill: the
contrast between the empiric and the
artist
7 PLATO. Charmides, 6d-7b / Phaedrus, 136b-c /
, Gorgias, 253a; 261a-262a; 280d-282b; 287d-
288b / Republic, BK i, 303a-304a / Theaetetus,
516a / Philebus, 633a-c / Laws, BK iv, 684c-
685a; BK ix, 745a-b
8 ARJSTOTLB: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 [46*
18-28] 64a / Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[100*3-9] 136c / Metaphysics, BK j, CH i
{980^25-982*1 } 499b-500b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [1102*15-^26]
347c; BK n, CH i 348b,d-349b passim; BK HI,
CH 8 [in6b3-i5] 362d-363a; BK vi, CH i
, [1^3^25-34] 387b; BK x, CH 9 [n8obi3-
n8ibi2] 435b-436a,c / Politics, BK HI, CH n
[i28ib40~i282a6]479d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Anctent Medicine, par 1-8 la-
t 3b; par 20 7b-d / Epidemics, BK in, SECT in,
par 1 6 59b-c / Surgery, par i 70b / Articula-
tions, par 10, 94d / The Lap H4a-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 9, 195c-
196a
18 AUGUSTINB: Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 3
?3 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART j,
^6 MONTAIOK^: Essays, 66a-b;^68«-3774 passim,
Csp 377a-d; 450d-451a; 523c-524a ; ,
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
> 30 BACON: Advanc&nent of Learning, 5b-6a;48d-
49a; 53a-b; 56o57b; 74b-d; 82c>d / Novum
Organum, we i» APH 64 114b; BK n, APH 44-52
175d-195d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 36,
465a-d [fn ij; 465c; SECT vin, DIV 65, 479d-
480a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 296b,d-297c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 361d-365c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 666b-667a; 673a-674b;
689b-690a
54 FREUD: Psychoanalytic Therapy, 125a
3£. The issue concerning the rple of experience
in science
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 224a-225a; 228a-230c / Re-
public, BK vi, 3S3d-388a; BK vn, 391b-398c /
Timaeus, 455a-c / Theaetetus, 534d-536b /
Seventh tetter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 [46*
18-28] 64a / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[78b3i-79ai6] 108b-c; CH 18 lllb-c; CH 31
120a-c; BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c / Physics,
BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 8 (191*24-34] 267a-b /
Heavens, BK nr, CH 7 [306*6-18] 397b-c /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-
14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980^5-
982*1] 499b-500b; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*4-9]
592b /&>«/, BK i, CH i [402bi 1-403*2] 631d-
632a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK HI, CH 2
[5Ubio-25] 35a-b / Parts of Animals, BK m,
CH 4 [666*7-10] 193d / Generation of Animah,
BK in, CH 10 [760^7-32] 301d-302a / Ethics,
BK x, CH 9 [n8obi3-ii8ibi2] 435b-436a,c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 1-8 la-3b
/ Aphorisms, SECT i, par i 131a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 84,
AA 6-8 447c-451b; Q 96, A i, REP 3 510b-
511b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HJ, Q 9,
A 4 766b-767b; Q 12 776c-779d passim
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART i, 60a-d; PART n,
129a; PART iv, 267a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 260c-261c; 285c-288a;
291b-292d i
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, la-b; BK t> 6a-7a;
BK n, 27b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 131a-
138b passim
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267b,d-268d;
280c / Circulation of the Blood, 32&d-323d;
324c-d / On Animal Generation, 33lb 335c;
411c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 5b-c; 16a;
44c; 57b-d / Novum Organum 105a-195d csp
BK I, APH 64 114b, APH 95-103 126b-128a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a; vn, 10c-12a;
xn, 24a-b / Discourse, PART vi, 61b-62c
31 SPINOZA: &htcst PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
34 NEWTON: Principles, *K in, i
271b / Optics, BK in, 543a-b
34 HUYGENS: Light, OH t\ 553a
35 LOCKE: Hitman Urt&rttandkig, BK n, CH
xxm, SECT 3 2Q4c-tf; SECT 6-7 205b-206a;
SECT 28-29 211b-212aj SBOT 32-37 212c-214b;
BK in, CH xi, SECT 21-23 304d-305b; BK iv,
CH in, SECT 14 316b-d; SECT 16 317a-c; SECT
25-29 321a-323a passim^ CH vi, 5E<ST 13
335c-d; CH xn, SECT 9-13 360d-36«2d; CH xvi,
SECT 12 370b-371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30 418c;
SECT 58-59 424a-b; SECT 104 433a-b; SECT
107 433d^434a j
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
20-SECT v, DIV 38 458a*466c passim; SECT vn,
DIV 48, 471b-c; DIV 60 477a-c; SECT vm, DIV
65, 479b-c; SECT xi, DIV 111-113 S01b-502d
esp DIV 112 501c-S02a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 14a-c; 15c-16c;
31b-d; 46aib; 58a-b; 66d-67b; 68a-69c;85a-
b; 86d-87b; 94b-95a; 211c-218d / Fund. Pnn.
Metaphysic of Morals, 253a*254d csp 253b,
254b-c; 263b-c; 273a-b / Practical Reason,
295b-d; 312c-d; 329d-330c; 331a-332d / In-
tro, Metaphysic of Morals, 387a-b / Judgement,
562d-563b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445b-447a passim;
475b,d [fn i]
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, Ic-
2b; 6d-7a,c; PART in, 87b-c
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 774d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3,
lOa-lla / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c-
190b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE 11,
684a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 385a-b; 677b; 862a-884b
esp 862a-865a, 867a, 884b
54 FREUD- Narcissism, 400d-401a / Instincts,
412a-b / General Introduction,* >S45b-d /New
Introductory Lectures, 81 5a
4. Experience as measuring the scope of human
knowledge
4a. The knowability of that which is outside
experience: the supra-sensible, the nou-
menal or transcendent
7 PLATO' Cratylus, 94a; 113b'114a,c / Republic,
* BK vi, 383d-388a /, Tttnacuf, 447b-d / Crtttas,
478b-d / Pbrmenides, 489d-490d / Theaetetus,
534c-636ty
8 ARISTOTI*: Hewens, BK m, CH i [298bi5-24]
/ Memory and Reminiscence* CH i
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts ofAnimnh, BK i, CH 5 (644b
2i~645«5J 168c-d ?
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things ^ BK i [265-328]
4b-5a; BK n (308-332) 19a-b
18 AycrosTWB} City of God, JBK xi, CH 2-4, 323a-
324a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 7 626b-c
480
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Experience a$ treasuring the scope of human
knowledge, 4a. The knowability of that
which is outside experience: the supra-
sensible, the noumenal or transcendent.}
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, AA
1-2 10d-12c; QQ 12-13 50b-75b; Q 32 175d-
I80d; Q 77, A i, REP 7 399c-401b; Q 84, A 5
446c-447c; A 6, REP 3 447c-449a; QQ 87-88
464d-473a; Q 89, A 2 475a-d; Q 94, AA 1-2
501d-504a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART i-n, Q 112,
A 5 359c-360c; PART in SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, REP 2
938a-939c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [28-48]
Ilia
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; 78d-79a;
PART ii, 163a-b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 291b-294b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 39d-40a;
41b d; 96d-97b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 53b-54b /
Objections and Replies, 215b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [552-587] 331a-
332a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH i,
SECT 2-10 121b-123d; SECT 19-24 126a-127c;
CH xn, SECT 1-2 147b-d; CH xxin, SECT 2-3
204b-d; SECT 6-7 205b-206a; SPCT 29 211d-
212a; SECT 32-37 212c-214b; BK in, CH vi
268b-283a passim, esp SECT 9-11 270d~271d;
BK iv, CH in, SECT 14 316b-d; SECT 16 317a-c;
SECT 25-29 321a-323a passim; CH xn, SECT
9-12 360d-362c passim; CH xvi, SECT 12 370b-
371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 27
418a-b; SECT 135-142 440a-441c
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b; SECT iv, DIV 20-SECT v, DIV 38 458a-
466c passim; SECT vin, DIV 81 487a; SECT xi
497b-503c passim; SECT xn, DIV 119, 505a-b;
DIV 127 507b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 308c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la 4a,c; 15c-16c; 19a;
19d-20c esp 20a; 25b-26b; 27b-33d; 49c-59b
csp 53b-54b; 86c-88c; 89c-91d; 93c-99a;
101b-108a,c; 112b-d; 113c-115a; 117b-118a;
119a-209d esp 121a-128b, 130b-145c, 153a-c,
164a-165c, 173b-192d, 200c-209d; 218d-223d;
227a-235a csp 231c-232b; 247a-b / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261b; 281c-
282d; 283d-287d / Practical Reason, 291a-
293b csp 292a-c; 296a-d; 307d-314d csp 307d-
308b, 309b, 310d-311d; 320c-321b; 327d-
329a; 335c-337a,c; 337«*c; 349b-353d / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 383c-d; 383b,d-384a,c
/ Judgement, 461a-c; 4<5Sa-c; 474b-475d;
SOOc-d; 506d-507a; SlOb-c; 543a; S43d-544a;
547b-d; 551a-552c; 560c; 562a-564c; 570b-
572b csp 570c-571c; 574b-577a; 579a; 581a-
b; 584c-d; 588d-589c; 594d [fn ij; 599d-
600d; 603a-604b; 606d-607c; 609b-610fc; 611c-
4b. Verification by experience: experience as
the ultimate test of truth
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vn, 395c-396d; BK ix,
421a-422b
8 ARISTOTLE- Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [27obi-i3J
361c-d; BK HI, CH 7 [306*6-18] 397b-c / Soul,
BK i, CH i [402bi5-403a2] 631d-632a
9 ARISTOTLE : Parts of Animals, BK in, CH 4
[666*7-10] 193d / Motion of Animals, CH i
[698*10-15] 233a / Generation of Animals, BK
HI, CH 10 [76ob27~35] 301d-302a / Ethics, BK
n, CH 7 [1107*27-32] 352d-353a; BK x, CH i
[ii72*34-b7] 426b; CH 8 [1179*17-22] 433d-
434a / Politics, BK n, CH 5 [1264*1-11] 459a-b;
BK vii, CH i [1323*33^7] 527b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [418-426]
6b; [693-701] 9c; BK iv [469-521] 50b-51a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 165a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 260c-261c; 285c-288a;
291b-292d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d / Circula-
tion of the Blood, 322d-323d; 324c-d / On
Animal Generation, 331b-332a; 357b
30 BACON' Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c /
Novum Organum 105a-195d esp BK n 137a-
195d
31 DESCARTES- Rules, n, 2d-3a; xn, 22c-23a /
Discourse, PART vi, 66a-b / Meditations, i 75a-
77c / Objections and Replies, 229d-230d
33 PASC\L- Pensees, 9 173b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE in 270b-
271a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV 14
456b; SEC r x 488d-497b passim, esp DIV 86-91
488d-491c, SECT xi, DIV no 501a-b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 36a-37a esp36b-c; 77b-d,
85b-d; 86b-87c; 91d-93b; 114d-115a; 146a-
149d; 153a-c; 231b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 40a-b; NUMBER 20,
78a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 450b-c; 461c-462a;
463c-d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 129a
45 FARADAY • Researches in Electricity, 774d
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 684a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 647b-648b; 863a-865a;
879b-880b [fn 2]; 881a-b
54 FREUD- New Introductory Lectures, 819d-820a;
879c
5. The theory of experimentation in scientific
method
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 2 199d-
200a
25 MONTAIGNE t Essays, 377a-d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267b,d-268d /
On Animal Generation, 331b-337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34b; 42a-c /
Novum Organum 105a-195d / New Atlantis,
210d-214d
5ato5c
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
481
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61c-62c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 543a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5d-6c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 22c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 175b
45 FARADAY : Researches in Electricity, 774d
50 MARX : Capital, 6c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 385a-b; 677b
54 FREUD : New Introductory Lectures, 879c
5<*. Experimental exploration and discovery:
the formulation of hypotheses
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, la-b; BK i, 6a-7a;
BK n, 27c-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 131a-
138b; 157b-171b passim; THIRD DAY, 203d-
205b; 207d-208a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 273c-d; 280c-d;
285c-d / On Animal Generation, 331b-333d;
336b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a; 30d-
31a, 34b, 42a-c / Novum Organum, PREF 105a-
106d; BK i 107a-136a,c csp APR 8 107c-d, APH
50 lllb, APH 64 114b, APH 70 116b-117a, APH
82 120d-121b, APH 99-100 127b-c, APH 121
132b-d; BK n 137a-195d passim / New Atlan-
tis, 214a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61d-62c; 66a-b
33 PASCAL- Vacuum, 359a-365b / Equilibrium of
Liquids 390a-403a passim, esp 390a-392a
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK in, RULE IH-IV 270b-
271b; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a / Optics,
BK i, 379a; 386b-455a; BK n, 457a-470a; BK
ii-in, 496a-516a; BK in, 543a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 46-47 281d-282b; BK iv, CH xn, SECT
9-13 360d-362d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329d-330a
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 387a-b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 2a-b;
PART i, 10d-12d; 17a-20desp 17a; 22c-24a esp
23c, 29d-33b
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a; 172a; 175b;
184a
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 440b,d;
607a,c; 659a; 774d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 136b-139a passim
53 JAMES- Psychology, 126a-127a; 348a-357b pas-
sim; 385a-b; 677b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b
5b. Experimental verification: the testing of
hypotheses
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 49a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 13 173d-
177a passim; BK in, CH 2 199d-200a; CH 4
201b-202c; CH 8 205a-207b
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-105]
108b-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 148c-
149c; 166d-168a; THIRD DAY, 203d-205b csp
205b; 207d-208c
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268d-273c esp
268d, 273c; 286b-304a,c csp 286b-c, 295d-
296a / Circulation of the Blood, 31Ic-312c;
324c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34b / No-
vum Organum, BK n, APH 36 164a-168d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61d-62c;
66a-b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 368b-370a / Great Experi-
ment 382a-389b passim / Weight of Air, 404a-
405b; 425a-429a
34 NEWTON: Principles, LAWS OF MOTION, SCHOL,
19b-22a; BK n, GENERAL SCHOL 211b-219a;
PROP 40, SCHOL 239a-246b / Optics, BK i,
392a-396b; 408a-410b; 412a-416b; 453a-455a;
BK in, 543a-b
34 HUYGENS: Light, PREF, 551b-552a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xn,
SECT 13 362c-d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 2a-b;
PART i, 32a-33a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 181 b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 385b-c;
440b,d; 467a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 12b-c; 149d-150a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 865a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 291d-292a /
New Introductory Lectures, 815a-b
5c. Experimental measurement: the application
of mathematics
7 PLATO- Republic, BK vn, 396c-d
16 PTOLEMY : Almagest, BK i, 24b-26a; BK n, 38b-
39b; BK v, 143a-144a; 166a-167b
16 COPERNICUS : Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK n, 558b-559b; 567b; 586b-589a;
BK iv, 705b-706a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK iv, 85c-89c; BK v,
92a-93b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
136d-137c; 148d-149c; 164a-166c; THIRD DAY,
207d-208c
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 286c-288c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 46b-c /
Novum Organumt BK n, APH 44-47 175d-
179c
34 NEWTON: Principles^ LAWS OF MOTION, SCHOL,
20a-22a; BK i, PROP 69, SCHOL, 131a; BK n,
GENERAL SCHOL 211b-219a; PROP 40 and
SCHOL 237b-246b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 554b-557b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV 27
460c-d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
14b-c; 17a-20b; 22d-24a; 30a-32d; 33b-36a;
41a-44d; PART in, 87d-90a; 91a-95a;96b-103b
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 175b; 184b-185b
45 FARADAY: Research?* in Electricity, 277d-279a;
316b-318cr 366d-371d; 444a-451a; 465d-
467a,c; 768d-773d; 778b,d-793c
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 56a-66a esp 61b-64a; 126a;
265a-268b; 341a-344b; 348a-359a
482
THE GREAT IDEAS
6/0 7
6. The man of experience in practical affairs
6a. Experience as indispensable to sound judg-
ment and prudence
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 25:3-6; 34:9-11— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 25:5-8; 34:9-12
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [430-605] 61c-63b
5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes [50-122] 182d-183b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vii, 238b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 383d-
384a; BK vn, 555b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 337b-338a; BK v,
366a-c; BK vn, 400d-401c; BK ix, 421a-422b /
Laws, BK i, 645b-652d
9 AHISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94b29-io95*
I2f]340a-b; CH 4 [i095ft3o-bi2] 340c-d; BK HI,
CH 8 [in6b3-i5J 362d-363a; BK vi, CH 7
[lt4ibi4-23] 390c-d; CH 8 [1142*12-19] 391b;
CH ii 392c-393b passim; BK x, CH 9 [n8ob
!3-ii8ibi2] 435b-436a,c / Rhetoric, BK n,
CH 12 [i}89B3]-cH 14 [i39obn] 636b-638a
passim
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 10, 94d
12 EPICTFTUS- Discourses, BK i, CH 8, 114a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Fabius-Pericks, 154a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A i, REP 2 226c-227c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
90-93 12b-13a / Knight's Tale [2438-2452]
200a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53c-54a; 60c-d;
66d-67b; 67d-68a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-c; 55d-62a esp 61a-
62a; 63d-75a csp 66b-69d; 176c-180b; 450d-
451a; 520b-522d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc ii [163-173] 115b
29 CERVANTES: Don £)#;;c0A?,PARTii,340b-343a;
345a~348c; 352b-356d; 360d-364a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 5b-6a; 79c-
80a; 86b-89b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43a; 44a-c;
PART in, 50b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30-31
418c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 36,
465a-d [fn ij; 465c; SECT vm, DIV 65, 479d-
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 99d-100a; 274c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 305d / Intro. Meta-
physic of Morals, 387b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 32b-d; NUMBER 72,
217d
43 MILL: Liberty, 287b-c / Utilitarianism, 448d;
450a-c;456a-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 106d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 592d-593a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 211a-213a; BK
vii, 277a-278a; BK x, 424a-b; BK xn, 559d;
BK xiii, 584c-585b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 13a-15a; 886b-888a
6b. The role of experience in politics: the les-
sons of history
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 178a-180a; BK vn,
225c-d
6 THUCYDIDES \Peloponnesian War, BKi,354b-c;
BK iv, 451a-b
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 288b-289b / Republic, BK vii,
400d-401b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94b27~io95a
n] 340a; BK vi, CH 8 390d-391c; BK x, CH 9
[n8obi3-n8ib24) 435b-436a,c / Politics, BK n,
CH <5 [i264Bi-n] 459a-b; BK vii, CH 10 [1329*
4° 35] 533d-534b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4
[I359bi9-i36oa37] 599d-600d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
xi [243-295] 334b-336a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b / Fabius 141a-
154a,c / Timoleon, 195a-b / Flamininus, 302d-
303a / Alexander, 540b,d-549c / Demosthenes,
692d-695d / Demetrius, 726a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 71d-72b / Histories,
BK i, 189a-190b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince la-37d
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 67d-68a; PART n,
112c-d; 128c-129b; PART in, 165a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-25c; 68b-69d; 198c-
200d; 450d-451a; 455d-456c
30 BACON- Advancement oj 'learning, 4c-7c;85a-c,
94b-d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vm, SECT 107
49b-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 36,
465a-d[fn i]; 465c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 41 Ic
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 284a-c; 449a; 632a-
634a,c passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 13d; 194b; 326d
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphy sic of Morals, 266d
[fn2]
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 39a; NUMBER 28,
96c; NUMBER 38, 121b-122b, NUMBER 53,
168b-169b; NUMBER 72, 217d-218a; NUMBER
85, 258d-259a
43 MILL: Liberty, 320a-323a,c passim / Repre-
sentative Government, 357b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 155b-d;
PART iv, 367d-368b
50 MARX : Capital, 7b
7. Mystical or religious experience: experience
of the supernatural
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 15; 17:1-19:23; 22:1-
18; 26:1-6; 28:10-22; 32-34-32; 46:1-4 /
Exodus, 3-4; 7-11; 19; 24 / Numbers, 12;
22:22-35 /Joshua, 3:7-8; 5:13-6:5— (D)Josue,
3 7-8 ; 5 113-6:5 / Judges, 6 :i 1-40 ; 13 / 1 Samuel,
3; 16— (D) I Kings, 3; 16 / I Kings, 3:5-15;
9:1-9; 19— (D) III Kings, 3:5-15; 9:1-9; 19 /
/ Chronicles, 17— (D) 1 Parahpomcnon, 17 /Job,
38:1-42:8 / Isatah, 6—(D) Isaias, 6 / Jeremiah,
i— (D) Jercmias, i / Eze^iel, 1-4 esp i; 8-12
1 to 8
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
483*
esp 10 ; 40-48 passim— (D) Ezechiel, 1-4 esp
i; 8-12 esp 10 ; 40-48 passim / Daniel, 7-12 /
Hosea, 1-3— (D) Osee, 1-3 / Amos, 7-8 /
Zechariah, i-6—(D) Zacharias, 1-6
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:20-25; 3:16-17;
17:1-9; 28 / Lut^e, 1:1-38; 2:8-15,25-35 / Acts,
2:2-4; 7:55-56; 93-8; 10 ; 11:5-10; 12:7-11;
16:9; 18:9-11; 22:6-11; 23:11; 26:13-18;
27:21-25— (D) Acts, 2:2-4; 7:55; 9:3-8; 10;
11:5-10; 12:7-11; 16:9; 18:9-11; 22:6-11;
23-11; 26:13-18; 27:21-25 / II Corinthians,
12:1-9 / Revelation— (D) Apocalypse
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi 243a-249d
5 AESCHYLUS : Prometheus Bound [640-886] 46d-
49c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1500-1666]
127d-129b
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigema Among the Tauri [1-41]
411a-b / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c
5 ARISTOPHANES- Clouds [250-365] 490d-492c
/ Frogs 564a-582a,c / Plutus [620-747] 636d-
637d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VH, 218d-220a
13 VIRGIL Aeneid, BK vi 211a-235a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH. 4 23a-b /
Fifth Ennead, TR m, CH 17 226a-c; TR v, CH
10-12 233b-234d; TR vm, CH 10-12 244c-246a
/ Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 34-36 338b-339d;
TR ix, CH 4 356a-b; CH 8-n 358b-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 28-30
60d-61c; BK ix, par 23-25 68a-c; BK x, par 65
87d-88a / City of God, BK ix, CH 16 294a-
295a, BK x, CH 13 307b-c; BK xvi, CH 6 426c-
427a esp 426d; BK XXH, CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A 9 58b-59a; A n, REP 2 59d-60d; PART i-n,
Q 28, A 3, ANS 742a-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 112,
A 5, ANS and REP 1,5 359c-360c; PART in, Q 9,
A 2 764c-765a; Q 10 767b-772a; PART HI SUPPL,
Q 92, A i 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy esp PARADISE, xxx-
xxxin 151d-157d
22 CHAUCER: Prioress's Tale [13,418-620] 392a-
395b esp [13,577-592] 394b-395a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART n, 160b; PART HI,
165d-166a; 174d-176d; 183d-185c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc i 29a-31c;
sc n [160-258] 33b-34b; sc iv-v 35d-39a /
Macbeth, ACT i, sc in [1-88] 285b-286b; ACT
iv, sc 1 300b-302b / Tempest 524a-548d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 95d-96c
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 277-288 222b-224b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81a; 189b-191a;
294d-296b; 605b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4fob-W*
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 320c-321b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [354-514] lla-14b;
[1238-1321] 30b-32b; [2337-2604] 56b-63b;
[3835-4398] 93b-108b; PART n [7005-8487]
17lb-206b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 156d; 162b-
164a,c; BK v, 219b-220a; BK xi, 525c-526b;
BK xv, 631a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY : Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
13 7c; BK vn, 189a-191a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 847b-848a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 688a-b
8. Variety of experience as an ideal of human
life
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 34:9-11— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 34.9-12
4 HOMER: Odyssey 183a-322d esp BK i [i-io]
183a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin, 409b-411d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6, lllc-112a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vm, SECT i 285a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 54-57
85a-86a
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi [49-142]
38c-39c
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath' s Prologue [5583-6410]
256a-269b
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 66b<69d; 74b-75a; 107a-
112d; 458b-462c; 471a-472a; 478c-479c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
i, sc m [1-44] 232c-233a / 1st Henry 77434a-
466d / 2nd Henry IV 467a-502d / Henry V,
ACT i, sc i [22-66] 533b-c / As You Like It,
ACT iv, sc i [21-41] 617b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, P*RT i, 43a; 44a-c
33 PASCAL. Pcnstes, 34-38 177a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
65, 479d-480a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 164a-b; 274c
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 88d
43 MILL: Liberty, 293b-302c passim, esp 294c-
29 5a; 320a-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 302c-303b
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART i [1765-1775] 42b,
[3217-3250] 79a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 37c-
38a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 736b-737a
484 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For; The discussion of the faculties or the acts of the mind which are related to experience, see
IDEA ic, 20, 2e— 2g; INDUCTION xa, 2; JUDGMENT 8c; KNOWLEDGE 6b(i), 6c(4); MEMORY
AND IMAGINATION la, 30, 53-50, 6c(i)~6c(2); MIND ia(i)~ia(2), ie(i); REASONING ic, 4C,
5jb(3); SENSE la, ic-id, 3c(5), 4b, 53; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 40.
The consideration of the empirical foundations or sources of science and art, see ART 5;
DIALECTIC 2a(i); MEDICINE 2a; METAPHYSICS 2c; PHILOSOPHY 33; PHYSICS 2; SCIENCE
ib, ic, 53; SENSE 5b~5c.
The discussion of experience in relation to the conditions or limits of human knowledge,
see INDUCTION 2; KNOWLEDGE 53-53(6); MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 6d; METAPHYSICS
4b; MIND 50.
Other treatments of the empirical verification of hypotheses or theories, see HYPOTHESIS 4d;
PHYSICS 4c; SCIENCE 50; SENSE 5c; TRUTH la.
Other discussions of the role of experimentation in scientific inquiry, see INDUCTION 5; LOGIC
4b; MECHANICS 23; PHYSICS 4~4d; SCIENCE 53.
Experience as 3 factor in educstion, see EDUCATION 5f.
The treatment of religious or mystical experience or of related matters, see GOD 6c(3);
PROPHECY ib; RELIGION ib(2)-ib(3); SIGN AND SYMBOL 50.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
L Mind
AUGUSTINE. De Genesi ad Litteram, BK xn WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
DESCARTLS. The Principles of Philosophy, PART in, 4 VOL i, BK i, CH 5, 7
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature TENNYSON. Ulysses
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic EMERSON. "Experience," in Essays, n
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind BERNARD, Introduction to Experimental Medicine
. Science of Logic, VOLI, BKII, SECTII; SECTIII, CLIFFORD. "On the Nature of Thmgs-In-Them-
CH i; VOL n, SECT in, CH 3 selves," in VOL n, Lectures and Essays
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK HI, CH 7-8 AVENARIUS, Knti^der remen Erfahrung
W. JAMES. Essays in Radical Empiricism HODGSON. The Metaphysic of Experience
. The Varieties of Religious Experience ROYCE. The World and the Individual, SERIES i (6)
. Pragmatism H. JAMES. The Beast in the Jungle
. The Meaning of Truth MACH. The Analysis of Sensations
. Erf(enntnis und Irrtum
**• P&GUY. Basic Verities (Innocence and Experience)
R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART vi . Men and Saints (The Holy Innocents)
DUNS SCOTUS. Oxford Commentary, BK i, DIST 3, Q 4 HUGEL. The Mystical Element of Religion
(9) LENIN. Materialism and Empinocriticism
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under- BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH n
standing . Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 6
VOLTAIRE. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 7 BROAD. Perception, Physics, and Reality, CH 3
WORDSWORTH. The Prelude PROUST. Remembrance of Things Past
CHAPTER 25: EXPERIENCE
485
JOYCE. Ulysses
SAN FAY ANA. Scepticism and Animal Paith, CH 15
BRIDGMAN. The Logic of Modern Physics
HOOK. The Metaphysics of Pragmatism
J. S. HALDANE. The Sciences and Philosophy, LECTXVI
C. I. LEWIS. Mind and the World Order
WHITEHEAD. Science and the Modern World
. Process and Reality* PART in
HUSSERL. Ideas General Introduction to Pure Phe-
nomenology
. Meditations Cartesiennes
BERGSON. Time and Free Will
. Two Sources of Morality and Religion, CH 4
GILBY. Poetic Experience
FISHER. The Design of Experiments
DBWEY. "Experience and Objective Idealism," "The
Postulate of Immediate Empiricism," "'Con-
sciousness' and Experience," in The Influence of
Darwin on Philosophy
Reconstruction in Philosophy, CH 4
. Experience and Nature, CH i, 9
. Experience and Education* CH 2-3, 8
BLANSHARD. The Nature of Thought
MARITAIN. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH i, 5
. Ransoming the Time, CH 10
B. RUSSELL. The Problems of Philosophy, CH i
. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, CH 8-u,
16-18, 21-23
. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits,
PART HI, CH 1-5; PART VI, CH 4, 10
Chapter 16: FAMILY
INTRODUCTION
THE human family, according to Rousseau,
is "the most ancient of all societies and the
only one that is natural." On the naturalness
of the family there seems to be general agree-
ment in the great books, although not all would
claim, like Rousseau, that it is the only natural
society. The state is sometimes also regarded as
a natural community, but its naturalness is not
as obvious and has often been disputed.
The word "natural" applied to a community
or association of men can mean either that men
instinctively associate with one another as do bees
and buffaloes; or that the association in ques-
tion, while voluntary and to that extent con-
ventional, is also necessary for human welfare.
It is in this sense of necessity or need that Rous-
seau speaks of family ties as natural. "The chil-
dren remain attached to the father only so long
as they need him for their preservation," he
wiites. "As soon as this need ceases, the natural
bond is dissolved." If after that "they remain
united, they continue so no longer naturally,
but voluntarily; and the family itself is then
maintained only by convention."
Locke appears to attribute the existence of
the human family to the same sort of instinc-
tive determination which establishes familial
ties among other animals, though he recognizes
that the protracted infancy of human offspring
make "the conjugal bonds . . . more firm and
lasting in man than the other species of ani-
mals." Since with other animals as well as in
the human species, "the end of conjunction
between male and female [is] not barely pro-
creation, but the continuation of the species,"
it ought to last, in Locke's opinion, "even after
procreation, so long as is necessary to the nour-
ishment and support of the young ones, who
are to be sustained by those who got them till
they are able to shift and support for them-
selves. This rule," he adds, "which the infinite
wise Maker hath set to the works of His hands,
we find the inferior creatures steadily obey."
Yet Locke does not reduce the association of
father, mother, and children entirely to a di-
vinely implanted instinct for the perpetuation
of the species. "Conjugal society," he writes,
"is made by a voluntary compact between man
and woman, and though it consists chiefly in
such a communion and right in one another's
bodies as is necessary to its chief end, procrea-
tion, yet it draws with it mutual support and
assistance, and a communion of interests, too."
If the human family were entirely an instinc-
tively formed society, we should expect to find
the pattern or structure of the domestic com-
munity the same at all times and everywhere.
But since the time of Herodotus, historians and,
later, anthropologists have observed the great
diversity in the institutions of the family in
different tribes or cultures, or even at different
times in the same culture. From his own travels
among different peoples, Herodotus reports a
wide variety of customs with respect to mar-
riage and the family. From the travels of other
men, Montaigne culls a similar collection of
stories about the diversity of the mores with
respect to sex, especially in relation to the
rules or customs which hedge the community
of man and wife.
Such facts raise the question whether the
pattern of monogamy pictured by Locke repre-
sents anything more than one type of human
family — the type which predominates in west-
ern civilization or, even more narrowly, in
Christendom. Marx, for instance, holds that
the structure of the family depends on the
character of its "economical foundation," and
insists that "it is of course just as absurd to hold
the Teutonic-Christian form of the family to be
absolute and final as it would be to apply that
character to the ancient Roman, the ancient
486
CHAFER 26! FAMILV
48?
Greek, or the Eastern forms which, moreover,
taken' together form a series in historic develop-
ment." ' '
Though the observation of the various forms
which the human family takes has led some
writers to deny the naturalness of the family —
at least so far as its "naturalness" would mean
a purely instinctive formation— it has seldom
been disputed that the family fulfills a natural
human need. Conventional in structure, the
family remains natural as a means indispensable
to an end which all men naturally desire. "There
must be a union of those who cannot exist with-
out each other," Aristotle writes, "namely, of
male and female, that the race may continue";
and he goes on to say that this union is formed
"not of deliberate purpose, but because, in
common with other animals and with plants,
mankind have a natural desire to leave behind
them an image of themselves."
The human infant, as Locke observes, re-
quires years of care in order to survive. If the
family did not exist as a relatively stable organi-
zation to serve this purpose, some other social
agency would have to provide sustained care
for children. But wherever we find any other
social units, such as tribes or cities, there we
also find some form of the family in existence,
not only performing the function of rearing
children, but also being the primitive social
group out of which all larger groupings seem to
grow or to be formed. Aristotle, for example,
describes the village or tribe as growing out of
an association of families, just as later the city
or state comes from a union of villages.
We have seen that the naturalness of the
family— as answering a natural need— is not
incompatible with its also being a product of
custom or convention. The facts reported by
Herodotus, Montaigne, and Darwin, which
show the variability of families in size and
membership, in form and government, do not
exclude, but on the contrary emphasize, the
further fact that wherever men live together
at all, they also live in families.
Whether or not the political community is
also a natural society, and if so, whether it is
natural in the same way as the family, are ques-
tions reserved for the chapter on STATE. But
it should be noted here that for some writers,
for Aristotle particularly and to a lesser extent
for Locke, the naturalness of the family not
only points to a natural development of the
state, but also helps to explain how, in the
transition from the family to the state, paternal
government gives rise to royal rule or absolute
monarchy. Even Rousseau, who thinks that the
family is the only natural society, finds, in the
correspondence between a political ruler and &
father, reason for saying that "the family . . .
may be called the first model of political so-
cieties."
IN WESTERN CIVILISATION, a family normally
consists of a husband and wife and their off-
spring. If the procreation and rearing of off-
spring is the function, or even a function, which
the family naturally exists to perform, then a
childless family cannot be considered normal.
Hegel suggests another reason for offspring. He
sees in children the bond of union which makes
the family a community.
"The relation of love between husband and
wife," he writes, "is in itself not objective, be-
cause even if their feeling is their substantial
unity, still this unity has no objectivity. Such
an objectivity parents first acquire in their
children, in whom they can sefe objectified the
entirety of their union. In the child, a mother
loves its lather and he its inb, tKer.^ Bothjiave
their love objectified for them in tEe child.
While in their goods their unity is embodied
only m an external thing, in their children it is
embodied in a spiritual one in which the par-
ents are loved and which they love."
Until recent times when it has been affected
by urban, industrial conditions, the family
tended to be a much larger unit, not only with
regard to the number of children, but also with
respect to other members and relationships.
The household included servants, if not slaves;
it included blood-relatives in various degrees of
consanguinity; its range extended over three or
even four generations. Sancho Panza's wife, for
instance, pictures the ideal marriage for her
daughter as one in which "we shall have her
always under our eyes, and be all 6ne family,
parents 'and children, grandchildren and sons-
in-law, and the fteace and blessing of God will
dwell among us." Even though they belong to
the nineteenth century, the families ifi War
and Peace indicate how different is 'the dbmcstic
488
THE GREAT IDEAS
establishment under agrarian and semi-feudal
conditions.
But even when it comprised a larger and
more varied membership, the family differed
from other social units, such as tribe or state,
in both size and function. Its membership,
determined by consanguinity, was usually more
restricted than that of other groups, although
blood- relationships, often more remote, may
also operate to limit the membership of the
tribe or the state. Its function, according to
Aristotle, at least in origin, was to "supply
mtt^s, everyday wants," whereas the state went
beyond this in aiming at other conditions "of
a good life."
In an agricultural society of the sort we find
among the ancients, the household rather than
the city is occupied with the problems of
wealth. In addition to the breeding and rear-
ing of children, and probably because of this in
part, the family as a unit seems to have been
concerned with the means of subsistence, on the
side of both production and consumption. Its
members shared in a division of labor and in a
division of the fruits thereof.
Apart from those industries manned solely
by slave labor in the service of the state, the
production of goods largely depended on the
industry of the family. In modern times this
system of production came to be called the
"domestic" as opposed to the "factory" system.
It seems to persist even after the industrial
revolution. But, according to Marx, "this mod-
ern so-called domestic industry has nothing,
except the name, in common with the old-
fashioned domestic industry, the existence of
which presupposes independent urban handi-
crafts, independent peasant farming, and above
all, a dwelling house for the laborer and his
family."
In effect, the industrial revolution produced
an economy in which not only agriculture but
the family ceased to be central. The problem
shifts from the wealth of families to the wealth
of nations, even as production shifts from the
family to the factory. "Modern industry," ac-
cording to Marx, "by assigning an important
part in the process of production, outside the
domestic sphere, to women, to young persons,
and to children of both sexes, creates a new
economical foundation."
The family was for centuries what the fac-
tory and the storehouse have only recently be-
come in an era of industrialism. For the an-
cients, the problems of wealth— its acquisition,
accumulation, and use—were domestic, not
political. "The so-called art of getting wealth,"
Aristotle writes, is "according to some . . .
identical with household management, accord-
ing to others, a principal part of it." In his own
judgment, "property is a part of the house-
hold, and the art of acquiring property is a
part of the art ot managing the household"—
but a part only, because the household includes
human beings as well as property, and is con-
cerned with the government of persons as well
as the management of things.
The foregoing throws light on the extraor-
dinary shift in the meaning of the word "eco-
nomics" from ancient to modern times. In the
significance of their Greek roots, the word
"polity" signifies a state, the word "economy"
a family; and as "politics" referred to the art of
governing the political community, so "eco-
nomics" referred to the art of governing the
domestic community. Only in part was it con-
cerned with the art of getting wealth. As the
chapter on WEALTH indicates, Rousseau tries to
preserve the broader meaning when he uses the
phrase "political economy" for the general
problems of government; but for the most part
in modern usage "economics" refers to a science
or art concerned with wealth, and it is "politi-
cal" in the sense that the management of
wealth, and of men with respect to wealth, has
become the problem of the state rather than
the family. Not only has the industrial economy
become more and more a political affair, but
the character of the family as a social institution
has also changed with its altered economic
status and function.
THE CHIEF QUESTION about the family in rela-
tion to the state has been, in ancient as well as
in modern times, whether the family has natu-
ral rights which the state cannot justly invade
or transgress.
The proposal in Plato's Republic—" that the
wives of our guardians are to be common, and
their children are to be common, and no parent
is to know his own child, nor any child his
parent"— was as radical in the fifth century
CHAPTER '26:'FAMILY
48?
B.C. as its counterpart would be today. When
Socrates proposes this, Glaucon suggests that
"the possibility as well as the utility of such a
law" may be subject to "a good many doubts."
But Socrates does not think that "there can be
any dispute about the very great utility of hav-
ing wives and children in common; the possi-
bility," he adds, "is quite another matter, and
will be very much disputed."
Aristotle questions both the desirability and
possibility. "The premise from which the argu-
ment of Socrates proceeds," he says, is " 'the
greater the unity of the state the better.' " He
denies this premise. "Is it not obvious," he
asks, "that a state may at length attain such a
degree of unity as to be no longer a state ? —
since the nature of a state is to be a plurality,
and in tending to a greater unity, from being a
state, it becomes a family, and from being a
family, an individual." Hence "we ought not
to attain this greatest unity even if we could,
for it would be the destruction of the state."
In addition, "the scheme, taken literally, is im-
practicable."
It is significant that Aristotle's main argu-
ment against Plato's "communism" (which in-
cludes the community of property as well as
the community of women and children) is
based upon the nature of the state rather than
on the rights of the family. It seems to have been
a prevalent view in antiquity, at least among
philosophers, that the children should be "re-
garded as belonging to the state rather than to
their parents." Antigone's example shows, how-
ever, that this view was by no means without
exception. Her defiance of Creon, based on
"the unwritten and unfailing statutes of
heaven," is also undertaken for "the majesty of
kindred blood." In this sense, it constitutes an
affirmation of the rights and duties of the fam-
ily.
In the Christian tradition the rights of the
family as against the state are also defended by
reference to divine law. The point is not that
the state is less a natural community than the
family in the eyes of a theologian like Aquinas;
but in addition to having a certain priority in
the order of nature, the family, more directly
than the state, is of divine origin. Not only is it
founded on the sacrament of matrimony, but
the express commandments of God dictate the
duties of care and obedience which bind i&
members together. For the state to interfere in
those relationships between parents and chil-
dren or between husband and wife which fall
under the regulation of divine law would be to
exceed its authority, and hence to act without
right and in violation of rights founded upon a
higher authority.
In the Christian tradition philosophers like
Hobbes and Kant state the rights of the family
in terms of natural law or defend them as natu-
ral rights. "Because the first instruction of chil-
dren," writes Hobbes, "depends on the care of
their parents, it is necessary that they should be
obedient to them while they are under their
tuition. . . . Originally the father of every man
was also his sovereign lord, with power over
him of life and death." When the fathers of
families relinquished such absolute power in
order to form a commonwealth or state, they
did not lose, nor did they have to give up, ac-
cording to Hobbes, all control of their children;
"Nor would there be any reason," he goes on,
"why any man should desire to have children,
or take the care to nourish and instruct them,
if they were afterwards to have no other benefit
from them than from other men. And this," he
says, "accords with the Fifth Commandment."
In the section of his Science of Right devoted
to the "rights of the family as a domestic so-
ciety," Kant argues that "from the fact of pro-
creation there follows the duty of preserving
and rearing children." From this duty he de-
rives "the right of parents to the management
and training of the child, so long as it is itself
incapable of making proper use of its body as an
organism, and of its mind as an understanding.
This includes its nourishment and the care of
its education." It also "includes, m general, the
function of forming and developing it practi-
cally, that it may be able in the future to main-
tain and advance itself, and also its moral cul-
ture and development, the guilt of neglecting
it falling upon the parents."
As is evident from Hobbes and Kant, the
rights of the family can be vindicated without
denying that the family, like the individual,
owes obedience to the state. In modern terms,
at least, the problem is partly stated by the
question, To what extent cajn parents justly
claim exemption from political interference in
490
THE GREAT IDEAS
the control of their own children ? But this is
only part of the problem. It must also be asked
whether, in addition to regulating the family
for the general welfare of the whole communi-
ty, the state is also entitled to interfere in the
affairs of the household in order to protect
children from parental mismanagement or neg-
lect. Both questions call for a consideration of
the form and principles of domestic govern-
ment.
THE KINDS OF RULE and the relation between
ruler and ruled in the domestic community
have a profound bearing on the theory of
government in the larger community of the
state. Many of the chapters on the forms of
government— especially CONSTITUTION, MON-
ARCHY, and TYRANNY— indicate that the great
books of political theory, from Plato and Aris-
totle to Locke and Rousseau, derive critical
points from the comparison of domestic and
political government.
We shall pass over the master-slave relation-
ship, both because that is considered in the
chapter on SLAVERY, and because not all house-
holds include human chattel. Omitting this,
two fundamental relationships which domestic
government involves remain to be examined:
the relation of husband and wife, and of
parents and children.
With regard to the first, there are questions of
equality and administrative supremacy. Evcjn
when the wife is regarded as the complete
equal of her husband, the administrative ques-
tion remains, for there must either be a division
of authority, or unanimity must prevail, or one
—either the husband or the wife—must have
the last word when disagreement must be over-
come to get any practical matter decided. So
far as husband and wife are concerned, should
the family be an absolute monarchy, or a kind
of constitutional government?
Both an ancient and a modern writer appear
to answer this question in the same way. "A
husband and father," Aristotle says, "rules over
wife and children, both free, but the rule dif-
fers, the rule over his children being a royal,
over his wife a constitutional rule." Yet the re-
lation between husband and wife, in Aristotle's
view, is not perfectly constitutional. In the
state "the citizens rule and are ruled in turn*'
on the supposition that their "natures ... are
equal and do not differ at all." In the family,
however, Aristotle thinks that "although there
may be exceptions to the order of nature, the
male is by nature fitter for command than the
female."
According to Locke, "the husband and wife,
though they have but one common concern,
yet having different understandings, will un-
avoidably sometimes have different wills too.
It therefore being necessary that the last deter-
mination (i.e., the rule) should be placed some-
where, it naturally falls to the man's share as
the abler and the stronger." But this, Locke
thinks, "leaves the wife in the full and true
possession of what by contract is her peculiar
right, and at least gives the husband no more
power over her than she has over his life; the
power of the husband being so far from that of
an absolute monarch that the wife has, in many
cases, a liberty to separate from him where
natural right or their contract allows it."
In the so-called Marriage Group of the Can-
terbury Tales, Chaucer gives voice to all of the
possible positions that have ever been taken
concerning the relation of husband and wife.
The Wife of Bath, for example, argues for the
rule of the wife. She claims that nothing will
satisfy w6men until they "have the sovereignty
as well upon their husband as their love, and to
have mastery their man above." The Clerk of
Oxford, in his tale of patient Griselda, presents
the wife who freely admits to her husband,
"When first I came to you, just so left I my will
and all my liberty." The Franklin in his tale
allows the mastery to neither wife nor husband,
"save that the name and show of sovereignty"
would belong to the latter. He dares to say
That friends each one the other must obey
If they'd be friends and long keep company.
Love will not be constrained by mastery; . . .
Women by nature love their liberty,
And not to be constrained like any thrall,
And so do men, if say the truth I shall. . . .
Thus did she take her servant and her lord,
Servant in love and lord in their marriage;
So was he both in lordship and bondage.
WHILE THERE MAY be disagreement regarding
the relation between husband and wife, there
is none regarding the inequality between par-
ents and children during the offspring's imma-
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
491
turity. Although every man may enjoy "equal
right ... to his natural freedom, without being
subjected to the will or authority of any other
men," children, according to Locke, "are not
born in this full state of equality, though they
are born to it."
Paternal power, even absolute rule, over
children arises from this fact. So long as the
child "is in an estate wherein he has no under-
standing of his own to direct his will," Locke
thinks he "is not to have any will of his own to
follow. He that understands for him must will
for him too; he must prescribe to his will, and
regulate his actions." But Locke adds the im-
portant qualification that when the son "comes
to the estate which made his father a free man,
the son is a free man too."
Because children are truly inferior in com-
petence, there would seem to be no injustice in
their being ruled by their parents; or in the rule
being absolute in the sense that children are
precluded from exercising a decisive voice in
the conduct of their own or their family's af-
fairs. Those who think that kings cannot claim
the absolute authority of parental rule fre-
quently use the word "despotic" to signify un-
justified paternalism — a transference to the
state of a type of dominion which can be justi-
fied only in the family.
The nature of despotism as absolute rule is
discussed in the chapters on MONARCHY and
TYRANNY, but its relevance here makes it
worth repeating that the Greek word from
which "despot" comes, like its Latin equivalent
paterfamilias, signifies the ruler of a household
and carries the connotation of absolute rule —
the complete mastery of the father over the
children and the servants, if not over the wife.
Accordingly there would seem to be nothing
invidious in referring to domestic government
as despotic, at least not to the extent that, in
the case of the children, absolute rule is justified
by their immaturity. The problem arises only
with respect to despotism in the state, when
one man rules another mature man as absolutely
as a parent rules a child.
The great defender of the doctrine that the
sovereign must be absolute, "or else there is no
sovereignty at all," sees no difference between
the rights of the ruler of a state— the "sovereign
by institution"— and those of a father as the
natural master of his family. "The rights and
consequences of both paternal and dcspotical
dominion," Hobbes maintains, "are the very
same with those of a sovereign by institution."
On the other hand, Rousseau, an equally
staunch opponent of absolute rule, uses the
word "despotism" only in an invidious sense
for what he regards as illegitimate government
— absolute monarchy. "Even if there were as
close an analogy as many authors maintain be-
tween the State and the family," he writes, "it
would not follow that the rules of conduct
proper for one of these societies would be also
proper for the other."
Rousseau even goes so far as to deny that
parental rule is despotic in his sense of that
term. "With regard to paternal authority, from
which some writers have derived absolute gov-
ernment," he remarks that "nothing can be
further from the ferocious spirit of despotism
than the mildness of that authority which looks
more to the advantage of him who obeys than
to that of him who commands." He agrees with
Locke in the observation that, unlike the politi-
cal despot, "the father is the child's master no
longer than his help is necessary." When both
are equal, the son is perfectly independent of
the father, and owes him "only respect and not
obedience."
Misrule in the family, then, would seem to
occur when these conditions or limits are vio-
lated. Parents may try to continue their abso-
lute control past the point at which the children
have become mature and are competent to
take care of their own affairs. A parent who
does not relinquish his absolutism at this point
can be called "despotic" in the derogatory
sense of that word.
Applying a distinction made by some politi-
cal writers, the parent is tyrannical rather than
despotic when he uses the children for his own
good, treats them as property to exploit, even
at a time when his absolute direction of their
affairs would be justified if it were for the
children's welfare. The existence of parental
tyranny raises in its sharpest form the question
of the state's right to intervene in the family for
the good of its members.
THE CENTRAL ELEMENT in the domestic estab-
lishment is, of course, the institution of mar-
492
THE GREAT IDEAS
riage. The discussion of marriage in the great
books deals with most of the moral and psycho-
logical, if not all of the sociological and eco-
nomic, aspects of the institution. The most pro-
found question, perhaps, is whether marriage is
merely a human institution to be regulated
solely by custom and civil law, or a contract
under the sanctions of natural law, or a religious
sacrament signifying and imparting God's
grace. The last two of these alternatives may
not exclude one another, but those who insist
upon the first usually reject the other two.
Some, like the Parson in the Canterbury
Tales, consider marriage not only a natural but
also a divine institution— a "sacrament . . .
ordained by God Himself in Paradise, and con-
firmed by Jesus Christ, as witness St. Matthew
in the gospel : 'For this cause shall a man leave
father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife;
and they twain shall be one flesh/ which be-
tokens the knitting together of Christ and of
Holy Church."
Others, like Kant, seem to stress the charac-
ter of marriage as an institution sanctioned by
natural law. The "natural union of the sexes,'*
he writes, "proceeds either according to the
mere animal nature (yaga libido, Venus vulgivaga,
fomicatw), or according to law. The latter is
marriage (matnmomum), which is the union of
two persons of different sex for life-long recip-
rocal possession of their sexual faculties." Kant
considers offspring as a natural end of marriage,
but not the exclusive end, for then "the mar-
riage would be dissolved of itself when the pro-
duction of children ceased. . . , Even assum-
ing," he declares, "that enjoyment in the recip-
rocal use of the sexual endowments is an end of
marriage, yet the contract of marriage is not on
that account a matter of arbitrary will, but is
a contract necessary in its nature by the Law of
Humanity. In other words, if a man and a wom-
an have the will to enter on reciprocal enjoy-
ment in accordance with their sexual natures,
they must necessarily marry each other."
Still others see marriage primarily as a civil
contract. Freud, for example, considers the
view that "sexual relations are permitted only
on the basis of a final, indissoluble bond between
a man and woman" as purely a convention of
"present-day civilization." Marriage, as a set of
taboos restricting the sexual life, varies from
culture to culture; but in Freud's opinion the
"high-water mark in this type of development
has been reached in our Western European
civilization."
The conception of marriage— whether it is
merely a civil, or a natural, and even a divine
institution— obviously affects the position to be
taken on monogamy, on divorce, on chastity
and adultery, and on the comparative merits of
the married and the celibate condition. The pa-
gans, for the most part, regard celibacy as a mis-
fortune, especially for women, as witness the
tragedy of the unwedded Electra. Christian-
ity, on the other hand, celebrates the heroism
of virginity and encourages the formation of
monastic communities for celibates. Within the
Judaeo-Chnstian tradition there are striking
differences. Not only were the patriarchs of the
Old Testament polygamous, but orthodox
Judaism and orthodox Christianity also differ
on divorce.
Augustine explains how a Christian should
interpret those passages in the Old Testament
which describe the polygamous practices of the
patriarchs. "The saints of ancient times," he
writes, "were under the form of an earthly
kingdom, foreshadowing and foretelling the
kingdom of heaven. And on account of the
necessity for a numerous offspring, the custom
of one man having several wives was at that
time blameless; and for the same reason it was
not proper for one woman to have several hus-
bands, because a woman does not in that way
become more fruitful ... In regard to matters
of this sort," he concludes, "whatever the holy
men of those times did without lust, Scripture
passes over without blame, although they did
things which could not be done at the present
time except through lust."
On similar grounds Aquinas holds that "it
was allowable to give a bill of divorce," under
the law of the Old Testament, but it is not al-
lowable under the Christian dispensation be-
cause divorce "is contrary to the nature of a
sacrament." The greatest familiarity between
man and wife requires the staunchest fidelity
which "is impossible if the marriage bond can
be sundered." Within the Christian tradition
Locke takes an opposite view of divorce. He
can see good reason why "the society of man
and wife should be more lasting than that of
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
493
male and female amongst other creatures," but
he does not see "why this compact, where pro-
creation and education are secured, and inheri-
tance taken care for, may not be made deter-
minable either by consent, or at a certain time,
or upon certain conditions, as well as any other
voluntary compact, there being no necessity in
the nature of the thing . . , that it should always
be for life." Against Locke, Dr. Johnson would
argue that "to the contract of marriage, be-
sides the man and wife, there is a third party-
Society; and if it be considered as a vow— God;
and therefore it cannot be dissolved by their
consent alone."
Laws and customs, however, represent only
the external or social aspect of marriage. The
discussion of these externals cannot give any
impression of the inwardness and depth of the
problem which marriage is for the individual
person. Only the great poems, the great novels
and plays, the great books of history and biog-
raphy can adequately present the psychological
and emotional aspects of marriage in the life of
individuals. Heightened in narration, they give
more eloquent testimony than the case histories
of Freud to support the proposition that mar:
riage is at_all times— in every culture and under
the widest variety of circumstances— one of the
supl-eme^TesfToF human character.
The relation between men and women in and
out of marriage, the relation of husband and
wife before and after marriage, the relation of
parents and children — these create crises, and
tensions, conflicts between love and duty, be-
tween reason and the passions, from which no
individual can entirely escape. Marriage is not
only a typically human problem, but it is the
one problem which, both psychologically and
morally, touches every man, woman, and child.
Sometimes the resolution is tragic, sometimes
the outcome seems to be happy, almost blessed;
but whether a human life is built on this foun-
dation or broken against these rocks, it is vio-
lently shaken in the process and forever shaped.
To some degree each reader of the great
books has, in imagination if not in action, par-
ticipated in the trials of Odysseus, Penelope,
and Telemachus; in the affections of Hector
and Andromache, Alcestis and Admetus, Tom
lonesand Sophia, Natasha and Pierre Bezukhov,
in, the jealousy of Othello, the anguish of Lear,
the decision of Aeneas or the indecision of
Hamlet; and certainly in the reasoning of
Panurge about whether to marry or not. In
each of these cases, everyone finds some aspect
of love in relation to marriage, some phase of
parenthood or childhood which has colored
his own life or that of his family; and he can
find somewhere in his own experience the
grounds for sympathetic understanding of the
extraordinary relation between Electra and her
mother Clytemnestra, between Augustine and
Monica his mother, between Oedipus and Jo-
casta, Prince Hamlet and Queen Gertrude,
Pierre Bezukhov and his wife, or what is per-
haps the most extraordinary case of all— Adam
and Eve in Paradise Lost.
On one point the universality of the problem
of marriage and family life seems to require
qualification. The conflict between conjugal
and illicit love exists m all ages. The entangle-
ment of the bond between man and wife with
the ties— of both love and blood— which unite
parents and children, is equally universal. But
the difficulties which arise m marriage as a re-
sult of the ideals or the illusions of romantic
love seem to constitute a peculiarly modern
problem. The ancients distinguished between
sexual love and the love of friendship and they
understood the necessity for both in the con-
jugal relationship if marriage is to prosper. But
not until the later Middle Ages did men think
of matrimony as a way to perpetuate through-
out all the years the ardor of that moment in a
romantic attachment when the lovers find each
other without flaw and beyond reproach.
Matters relevant to this modern problem are
discussed in the chapter on LOVE. As is there
indicated, romantic love, though it seems to be
of Christian origin, may also be a distortion-
even an heretical perversion — of the kind of
Christian love which is pledged in the recipro-
cal vows of holy matrimony.
WE HAVE ALREADY considered some of the
problems of the family which relate to children
and youth — the immature members of the hu-
man race— such as whether the child belongs to
the family or the state, and whethei the family
is solely responsible for the care and training of
children, or a share of this responsibility falls to
the state or the church.
494
THE GREAT IDEAS
There are other problems. Why do men and
women want offspring and what satisfactions do
they get from rearing children? For the most
part in Christendom, and certainly in antiqui*
ty, the lot of the childless is looked upon as a
grievous frustration. To be childless is not
merely contrary to nature, but for pagan as well
as Christian it constitutes the deprivation of a
blessing which should grace the declining years
of married life. The opposite view, so rarely
taken, is voiced by the chorus of women in the
Medea of Euripides.
"Those who are wholly without experience
and have never had children far surpass in hap-
piness those who are parents," the women chant
in response to Medea's tragic leave-taking from
her own babes, "The childless, because they
have never proved whether children grow up
to be a blessing or a curse to men, are removed
from all share in many troubles; whilst those
who have a sweet race of children growing up
in their houses do wear away . . . their whole
life through; first with the thought how they
may train them up in virtue, next how they
shall leave their sons the means to live; and
after all this 'tis far from clear whether on good
or bad children they bestow their toil."
Still other questions arise concerning chil-
dren, quite apart from the attitude of parents
toward having and rearing them. What is the
economic position of the child, both with re-
spect to ownership of property and with respect
to a part in the division of labor? How has the
economic status of children been affected by
industrialism? What aie the mental and moral
characteristics of the immature which exclude
them from participation m political life, and
which require adult regulation of their affairs?
What are the criteria— emotional and mental
as well as chronological— which determine the
classification of individuals as children or adults,
and how is the transition from childhood to
manhood effected economically, politically, and
above all emotionally?
The authors of the great books discuss most
of these questions, but among them only Freud
sees in the relation of children to their parents
the basic emotional determination of human
life. The fundamental triangle of love and hate,
devotion and rivalry, consists of father, mother,
and child. For Freud all the intricacies and per-
versions of love, the qualitative distinction^ of
romantic, conjugal, and illicit love, the factors
which determine the choice of a mate and
success or failure in marriage, and the condi-
tions which determine the emergence from
emotional infantilism — all these can be under-
stood only by reference to the emotional life of
the child in the vortex of the family.
The child's "great task," according to Freud,
is that of "freeing himself from tEe parents^
for "only after this detachment is accomplished
can he cease to be a child and so become a mem-
ber of the social community. . . . These tasks
are laid down for every man" but, Freud
writes, "it is noteworthy how seldom they are
carried through ideally, that is, how seldom
they are solved in a manner psychologically as
well as socially satisfactory. In neurotics, how-
ever," he adds, "this detachment from the par-
ents is not accomplished at all."
In one sense, it is never fully accomplished
by anyone. What Freud calls the "ego-ideal"—
which represents our higher nature and which,
in the name of the reality -principle, resists in-
stinctual compliance with the pleasure -pnn-
•iple— is said to have its origin in "the identifi-
cation with the father, which takes place in the
prehistory of every person." Even after an in-
dividual has achieved detachment from the
family, this ego-ideal acts as "a substitute for
the longing for a father"; and in the form of
conscience it "continues ... to exercise the
censorship of morals."
ONE OTHER GROUP of questions which involve
the family— at least as background— concerns
the position or role of women. We have already
considered their relation to their husbands in
the government of the family itself. The way
in which that relation is conceived affects the
status and activity of women in the larger com-
munity of the state, in relation to citizenship
and the opportunities for education, to the pos-
session of property and the production of
wealth (for example, the role of female labor
in an industrial economy).
Again it is Euripides who gives voice to the
plight of women in a man's world, in two of his
great tragedies, the Trojan Women and Medea.
In the one, they cry out under the brunt of the
suffering which men leave them to bear in the
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
495
backwash of war. In the other, Medea passion-
ately berates the ignominy and bondage which
women must accept in being wives. "Of all
things that have life and sense," she says, "we
women are the most hapless creatures; first must
we buy a husband at great price, and then o'er
ourselves a tyrant set, which is an evil worse
than the first."
The ancient world contains another feminist
who goes further than Euripides in speaking
for the right of women to be educated like men,
to share in property with them, and to enjoy
the privileges as well as to discharge the tasks of
citizenship. In the tradition of the great books,
the striking fact is that after Plato the next
great declaration of the rights of women should
be written by one who is as far removed from
him in time and temper as John Stuart Mill.
In Plato's Republic, Socrates argues that if
the difference between men and women "con-
sists only in women bearing and men begetting
children, this does not amount to proof that a
woman differs from a man in respect to the sort
of education she should receive." For the same
reason, he says, "the guardians and their wives
ought to have the same pursuits." Since he
thinks that "the gifts of nature are alike dif-
fused in both," Socrates insists that "there is
no special faculty of administration in a state
which a woman has because she is a woman, or
which a man has by virtue of his sex. All the
pursuits of men are the pursuits of women
also." Yet he adds that "in all of them a woman
is inferior to a man." Therefore when he pro-
poses to let women "share in the toils of war
and the defence of their country," Socrates
suggests that "in the distribution of labors the
lighter are to be assigned to the women, who
are the weaker natures."
Mill's tract on The Subjection of Women is his
fullest statement of the case for social, eco-
nomic, and political equality between the sexes.
In Representative Government, his defense of
women's rights deals primarily with the ques-
tion of extending the franchise to them. Differ-
ence of sex, he contends, is "as entirely irrele-
vant to political rights, as difference in height,
or in the color of the hair. All human beings
have the same interest in good government . . .
Mankind have long since abandoned the only
premisses which will support the conclusion
that women ought not to have votes. No one
now holds that women should be in personal
servitude; that they should have no thought,
wish, or occupation, but to be the domestic
drudges of husbands, fathers, or brothers. It is
allowed to unmarried, and wants but little of
being conceded to married women to hold
property, and have pecuniary and business in-
terests, in the same manner as men. It is consid-
ered suitable and proper that women should
think, and write, and be teachers. As soon as
these things are admitted," Mill concludes,
"the political disqualification has no principle
to rest on."
Though no other of the great books speaks
so directly for the emancipation of women from
domestic and political subjection, many of
them do consider the differences between men
and women in relation to war and love, pleas-
ure and pain, virtue and vice, duty and honor.
Some are concerned explicitly with the pivotal
question— whether men and women are more
alike than different, whether they are essential-
ly equal in their humanity or unequal. Since
these are matters pertinent to human nature
itself, ^s it is affected by gender, the relevant
passages are collected in the chapter on MAN.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The nature and necessity of the family 497
2. The family and the state
2a. Comparison of the domestic and political community in origin, structure, and
function
2b. Comparison of the domestic and political community in manner of government 498
2c. The place and rights of the family in the state: the control and education of
children
496 THE GREAT IDEAS
3. The economics of the family 499
3*7. The wealth of families: the maintenance of the domestic economy
3& The effects of political economy: the family in the industrial system
4. The institution of marriage: its nature and purpose
40. Monogamy and polygamy 500
4^. The religious view of marriage: the sacrament of matrimony
j\c. Matrimony and celibacy 501
4</. The laws and customs regulating marriage: adultery, incest
4?. Divorce 502
5. The position of women 503
50. The role of women in the family: the relation of husband and wife in domestic
government
5#. The status of women in the state: the right to citizenship, property, education 504
5^. Women in relation to war
6. Parents and children: fatherhood, motherhood 505
6a. The desire for offspring
6b. Eugenics: control of breeding; birth control 506
6c. The condition of immaturity
6d. The care and government of children: the rights and duties of the child; parental
despotism and tyranny 507
6c. The initiation of children into adult life 508
7. The life of the family
70. Marriage and love: romantic, conjugal, and illicit love
7& The continuity of the family: the veneration of ancestors; family pride, feuds,
curses 509
yc. Patterns of friendship in the family : man and wife; parents and children; brothers
and sisters 510
yd. The emotional impact of family life upon the child: the domestic triangle; the
symbolic roles of father and mother 511
8. Historical observations on the institution of marriage and the family 512
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY 497
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] I2d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES • Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" Calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
, , , 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxin,
1. The nature and necessity of the family I87d-188a
OLD TESTAMENT- Genesis, 2-18-25 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350a-c I Social Con-
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 361b-365d / Laws, tract, BK i, 387d-388a
BKIV, 685a-c;BKvi, 707c-709a 42 KANT. Science of Right, 418c-422d; 433c<
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i 445a-455a,c; BK n, 434a
CH 1-4 455b,d-458a passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, pat 158-
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [ion- 181 58a-63d; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b / Philoso-
1027] 74b-c phy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; PART iv, 353a b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22, 198c- 50 MARX : Capital, 241c-d
199c 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-41a / Lycurgus- 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 659d-
Numa, 62d-64a 662a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 14-17 53 JAMES: Psychology, 189a
520a-523a 54 FREUD- Group Psychology, 686c-687d esp 687d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92, / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781d-782c;
AA 1-2 488d-490c; Q 98 516d-519a 788a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a; Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b- 2- The famllX and the «ate
321a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 121a 2a- Comparison of the domestic and political
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xx community in origin, structure, and func-
449a tion
32 MILTON : Paradise Losf, BK vm [357-45 i]240a- 7 PLATO: Crtto, 216d-217d / Republic, BK v,
242a 356b-365d / Laws, BK i, 641a-642b; BK in,
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 56-63 664a-666c
36d-38c; CH vn, SECT 77-86 42b-44a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH 12 [1162*16-18]
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-30a 414c / Politics, BK i, CH 1-2 445a-446d;'BK u,
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 410a-411a CH 2 455d-456c; CH 5 [i263b3o-35) 459a
498
THE GREAT IDEAS
Ib to 2c
(2. The family and the state. 2a. Comparison of
the domestic and political community in
origin, structure, and junction.)
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK v [35-103] 188a-190a; BK
vi [679-702] 229a-b; [756-789] 231a-232a;
BK via [66-80] 260b-261a; BK x [1-117] 302fl-
305a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 12,
517c-d; CH 13-17 519a-523a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3, REP 3 207a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 99b-c; llla-b
30 BACON . Advancement of Learning, 34a
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH vi-vn 36a-46c;
CH xv 64c-65d
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 214b-217b csp
216b;410a-411a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359b-c / Political Econ-
omy, 367a-368c / Social Contract, BK i, 387d-
388a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 75
31d-32b; PART in, par 157 57d; par 181 63c-d;
par 203 68a-c; par 255-256 79d-80a; par 303
101c-102a; par 349 llld'112a; ADDITIONS, 47
124a-b; 115-116 135c-d; 157 142b-c / Philoso-
phy of History, INTRO, 172b-d, 180c-182c; PART
i, 211a-212c; 246d-247a; PART m, 288c-289d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308b-d; 310a-c;
579b-581c esp 581a-b
54 FREUD- Group Psychology, 664b-d; 685b-687d
esp 686c-687d; 692a-b / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 781d-783d esp 781d-782d; 796b-c
2k. Comparison of the domestic and political
community in manner of government
OLD TESTAMENT: haiah, 22:20-22— (U) Isaias,
22:20-22
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d
7 PLATO: Statesman, 581a-b / Laws, BK i, 641a-
642b, BK in, 664a-666c csp 666b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34b8-i7]
382b-c, CH n [ii38b5-i4] 387a,c; BK vi, CH 5
[ii4ob7-io] 389b; CH 8 [ii4ib28-ii42*n]
390d-391a, BK viu, CH 10-11 412c-413d; BK
x, CH 9 [ii8ob3~7] 435b / Politics, BK i, CH 1-2
445a-446d; CH 5 447d-448c; CH 7 [i255bi5-2o]
449b; CH 12 453d-454a; CH 13 [1259^0-
1260*33] 454b-455a; BK HI, CH 6 [i278b3o-
1279*2] 476a-b; CH 14 [i285b29-33] 484a
13 VIRGIL: Aenetd, BK v [35-103] 188a-190a; BK
vi [756-789] 231a-232a; BK viu [66-80] 260b-
261a; BKX [1-117] 302a-305a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 12,
517c-d; CH 13-17 519a-523a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A i, REP 2 488d-489d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 90,
A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 105, A 4, REP 5 318b-
321a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 67d-68a; 86a;
PART n, 109b-lllb; 121a; 155b, PART HI,
228b-c
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 207b-209d
32 MILTON: Samson Agomstes [1010-1060] 361b-
362b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH i, SECT 1-2
25a-c; CH vi-vn 36a-46c esp CH vi, SECT 66-75
39b-42a; CH vm, SECT 105-112 48c-51b;cH
xiv, SECT 162 63a; CH xv 64c-65d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 214b-217b esp
216b;410a-411a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 21a-22d; 120c-121a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b; BK
iv, 13b; BK v, 28b-29a, BK xvi, 118b-c; BK
xix, 140a-c
38 Rouss EAU Inequality, 357a-b / Political Econ-
omy, 367a-368c / Social Contract, BK i, 387d-
388a;BKin,411c-d;414c
40 GIBBON -.Decline and Fall, 412c-413b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b-83c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 421c-422d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 47
124a-b; in 134d-135a; 157 142b-c / Philoso-
phy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; PART i, 211a-
213a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 687a-d; 688d-689a
2c. The place and rights of the family in the
state: the control and education of chil-
dren
OLD TESTAMENT Deuteronomy, 20 5-7; 24.5
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
esp [101 1-1084] 38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d
5 EURIPIDES- Iphigema at Aulis 425a-439d esp
[1255-1275] 436c, [1368-1401] 437c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES. Ecclesiazusae [611-650] 622a-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 139a-b; BK vn,
223c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 398c-d
7 PLATO: Cnto, 216d-217d / Republic, BK v,
360d-365d / Statesman, 606d~608d / Laws,
BK in, 665d-666c; BK vi, 707b-708a; BK vn,
721d-723d; BK xi, 775d-780c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [ii79b3i-
n8obi3J 434c-435b / Politics, BK i, CH 13
[i26ob8-i9] 455c; BK n, CH 2-3 455d-457a;
CH 6 [i265ft38-bi7] 460d-461a; CH 9 [i269bi3-
I27ob6] 465d-466c; BK in, CH 9 [i28ob3o-
1281*2] 478c; BK iv, CH 15 [1300*4-8] 500d;
BK vi, CH 8 [i322b38-i323R6] 526d, BK vn,
CH 16 [i334b28]-BK viu, CH 2 [1337*34] 539d-
542b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 21a-26b / Lycurgus,
36a-45c / Numa Pompilius, 58d / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62d-64a / Cato the Younger, 629a-c
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK n, 32b-d; BK in, 51a;
51d-52a; BK xv, 162b-c / Histories, BK HI,
248c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 16 521d-
522a
3 to 4
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
499
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 95, A i, ANS 226c-227c; Q
104, A 4, ANS 306d-307c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 121a; 155b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 344a-c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi 36a~42a; CH
vn, SECT 83 43b-c; en xv 64c-65d; CH xvi,
SECT 180-183 67b-68b; SECT 188-192 69a-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART iv,
166b-167a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b;
BK v, 22d-23a; BK xn, 95c-d; BK xix, 140a-c;
BK xxni, 189b-c; 190b; 192d-199b; BK xxvi,
216b-217b
38 ROUSSEAU Inequality, 327c-d / Political Econ-
omy, 376b-377a; 377d-378a / Social Contract,
BK iv, 439b,d [fn 2]
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK v, 338c-339b;
341c-342a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 66d-67b; 175c-d
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 73c; 82b-83c;
86b-d;88d-89a;92c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 404d; 421a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 317c-319d
44 BOSWFLL- Johnson, 280c-281a; 304a-b
46 HEGCL Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 166
59d-60a; par i8o62c-63c, par 238-241 76c-77a;
par 255-256 79d-80a; ADDITIONS, 146-147
140b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d;
PART i, 246d-247a; PART n, 277c; PART in,
288c-289b
50 MARX: Capital, 193a-196d; 241a-d; 245a-d
50 MARX-£NGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b-
428a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 783b-
784d esp 783d- 784b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 868d-871a passim
3. The economics of the family
3a. The wealth of families: the maintenance of
the domestic economy
OLD TESTAMENT '.Numbers, 27:1-11 / Deuterono-
my, 21:15-17
NEW TESTAMENT / Timothy, 5-8
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 360c-365d / Laws,
BK in, 664a-666a; BK vi, 709a-710a; BK xi,
775d-778b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 3-11 446d-453d
esp CH 3 [i253bi2-i4] 447a, CH 4 447b-c, CH
8-n 449d-453d; BK n, CH 5 [1264^-7] 459d;
BK in, CH 4 [i277b2o-25] 474d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 72b-c / Pericles, 130b-d /
Peloptdas, 233a-b / Marcus Cato, 278b-279c;
286b-287d / Anstides- Marcus Cato, 291b-292b
/ Crassus, 439a-c / Crassus-Nicias, 455 b,d /
Agis, 650d-651b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 32b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 14
520a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4 318b-321a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 122b-124c; 184a-191c;
458c-462a;472a-473a
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART i, 148b-149a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 72-73
40d-41a; CH vn, SECT 79-80 42c-43a; CH
xvi, SECT 182-183 67c-68b; SECT 190-192
69b-d
36 SFERNE: Tristram Shandy, 376b-379a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vn, 50a-b;
BK xvin, 129d-132b; BK xxm, 190a-b; BK
xxvi, 216a-b; BK xxvn 225a-230d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350a-b / Political Econ-
omy, 367a-368c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, Ib-c; BK in,
165b-167a; BK v, 383d-384d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 16c-17d; 66d-67b;
498b-501b passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83a; 86d-89d
43 MILL: Liberty, 319b-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 147c-148b [fn 3]; 274b-
278a; 280c-281a; 282a-b; 289c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART nr, par
169-172 60c-61a; par 178-180 62a-63c; ADDI-
TIONS, 109 134c; 114 135b-c / Philosophy of
History, PART HI, 289a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-c
50 MARX: Capital, 34c-d; 171d-172a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 211a-213a;
BK vn 275a-302d passim, esp 275a-278a, 291a-
292b, 301b-302d; BK xv, 633a-d; EPILOGUE i,
650d-652a;654a-655c
3&. The effects of political economy: the family
in the industrial system
38 ROUSSEAU: Politico* Economy, 367a-368c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b esp
28d-29a, 29d-30d, 34b-c; BK iv, 243b,d; BK
v, 383d-384d
43 MILL: Liberty, 319b-d
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 197d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 253
79a-c
50 MARX: Capital, 117c-144a passim; 192c-196d;
226d-248c esp 241a-d; 318a-319a; 375c-376c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420d;
423a; 424c; 427b-d
4. The institution of marriage: its nature and
purpose
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:27-28; 2:18-25;
30:1-24 / Proverbs, 18:22
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:3-12 / Mar^
10:1-12 / Lu^e, 16:18 / / Corinthians, 7 /
Ephesians, 5:22-33 / Colossians, 3:18-19 /
I Peter, 3: 1-7
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 361b-365d / States-
man, 608a-c/ Laws, BK iv, 685a-c; BK vi, 707c-
709a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [i 252*2 5-b9]
445b-d; BK vn, CH 16 539d-541a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK m, CH 7, 183b-d;
CH 22, 198c-199c
500
THE GREAT' IDEAS
40 to 4£
(4. The institution of marriage: its nature and
purpose.)
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [1-172] 167a-171b; BK
vn [81-106] 238a-239a; [248-434] 242b-248a;
BK xi [336-375] 337a-338a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a 40c / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62d-64a / Solon, 71d-72a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 3 9b-c;
BK iv, par 2 19d; BK vi, par 22-25 41d-42d /
City of God, BK xiv, CH 21-26 392b~396c, BK
xv, CH 16 410b-411d / Christian Doctrine, BK
in, CH 12, 663a-c; CH 18-20 664d-665d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
AA 1-2 488d-490c; Q 98 516d-519a
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5583-6410]
256a-269b / Merchant's Tale [9121-9562]
319a-326a / Franklin's Tale 351b-366a esp
[11,041-117] 351b-352b / Parson's Tale, par
77-80 540b-542a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 410d-413a
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Life It, ACT v, sc iv
(114-156] 625a-b
29 CFRV ANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 261c-262a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xx
449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [357-451] 240a-
242a; BK ix [952-959] 268a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 77-83
42b-43c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxm, 187d-
188a
38 ROUSSFAU: Inequality, 364d-365b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 418c-420b; 433d-434a
43 MILL- Liberty, 316d-317c
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 194a; 289d-290a
46 HKGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 75
31d-32b; PART in, par 161-169 58b-60c; ADDI-
TIONS, 47 124a-b; 103-108 133c-134c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 579b-581c
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK i, 14b-15a; 55c-
59d; BK in, Ilia 128d; BK vi, 245d-274a,c;
BK vn, 301b-302d; EPILOGUE i, 659d-662a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 784c /
New Introductory Lectures, 862d-863b
4a. Monogamy and polygamy
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 16; 29:1-30:24 / Deu-
teronomy, I7'i6-i7; 21:15-17 / 7 Samuel,
25:39-44— (D) I Kings, 25:39-44 / II Samuel,
3:1-5; 11-12— (D) 77 Kings, 3:1-5; 11-12 /
I Kings, 11:1-13 — (D) M Kings, 11:1-13
NEW TESTAMENT: / Timothy, 3:2,12
5 SOPHOCLFS: Trachiniae [307-489] 172d-174b
5 EURIPIDES: Andromache 315a*326a,c esp
[147-244] 316c-317b / Electra [1030-1040]
336c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32a; 48c; BK iv,
155c-156a; BK v, 160d
14 PLUTARCH* Lycurgtis, 39d-40c / Demetrius,
731a b / Antony-Demetnus, 780d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 12,
663a-c; CH 18-22 664d-666c
22 CHAUCER- Wife of Bath's Prologue [5 583-5640]
256a-257a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 209b-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 162b-166b esp 162b,
166a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 28d;
BK xv, 112a-b; BK xvi, 116a-120a; BK xxm
188c-d; BKxxvi,218d
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 92c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86a; 245b-246c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419c-420a
43 MILL Liberty, 311a-312a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 167-
168 60b-c; ADDITIONS, 105 133d-134a / Phi-
losophy of History, PART in, 294c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 579b-583a esp
581b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 660d-
661b
53 JAMLS- Psychology, 735a-b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 784b-c
4b. The religious view of marriage: the sacra-
ment of matrimony
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:23-24 / Proverbs,
18:22
APOCRYPHA: Tobit passim, esp 6:10-17, 8-1-17,
9:6, 10:1-12— (D) OT, Tobias passim, esp
6-10-22, 8.1-19, 9 I2» i°'i-i3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:3-127 Mar^ 10:1-
12 / John, 2:1-12/7 Corinthians, 7 / Ephestans,
5 22-33 / ^ Timothy, 41-57 Hebrews, 13 4
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumentdes [210-224] 83b
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d
13 VIRGIL- Acneid, BK vu [81-106] 238a-239a;
[248-434] 242b-248a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 3 9b-c;
BK iv, par 2 19d / City of God, BK xiv, CH 22
392d-393b / Christian Doctrine, BK HI, CH
18-22 664d-666c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A A 2-3 489d-491b; Q 98 516d-519a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART 1-11, Q
102, A 5, REP 3 283c-292c; Q 105, A 4, ANS and
REP 6-9 318b-321a; PART HI, Q 65, A i, ANS
and REP 5 879c-881d; A 2, ANS and REP i
881d-882c; A 3, ANS and REP 1,4 882d-883d;
A 4, ANS and REP 3 883d-884a,c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 95 1042c-1049d passim
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5583-5749]
256a-258b / Merchant's Tale [9193-9210]
320a-b / Parson's Tale, par 75, 536a; par 77-80
540b~542a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 250c; 272d-273a;
276a-b
24 RABELAIS: Garganfua and Pantagruel, BK in,
219b222b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 124b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [379-560]
240b-244a
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
501
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxvi, 217c-
218a;219b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 439b,d
[fni]
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 193a-b
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 83d-85c; 177d-178b
44 BOSWELL : Johnson* 304a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 288c-
289b; 294c-d; PART iv, 333c; 353a>b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 50c; BK xi,
476c-479d passim
4c. Matrimony and celibacy
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:10-12 / I Corin-
thians, 7
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 685a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22, 198c-
199c
14 PLUTARCH Numa Pompilius, 54c-55a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 44c; BK in, 51a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 3 9b-c;
BK vi, par 21-25 41c-42d; BK vin, par 26-27
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q
186, A 4 655c-656b; PART in, Q 65, A 4, ANS
and REP 3 883d-884a,c; PART m SUPPL, Q 96,
AA 3-5 1053c-1058a; AA 11-12 1063d-1065b
22 CHAUCLR: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5633-
5732] 257a-258b / Second Nun's Tale 463 b-
471b esp [15,588-706] 463b-465b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 272d-273a;
276b,278c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
60c-66b;BKin,219b-221b
27 SHAKESPEARE Hamlet, ACT in, sc i [120-157]
48b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [736-749] 168b
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 522a-523b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxm, 189d;
197a-c; BK xxv, 210a-b
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 82a , 193a-c ; 533c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86a; 177d-178a;
422c
43 MILL: Liberty, 308c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, PART iv, 333c;
353a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 315c-d; 327d
50 MARX Capital, 305b [fn 2]
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 695a-b
4d. The laws and customs regulating marriage:
adultery, incest
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 19:30-38; 24; 29;
35 22; 38; 39.7-20; 49:3-4 / Exodus, 20:14,17;
22:16-17; 34:15-16 / Leviticus, 18; 19:29; 20:9-
21 / Numbers, 5:12-31; 36 / Deuteronomy,
5:18,21; 7:1-4; 21:10-14; 22.13-30; 24:5; 25.5-
10 ; 27.20-237 Ruth, 3-4 / // Samuel, 11-13;
16:20-23 — (D) II Kings, 11-13; 16 120-23 / E&*t
10— (D) I Esdras, 10 / Esther, 2:12-14 / 1°^
24:15-25 / Proverbs, 5; 6:20-7:27 / Jeremiah,
5:7-9
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:12-13— (D) OT, Tobias,
4:13 / Eccksiasticus, 9:1-9; 23:17-28— (D)
OT, Ecclesiastic^^ 9:1-13; 23-24-38 / Susanna
—(D)OT, Daniel, 13
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:27-32; 14:3-4;
19:3-9 / Mar^, 10 1-12 / Luke, 16:18 / John,
4:16-18; 8:1-11 / Romans, 7:1-3 / / Corinthi-
ans, 5; 7 / Hebrews, 13:4
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK n 188a-192d; BK xi
[385-461] 247a-c; BK xvm [250-312] 286d-
287b
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [734-757]
35b-c / Agamemnon 52a-69d / Choephoroe
70a-80d / Eumemdes 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Oedipus at Colonus [939-999] 123a-c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c / Andromache
315a-326a,c csp [147-244] 316c-317b/ Elcctra
[1008-1123] 336b-337b / Phoenician Maidens
[1-87] 378a-379a / Cyclops [175-187] 441d-442a
5 ARISIOPHANLS. Clouds [1060-1104] 501c-502a
/ Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK i, 2d-3d,32a;34a-b;
39b-c; 44c-d; 48c; BK in, 96a-b; 104d-105a;
BK iv, 144b, BK v, 160d-161a
7 PLAIO: Cnto, 217a / Republic, BK v, 360d-
365d; BK vin, 403b-d / Timaeus, 442d-443a
/ Statesman, 605d-608d esp 608a-c / Laws,
BK iv, 685a-c; BK vi, 707b-709a; 710d-711a;
712b-713c; BK vin, 735b-738c; BK xi,777b-
778a; 780a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 1-4 455b,d-
458a esp CH 4 457b-458a; CH 9 [i269bi3-
1270^] 465d-466c; BK v, CH 4 [130^40-
1304*17] 505c-d; CH 6 [i 306*33^3] 508b; BK
vii, CH 16 539d-541a
12 EPIC FETUS. Discourses, BK i, CH 18, 124b-c;
BK n, CH 4 142a-c; CH 10, 149c-150a
14 PLUTARCH. Romulus, 21a 22a; 26a-b / Lycur-
gus, 39a-40c / Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-63d /
Solon, 71d-72a; 72d-73a / Cato the Younger,
629a-c / Artaxcrxes, 855b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 51a; 53a d; BK xi,
107b-110a; BK xn, llla-c; 121d-122a; BK xiv,
141c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xv, CH 16 410b-
411d / Christian Doctrine, BK HI, CH 12, 663a-c;
CH 18-22 664d-666c esp CH 21 665d-666b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A 2, REP 3 489d-490c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 72,
A 2, REP 4 112b-113a; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-
223a; Q 105, A 4, ANS and REP 6-9 318b-321a;
PART in SUPPL, Q 95 1042c-1049d passim
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxx [37-45]
44d-45a; PURGATORY, xxv [109-139] 92c-d
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Prologue [3150-3166] 21 2a
/ Miller's Tale 212b-223b csp [3221-3232]
213a / Reeve's Tale [4136-4291] 228b-231b /
Merchant's Tale 319a-338a / Franklin's Tale
[11,667-854] 361b-365a / Parson's Tale, par
75-76 536a-540a
502
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The institution of marriage: its nature and
purpose. 4d. The laws and customs regulat-
ing marriage: adultery, incest.)
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART n, 155b-c
24 RABFLMS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
5c-6b; BK in, 140c-141c; 144d-146a; 148d-
150d, 154a-156c; 159d-163c; 166a-169d; 173d-
200d; BKIV, 248d-250a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 44c-46b passim; 47a-c;
89d-90c; 185d-186c; 409d-434d passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT v, sc v 31b-
32a,c / 2nd Henry VI, ACT i, sc i [1-74] 33b,d-
34c / Comedy of Errors, ACT n, sc IT (112-148]
154c-d; ACT in, sc n [1-70] 157c-158b / Tam-
ing of the Shrew, ACT i, sc i [48-101] 203a-c;
ACT n, sc i [37-413] 208c-212c / Romeo and
Juliet, ACT n, sc n [142-158] 295d-296a; sc in
[55-94] 297a-b; sc vi 300c-d; ACT in, sc iv-v
306d-309d / Much Ado About Nothing 503a-
531a,c csp ACT iv, sc i [1-256] 520b-523a
/ As You Life It, ACT in, sc in 613d-614d;
ACT iv, sc i [127-180] 618b-c
27 SHAKtspEARF-- Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [138-159]
33a; sc v [42-91] 37b-d; ACT in, sc iv [39-
170] 55a-56b / Merry Wives of Windsor 73a-
102d / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n [173-
206] 115b-c / Othello, ACT i, sc in [52-209]
209c-211a; ACT iv, sc m [60-108] 236c-237a /
King Lear, ACT iv, sc vi [109-135] 274c-d /
Pericles 421a-448a,c esp ACT i, PROLOGUE-SC
ii 421b-425a / Cymbehne 449a-488d esp ACT
n, sc iv-v 461b-463c, ACT HI, sc iv 466d-
468d / Winter's Tale, ACT i, sc n [186-228]
492a-c, ACT HI, sc n [1-117] 501b-502c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 124a-c;
PART n, 270c-271a
30 BACON- New Atlantis, 209a-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [708-721]
314b-315a / Samson Agomstes [30-1060] 340a-
362b esp [292-325] 346a-b, [1010-1060] 361b-
362b
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH VH, SECT 81-83
43a-c
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART in, 98b-99a; 127b;
PART iv, 166a-b
36 STERNE Tristram Shandy, 210b-213a; 258b-
261a;374b-376a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 297d-298a; 375 b-d;
388c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VH, 48a-
50a; BK x, 67a-b, BK xiv, 108a-b; BK xv-xvi,
115c-122a,c; BK xvni, 132b-c; BK xix, 141c-
142a; BK xxin, 187d-189d; 193a-197c; BK
xxvi, 215b-c; 2l7c-218d; 219b-221c; 223a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 439b,d
[fa 2]
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92c-d; 579a-b;
650c-d; 742b [n 93]; 750d [n 52]
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83d-86a; 93c-94a;
174b; 177d-178b; 245b-246a; 319b-d; 759b
42 KANT: Science of 'Right* 419a-420b
43 MILL: Liberty, 311b-312a; 316d-317c? 319b-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 160a-b; 304a-b; 411d;
429d-430b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 163-
164 58d-59d; par 168 60b-c; ADDITIONS, -K>8
134b-c; 113 135a-b / Philosophy of History,
PART in, 288c-289a; 294c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf(, 289a-292a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 276c; 313c-d;
315c-d; 565a-b; 578b-580c passim; 581d-582c;
584d-585d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427d-
428a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 119a-128d;
BK iv, 177a-179a; BK vi, 250a-251c; BK vn,
291a-292b; BK xi, 476c-479d; BK xn, 540d-
541a;545d
54 FREUD- General Introduction, 531c-d; 555a-b;
583c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 784a-d
4e. Divorce
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 24:1-4 / Mala-
chi, 2:11-17— (D) Malachias, 2-11-17
APOCRYPHA- Ecclesiasticus, 7:19— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 7*21
NFW TESTAMENT Matthew, 5-31-32; 19*3-9 /
Mart(, 1 0-2-1 2 / Lu^e, 16.18 / Romans, 7:1-3 /
7 Corinthians, 7*10-16,39
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [131-268] 213b-214b
7 PLATO Laws, BK vi, 712c-7l3c, BK xi, 780a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 26a-b / Lycurgus-Numa,
62d-63c / Alcibiades, 158b-d / Aemilius
Paulus, 215a-b / Pompey, 502d-503a / Cato the
Younger, 629a-c
20 AQUINAS: Sitmma Theologica, PART i-ii, Q
102, A 5, REP 3 283c-292c; Q 105, A 4, ANS and
REp8318b-321a
25 MONTAIGNE : Essays, 299c
29ChRVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 261c-
262a
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 84b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [952-959]
268a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 81-82
43a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 12 7b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvi, 120b-
122a,c; BK xxvi, 215c; 2l7c-218d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 84c-85c; 759b
[n^o]
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419c-420a; 421c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 316d-317c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 220d-221a; 304a-b; 411d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 176
6ld-62a; ADDITIONS, 105 133d-134a; 113
135a-b / Philosophy of, History, PART in, 288c-
289a
4$ DARwm: Descent of Man, 584d-585c
51 ToLstov: War and Peace, BK iv, 177a-179a;
BK v, 203a-d; BK xi, 4T6c-479d
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
503
5f The. position of women
5a. The role of women in the family: the re-
lation of husband and wife in domestic
gpvernment
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2 '18-25; 3:167 Num-
bers > 30 / Deuteronomy, 22:13-30; 24:1-4;
25:5-10 / Esther, i / Proverbs, 31:10-31
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 10:12 — (D) OT, Tobias,
IOU2-I3 / Ecclesiasticus, 25-26; 40:19,23—
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 25-26; 40 19,23
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 11:1-16; 14:34-
35 / Ephesians, 5:22-33 / Colossians^ 3:18-19
/ / Timothy, 2 19-15 / Titus, 2 .3-5 / / Peter, 3 .1-7
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK n [85-145] 189a-c;
BK xvni [185-289] 286a-287a; BK xix 289a-
295a,c; BK xx [56-90] 296d-297a; BK x\m
[205-309]314b-315b; BK xxiv [191-202] 319a
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [181-202]
29a-b
5 SOPHOCLES : Ajax [284-294] 145d
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [131-268] 213b-214b /
Andromache [147-244] 316c-317b / Electra
[1008-1123] 336b-337b / Iphtgema at Auhs
[i 146-1208] 435cr436a
5 ARISTOPHANES- Lysistrata 583a-599a,c/ Thes-
mophonazusae 600a-614d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BKII, 56c; BK iv, 143b-
144b, 153a-b; BK v, 160d-161a; 167b-d
7 PLATO- Meno, 174d-175d / Republic, BK v,
356b-365d / Laws, BK VH, 721d-722d
0 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [1134^-17]
382b-c; CH 11 [i 138^-1 4] 387a,c, BK vm, en 7
[ii58bi2-28] 410c-d; CH 10 [u6ob32-ii6ia2]
413a-b; CH n [i 161*23-24] 413c; CH 12 [1162*
15-33] 414c-d / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1252*26-
bi2] 445c-d, CH 5 [i254bi2-i6] 448b; CH 12
453d-454a; CH 13 [i259b3o-i26oa3o] 454b-d,
BK n, CH 9 [i269bi2--i27o*i4] 465d-466b;
BK in, CH 4 [1277^0-25] 474d; BK v, CH n
[*3I3b33~42l 516c; BK vi, CH 8 [1323*2-6]
526d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-41a / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62d-63c / Themistocles, 99a-b / Marcus
Cato, 286b-c / Agis, 654c-655a / Marcus
Brutus, 807b-d
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK ix, par 19-22
< 67a-d; BK XHI, par 47, 123d / City of God,
BK xix, CH 14, 520c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
AA 1-3 488d-491b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 6,
A i, HEP 3 740b-741b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy > PARADISE, xv [97-
135) 129b-d
22 CHAUCER: Troilusand Cressida, BK n, STANZA
108 35b / Miller's Prologue [3150-3166] 212a /
Tale of Man of Law 236b-255b esp [4701-4707]
239a / Wtfc of ^ath>s Prologue [5583-6410]
256a-269b csp [5893-5914] 261a-b / Tale of
Wife ofBttfh 270a-277a c?p [6619-6627! 273a-b
/ Summoned $ Tale [7571-7582] 290a / Clerks
Tale 296a-318a csp [9053-9088] 317a-318a /
Merchant's Tale 319a-338a / Franks Tale
351b-366a esp [11,041-114] 351b-352b / Ship-
man's Tale 383b~390b csp [13,093-107] 386a
/ Tale of Mclibeus, par 14-16 405a-407b /
Nun's Priest's Tale [15,262-272] 457a / Man-
ciple's Tale [17,088-103] 490a / Parson's Tale,
par 79-80 541a-542a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 109c-110b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 84a-b; 89d-90c; 188c-
191c; 358b-362a; 409d-434d csp 413a-416c,
428a-d; 472a-473a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors, ACT n, sc i
[6-43] 152a-c; sc n [112-148] 154c-d/ Taming
of the Shrew 199a-228a,c esp ACT v, sc n
[136-185] 227d-228a,c / Merchant of Venice,
ACT in, sc n [150-187] 421c-d / ht Henry IV,
ACT n, sc in [39-120] 443c-444b / Julius
Caesar, ACT H, sc I [234-309] 577a-c
27 SHAKESPEARK: Troilus and Cressida, ACT nv
sc n [173-193] 115b-c / Othello, ACT i, sc in
[175-189] 210d-2Jla; ACT iv, sc in [60-108]
236c-237a
29CERVANJES. Don Quixote, PART n, 270c-
271b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [288-301] 158b-
159a; [440-502] 162a-163a; [634 658] 166a-b;
BK via [452-594] 242a~245a; BK ix [226-269]
252a-253a; BK x [144-156] 277b; [182-196]
278b; [867-936] 293b-294b / Samson Ago-
rustes [871-902] 358b-359a; [997-1060] 361b-
362b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 52-53
36a-c; SECI 65 38d-39a; CH vn, SLCT 77-86
42b-44a passim
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART in, 98b-99a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 210b-213a
37 FIELDING. Tom Jones, 100b-102a; 120c-121a,c;
126d-127b; 219a-b, 229b-233d, 235b-238d
38 MONIESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VH, 50d;
BK xvi, 118a-119c; 120a; BK xxin, 187d-188c;
BK xxvi, 217d 218a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327c-d; 345d-346a;
350b-c / Political Economy, 367d-368a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 92c-Q3b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83d-86d esp 83d-
84a; 522d; 759b [n 30-31]
42 KANT : Science of Right, 404d; 418c-420a
43 MILL- Liberty, 317c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 387d-389b passim
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 160a-b; 165b-c; 274d-
277d; 293d; 297a-b; 301d-302a; 304a-b; 4ild;
429d-430a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 165-
166 59d-60a / Philosophy of History, PART in,
288c-289a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 289a-292a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 579b-580c passim;
582c;584c-585c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 13a-15a; 55c-
59d; BK vi, 263b-264b; BK xi, 490a-493d;
EPILOGUE i, 659d-662a
504
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The position of women. 5a. The role of women
in the family: the relation of husband and
wife in domestic government?)
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK HI,
46a~48b; BK v, 112a 113b
54 FREUD- Group Psychology, 692b / Civilization
and Us Discontents, 783d-784a
5b. The status of women in the state: the right
to citizenship, property, education
OLD TESTAMENT .Numbers, 27-1-11
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi [385-461] 247a-c
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [181-202]
29a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [410-445] 215d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Thesmophonazusae 6QQa-6l4d
I Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 39b-c; BK n, 56c;
BK iv, 128c-d; 143b-144b; 154b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 356b-365d; BK vn,
401b-c / Ttmaeus, 442d / Laws, BK vi, 710d-
711d; BK vn, 716b-717a; 721d-722c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH i-4455b,d-458a;
CH 9 [i269bi3~i2yom33] 465d-466c, BK iv,
CH 15 [ 1 300^4-8 JSOOd; BK v, CH n [i3i3b33~
42] 516c; BK vi, CH 4 [i3i9b26-33] 523b;
CH 8 [i322b38-i323*6] 526d; BK vn, CH 16
539d-541a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [1361*6-12]
601c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK v [604-699] 202b-205b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-41a / Numa Pom-
pilnts, 54a-55a / Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-63c /
Solon, 72c / Pericles, 133a-d / Conolanus,
189d-191c / Agis, 650d-651b / Marcus Brutus,
811c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 44b-c; BK in,
53a-d; BK XH, 117d / Histories, BK iv, 285d-
286a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 105,
A 2, REP 2 309d-316a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 109c-110b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
60c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 59d-60a; 399c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT v, sc in 387a-
389b
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [871-902] 358b-
359a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 82 43b;
CH xvi, SECT 183 67d-68b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 98b-99a; PART iv,
166b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 210b-213a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 7b-c; 283b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptrtt of Laws, BK vn, 47c-
50d; BK xn, 90c-d; BK xiv, 107d-108c; BK
xvi 116a-122a,c; BK xix, 137a; 137c-138c;
145c;BKxxvi, 215b-216a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 165b-166a;
BK v, 340b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 61b~c; 122c-125b
esp 122c; 533b-535d csp 533b-534a; 557c-d;
649c652a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 14d-16a; 84a-b;
87d-88c passim; 89c; 164a-b; 170b-171c; 174b-
c; 182a-183b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419c-420a; 436d-437c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
xix 19d
43 MILL: Liberty, 317c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 387d-389b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 257d; 259d-260a; 274d-
277d; 289c; 312a; 391c-392a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 166
59d-60a; ADDITIONS, 107 134a-b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 423a;
427c-428a
5c. Women in relation to war
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 21-10-14 /
Judges, 4-5
APOCRYPHA : Judith, 8-i6-(D) OT, Judith, 8-16
4 HOMER- Iliad, BK 11 [155-162] lie; BK in
[146-160] 20c; BK xxn [405-515] 159c-160d;
BK xxiv [707-804] 178d-179d / Odyssey, BK n
188a-192d
5 AESCHYLUS. Persians [1-139] 15a-16d / Seven
Against Thebes [79 263] 28a-30a / Agamem-
non [399-455] 56b-57a; [855-922] 61b-d
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [247-268] 214b / Trojan
Women 270a-281a,c / Helen 298a-314a,c /
Andromache [91-116] 316a-b / Iphigenia at
Aulis 425a-439d
5 ARISTOPHANES • Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
6 HFRODOTUS: History, BK i, 2a; BK in, 121c-d;
123c; BK iv, 143b-144b; 153a-b; BK vn,
232b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 356b-368c / Critias,
479c-480a / Laws, BK vi, 7l3b-c; BK vn,
721d-722c; 726a-c; BK vin, 734a-735a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i269bi3-
1270*14] 465d-466b
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 17
16a-b
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK i [490-493] 116b; BK 11
[567-623] 140a-141b; BK v [605-699] 202b-
205b, BK xi [486-915] 341b-353a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, lOb-llc / Romulus, 21a-
24d / Conolanus, 189d-191c / Pyrrhus, 328c-
330a / Antony, 756c-779c csp 760c-d, 767c-
774a / Marcus Brutus, 811c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 12b-d; 20b-c; BK n,
26b-c; BK in, 53a-d; BK xiv, 150a-b / His-
tories, BK iv, 271c-d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [859-1004] 174a-
176b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
140c-141c;144b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: King John, ACT in, sc i [299-
338] 389b-c / 1st Henry IV, ACT n, sc in
[77-120] 444a-b / 2nd Henry IV, ACT n, sc m
477d-478c
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
505
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT 11,
sc ii [163-206] 115b-c / CoriokwuSt ACT v, sc
m387a-389b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xvi, SECT 182-
183 67c-68b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 301 b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93a-b; 509d-510b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 437b-c; 551d-552c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 565a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 13a-14b; 55c-
59d; BK ii, 76a~b; 90c-91a; BK v, 222d-223a;
BK ix, 367c-369a; BK x, 392a-b; 397a-398c;
410c-421c; BK xi, 485a-488c; 518b^c; 528b-
531 d, BK xu, 538a-539c; BK xm, 580c-d
6. Parents and children: fatherhood, mother-
hood
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:5-6,12 / Proverbs,
20-20 / Jeremiah, 31 29-30— (D) Jeremias,
31:29-30 / Ezetyel, i8-(Z>) Ezechtel, 18
APOCRYPHA: Tobit—(D) OT, Tobias/ Ecclesiasti-
cw, 3.1-16— (D) OT, Ecdesiasticus, 3:1-16
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xxn [429-515] 159d-160d /
Odyssey, BK n 188a-192d; BK xi [458-540]
247c-248b, BK xv-xvi 266a-276d
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [1081-1115] 221b-c
6 HERODOTUS History, BK vi, 212c-213a
6 TnucYDiDES'.Pdoponnestan War, BK n, 398c-d
7 PLATO. Laches, 29b / Symposium, 165b-167a
/ Cnto, 214c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin, CH 12 [n6ibi6-32]
414a-b / Politics, BK i, CH 12 453d-454a; BK n,
CH 3 [1262*14-24] 457a; BK vn, CH 16-17
539d-542a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [i36ob9-
1361*1 i]601a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173b-c
12 Epicibius Discourses, BK HI, CH 22, 198c-
199c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [679-698] 229a-b; BK
vin [508-519] 272b-273a; BK ix [224-313]
285a-287a
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK v, par 15 31a-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 27,
A 2 154c-155b; Q 28, A 4, ANS and REP 5 160c-
161d, Q 30, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 168a-169b;
Q 31, A 2 172b-173c; Q 32, A 2, ANS and REP 2
178a-179b; A 3, ANS and REP 4-5 179b-180b;
Q 33 180d-185a; Q 39, A 8 210a-213a; QQ 40-
42 213a-230a passim; Q 43, A 4 232c-233a; Q
93, A 6, REP 2 496b-498a; Q 119, A 2, REP 2
607b-608d
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 81
162d-167d passim
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 184a-b; 191c 192d
26 SHAKESPEARE. 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc v-vn
23d-26a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT u, sc v [55-122]
82b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT i, sc n [1-22]
247d248a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 207c-208d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [388-403] 183b-
184a; BK x [182-196] 278b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi 36a-42a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b-31a; PART IV,
165b-167a
36 STERNE: Tmtram Shandy, 191b-192a; 210b-
213a; 352a-353b; 400a-402a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 44b-d; 305b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364d-365b / Political
Economy, 367a-368c / Social Contract, BK i,
387d-388a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 420b-421c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 510b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 173
61a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 579d-580a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xn,
395a-398d
53 IAMES: Psychology, 189a; 717b
54 FREUD* Narcissism, 406b-c / New Introductory
Lectures, 863a-c; 876a-d
6a. The desire for offspring
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 15.1-6; 19:30-38;
25:19-26; 30:1-24 / / Samuel, 1:1-2.11 — (D)
I Kings, 1:1-2:11
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 8.4-8— (D) OT, Tobias,
8:4-10
NEW TLSTAMENT: Lu^e, 1 15 25
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [1081-1115] 221 b-c / Ion
282a-297a,c / Andromache 315a-326a,c csp
[309-420] 318a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32a b
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165b-167a / Laws, BK iv,
685a-c, BK vi, 708a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, en 2 [1252*27-30]
445c
12 EPICTEIUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22, 198c-
199c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [657 722] 121a 123a;
BK iv [296-330] 175a-176a
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger, 629a-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 51a; BK xv, 162 b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, pai 6 lOa-b;
BK iv, par 2 19d / City of God, BK xiv, CH
21-22 392b-393b / Christian Doctrine, BK in,
CH 12, 663a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 98,
A 2 517d-519a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 84,
A 4, ANS 176d-178a; PART in, Q 65, A i 879c-
881d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 155b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 484c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, i-xvn 586a-588d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 72c-73a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xx 449a
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK iv [720-775] 168a*
169a; BK x [966-1053] 295b-297a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 522a-523a; 549a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 21c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364d-365b
506
THE GREAT IDEAS
(6. Parents and children: fatherhood, mother-
hood. 6a. The desire for offspring.)
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 29d-30d
44 Bosw ELL- Johnson, 293d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 161
58b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 415a-b / New Introductory
Lectures, 860d-861a; 863a-b
6b. Eugenics: control of breeding; birth control
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 143b-c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 361c-363b; BK vin,
403a-d / Timaeus, 443a / Statesman, 605d-
608d esp 608a c / Laws, BK v, 693a-c; BK vi,
707b-709a; 712b-713c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VH, CH 3
[583*14-25] 108d / Politics, BK n, CH 6 [1265*
38-^18] 460d-461a; CH 9 [i27oa39~b6] 466c;
CH 10 [1272*23-24] 468c; BK VH, CH 16 539d-
541a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39a-40c / Solon, 71d-
72a / Cato the Younger, 629a-c
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK in, 51a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 99,
A 2, REP2520a-d
22 CHAUCER Parson's Tale, par 35, 520b
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 207b-209d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 166a-b; 168a-b
36 STFRNE- Tristram Shandy, 193b-194b; 271b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxm, 187d;
190a-b; 191c-d; 192a-b; 192d-199b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335a-b; 364d-365a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175c
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 83c
43 MILL: Liberty, 319b-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 426d-427a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 267b-c; 275d-277c
esp 276d-277a; 323b-328a,391d-394a,c;578a-
579a; 581c-d; 583a; 596b-d
6c. The condition of immaturity
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 13:10-11
7 PLATO: Lysis, 16c-17c / Protagoras, 46b-d /
Euthydemus, 67a / Republic, BK 11, 320c-321d;
BK iv, 353b-d; BK v, 366a-c; BK vn, 399c-
401a / Phikbus, 611c-d/ Laws, BK n, 653a~c;
BK vn, 723c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [247^3-248*
6]330c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vin, CH
i [588*25-b5] 114b,d / Part* of Animals, BK
iv, CH 10 [686b5~3o] 218a-c / Ethics, BK i, CH
3 [io94b27~i 095*11] 340a; CH 9 [i 009^2- noo*
9) 345b-c; BK in, CH 12 [1119*35-^19] 366a,c;
BK iv, CH 9 [ii28bi5-2o] 376a; BK v, CH 6
[ii34b8-i7] 382b-c; BK vi, CH 8 [1142*12-19]
391 b; BK vn, CH 13 [1153*27-35] 404c-d, BK
VHI, CH 3 [1156*22-^5] 407d-408a; BK x, CH 3
[1174*1-4] 428b / Politics, BK i, CH 12 453d-
454a; BK HI, CH 5 [1278*3-6] 475a-b; BK vn,
CH 9 [1329*2-17] 533b c; CH 14
537c-d; CH 15 [i334b8-28] 539b-d; CH 17
541a-542a,c / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 12 636a-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [222-234]
64a
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK in, CH 6, 182b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 17 255d-
256d
14 PLUTARCH: Alexander, 540b,d-549c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 7-31 2c-9a;
BK 11, par 3-9 9b-lla / City of God, BK xxi,
CHi6573b-574a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ
loo-ioi 520d-523d; PART i-n, Q 34, A i, REP
2 768c-769d; Q 40, A 6 796c-797a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A I, REP tO CONTRARY 221a-dj Q 95, A I 226C-
227c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
96] 77d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60b; 78b; PART
11, 132b-c
24 RABELAIS Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
9c-lld; 14c-18b; 24a-30c; BK n, 74b-75c
25 MONTAIONF Essays, 43a-c; 63d-79c passim,
esp72b-75a;414a-d
27 SHAKCSPEARL* Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc ii [163-173] 115b
35 LOCKE Civil Government, en vi, SECT 54-75
36c-42a passim; CH vn, SLCT 79-81 42c-43a; CH
xv, stci 170 64d-65a/ Human Understanding,
BK n, CH xxxiu, SECT 8-io 249c-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 36a-54c esp 36a-38b,
53b-54c
38 MONTFSQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK xxm, 189b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 387d-388a,
389c
43 MILL: Liberty, 271d-272a
46 HFC; EL: Philosophy of Right, P\RI* in, par 159
58a, par 173-175 61a-d, ADDITIONS, 68 126d-
127a;m-ii2l34d-135a
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK i, 20c-26a, 35b-
37d; BK in, 132b-c; BK iv, 192d-193c; BK vi,
252d-254c; 269c-270a; BK ix, 381b-c; 382a-
384b, BK xn, 559d, BK xiv, 592d-604b
52 DOSTOEVVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
90b-92b; 100c-109a,c; BK x 272a-297d; EPI-
LOGUE, 408a-412d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 206b-207a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 15a-18a / Sevual Enlightenment of
Children 119a-122a,c / Interpretation of Dreams,
191b-193a; 238c-239a; 241b-243c / Narcissism,
400a / General Introduction, 495a-496b passim;
526d-532a csp 526d-527c, 530d-532a; 572d-
576d;579b-584desp579b-580d;591a-d;592c;
594d-599b; 612d-614b / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 641d-643c; 644d-645a; 651b-c /
Group Psychology, 685b-d; 693a-c / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 724a-727c; 737c-740c;
741b; 743a-d; 746c-747a; 751d-753c / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 768b-c / New Intro-
ductory Lecture^ 855b-861c passim; 868d-870c
6d
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
507
6d. The care and government of children: the
rights and duties of the child; parental
despotism and tyranny
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:21-26 / Exodus,
12:26-27; 20:12; 21:15,17 / Leviticus, 19:3 /
Deuteronomy, 5:16; 6:6-7; 21 .15-23 / Proverbs,
1:8-9; 3:12; 6:20-23; 13:1,24; 15:5; 19:18;
20:20; 22.6,15; 23:13-24; 28 24; 29 15,17;
30:17 / Zechanah, iy.$—(D) Zachanas, 13:3
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:1-5— (D) OT, Tobias,
4:1-6 / Ecclesiasticus, 3:1-18; 4:30; 7:23-28;
30:1-13; 42:9-11— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
3:1-20; 4:35; 7:25-30; 30:1-13; 42:9-11
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:35-37; 15*3-6 /
Luke, 2:51-52; 12:51-53 / // Connthians, 12:14
/ Galattans, 4*1-2 / Ephcsians, 6:1-4 / Colos-
sians, 3:20-21 / / Timothy, 5:8
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumemdes 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1458-1530]
112c-113a,c / Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c /
Antigone [626-767] 136c-137d / Electra 156a-
169a,c / Trachimae [1157-1278] 180a-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES. Alcestts [280-325] 239c-240a; [6n-
738] 242c-243c / Heracles Mad [562-584]
369d-370a; [622-636] 370c / Phoenician
Maidens 378a-393d esp [1485-1766] 391a-
393d / Orestes 394a-410d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [791-888] 498b-499b;
[1321-1451] 504c-506b / Birds [1337-1371]
558d-559b; [1640-1675] 562b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 76a; BK iv, 155c-
156a; BK v, 160d-161a; BK vin, 281c
7 PLATO. Lysis, 16c-17c / Laches, 26a-27d /
Protagoras, 42d-43d; 4Sd-47c / Symposium,
165c-166b / Meno, 186a-187b / Euthyphro,
192a-c / Cnto, 214c; 216d-217d / Republic,
BK n, 321b-c; BK v, 360d-365d / Timaeus,
442d-443a / Laws, BK in, 672d-673d; BK iv,
683b-c; BK v, 686d-688b esp 687d-688a; BK
vn, 713c-716c; 723c-d; BK ix, 750d-751b;
755a-757c; BK xi, 779b-781c / Seventh Letter,
804a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vn, CH i
[58^11-22] 107b / Ethics, BK in, CH 12 [1119*
33-bi8] 366a,c; BK v, CH 6 [ii34b8-i7] 382b-c;
BK vni, CH 10 [n6ob23-32J 413a; BK ix, CH 2
417c-418b; BK x, CH 9 [n8oai4-bi4] 434d-
435c / Politics, BK i, CH 12-13 453d-455a,c
passim; BK in, CH 6 [i278b3o-i279R2] 476a-b;
BK iv, CH ii [i295bi4-2o] 495d, BK vii, CH 15
[i334b8-28] 539b-d; CH 17 541a-542a,c; BK
vni, CH 3 [i338*3o-b8] 543c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH n 116d-
118d; CH 23 128c-d; BK in, CH 22, 198c-199c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d
13 VIRGIL. Eclogues, iv [60-64] *5b / Aeneid, BK
vni [508-519] 272b-273a; BK ix [224-313]
285a-287a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 40c-41a / Fabius,
152b-d / Conolanus, 174b,d-175a; 189d-191d
/ Marcus Cato, 286c-287b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 18 5c-d;
BK n, par 3-8 9b-10d / City of God, BK xix,
CH 14 520a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a; Q 95, A i, ANS 226c-227c;
Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a; PART ii-n, Q 26,
AA9-n 517a-519a
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [12,006-038] 367b-
368a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 109c*110b; 121a;
137d;155b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
14c-18b; BKII, 74b-75c,81a-83b; BKIII, 219b-
222b
25 MONTAIGNF- Essays, 43a-c; 63d-79c passim,
esp 63d-64b, 66c-67a; 83a-c; 183c-192d esp
183d-185d; 344a-c; 534a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT n, sc n
[1-55] 78d-79b / Titus Andromcus, ACT v, sc
in [35-64] 196d-197a / Romeo and Juliet 285a-
319a,c esp ACT in, sc v [127-215] 308c-309c /
Midsummer-Night's Dream, ACT i, sc i [1-121]
352a-353c / 1st Henry IV, ACT in, sc n 452d-
454d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT i, sc in [175-189]
210d-211a / King Lear 244a-283a,c esp ACT i
244a-254c / Cymbeline, ACT i, sc i [125-158]
451a-c
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART n, 218c-220c;
251b;261c-262a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 207b-209d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xx 449a
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH vi, SECT 52-cn
vn, SECT 81 36a-43a; CH xv, SECT 170 64d-
65a; SECT 173 -174 65c-d / Human Understand-
ing, BK i, CH n, SECT 9, 106a-b; SECT 12
107b-d; BK n, CH xxxin, SECT 7-10 249b d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b; PART iv, 166a-
167a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192a; 250b-
251a; 400a-402a; 410a-411a; 423b-424b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 35a-49a,c; 65b-c;
108c-110c; 120c-121a,c; 124a-126c; 136a-c;
217d-219c; 283c-d; 310b-313b; 321b-324b;
338d-345d; 359b-364d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 22d 23a;
BK xxni, 187d-188a; 189b-d; BK xxvi, 216a-
217b; 220a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-d; 357a-b; 365a-b
/ Political Economy, 367a-368c; 377a / Social
Contract, BK i, 387d-388a; 389c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 29d<30d;
BK v, 338c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 45b-c; 82b-83c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 404d; 420b-422d
43 MILL: Liberty, 316d-319d passim, esp 31 7d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 199d-200d; 247c-d; 301d-
302a;424d-425a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 159
58a; par 173-175 61a-d; ADDITIONS, in 134d-
135a / Philosophy of History, PART i, 21 Id-
212c; PART in, 288c-289b
308
THE GREAT IDEAS
(6, Parento and children: fatherhood, mother-
hood. 6d. The care and government of chil-
dren: the rights and duties of the child;
parental despotism and tyranny.)
50 MARX: Capital, 193a-l94b; 241a-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 2c-3a; 22b-
23a; 34d-35b; 47b-48d; BK in, 119a-128d; BK
iv, 192b-193d; BK v, 207b-208a; 210b-211a;
BK vif 252d-254c; 271c-274a,c; BK vn, 291a-
292b; BK viii, 305b-307d; 324b-325c; 335d-
336a; BK ix, 356b-358b; 381b-c; 382a-384b;
BK x, 406c-410c; EPILOGUE i, 659d-674a,c
passim
' 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, 2d-
lla; BK xn, 370b-d; 395a-398d
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 17d-18a / Sexual Enlightenment of
Children T19a-122a,c passim / Interpretation of
Dreams, 244a-c / Narcissism, 406b c / General
Introduction, 573b-d / Inhibitions, Symptoms,
and Anxiety, 751 d / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 794c-795a csp 795 b [fn 2] / New In-
troductory Lectures, 832b-c; 834b-c; 868d-
871a csp 869b-c, 870a-c; 876c
6e. The initiation of children into adult life
NEW TESTAMENT: Lufc, 2:41-52
4 HOMER' Odyssey, BK i-n 183a-192d; BK xi
[487-540] 247d-248b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 125c-126a; I55c-
156a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics > BK in, CH 12 [1119*33-
bi8)366a,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i 253a-256d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 41b-42b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 3-8 9b-10d
25 MONTAIGNF: Essays, 63d-79c passim, esp 72b-
75a; 156d-158a,c; 184a-191c csp 187a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
I, sc in [1-42] 232c-d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT v,
sc ii 497d-499b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc in [52-136]
34d-35d / Cymbehne, ACT iv, sc iv 478b-d
30 BACON: Ncy> Atlantis, 207b-209a
35 LOCKE' Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 59-69
37b-40b passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvni,
133a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 376b-d /
Social Contract, BK i, 387d-388a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82a; 91b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 159
58a; par 174 61b; par 177 62a; ADDITIONS,
HI-II2 134d-135a
48 MELVILLE : Moby Dtc{, 387b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 36d-37a; BK
HI, 128d 13lc esp 130d-131b; BK iv, 192d-
193c; BK vi, 254c-260a; 267c-270a; BK ix,
381b-c; 382a-384b; BK xiv, 592d-604b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 17d-18a / Sexual Enlightenment of
Children 119a-122a,c passim / General Intro-
duction, 51 2a; 583c-d; 584 b-c / Group Psy-
chology, 682a-b / Civilization and Its Discon-
tents, 783d
7. The life of the family
la. Marriage and love: romantic, conjugal,
and illicit love
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:23-24; 24*67; 29:16-
30 / Ruth / I Samuel, i:i-8-(D) / Kings,
1:1-8 / II Samuel, 11; 13:1-20— (D) II Kings,
ii ; 13 :i-20 / Proverbs, 5; 6:20-7:27 / Ecclesias-
tes, 9:9 / Song of Solomon— (D) Canticle of
Canticles
APOCRYPHA' Tobit, 6*10-17— (D) OT, Tobias,
6-11-22 I Ecclesiasticus, 726; 25:1; 40:23 —
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:28; 25*1-2; 40-23
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:4-6 / Marf(,
10:6-9 / / Corinthians, 7:1-15,32-34 / Ephe-
sians, 5:22-33 / Colossians, 3 18-19 / ^ Peter,
3'1-?
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [334-347] 60c-d; BK xiv
[229-360] lOOc-lOld / Odyssey, BK xxin [152-
365] 313d-316a; BK xxiv [191-202] 319a
5 AESCHYLUS. Agamemnon [681-781] 59b-60b
/ Choephoroe [585-651] 75d-76b; [892-930]
78d-79b
5 SOPHOCLFS* Trachiniae 170a-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c esp [446-662]
215d-217c / Hippolytus 225a-236d esp [373-
481] 228b-229b / Alcestis 237a-247a,c esp
[152-198] 238c-239a, [329-^68] 240a-b / Sup-
pliants [990-1071] 267a-c/ Trojan Women [634-
683] 275c-d / Helen 298a-314a,c / Andromache
315a-326a,c esp [147-244] 316c-317b / Eleclia
[988-1 122] 336a-337b
5 ARISTOPHANES Lysistrata 583a-599a,c / Thes-
mophonazusae 600a-614d esp [383-532] 604d-
606a
6HrRoooTus: History, BK vi, 197a-c; BK ix,
311b-312d
7 PLATO, Symposium, 152d-153a / Republic, BK
v, 361b-363b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vni, CH 12 [1162*15-34]
414c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1192-
i287]59d-61a,c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK n [730-794] 144b-146b; BK
iv [1-361] 167a-177a
14 PLUTARCH* Lycurgus, 39d-40b / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62d-63c / Solon, 71d-72a / Demetrius,
731a-b / Antony, 756c-779d / Marcus Brutus,
807b-d;8llc-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 64b-c; BK xi, 107b-
110a;BKXii, 121c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH i lOOc-
lOlc
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 2-8 9b-
lOd; BK iv, par 2 19d; BK vi, par 21-25 41c-
7 a to 7b
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
509
42d / City of God, BK xiv, CH 16-26 390a-
396c; BK xv, CH 16, 411b-c / Christian Doc-
trine, BK in, CH 12, 663a-c; CH 18-22 664d-
666c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A 2, ANS 489d-490c; Q 98, A 2, ANS and REP 3
517d-519a; PART i-n, Q 28, A 4, ANS 742d-
743c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a; PART n-n, Q 26, A n
518b-519a; PART in, Q 6, A i, REP 3 740b-
741 b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v [25-142] 7b-
8b; PURGATORY, vin [67-84] 65a; xxv [109-
139] 92c-d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida la-155a /
Miller's Tale 212b-223b / Wife of Bath's Pro-
logue [5583-6410] 256a-269b / Tale of Wife of
Bath 270a-277a esp [6619-6623] 273a / Clerks
Tale 296a-318a / Merchant's Tale 319a-338a
/ Franklin's Tale\ 351b-366a esp [11,041-125]
351b-352b, [u,754-766b] 363a / Manciple's
Tale [17,088-103] 490a / Parson's Tale, par
79-80 541a-542a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART n, 155b-c; PART iv,
272d
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
8c-d; BK n, 73b-74b; 106a-108d; 109c-
126d; BK in, 144d-146a; 148d-150d, 154a-
156c; 159d-163c; 166a-169d; 186d-188c;
196b-d
25 MONI AIGNE- Essays, 37c-40a; 84a-b; 89d-90c;
306d-307a; 358b-362a; 409d-434d esp 410a-
422b;472a-473a
26 SHAKESPEARE' 1st Henry VI, ACT v, sc in
[80-195] 28a-29b; sc v [48-78] 31d-32a /
Comedy of Errors, ACT n, sc 1 152a-153b; sc n
[112-148] 154c-d; ACT in, sc n [1-70] 157c-
158b; ACT v, sc i [38-122] 165c-166b / Taming
of the Shrew 199a-228a,c / Two Gentlemen of
Verona, ACT i, sc n [1-34] 230d-231b / Romeo
and Juliet 285a-319a,c / Richard II, ACT v, sc i
[71-102] 345d-346b / Much Ado About Noth-
ing 503a-531a,c / Henry V, ACT v, sc n [98-
306] 564b-566a / Julius Caesar, ACT 11, sc i
[261-309] 577b-c / As You Like It, ACT iv,
sc i [127-180] 618b-c; ACT v, sc iv [114-156]
625a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [137-159]
33a; sc in [5-51] 34c-d; sc v [34-91] 37b-d;
ACT in, sc i [120-157] 48b-c / Merry Wives of
Windsor 73a-102d / Troilus and Cressida 103a-
141a,c / Othello 205a-243a,c / Antony and
Cleopatra 311a-350d / Cymbehne 449a-488d
esp ACT n, sc v 463a-c, ACT m, sc iv 466d-
468d, ACT v, sc v [25-68] 483c-484a, [129-227]
484d-485d / Tempest, ACT iv, sc i [1-133]
542b-543a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 120b-137d;
PART n, 261c-262a; 270c-271a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xix-xx
449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [172-340] 156a-
159b; [440-504] 162a-163b; [736-775] 168b-
169a; BK v [443-450] 185a; BK VIH [39-65]
233a-b; [491-520] 243a-b; BK ix [226-269]
252a-253a; [952-959] 268a; BK x [888-908]
293b-294a
36 STERNE: Tnstram Shandy, 193b-194a; 522a-
523a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 2b-c; 14b-16b; 17a-b;
30a-32d; 108c-lllc; 118d; 124a-125b; 130b-c;
199b-200a; 230a-231c; 283b-c; 289b-291a;
321b-322a; 332a-333a; 349b-350b; 352d-
353a; 360b-d; 400a-402d; 405a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364d-365b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92c-93a; 649c-
652a
42 KANT- Science of Right, 419a-420b
44 BOSWELLI/O^OH, 22a;57a;64a; 107a; 160b;
194a; 294d-295a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 158
58a; par 161-168 58b-60c; ADDITIONS, 101-108
133b-134c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [4243-4250] 104a;
PART n [6479-9944] 158a-241b esp [6487-
6500] 158b, [7070-7079] 173a-b, [9182-9272]
223a-225a, [9356-9573] 227a-232a, [9695-
9754) 235a-236b, [9939-9944] 241b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace esp BK i, 3a-c, BK
HI, 122b-c, BK iv, 173d-179a, BK vi, 245d-
250a, 269c-d, BK VH, 291a<292b, 301b-302d,
BK vin, 311a-313a, BK xn, 539c-547a, BK xv,
635a-644a,c, EPILOGUE r, 650d-674a,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, 4a-
5b; BK 11, 21b-24d; 39a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 735a-b
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 404d 406b / Group Psy-
chology, 694 b- 695 b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 862d-863c
Ib. The Continuity of the family: the veneration
of ancestors; family pride, feuds, curses
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:21-27; 12:1-3;
13.14-17; 15:2-5, 17; 22:16-18; 25.20-34;
26:24; 27:1-28:5; 28:13-15; 30:1-24; 48-49 /
Exodus, 3:15-16; 20.5-6 / Numbers, 36:3-10 /
Deuteronomy, 5:9-10; 25:5-10 / Ruth /
II Samuel, 21:1-9— (D) // Kings, 21:1-9 /
/ Chronicles, 28:1-8— (D) I Parahpomenon,
28:1-8 / // Chronicles, 2^-^-(D) II Para-
lipomenon, 25:3-4 / Proverbs, 17:6 /Jeremiah,
31:29-30— (D) Jercmias, 31:29-30 / Ezefyel,
i8-(D) Ezechiel, 18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 3:1-16— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 3:1-16
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi [458-540] 247c-248b
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
esp [720-791] 35a-d / Prometheus Bound [887-
893] 49c / Agamemnon 52a-69d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Ajax [1290-1315] 154a-b / Electra 156a-169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Electra 327a-339a,c / Phoenician
Maidens 378a-393d
510
GREAT IDEAS
(7. The life of tk* ftmity. Ib. The continuity of
the family: tbt veneration of ancestor*; fam-
ily pride, feuds, cunts.)
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 13b-c; BK in,
96c-d; BK iv, 146a-b; 149b-c; BK v, 167b-168a
7 PLATO : Charmides, 3c<d / Laws, BK iv, 683b-c;
BK ix, 752d-753a
9 ARISTOTLE! Ethics, BK VII, CH 6 [1149^13]
400a; BK vm, CH u [1161*15-21] 413b-c /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [i}6obi9^8J 601a-b
11 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK i 253a-256d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK n [671-804] 143a-146b;
BK v [42-103] 188a-190a; BK vi [679-702]
229a-b; [756-901] 231a-235a; BKVIII [609-731]
275a-278b; BK x [276-286] 309b-310a
14 PLUTARCH- Aratus, 826a-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK n, 227b-c
18 AUGUST INI:. Confessions, BK n, par 6 lOa-b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [46-
72] 69b-c; PARADISE, xv-xvi 128b-132a
22 CHAUCFR: Talc of Wife of Bath [6691-6788]
274b-276a / Parson's Tale, par 27, 514b
23 HOBBES: Isiiathan, PART n, 121d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
140c-d f
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 411a~d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc V-VH
23d-26a / Romeo and Juliet 285a-3l9a,c /
Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc 11 [132-161] 570d-571a
27SHAKPSPEARE: All 's Well That Ends Well,
ACT n, sc in [110-151] 152c-153a
33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 626 286b
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 225b-227b; 307b-
310a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 15c-17d; 106b-c; 125b;
275a;362c-364d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xix, 140a;
BK xxin, 188b-c, 189b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 242a-b; 4l2c-413a
passim ;497a-498a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81d; 389b-c; 453a-
456a,c esp 453a-b; 571a-572d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 274b-278a, 280c-281a;
282a-b; 289c-d; 293d
46 HEGPL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 173
61a-b; par 180 62c-63c / Philosophy of Histo-
ry, INTRO, 197c-d; PART i, 211d-212c; PART iv,
320c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 399d-401d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKii,41a~b
Ic. Patterns of friendship in the family: man
and wife; parents and children; brothers
and sisters
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:1-16; 9:18-29; 22:1-
19; 24; 25:21-34; 27; 29:21-30; 32-34; 37;
42-45; 50:15-23 / Exodus, 2:1-8 /Judges,
11:30-40 / Ruth, 1*3-18 f I Samuel, 18:1-4; 20
— (Z>) / Kings, 18:1-4; 20 / tt Samuel, 13-14;
18:33— (D) II Kings, 13-14; 18:33 / Pntvrfo*
10:1; 15:207 Af/fflA, 7:5-6— (D) Michcas, 7:5-6
APOCRYPHA: T\fbitl, 4:1-4— (D) OT, Tobias,
4:1-5 / Ecckstasticus, 25:1; 40:23-24— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 25:1-2; 40:23-24 '
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:21,35-37; 12:46-
50; 19:29 / Mark 3:31-35; 13:12 / Luke, 8:19-
2t; 12:51-53; 14-26; 15-11-32; 18-29-30
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xxn [1-98] 155a-l56a; [405-
515] 159c-160d; BK xxiv [159-804] 172d-179d
/ Odyssey, BK n 188a-192d; BK xi [458-540]
247c-248b; BK xiv-xv 260a-271d; BK xvi
[167-225] 273d-274b;*BK xvii [3t-6o] 277b-c;
BK xxin [1-245] 312a-314d; BK xxiv [290-
361] 320a-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [956-1078]
37d-39a,c / Choephoroe 70a-80d csp [212-305]
72b-73a, [892- 930] 78d-79b
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c
csp [324-460] 117a-118b, [1150-1446] 124d-
127b / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1290-1315]
154a-b / Electro 156a-169a,c / Trachmtae 170a-
181a,c
5 EURIPIDPS' Medea 212a-224a,c esp [976-1270]
220b-222d / Alcestis 237a-247a,c csp [614-
740] 242c-243c / Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp
[990-1113] 267a-268a / Trojan Women [740-
798] 276c-d; [1156-1255] 279d-2SQc / Androm-
ache [309-420] 318a-d / Electra [988-1122]
336a-337b / Hecuba ^83-443] 356a-d /
Heracles Mad [562-584] 369d-370a; [622-645]
370c / Phoenician Maidens 37Sa-393d / Orestes
394a-410d esp [211-315] 396a-397a, [1012-
I055)404a-c/ Iphigema Among the Tauri 41 la-
424d esp [769-849] 417d-418c / Iphigema at
Auhs 425a-439d
6 HERODOTUS History, BK i, 7a-b; 8a-10a;
32a-c; BK n, 73b-74d; 76b-d; BK in, 89d;
95d-96c; lOOb-lOlb; 114d-115a; 116a; BK iv,
143b-144b; BK vi, 194d-195b; 212c-213a; BK
ix, 311b-312d
6THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK 11,
398c-d
7 PLATO- Republic, BK i, 296d-297a; BK v 360d-
365d / Laws, BK iv, 683b-c
9 ARISTOTLE- Generation of Animals, BK HI,
CH 2 [753*7-15] 294a-b / Ethics, BK vn, CH 4
[ii48*26-b4] 398d; BK vm, CH i [ii55Bi6-2i]
406b,d; CH 7 [ii58bi2-24] 410c-d; CH 8
[1159*24-33] 411b-c, CH 9 [ii59b25-n6oa9]
411d-412b; CH 10 [n6ob2^]-CH 11 [1161*29]
413a-c; CH 12 413d-414d; CH 14 [n63bi3-27]
416c-d; BK ix, CH 2 417c-418b; CH 4 [1166*
1-9] 419a-b; CH 7 [1168*21-27] 421d / Politics,
BK i, CH 12-13 453d-455a,c; BK n, CH 3-4
456c-458a
12 LtjcRETtus: Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
ioi8]74b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 23 128c-d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv [60-64] 15b / Aeneid, BK
m [692-715] 166a-b; BK v [42-103] 188a-190a;
BK vi (679-702] 229a-b; BK vrn [554-584]
273t*274b; BK rx [280-302} fc86b^287a; BK x
[822-828] 324b-325a; BK xi [29^71} 328b-
IctoJd
CHAPTER^: FAMILY
5U
330a; [139-181] 331b-333a; BK XH (409-440]
365a-b
J14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-63c / Solon,
66b-d; 71d-72a/ Pericles, 139a-140a / Coriola-
nus 174b,d-193a,c csp 175d~176b, 189d<191d
/ Timoleon, 196b-198b / Marcus Cato, 286b-
287b / Alexander, 542a-545b / Cato the Young-
er, 623c-624a / Agis, 6S4c-655a / Demetrius,
727a-b; 740d-741c / Marcus Brutus, 807b-d;
811c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lOc-d; BK xi, 107b-
HOa; BK xii, 115a-c, 118d-119b; BK xm, 128a-
131b; BK xiv, 141b~143d; BK xvi, 183a-c /
Histories, BK iv, 282 b-d
ISAucusTiNE: Confessions, BK in, par 19-21
18b-19b; BK v, par 15 31a-c, BK ix, par 17-37
66a-71b / City of God, BK xix, CH 14 520a-d
19AoLiNAs: Summa Theologica, TART i, Q 60,
A 4, ANS 312c-313b, Q 96, A 3, REP 2 512a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-H, Q
26, AA 8-1 1 516a-519a
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxn [124]-
xxxm [90] 49a-50c; PARADISE, xv-xvn 128b-
133c passim
22 CHAUCER Wife of Bath's Prologue [5893-5914]
261a-b / Clerks Tale 296a-318a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvn, 24b-c
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 155b
24 RABFL\IS Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
8c-d; BK n, 81a-83b; DK in, 144b-c; 196b-d;
BK iv, 242c-244d; 248d-250a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 66c-67a, 83a-84b; 184a-
192d esp 184a-d; 358b-362a; 409d-434d esp
410a-422b; 472a-473a
26 SHAKESPLARE 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc v-vn
23d-26a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT n, sc v (55-113]
82b-d / Richard II, ACT i, sc n [1-41] 322d-
323a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT n, sc in 477d 478c;
ACT iv, sc iv-v 492d-496d / Julius Caesar,
ACT n, sc i [234-309] 577a c
27 SHAKESPEARL: Hamlet, ACT i, sc in [5-51]
34c-d; [84-136] 35b-d, ACT iv, sc v [115-216]
60d-62a / King Lear 244a-283a,c / Coriolanus,
ACT i, sc in 355b-356b; ACT 11, sc i [110-220]
362a-363b; ACT v, sc in 387a-389b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 84b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [720-775] 168a-
169a / Samson Agonistes [1476-1507] 371b-
372b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 16Sb-166a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 17d-19a,c; 22d-25a;
44b-d, 65b-c; 126c-127b; 235b-238d; 304a-c;
405a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvi, 117c;
BK xix, 140a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-d; 327c-d; 350b;
364d-365b / Political Economy, 368b-c / Social
Contract, BK i, 387d-388a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 92d-03a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419a-420b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 57a; 57d-58a; 90cj 305b;
424d-425a; 510b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 158
58a; par 17) 61a»b; ADDITIONS, no 1344; nx
135a / Philosophy <///«tory, INTRO, 172b-d;
PARTI, 211d^l2c; pAliTiil, 288d-289b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3620-3775] 88b-
92a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 387a-38Sb
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 2c-3a; 7d-8d;
13a~14b; 25a-31a; 37d-47b; 5Sc-59d; BK in,
119a-131c; BK iv, 165a-168d; 179b-180d;
183d-184b; 192b-193d; BK vr 203a-d, 210b-
211a; BK vi, 247a-248a; 251a-b; 252d 254c;
270b-274a,c; BK vii, 276^>-277a; 290b-291a;
BK viu, 305b310d; 314a-316a; 326b-329c;
BK ix, 356b-358b; BK x, 406c-410c; 412d-
414b; 416c-417b; BK xi» 485a-d; BK xn,
553c-d; BK xv, 614a-618b; EPILOGUE i, 650d-
674a,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
90b-92b; 100c-109a,c; BK v, 117c-121d; 137a-
c; BK vi, 148d-150d; BK x, 285a-297d; EPI-
LOGUE, 408a-412d
53IAMES: Psychology, 189a; 190a, 717b, 735b-
736b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 241b-246b /
Narcissism, 406b-c / General Intioditction,
528d-529d; 583a-c / Group Psychology, 685c /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 783b-c /
New Introductory Lectures, 856d 859a, 862d-
863c
Id. The emotional impact of family life upon
the child: the domestic triangle; the
symbolic roles of father and mother
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK n 188a-192d, BKXV-XVI
266a-276d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a 113a,c esp
[976-983] 108b / Electra 156a-169a,c esp [254-
309] 158a-b, [516-633] 160a-161a
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d / Electra
327a-339a,c esp [1008-1123] 336b-337b
6 HRRODOTUS: History, BK HI, 89d; lOOb lOlb;
BK iv, 151a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vii, CH 6 [ii49b4 13]
400a; BK vin, CH 10 [n6ob23-33] 413a, CH 12
413d414d passim / Politics, BK i, en 12 [i259b
10- 1 6] 454a
14 PLUTARCH: Artaxerxes, 855b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT i, sc i [211-
263] 72b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet 29a-72a,c
31 SPINOZA; Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xni
448b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 126c-127c
38 ROUSSE\U. Political Economy, 377a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, no
134d; 112 135a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 27lc-273c;
*ic VIH, 305b-307d; BK ix, 356b-358b;
» j 'EPILOGUE i, 658a-659d; 662a-664b; 667b-d;
669a; 669c-d; 673d 674a,c
512
THE GREAT IDEAS
(7. Tk* lift of the family. 14. The emotional im-
pact of family life upon the child: the
domestic triangle; the symbolic roles of
father and mother.)
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK rr, 34b-
36c; 38b-39b; BK m, 59d-62a; 69d-70c; BK
iv, 104b-109a,c; BK vm, 207a-d; BK ix, 244b-
245b; BK xn, 365a-b; 395a-398d
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 14b-19a csp 17b-18a / Interpretation
of Dreams, 240d-249a / General Introduction,
528d-531d; 573d-574d; 580d<585a; 591a-d;
594d-599b passim / Beyond the Pleasure Prin-
ciple, 644d-645a / Group Psychology, 678d-
681b; 685b-687d; 692a-694b esp 693a-b /
Ego and Id, 703c-708c csp 704d-707d / Inhi-
bitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 724a-727c;
738d-742a; 743a-b; 751d; 752c-753c / Civi-
lization and Its Discontents, 792b-796c esp
794c-795a / New Introductory Lectures, 832b-
834d; 855a-863b csp 856b-860a; 876a-d
8. Historical observations on the institution of
marriage and the family
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK n 188a-192d; BK xiv-
xv 260a-271d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 34a-b; 39b-c;
44b-d; 48c; BK in, 104d-105a; BK iv, 143b-
144b; 155c-156a; BK v, 160d-161a; 167b-168a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i269bi3-
I2yob7] 465d-466c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [953-965]
73c; [1011-1027] 74b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 26a-b / Lycurgus, 39a-
41a / Numa Pompilius, 54a-55a; 58d / Lycur-
gus-Numa, 62d-64a / Solon, 72b-73a / Themis-
tocles, 99a-b / Akibiades, 158b-d / Ly sunder,
368a,c / Cato the Younger, 629a-c / Agis,
650d-651b / Antony-Demetrius, 780d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 44b-c; BK in, 53a-d;
BK iv, 67d-68a; 73d-74c; BK xn, llla-c; 121d-
122a; BKXV, 162b-c
18 AUGUSTINE; Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 12,
663a-c; CH 18-22 664d-666c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4 318b-321a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 207b-209d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vn, 47c-
50d; BK xvi 116a-122a,c; BK xvm, 129d-134a;
BK xix, 141c-142a; BK xxm, 192c-198a; BK
xxvi, 214b,d-221c; 223a-c; BK xxvn 225a-
230d
38 ROUSSEAU: /fl<?g;/tf/;/y,340b-c;348b,d;350a-c;
364d-365b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 29d-30d;
BK in, 165b-166a; BK v, 338c-d
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 92c-93a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 39a; 39d; 82b-
89d esp 82b-86b; 319b-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 197d; 289c-d; 301d-
302a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 194c-
195a; PART i, 2na-212c; 246o247b; PART in,
288c-289b; 294c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 579b-583b
50 MARX. Capital, 241a-d
50 MARX ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b-
428a
54 FREUD. Group Psychology, 686c-687c; 692a-b;
694d-695a / Civilization and Its Discontents,
781d-782c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The general problem of the naturalness of human association in the family or in the state, see
NATURE 2b; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5b; STATE la, 30-30!.
The political significance of the domestic community, and for comparisons of government in
the family and in the state, see EDUCATION 8a; GOVERNMENT ib; MONARCHY 43, 4e(i);
SLAVERY 6b; STATE ib, 5b; TYRANNY 4b.
The economic aspects of the family, see LABOR 53, 5c; SLAVERY 4a; WEALTH 2, 3d.
Religious considerations relevant to matrimony and celibacy, see RELIGION 2c, 3d; VIRTUE
AND VICE 8f-8g.
Other discussions of women in relation to men, and of the difference between the sexes, see
HAPPINESS 43; MAN 6b; WAR AND PEACE 53.
Other discussions of childhood as a stage of human life, see LIFE AND DEATH 6c; MAN 6c; and
for the problem of the care and training of the young, see DUTY 9; EDUCATION 4b, 8a;
RELIGION 50
A more general consideration of the problems of heredity, see EVOLUTION 2-36.
The distinction of the several kinds of love and friendship which may enter into marriage,
see LOVE 2-2d; and for matters relevant to the emotional pattern of family relationships,
see DESIRE 4a~4d; EMOTION 30-30(4); LOVE 2b(4), 2d.
CHAPTER 26: FAMILY
513
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "A Discourse Touching the Training of
Children," "Concerning the Virtues of Women,"
"Conjugal Precepts," "Of Natural Affection To-
wards One's Offspring," in Moraha
AUGUSTINE. On the Good of Marriage
. On the Good of Widowhood
. Of Marriage and Concupiscence
AQUINAS Summa Contra Gentiles, BK in, CH 122-126
. Summa Theologtca, PART n-n, QQ 151-154;
PART III, SUPPL, QQ 41-68
F. BACON. "Of Parents and Children," "Of Mar-
riage and Single Life," "Of Youth and Age," in
Essays
MILTON. The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce
HOBBES. Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Govern-
ment and Society, CH 9
. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic,
PART II, CH 4
SWIFT. A Modest Proposal
FIELDING. Amelia
J. S. MILL. The Subjection of Women
ENGELS. The Origin of the Family, Private Property
and the State
FREUD Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex,
CH 2-3
II.
XENOPHON. The Oeconomicus
CICERO. De Domo Sua
Vohung Saga
Njalssaga
BOCCACCIO. Patient Griselda
ALBLRTI. Delia Famigha
BOD IN. The Six Bootes of a Commonweals % BK i,
CH 2-4
SPENSER. The Faerie Queene, BK HI
. Epithalamion
HEYWOOD A Woman Killed with Kindness
CALDERON. Life Is a Dream
MOLIERE. Vecole des mans (School for Husbands)
. Vecole desfemmes (School for Wives)
CHESTERFIELD. Letters to His Son
VOLTAIRE. "Marriage," "Women," in A Philosoph-
ical Dictionary
R. BURNS. The Cotter's Saturday Night
FRANKLIN. On Marriage
WOLLSTONECRAFT. The Right s of Woman
F. SCHLEGEL. Lucmde
FOURIER. Traitt del* association domestique-agricole
LAMB. "A Bachelor's Complaint," in The Essays of
Elia
BALZAC. The Physiology of Marriage
. EugSnie Grandet
. Old Gorwt
, The Petty Annoyances of Married Life
. Cousin Bette
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK iv, CH 5
E. J. BRONTE. Wuthering Heights
THACKERAY. Vanity Fair
SCHOPENHAUER. "On Women," in Studies in PeS'
simism
COMTE. The Catechism of Positive Religion (Preface
to the first edition)
. System of Positive Polity, VOL i, General View of
Positivism, CH 4; VOL 11, Social Statics, CH 3
FLAUBERT. Madame Bovary
BACHOFEN. Das Mutterrecht
MAINE. Ancient Law, CH 5
TURGENEV. Fathers and Sons
DICKENS. Our Mutual Friend
FUSTEL DE COULANGES. The Ancient City
TYLOR. Primitive Culture
ZOLA. Les Rougon Macquart
L. H. MORGAN. Systems of Consanguinity and Affin-
ity of the Human Family
. Ancient Society, PART in, CH i
S. BUILER. The Way of All Flesh
T. H. GREEN. Principles of Political Obligation, (N)
IBSEN. A Doll's House
. Ghosts
STEVENSON. Virginibus PuerLque
MARK TWAIN. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
NIETZSCHE. Human, Ail-Too -Human, vn
. Beyond Good and Evil, CH vn (232-238)
STRINDBERG. The Father
TONNIES. Fundamental Concepts of Sociology, PART i
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART i, CH 1 1-12; PART
III, CH 6
WESTERMARCK. The History of Human Marriage
MASON. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture
MEREDITH. The Ordeal of Richard Fevercl
. Modem Love
. Diana of the Cross ways
. The Amazing Marriage
SHAW. Candida
514
THE GREAT IDEAS
BRYCE. Marriage and Divorce
MANN. Buddenbrooty
SYNGE. Riders to the Sea
WEININGER. Sex and Character
SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 2
GOSSE. Father and Son
SERTILLANGES. La famille et rttat dans I Education
DEWEY and TUFTS. Ethics, PART HI, CH 26
GALTON. Natural Inheritance
. Essays in Eugenics
CHESTERTON. What's Wrong with the World
BATESON. Problems of Genetics
ELLIS. Man and Woman
. Studies in the Psychology of Sex
D. H, LAWRENCE. Sons and Lovers
H. JAMES. A Small Boy and Others
. Notes of a Son and Brother
JOYCE. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
PROUST. Remembrance of Things Past
FLUGEL. The Psycho- Analytic Study of the Family
HARTLAND. Primitive Society, the Beginnings of the
Family and the Reckoning of Descent
GALSWORTHY. The Forsyte Saga
MARTIN DU GARD. The Thibaults
UNDSET. Kristin Lavransdatter
J B. S. HALDANE. Daedalus
GORKY. Decadence
JUNG. Marriage as a Psychological Relationship
BRIFFAULT. The Mothers
DAWSON. "Christianity and Sex," in Enquiries into
Religion and Culture
Pius XI. Casti Connubn (Encyclical on Christian
Marriage)
O'NEILL. Desire Under the Elms
. Strange Interlude
. Mourning Becomes Electra
L. STURZO. The Inner Laws of Society, CH n
T. S. ELIOT. The Family Reunion
Chapter 17: FATE
INTRODUCTION
FATE —sometimes personified, sometimes
abstractly conceived — is the antagonist of
freedom in the drama of human life and his-
tory. So at least it seems to the poets of antiq-
uity. In many of the Greek tragedies, fate sets
the stage. Some curse must be fulfilled. A doom
impends and is inexorable. But the actors on
the stage are far from puppets. Within the
framework of the inevitable the tragic hero
works out his own destiny, making the choices
from which his personal catastrophe ensues.
Oedipus, doomed to kill his father and marry
his mother, is not fated to inquire into his past
and to discover the sins which, when he sees, he
wills to see no more. The curse on the house of
Atreus does not require Agamemnon to bring
Cassandra back from Troy or to step on the
purple carpet. The furies which pursue Orestes
he has himself awakened by murdering his
mother, Clytemnestra, a deed not fated but
freely undertaken to avenge his father's death.
The ancients did not doubt that men could
choose and, through choice, exercise some con-
trol over the disposition of their lives. Tacitus,
for example, while admitting that "most men
* . . cannot part with the belief that each per-
son's future is fixed from his very birth," claims
that "the wisest of the ancients . . . leave us the
capacity of choosing our life." At the same time
he recognizes an order of events beyond man's
power to control, although he finds no agree-
ment regarding its cause — whether it depends
"on wandering stars" or "primary elements,
and on a combination of natural causes." For
his own part, Tacitus declares, "I suspend my
judgment" on the question "whether it is fate
and unchangeable necessity or chance which
governs the revolutions of human affairs." In
so doing, he grants the possibility that not
everything which lies beyond man's control is
fated. Some of the things which happen with-
515
out man's willing them may happen by chance
or fortune.
It is sometimes supposed that "fate" and
"fortune" are synonyms, or that one has a
tragic and the other a happy connotation. It is
as if fortune were always good and fate always
malevolent. But either may be good or evil
from the point of view of man's desires. Al-
though fate and fortune are hardly the same,
there is some reason for associating them. Each
imposes a limitation on man's freedom. A man
cannot compel fortune to smile upon him any
more than he can avoid his fate. Though alike
in this respect, fate and fortune are also opposed
to one another. Fate represents the inexorable
march of events. There is no room for fortune
unless some things are exempt from necessity.
Only that which can happen by chance is in
the lap of fortune.
It would seem that fate stands to fortune as
the necessary to the contingent. If everything
were necessitated, fate alone would reign. Con-
tingency would be excluded from nature.
Chance or the fortuitous in the order of nature
and freedom in human life would be reduced
to illusions men cherish only through ignorance
of the inevitable.
In a sense fortune is the ally of freedom in the
struggle against fate. Good fortune seems to aid
and abet human desires. But even misfortune
signifies the element of chance which is more
congenial than fate, if not more amenable, to
man's conceit that he can freely plan his life.
THE TERMS necessity and contingency cannot be
substituted for fate and fortune without loss of
significance. As the chapter on NECESSITY AND
CONTINGENCY indicates, they are terms in the
philosophical analysis of the order of nature
and causality. They may have, but they need
not have, theological implications. Necessity
516
THE GREAT IDEAS
and contingency can be explained without any
reference to the supernatural, as is evident from
the discussion of these matters in the Chapter
on CHANCE. But fate and fortune, in their ori-
gin at least, are theological terms.
In ancient poetry and mythology, both in-
evitability and chance were personified as dei-
ties or supernatural forces. There were the god-
dess of Fortune and the three Fates, as well as
their three evil sisters or counterparts, the
Furies. The Latin word from which "fate"
comes means an oracle, and so signifies what is
divinely ordained. What happens by fate is
fated — something destined and decreed in the
councils of the gods on Olympus; or it may be
the decision of Zeus, to whose rule all the other
divinities are subject; or, as we shall see pres-
ently, it may be a supernatural destiny which
even Zeus cannot set aside.
In any case, the notion of fate implies a super-
natural will, even as destiny implies predestina-
tion by an intelligence able not only to plan
the future but also to carry out that plan. The
inevitability of fate and destiny is thus distin-
guished from that of merely natural necessity
which determines the future only insofar as it
may be the inevitable consequence of causes
working naturally.
But the ancients do not seem to be fatalists
in the extreme sense of the term. To the extent
that men can propitiate the gods or provoke
divine jealousy and anger, the attitudes and
deeds of men seem to be a determining factor
in the actions of the gods. To the extent that
the gods align themselves on opposite sides of a
human conflict (as in the Iliad), or oppose each
other (as in the Odyssey), it may be thought
that what happens on earth merely reflects the
shifting balance of power among the gods.
But human planning and willing do not seem
to be excluded by the divine will and plan
which are forged out of the quarrels of the
gods. On the contrary, polytheism seems to
make fortune itself contingent on the outcome
of the Olympian conflict, and so permits men
a certain latitude of self-determination. Men
can struggle against the gods precisely because
the gods may be with them as well as against
them.
The ultimate power of Zeus to decide [ the
issue may, however, place the accent on fate
rather than on freedom. This is certainly so if
Zeus is not the master of even his own fate,
much less the omnipotent ruler among the
gods or the arbiter of human destiny. In
Prometheus Bound, the Chorus asks, "Who is
the pilot of Necessity ?" Prometheus answers,
"The Fates triform and the unforgetting
Furies." The Chorus then asks, "Is Zeus of
lesser might than these ?" To which Prometheus
replies, "He shall not shun the lot appor-
tioned." When they ask what this doom is,
Prometheus tells them to inquire no more, for
they verge on mysteries. Later Zeus himself
sends Hermes to wrest from Prometheus the
secret of what has been ordained for him by
"all consummating Fate" or "Fate's resistless
law." Prometheus refuses, saying that "none
shall bend my will or force me to disclose by
whom 'tis fated he shall fall from power."
The question Aeschylus leaves unanswered
is whether Zeus would be able to escape his
doom if he could foresee what Fate holds in
store for him. The suggestion seems to be that
without omniscience the omnipotence of Zeus
cannot break the chains of Fate.
IN THE TRADITION of Judaeo'Christian theology
the problem of fate is in part verbal and in part
real. The verbal aspect of the problem concerns
the meaning of the word "fate" in relation to
the divine will, providence, and predestination.
With the verbal matter settled, there remains
the real problem of God's will and human free-
dom. The strictly monotheistic conception of
an omnipotent and omniscient God deepens
the mystery, and makes it more difficult than
the problem of fate and freedom in pagan
thought.
If anyone "calls the will or the power of God
itself by the name of fate," Augustine says,
"let him keep his opinion, but correct his lan-
guage For when men hear that word, ac-
cording to the ordinary use1 of language, they
simply understand by it the virtue of that par-
ticular position of the stars which may exist
at the time when anyone is born or conceived,
which some separate altogether from the will
of God, whilst others affirm that this also is
dependent on that will. But those who are of
the opinion that, apart from the will of God,
the stars determine what we shall do, or what
CHAPTER 27: FATE
517
good things we shall possess, or what evils we
shall suffer, must be refused a hearing by all, not
only by those who hold the true religion, but
by those who wish to be the worshippers of any
gods whatsoever, even false gods. For what does
this opinion really amount to but this, that no
god whatsoever is to be worshipped or prayed
to?"
Since the word "fate" has been used for those
things which are determined apart from the
will of God or man, Augustine thinks it would
be better for Christians not to use it, but to
substitute "providence" or "predestination"
when they wish to refer to what God wills.
Aquinas, however, retains the word "fate"
but restricts its meaning to the "ordering ... of
mediate causes" by which God wills "the pro-
duction of certain effects."
According to the definition given by Boe-
thius which Aquinas quotes, "Fate is a disposi-
tion inherent to changeable things, by which
providence connects each one with its proper
order." Thus fate is not identified with provi-
dence, but made subordinate to it. The distinc-
tion, Aquinas explains, depends on the way we
consider "the ordering of effects" by God. "As
being in God Himself . . . the ordering of the
effects is called Providence." But "as being in
the mediate causes ordered by God," it is called
fate. While admitting that "the divine power
or will can be called fate, as being the cause of
fate," he declares that "essentially fate is the
very disposition or series, i.e., order, of second
causes."
The position Lucretius takes seems to be
exactly opposite to that of Augustine and Aqui-
nas. Lucretius condemns the fatalism of those
who believe that the gods control the order of
nature and who therefore attribute whatever
befalls them to divine ordination. For him,
"nature free at once and rid of her haughty
lords is seen to do all things spontaneously of
herself without the meddling of the gods." He
tries to teach men that everything happens ac-
cording to the laws of nature, other than which
there is no fate. The "decrees of fate" he in the
laws by which "all motion is ever linked to-
gether and a new motion ever springs from
another in a fixed order." If man by his "power
of free action'* can "make some commence-
ment of motion to break through the decrees
of fate, in order that cause follow not cause from
everlasting/1 it is because in the atoms of his
makeup "there is another cause of motions . . .
caused by a minute swerving of first-begin-
nings at no fixed part of space and no fixed
time."
Nevertheless, according to Augustine, Lu-
cretius is a fatalist who disbelieves in provi-
dence, other than which there ts no fate. Each
of them uses the word "fate," the one to deny,
the other to affirm, the power of God.
But even if a Christian avoids the supersti-
tions of astrology, or some similar belief in a
natural necessity which does not depend on
God, he may still commit the sin of fatalism
which follows from the denial of man's free
will. Understanding fate as identical with prov-
idence, the Christian is a fatalist if, in the be-
lief that every human act is foreordained by
God, he resigns himself to his fate, making no
moral effort and taking no moral responsibility
for his soul's welfare. To do that is to argue like
Chaucer's Troilus:
I am, he said, but done for, so to say;
For all that comes, comes by necessity,
Thus to be done for is my destiny.
I must believe and cannot other choose,
That Providence, in its divine foresight,
Hath known that Cressida I once must lose,
Since God sees everything from heaven's height
And plans things as he thinks both best and right,
As was arranged for by predestination.
Troilus sees no way of avoiding the conclusion
that "free choice is an idle dream."
THE THEOLOGIANS recognize the difficulty of
reconciling providence and free will. The truth
must lie somewhere between two heresies. If
it is heresy to deny God's omnipotence and
omniscience, then nothing remains outside the
all-encompassing scope of divine providence,
nothing happens contrary to the divine will,
no future contingency is or can be unforeseen
by God. If, on the other hand, to deny that
man sins freely means that God must be respon-
sible for the evil that man does, then it is a
heresy to deny free will, for that imputes evil
to God.
This is the problem with which Milton deals
in Paradise Lost, announcing that he will try
"to justify the ways of God to man." In a
conversation in heaven, the Father tells the
518
THE GREAT IDEAS
Son that though He knows Adam will 'disobey
his rule, Adam remains 'quite free to sin or not
to sin, and the1 fault is his own, jusr as the re-
bellious angels acted on their own free will.
The angels, God says,
So were created, nor can justly accuse
Thir tnaker, or thir making, or thir Fate;
As if Predestination over-rul'd '
Thir will, dispos'd by absolute Decree
Or high foreknowledge; they themselves decreed
Thir own revolt, not I: if I foreknew,
Foreknowledge had no influence on their fault,
Which had no less prov'd certain unforeknown.
So without least impulse or shadow of Fate,
Or alight by me immutabhc foreseen,
They trespass, Authors to themselves in all,
Botn what they judge and what they choose, for so
I formed them free, and free they must remain*
Till they enthrall themselves: I else must change
Thir nature, and revoke the high Decree
Unchangeable, Eternal, which ordam'd
Thir freedom, they themselves ordam'd their fall.
A solution of the problem is sometimes
developed from the distinction between God's
foreknowledge and God's forcordination. God
foreordained the freedom of man, but only
foreknew his fall; man ordained that himself.
Strictly speaking, however, the word "fore-
knowledge" would seem to carry a false conno-
tation, since nothing is future to God. Every-
thing that has ever happened or ever will is
simultaneously together in the eternal present
of the divine vision.
During his ascent through Paradise, Dante,
wishing to learn about his immediate future,
asks his ancestor Cacciaguida to foretell his
fortune, for he, "gazing upon the Point to
which all times are present, can see contingent
things, ere in themselves they are.'* Cacciaguida
prefaces his prediction of Dante's exile from
Florence by telling him that the contingency of
material things "is all depicted in the Eternal
Vision; yet thence it does not take necessity,
more than does a ship which is going down the
stream from the eye in which it is mirrored."
The difference between time and eternity is
conceived as permitting 'the temporal future
to be contingent even though God knows its
content with certitude.
But, it may still be askecl, <iocs not God's
knowledge imply the absolute predestination
of future events by providence, since what God
knows with certitude cannot happen otherwise
than as He knows h? In a discussion of divine
grace and man's free will, Dr. Johnson remarks,
"I can judge with great probability how a man
will act in any case, without his being restrained
by my judging. God may have this probability
increased to certainty." To which Boswell re-
plies that "when it is increased to certainty,
freedom ceases, because that cannot be cer-
tainly foreknown, which is not certain at the
time; but if it be certain at the time, it is a
contradiction to maintain that there can be
afterwards any contingency dependent upon
the exercise of will or anything else."
Against such difficulties Aquinas insists that
divine providence is compatible, not only with
natural necessity, but also with contingency in
nature and free will in human acts. Providence,
he writes, "has prepared for some thingsneces-
sary causes so that they happen of necessity; for
others contingent causes, that they may happen
by contingency." Human liberty does not
imply that the will's acts are not caused by
God who, being the first cause, "moves causes
both natural and voluntary. Just as by moving
natural causes, He does not prevent their acts
being natural, so by moving voluntary causes,
He does not deprive their actions of being
voluntary." God causes man to choose freely
arid freely to execute his choice.
THE UNCOMPROMISING conception of fate is
that which leaves no place for chance or free-
dom anywhere in the universe, neither in the
acts of God, nor in the order of nature, nor in
the course of history. The doctrine of absolute
determinism, whether in theology, science, or
history, is thus fatalism unqualified.
The ancient historians are not fatalists in this
sense. Herodotus, for example, finds much that
can be explaineoj by the contingencies of for-
tune or by the choices of men. The crucial de-
cision, for example, in the defense of Athens
is presented as an act of man's choice. Upon
receiving the pr6phecy that "safe shall the
wooden Wail continue for thee and thy chil-
dren," the Athenians exercise their freedom by
disagreeing about its meaning. "Certain of the
old men," Herodotus writes, "were of ihe
opinion that the god hieant to tell them the
citadel would escape; 'for this was anciently
defended by a palisade. . . . Others maintained
CHAPTER 27: FATE
that the fleet was what the god pointed at; and
their advice was that nothing should be thought
of except tfie ships." The eloquence pf Themis-
tocles carried the latter view. To stress its im-
portance, the historian observes that "the sav-
ing of Greece" lay in the decision that led
Athens to "become a maritime power."
In presenting a comparable decision by the
Persians, Herodotus seems to be contrasting
their fatalism with the freedom of the Greeks.
At first Xerxes accepts the council of Artabanus
not to go to war against the Greeks. But after
a series of visions, which appear to both the
king and his councillor, that decision is re-
versed, for, according to the dream, the war
"is fated to happen."
The conception of fate and freedom in the
Aeneid seems closer to the Greek than to the
Persian view. Even though the consummation
of history, which will come with the founding
of the Roman empire, is projected as a divinely
appointed destiny, the hero who brings that
great event to pass acts as if he were free to
accept or evade his responsibilities.
The Christian understanding of historical
destiny in terms of providence permits— more
than that, requires— men to exercise free choice
at every turn. "The cause of the greatness of
the Roman empire," writes Augustine, "is nei-
ther fortuitous nor fatal, according to the judg-
ment or opinion of thosp who call those things
fortuitous which either have no causes or such
causes as do not proceed from some intelligible
order, and those things fatal which happen in-
dependently of the will of God and man, by
the necessity of a certain order. , . ., Human
kingdoms are established by divine provi-
dence." The fatalism which Augustine here
condemns involves independence not only of
the will of God, but of man's will also.
It is only in modern times, with Hegel and
Marx, that necessity reigns supreme m the
philosophy of history. Hegel spurns the notion
that history is "a superficial play of casual, so-
called 'merely human* strivings and passions."
He also condemns those who "speak of Provi-
dence and the plan of Providence" in a way
that is "empty" of ideas since "for them the
plan of Providence is inscrutable 4nd incom-
prehensible." For Hegel, history is "the nec-
ess^ry development, out of the concept of the
mind's, freedom alone." But this development'
and this freedom, arc entirely matters of neces-
sity as far as individuals and their works are
concerned, ''They are all the time the uncon-
scious tools and otgans of the world mind at
work within them,"
For Marx, history seems likewise to have the
same necessity. He deals with individuals, he
writes in the preface to Capital, "only in so far
as they are the personifications of economic
categories, embodiments of particular class-
relations and class-interests, My stand-point,"
he says, is one from which "the evolution of
the economic formation of society is viewed as
a process of natural history," and within which
the individual cannot be "responsible for rela-
tions whose creature he socially remains, how-
ever much he may subjectively raise himself
above them." Here it is a question only "of
these laws themselves, of these tendencies
working with iron necessity towards inevitable
results,"
According to the historical determinism of
Hegel and Marx, which is further considered
in the chapter on HISTORY, men play a part
which is already written for them in the scroll
of history. Human liberty apparently depends
on man's knowledge of and acquiescence in the
unfolding necessities.
HISTORICAL DETERMINISM is merely a part of
the doctrine of a causal necessity which govern?
all things. Causality seems to be understood- by
moderns like Spinoza, Hume, and Freud as ex-
cluding the possibility of chance or free will.
Among the ancients, Plotinus alone seems to
go as far as Spinoza in affirming the universal
reign of natural necessity. What Spinoza says
of God or Nature, Plotinus says of the All-One,
namely, that for the first principle which is the
cause of everything else, freedom consists in
being causa sui, or cause of itself— self-deter-
mined rather than determined by external
causes.
"God does not act from freedom of the will,"
Spinoza writes. Yet "God alone is a free cause,
for God alone exists . . . and acts from the
necessity of his own nature." As for everything
else in the universe, Spinoza maintains that
"there is nothing contingent, but all things arc
determined from the necessity of the divine
520
THfi GREAT IDEAS
nature to exist and act in a certain manner."
This applies to man, who, according to Spinoza,
does "everything by the will of God alone."
From quite different premises, Hume seems
to reach much the same conclusion concerning
chance and liberty. "Chance," he writes,
"when strictly examined, is a mere negative
word, and means not any real power which has
anywhere a being in nature." But he also thinks
that liberty, "when opposed to necessity, not
to constraint, is the same thing with chance."
Hume embraces the consequences of such a
position. "If voluntary action be subjected to
the same laws of necessity with the operations
of matter, there is a continued chain of neces-
sary causes, pre-ordained and pre-determmed,
reaching from the original cause of all to every
single volition of every human creature. No
contingency anywhere in the universe; no in-
difference; no liberty."
When confronted with the objection that it
then becomes impossible "to explain distinctly,
how the Deity can be the mediate cause of all
the actions of men, without being the author
of sin and moral turpitude," Hume replies that
"these arc mysteries, which natural and unas-
sisted reason is very unfit to handle, ... To de-
fend absolute decrees, and yet free the Deity
from being the author of sin, has been found
hitherto to exceed all the power of philosophy."
Unlike Spinoza and Hume, Freud does not
deal with the theological implications or pre-
suppositions of determinism. For him, determin-
ism is an essential postulate of science and
even to some extent a scientifically discoverable
feet. The "deeply rooted belief in psychic free-
dom and choice," he writes, is "quite unscien-
tific, and it must give ground before the claims
of a determinism which governs even mental
life." He thinks it can be shown on the basis of
clinical experience that every psychic associa-
tion "will be strictly determined by important
inner attitudes of mind, which are unknown
to us at the moment when they operate, just as
much unknown as are the disturbing tendencies
which cause errors, and those tendencies which
bring about so-called 'chance* actions."
The fatalism of what is often called "scien-
tific determinism" is that of blind necessity.
It not only eliminates liberty and chance, but
also purpose and the operation of final causes.
Every future event, in nature, history, or hu-
man behavior, is completely predetermined by
efficient causes— predetermined, but not pre-
destined, for there is no guiding intelligence
at work, no purpose to be fulfilled. "The system
of fatality, of which Spinoza is the accredited
author," Kant writes, is one which "eliminates
all trace ofdestgn, and leaves the original ground
of the things of nature divested of all intelli-
gence."
Whether such complete fatalism is the only
doctrine compatible with the principles and
findings of natural science has been questioned
by philosophers like William James. It is cer-
tainly not the only doctrine compatible with
the view that nothing happens without a cause.
As the chapters on CHANCE and WILL show,
ancient and mediaeval thinkers who affirm
contingency in nature or freedom in human
acts do so without denying the universal reign
of causation.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The decrees of fate and the decisions of the gods
2. The fated or inevitable in human life
3. The antitheses of fate: fortune, freedom, natural necessity, chance or contingency
4. Fatalism in relation to the will of God : the doctrine of predestination
5. The secularization of fate : scientific or philosophical determinism
6. The historian's recognition of fate: the destiny of cities, nations, empires
PAGB
521
522
523
5*4
CHAPTER 27: FATE 521
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of me passages referred to, For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n (265-283) 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS- When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
thepage. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of trie left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS- One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases, e.g , Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; eg., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nchemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface,
_ , _ .. f. 31 DESCARTES : Objections and Replies, 216d-217a
1. The decrees of fate and the decisions of the 32 MILTON: Arcades [54-83] 26b 27a
«ods 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 271b
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [503-531] 8b-c; BK vin 47 GOETHE : Faust, PART n [5305-5 344] 131b-132a
[66-77] 51d; BK xin [631-632] 94d; BK xiv
[52-53] 98c; BK xvi [431-461] 117a-b; [657- 2- The fated or inevitable in human life
658] 119b; [843-861] 121c; BK xvm [97-126] 4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d esp BK xv [47-77]
131a-c; BK xix [74-94] 137d-138a; BK xxi 104c-d, BK xvi [843-861] 121c, BK xvm [52-
[81-84] 149a; BK xxn [131-223] 156c-157c / 137] 130c-131c, BK xxn [355-366] 159a, BK
Odyssey, BK in [225-239] 195b-c; BK xx [75] xxiv [522-532] 176d-177a / Odyssey, BK xvm
296d [124-150] 285b-c; BK xxn [412] 310a
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [1032-1073] 5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [1032-1073]
14a,c / Prometheus Bound 40a-51d esp [507- 14a,c / Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c esp
521] 45a-b / Agamemnon [1018-1034] 63a [631-956] 34a-37d / Prometheus Bound [640-
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis 237a-247a,c esp [1-76] 886] 46d-49c / Agamemnon 52a-69d / Cho-
237a-238a, [213-243] 239a-b, [962-990] 245c ephoroe 70a-80d / Eumentdes 81a-91d
/ Heracles Mad [13 13-1357] 376c-d / Iphtgenia 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Among the Taurt [1435-1499] 424a-d Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c esp [939-999]
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20a-22a 123a-c / Antigone [944-987] 139a-c / Ajax
12 EpicTBTus:Z>i*r0«r*tf,BKi, CH 12 118d-120b [736-783] 149b-d; [925-935] ISla / Electra
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b; 156a-169a,c / Phihctetes [1316-1347] 193-d
SECT ii 258a-b; BK HI, SECT n 262a-b; BK v, 194a
SECT 8 269d-270b 5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [595-641] 208b-c / Alcestis
13 VIRGIL: Aenetd, BK i [1-33] 103a-104a; [261- 237a-247a,c esp [1-76] 237a-238a, [213-243]
262] HOa; BK n [428-433] 136a; BK in [1-12] 239a-b, [962-990] 245c / Trojan Women [686-
147a; BK iv [440] 179a; [651] 185a; BK VH 705] 275d-276a / Electra 327a-339atc / Bac-
[286-322] 243b-245«; BK x [100-117] 304b- chantes [1327-1392] 351b-352a,c / Heracles
305a; BK xi [108-119] 331a; BK xn [725-842] Mad [1311-1358] 376c-d / Phoenician Maidens
373b 376b 378a-393d esp [1-87] 378a-379a, [867-928]
522
THE GREAT IDEAS
2 to 3
(2, The fated or inevitable in human life.)
385d386b, [1595-1614] 392a, [1758-1766]
393d / Orestes [1-70] 394a-d; [807-843] 402c-d
/ Iphigenia Among the Tauri [482-489] 414d-
415a; [1435-1499] 424a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 8a-10a; 20a-22a;
46c; BK n, 65b; 77a-b; BK in, 98b-99a; 102d-
104b; BK iv, 153b-d; 155b-c; BK ix, 291b-c
7 PLATO: Apology, 210d / Republic, BK x, 43 7b-
441a,c csp 439a-441a,c / Statesman, 587a-589c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations 253a-310d csp BK n,
SECT 3 257a-b, SECT 7 257c, BK in, SECT n
262a-b, BK iv, SECT 33-35 266c-d, SECT 44
267b, BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b, SECT 19-20
272a, SECT 36 273d, BK vi, SECT 8 274b, SECT
II 274c, SECT 20 276a, SECT 39-40 277d, SECT
50 279a-b, SECT 58 279d, BK vn, SECT 8 280b,
SECT 46 282c, SECT 54 283b, SECT 58 283c-d,
BK vni, SFCT 17 286d, SECT 32 287d-288a,
SECT35 288b, SECT 45-47 289a-c, SECT 51 289d-
290a, BK ix, SECT 41 295c, BK x, SECT 3 296d,
SECT 5-6 296d-297b, SECT 25 299c, SECT 33
300c-301a, SECT 35 301b, BK XH, SECT 3
307b-d, SECT 11-14 308b-c
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv 14a-15b / Aeneid, BK i
[1-33] 103a-104a; [204-207] 108b;' [223-304]
109a-llla; BK in [356-462] 157a-160a; BK
iv [218-396] 173a-178a; BK vi [752-901]
231a-235a; BK vm [520-540] 273a-b; BK ix
[77-122] 281a-282a; BK x [100-117] 304b-
305a; [621-632] 319a-b; BK xi [108-119] 331a;
BK xu [133-150] 357b-358a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 20b-c/ CamilIus,W7b-d
I Acmilius Paulus, 225a-c; 228c-229c / Sulla,
370c-371b / Caesar, 600a-604d / Marcus Bru-
tus, 814d-815c; 822a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 49c; BK vi, 91b-d /
Histories, BK i, 191d; 194b
17 PLOHNUS- Third Ennead, TR i 78a-82b
22 CHAUCER: TroilusandCressida, BK in, STANZA
89 66a; BK iv, STANZA 137-155 106b-108b /
Knight's Tale 174a-211a csp [io8i-iiii] 177b-
178a, [1251-1267] 180b, [1663-1672] 187b,
[3027-3066] 209b-210a / Tale of Man of Law
[4610-4623] 237b; [4701-4735] 239a-240a /
Monffs Prologue 432a-434a / Months Tale
434a-448b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
258c-259d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 214a-c; 342a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, PROLOGUE
285a-b; ACT i, sc iv [106-113] 291d / Julius
Caesar, ACT n, sc u [1-107] 578a-579b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc n [4-48]
68a-b / King Lear, ACT i, sc n [112-166]
249a-c; ACT iv, sc in [34-37] 272a / Macbeth
284a-310d csp ACT r, sc HI 285b-287b / Cym-
bclme, ACT v, sc iv [30-122] 481c-482b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 194b-195a; 202b-
208b; 502b-503a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 275d-276a; 310b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 347b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [9695-9944] 235a~
241b esp [9908-9938] 241a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 4a-b; 120a-b; 396b-
397a; 398a; 409b-410b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vni, 303d-304b;
BK xn, 542d; 547a-549d; 553c-d; BK xm,
578b-582a esp 578d-579a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 246b-247c /
General Introduction, 581d-582a / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 796a-c
3. The antitheses of fate: fortune, freedom, nat-
ural necessity, chance or contingency
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 437b-441a,c esp 439a-
441a,c / Statesman, 586c-589c
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 9 28a-29d /
Physics, BK H, CH 4-6 272c-275a / Metaphysics,
BK vi, CH 3 549c-d; BK ix, CH 5 573a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 345a-c; BK in,
CH3 [ni2ai8-33]358a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 3-4
257a-b; BK in, SECT 11 262a-b; BK v, SECT 8
269d-270b; SECT 36 273d; BK vi, SECT 40
277d; BK xn, SECT 14 308c
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK iv, 68a; BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i 78a-82b /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16 150c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH i 207d-
208c; CH 8-10 212c-216c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 116
592d-595c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi
[52-84] 77b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 163d-164a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n
[135-141] 570d; ACT iv, sc in [215-224] 590d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc n [220-
223] 51b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 49b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 49, SCHOL,
394c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [170-173] 220b-
221a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 542b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 45b-c; 133a; 140b,d-143a;
146a-c; 147b; 164a-171a; 205b-209b / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-265a; 275b;
279b,d-287d esp 281c-283d / Practical Reason,
291a-293b; 296a-d; 301d-302d; 304a-d; 307d-
314d; 319c-321b; 331c-337a,c / Intro. Meta-
physic of M or ah, 386d-387a,c; 390b / Judge-
ment, 463a-467a; 571c-572a; 587a-588a
44 Bos WELL \Johnson, 549c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 340
llOb-c; par 342-344 llOc-llla / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 160c-165b; 166b-168a; PART
iv, 368d-369a,c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 158b-159a
4/o 5
CHAPTER 27: FATE
523
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; BK xi, 469a-472b; BK xm-
xiv, 563a-590c; BK xiv, 609a-613d; BK xv,
618b-621b; 626d-630a; EPILOGUE i, 645a-
650c; EPILOGUE ii 675a-696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 291a-295b; 657a-b; 820b-
824a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 486c-487a
4. Fatalism in relation to the will of God: the
doctrine of predestination
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 45 csp 45 14-8 / Exodus,
4:21; 7-14 esp 7:3, 9:12, 10:1, 10:20, 10.27,
11:10, 14:4, 14:8, 14:17; 33:19 / Deuteronomy,
7:6-8; 14:2 / Psalms, 147:12-20 esp 147-20—
(D) Psalms, 147 csp 147-20 / Proverbs, 16-33 /
Ecclesiastes, 9:11-12 / Isaiah, 41:8-14— (D)
Isaias, 41 '8-14
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, i3:8-i8-(£>) OT,
Esther, 13:8-18 / Wisdom of Solomon, 19:4-5 —
(D) OT, Boo{ of Wtsdom, 19:4-5 / Eccle-
siasticus, 33:10-13 — (D) OT, Ecdesiasticus,
33:10-13
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22:1-14 / John,
6:22-71 esp 6:40, 6.44-45, 6.64-65 — (D)
John, 6:22-72 esp 6:40, 6:44-45, 6:65-66 /
Acts, 17-24-27 / Romans, 8:28-11.36 / // Co-
rinthians, 3-4 / Galatians, 4-4-6 / Ephesians,
1:4-2.10; 4:1-16 esp 4:7, 4:11 / Phihppians,
2 12-15 /James, 4 13-15 / I Peter, 1-1-5
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-
120b; CH 17 122d-124a; BK 11, CH 16 156b-
158d; BK in, CH 22 195a-201a; BK iv, CH i
213a-223d; CH 3 224b-d; CH 7 232c-235a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n262a-b;
BK vi, SECT 44 278b-c
17 PLOHNUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16 150c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH i 207d-
208c; CH 8-10 212c-216c; CH 15-16 220d-
221b; BK xv, CH i 397b,d-398c; BK xxi, CH 12
571a-c; BK xxii, CH 1-2 586b,d-588a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, QQ 23-
24 132b-143c; Q 116 592d-595c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-C; PURGATORY, XVI [52-84] 77b-CJ PARA-
DISE, i [94-142] 107b'd; iv [49-63] lllb;
vni [91-148] 117d-118c; xvii [13-45] 132b-c;
xx [31-141] 137a-138a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
137-154 106b-108b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 113b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 254b-d; 342a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 93 125d-
126a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 141b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK i
[1-26] 93b-94a, BK in [80-134] 137a-138a, BK
v [224-245] 180a-b, {506-543] 186a-187a, BK
vn [139-173] 220a-221a / Samson Agomstes
[373-419] 347b-348b; [667-709] 354a-355a /
Areopagitica, 394b-395b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
78-8i485c-487a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 32c-33b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 107a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 230b; 239c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 334a-335b / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn i]
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 13b; 173c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 343
HOd-llla / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
153a-190b csp 158c-162a; PART in, 305c-d;
PART iv, 368d-369a,c
47 GOETHE : Faust, PART n [5305-5344] 131b-132a
48 MELVILLE : Mo£y D/<^, 396b-397a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b; BK
ix, 357b-358b; BK xv, 631a-c; EPILOGUE n,
675b-677b;680b-c;684b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,127b-
137c passim
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 246c-247d /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 776b; 793c
5. The secularization of fate: scientific or philo-
sophical determinism
7 PLATO: BK x, 437b-441a,c esp 439a-441a,c
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK n [184-307]
17b-19a esp [251-293] 18b-d; BK v [55-58] 61d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i 78a-82b /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16 150c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 6-7 355b; AXIOM
3 355d; PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-363c; PROP 25-
29 365b-366c; PROP 32-APi>ENDix 367a-372d;
PART n, PROP 48 391a-c; PROP 49, SCHOL,
394b-c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK HI, 542b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 93
431b
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT vm 478b-
487a passim
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 140b,d-143a; 164a-171a /
Judgement, 463a-467a, 575b-578a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 342-
348 HOc-llld / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
156d-190b esp 156d-158a, 161d-162a; 203a-
206a,c
50 MARX: Capital, 6d; 7c; lOb-lld; 35b-c; 36c-d
[fn 2]; 378b-d esp 378d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n 675a-
696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 291a-295b; 820b-825a esp
823a-825a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho*
Analysis, 13c / Interpretation of Dreams, 246b-
247c/ General Introduction, 454b-c;486d-487a;
581d-582a / Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
645b-646a / Civilization and Its Discontents,
772b-c; 796a-c; 801c-802a,c / New Introduc-
tory Lectures, 882c-883d
524
THE GREAT IDEAS
6. The historian's recognition of fate: the des-
tiny of cities, nations, empires
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vjj, 214d-220b esp
218b-220b; 239a-240d; BK vm, 262b c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIH, 403a*d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, w 14a-15b / Aeneid, BK i
[441-493] 115a-116b; BK vi [752-901] 231a-
235a; BK vm [608-731] 275a-278b; BK x
[100-117] 304b-305a; BK xn [725-842] 373b-
376b ,
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 18d; 20b-c / Camtttus,
107b-d; 109c-110a / Phihpoemen, 300b /
Alexander, 5S5c / Demosthenes, 698b-c /
Marcus Brutus, 815c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 58b-d; BK vi, 91b-d
/ Histories, BK i, 189b-190a; BK n, 232d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v 207b,d-230a,c
esp CH i 207d-208c, CH 12 216d-219b, CH 15
220d-221a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 2l4a-d; 462c-465c pas-
sim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART nit par 340-
360 110b-114a,c esp par 342-343 HOc-llla,
par 347 lllb-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
156d-190b esp 158c-162a; 203a-206a,c; PART i,
241d-242b; 258b-d; PART H, 278a-c; 2«0b-
281b; 283d-284a,c; PART in, 285b-d; 300a-
301c; 303c-306a; PART rv, 315a; 368d-369a,c
50 MARX: Capital, 6c-7d passim; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Mamfesto,41fc*d',
421d-422c;424d-425b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK x, 389a-391c; BK xi, 469a-472b; BK xm-
xiv, 563a-590c; BK xiv, 609a-613d; BK xv,
618b-621b; 626d-630a; EPILOGUE i, 645a-
650c; EPILOGUE n 675a-696d
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c-
883c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The basic opposites of fate, see CHANCF la-ib, 2a; HISTORY 43(1); WILL 5-53(4), 50; and
for other terms in which the opposition between fate and chance is expressed, see NECES-
SITY AND CONTINGENCY 3.
The problem of human liberty in relation to fate, see LIBERTY 4b; NECESSITY AND
CONTINGENCY 53(3); WILL 5c.
The implications of fate in theology, or for the relation of human liberty to divine provi-
dence, see CAUSE 7c; GOD ic, 7b; HISTORY 53; LIBERTY 5a~5c; WILL 7c.
The foretelling of fate or providence, see PROPHECY la-ib; and for the condemnation of
astrology and divination, see PROPHECY 5.
Fatalism or determinism in the philosophy of nature, see CHANCE 23; NATURE 3c~3c(3);
WILL 5c; WORLD ib.
The same doctrine in the philosophy of history, see HISTORY 43(i)-4a(4); NECESSITY AND
CONTINGENCY 5f; WILL 7b.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofe of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works arc divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Of Fate," in Moralia
AUGUSTINE. On the Predestination of the Saints
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK in, CH 64-83,
88-98, 163
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy^ PART i,
40-41
HOBBES. A Treatise of liberty and Necessity
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK vi, CH 2
W. JAMES. "The Dilemma of Determinism," in The
Will to Believe
CICERO. De Fato (On Fate)
- . De Dwtnattone (On Divination)
MAIMONIDBS. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART in,
CH 17-19
CHAPTER 27: FATE
525
GERSONIDES. Commentary on the Bool( of Job
CALVIN. Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK HI,
CH 14-25
KNOX. An Answer to the Cavillations of an Adversdrie
Respecting the Doctrine of Predestination
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicac, xix (10-11)
CUDWORTH. A Treatise of Freewill
J. BUTLER. The Analogy of Religion \ PART i, CH 7
J. EDWARDS. A Careful . . . Enquiry into the Modern
. . . Notions of Freedom of Will
VOLTAIRE. Zadtg
. Candide
GOLDSMITH. The Vicar of Watyfield
]. PRIESTLEY and PRICE. A Free Discussion of the
Doctrine of Materialism and Philosophical Necessity
DE QUINCEY. On the Knodyng at the Gate in
Macbeth
SCHOPENHAUER. Die beiden Grundprobleme der
. Transcendent Speculations on Apparent Design
in the Fate of the Individual
EMERSON. "Fate," in The Conduct of Life
T. HARDY. The Return of the Native
- . TessoftheD'Urbervilles
- . Jude the Obscure
SYNGE. Riders to the Sea
LAGERLOF. The Ring of the Lowens^olds
WILDER. The Bridge of San Luis Rey
B RUSSELL. Religion and Science, CH 6
T. S. ELIOT. The Family Reunion
Chapter 2.8: FORM
INTRODUCTION
* I HE great philosophical issues concerning
JL form and matter have never been resolved.
But the terms in which these issues were stated)
from their first formulation in antiquity to the
iyth or 1 8th centuries, have disappeared or at
least do not have general currency in contem-
porary discourse. Kant is perhaps the last great
philosopher to include these terms in his basic
vocabulary. The conceptions of matter and
form, he writes, "he at the foundation of all
other reflection, so inseparably are they con-
nected with every mode of exercising the un-
derstanding. The former denotes the determm-
able in general, the second its determination."
The word "form" is no longer a pivotal term
in the analysis of change or motion, nor in the
distinction between being and becoming, nor
in the consideration of the modes of being and
the conditions of knowledge. The word "mat-
ter" is now used without reference to form,
where earlier in the tradition all of its principal
meanings involved "form" as a correlative or an
opposite. Other words, such as "participation"
and "imitation," have also fallen into disuse
or lost the meanings which derived from their
relation to form and matter.
The problems which these words were used
to state and discuss remain active in contem-
porary thought. There is, for instance, the
problem of the universal and the particular, the
problem of the immutable and the mutable, the
problem of the one and the many, or of same-
ness and diversity. These problems appear in
the writings of William James and Bergson,
Dewey and Santayana, Whitehead and Russell.
Sometimes there is even a verbal approximation
to the traditional formulation, as in White-
hcad's doctrine of "eternal objects" or in San-
tayana 's consideration of the "realm of essence"
and the "realm of matter." Whatever expres-
sions they use, these thinkers find themselves
526
opposed on issues which represent part, if not
the whole, of the great traditional controversy
between Plato and Aristotle concerning form.
THERE is A TENDENCY AMONG the historians of
thought to use the names of Plato and Aristotle
to symbolize a basic opposition in philosophical
perspectives and methods, or even in what Wil-
liam fames calls "intellectual temperaments."
Later writers are called "Platonists" or "Aris-
totelians" and doctrines or theories are classified
as Platonic or Aristotelian. It almost seems to
be assumed at times that these names exhaust
the typical possibilities: that minds or theories
must be one or the other, or some sort of mix-
ture or confusion of the two.
If this tendency is ever justified, it seems to
be warranted with regard to the problems of
form. Here, if anywhere, there may be poetic
truth in Whitehead's remark that the history
of western thought can be read as a series of
footnotes to Plato; though perhaps the observa-
tion should be added that Aristotle, the first
to comment on Plato, wrote many of the
principal footnotes. In Plotmus the two strains
seem to be intermingled. The issue between
Plato and Aristotle concerning form dominates
the great metaphysical and theological contro-
versies of the later Middle Ages, and, with some
alterations in language and thought, it appears
in the writings of Hobbes, Bacon, Descartes,
Spinoza, and Locke, where it is partly a con-
tinuation of, and partly a reaction against, the
mediaeval versions of Platonic and Anstotelian
doctrine.
The most extreme reaction is, of course, to
be found in those who completely reject the
term form or its equivalents as being without
significance for the problems of motion, exist-
ence, or knowledge. Bacon retains the term,
but radically changes its meaning. "None should
CHAPTER 28: FORM
527
suppose from the great part assigned by us to
forms," Bacon writes, "that we mean such
forms as the meditations and thoughts of men
have hitherto been accustomed to." He docs
not mean either "the concrete forms" or "any
abstract forms of ideas," but rather "the laws
and regulations of simple action. . »>. The form
of heat or form of light, therefore, means no
more than the law of heat or the law of light."
But Hobbes and Locke tend to reject the term
itself— especially when it occurs in the notion
of substantial form— as meaningless or mis-
leading.
"We arc told," says Hobbes, "there be in the
world certain essences, separated from bodies,
which they call abstract essences^ and substantial
forms. . .". Being once fallen into this error of
separated essences, [men] are thereby necessarily
involved in many other absurdities that follow
it. For seeing they will have these forms to be
real, they arc obliged to assign them some
place" '; which they cannot succeed in doing,
according to Hobbes, "because they hold them
incorporeal, without all dimension of quantity,
and all men know that place is dimension, and
not to be filled but by that which is corporeal."
With regard to substantial form, Locke de-
clares, "I confess I have no idea at all, but only
of the sound 'form.'" Those "who have been
taught . . . that it was those forms which made
the distinction of substances into their true
species and genera, were led yet further out of
the way by having their minds set upon fruit-
less inquiries after 'substantial forms' " — a sub-
ject which Locke regards as "wholly unintelli-
gible." The general skepticism about this no-
tion (or the distrust of its hollowness) in the
lyth and i8th centuries is reflected in a banter-
ing remark by Tristram Shandy's father. In a
discussion of infant prodigies, he refers to some
boy-wonders who "left off their substantial
forms at nine years old, or sooner, and went on
reasoning without them."
Since form and matter are supposed to be
correlative, the denial to form of meaning or
reality leads to materialism, as in the case of
Hobbes— the affirmation of matter alone as a
principle or cause. Materialists of one sort or
another are the opponents of both Plato and
Aristotle, and of Platonists and Aristotelians;
That part of the controversy is discussed in the
chapter on MATTER. Here we are concerned
with the issues arising from different views of
form and its relation to matter.
THE POPULAR meaning of "form" affords an ap-
proach to the subtleties of the subject. As ordi-
narily used, "form" connotes figure or shape*
That connotation expresses one aspect of the
technical significance of "form." A great variety
of things, differing materially and in other re-
spects, can have the same figure or shape. The
same form can be embodied in an indefinite
number of otherwise different individuals. But
figures or shapes are sensible forms, forms per-
ceptible to vision and touch. To identify form
with figure or shape would put an improper
limitation on the meaning of form. This is pop-
ularly recognized in the consideration of the
form of a work of art— the structure of an epic
poem or a symphony— which seems to be more
a matter of understanding than of direct sense-
perception.
Bertrand Russell's definition of the form of
a proposition effectively illustrates the point
involved. The form of a proposition, he says,
is that which remains the same in a statement
when everything else is changed. For example,
these two statements have the same grammat-
ical and logical form: (i) John followed James^
and (2) Paul accompanied Peter. What might be
called the matter or subject matter of the two
statements is completely different, but both
have the same form, as may an indefinite num-
ber of other statements.
This illustration helps us to grasp the mean-
ing of form, and the distinction between form
and matter, or the formal and the material
aspects of anything. It is thus that we under-
stand the phrase "formal logic" to signify a
study of the forms of thought or discourse, sep-
arated from the subject matter being thought
about or discussed. Similarly, abstractionism or
surrealism is a kind of formalism in painting
which tries to separate visible patterns or struc-
tures from their representative significance or
their reference to familiar objects.
Kant's doctrine of space and time as tran-
scendental forms of intuition exemplifies the
meaning of form as pure order or structure di-
vorced from sensuous content. "That which in
the phenomenon corresponds to the sensation,
528
THE GREAT IDEAS
I term its matter" he writes; "that which effects
that -the content of the phenomenon can be
arranged under certain relations, I call its
form." Sometimes the consideration of form
emphasizes not its separation from, but its
union with matter. The form dwells in the
thing, constituting its nature. The sensible or
intelligible characteristics of a thing result from
the various ways in which its matter has been
formed.
It is impossible to say more about the mean-
kig of form without facing at once the great
controversy between Plato and Aristotle and
the difficulties which their theories confront.
PLATO DOES NOT deny that things— the sensi-
ble, material, changing things of experience —
have something like form. Nor does he deny
that the ideas by which we understand the na-
tures of things are like forms. Rather he asks us
to consider that which they are hfy.
In the Phaedo—only one of the many dia-
logues in which the doctrine of forms is dis-
cussed— Socrates argues that "there is such a
thing as equality, not of one piece of wood or
stone with another, but that, over and above
this, there is absolute equality." Socrates gets
Simmias to admit that "we know the nature of
this absolute essence," and then asks, "Whence
did we obtain our knowledge?" It could not
have been obtained from the pieces of wood or
stone, Socrates tries to show, because they "ap-
pear at one time equal, and at another time
unequal," whereas the idea of equality is never
the same as that of inequality. Hence he thinks
"we must have known equality previously to
the time when we first saw the material
equals. . . . Before we began to see or hear or
perceive in any way, we must have had a
knowledge of absolute equality, or we could
not have referred to that standard the equals
which are derived from the senses." The equal-
ity which supplies the "standard" by which
material equals are measured is the Form or
Idea of equality.
What is true in this one case Socrates thinks
is true in every other. Whether we consider
the "essence of equality, beauty, or anything
else,*' Socrates holds, the "Ideas or essences,
which in the dialectical process we define as ...
tro£ existences ... are each of them always
what they are, having the same simple self-
existent and unchanging forms, not admitting
of variation at all, or in any way or at any time."
Apart from the perishable things of the sensible
world, and apart from the ideas which are in-
volved in our process of learning and thinking,
there exist the Forms or the Ideas themselves —
the immutable objects of our highest knowl-
edge.
Because the same English words are em-
ployed in these quite distinct senses, it is useful
to follow the convention of translators who
capitalize the initial letter when "Form" or
"Idea" refers to that which is separate from the
characteristics of material things and from the
ideas in our mind. The words "Form" and "Idea"
are interchangeable, but the words "Idea" and
"idea" are not. The latter refers to a notion in
the human mind, by which it knows; whereas
"Idea" — as Plato uses the word —signifies the
object of knowledge, i.e. that which is known.
These differences are further discussed in the
chapter on IDEA.
By imitating the Forms, sensible things, ac-
cording to Plato, have the characteristics we
apprehend in them. The ideas we have when
we apprehend the resemblance between sensi-
ble things and their Forms (which sensible
things exhibit), would seem to be indirect ap-
prehensions of the Forms themselves. When in
the Republic Socrates discusses knowledge and
opinion, he distinguishes them from one an-
other according to a division of their objects —
the realm of intelligible being on the one hand,
and the realm of sensible becoming on the
other. The latter stands to the former as image
or copy to reality, and Socrates finds this rela-
tionship repeating itself when he further di-
vides each of the two parts. The realm of be-
coming divides into images or shadows and into
that "of which this is only the resemblance,"
namely, "the animals which we see, and every-
thing that grows or is made." The realm of in-
telligible being he also subdivides into two
parts, of which the first is as an image or reflec-
tion of the second, namely, the hypotheses we
form in our minds and the Ideas or Forms them-
selves.
From this it appears that just as we should
regard the form of the thing as an imitation of,
or participation in, the separate Form, so should
CHAPTER 28 ? FORM
529
we regard the idea we have (that is, our under-
standing of the thing) as an approximation of
the Idea. The Ideas are outside the human mind
even as the Forms arc separate from their sen-
sible, material imitations. When we apprehend
things by reason we know the Forms they imi-
tate; when we apprehend them by our senses
we know them as imitations, or as images of the
Ideas.
THE PLATONIC THEORY changes the ordinary
meaning of the word "imitation." We ordi-
narily think of imitation as involving a relation
of resemblance between two sensible things,
both of which we are able to perceive; for ex-
ample, we say that a child imitates his father's
manner, or that a portrait resembles the person
who posed for it. The painter, according to
Socrates in the Republic, is not the only "crea-
tor of appearances." He compares the painter
who pictures a bed with the carpenter who
makes one.
Like the bed in the painting, the bed made
by the carpenter is not the real bed. It is not,
says Socrates, the Idea "which, according to
our view, is the essence of the bed." The car-
penter "cannot make true existence, but only
some semblance of existence." As the bed in
the picture is an imitation of the particular bed
made by the carpenter, so the latter is an imita-
tion of the Idea— the essential bed-ness which is
the model or archetype of all particular beds.
Shifting to another example, we can say that
a statue, which resembles a particular man, is
the imitation of an imitation, for the primary
imitation lies in the resemblance between the
particular man portrayed and the Form or Idea,
Man. Just as the statue derives its distinctive
character from the particular man it imitates,
so that particular man, or any other, derives
his manhood or humanity from Man. just as
the particular man imitates Man, so our idea
of Man is also an imitation of that Idea. Knowl-
edge, according to Plato, consists in the imita-
tion of Ideas, even as sensible, material things
have whatever being they have by imitation of
the true beings, the Forms.
Another name for the primary type of imita-
tion is "participation." To participate in is to
partake- of. In the dialogue in which Plato has
the young Socrates inquiring mto the relation
between sensible particulars and the Ideas or
Forms, Parmcnides tells him that "there arc
certain ideas of which all other things partake,
and from which they derive their names; that
similars, for example, become similar, because
they partake of similarity; and great things be-
come great, because they partake of greatness;
and that just and beautiful things become just
and beautiful, because they partake of justice
and beauty." The Forms or Ideas arc, Parmeni-
des suggests, "patterns fixed in nature, and
other things are like them, and resemblances of
them— what is meant by the participation of
other things in the ideas, is really assimilation
to them."
The fact of particularity and multiplicity
seems to be inseparable from the fact of partic-
ipation. That in which the many particulars
participate must, on the other hand, have uni-
versality and unity. The Forms or Ideas are
universals in the sense that each is a one which
is somehow capable of being in a many — by
resemblance or participation. Parmenides asks
Socrates whether he thinks that "the whole
idea is one, and yet, being one, is in each one of
the many." When Socrates unhesitatingly says
Yes, Parmenides points out to him that we then
confront the difficulty that "one and the same
thing will exist as a whole at the same time in
many separate individuals" and that "the ideas
themselves will be divisible, and things which
participate in them will have a part of them
only and not the whole idea existing in each of
them." Nor can we say, Socrates is made to
realize, that "the one idea is really divisible
and yet remains one."
THIS DIFFICULTY concerning the relation of par-
ticulars to the Ideas they participate in, is dis-
cussed in the chapter on UNIVERSAL AND PAR-
TICULAR. It is not the only difficulty which
Plato himself finds in the theory of Ideas. An-
other concerns the individuality of each of the
indefinite number of particulars which copy a
single model or archetype. What makes the
various copies of the same model different from
one another ?
Plato meets this problem by adding a third
principle. To the intelligible patterns or arche-
types and their sensible imitations, he adds, in
the Timaeus, the principle which is variously
530
THE GREAT IDEAS
named, sometimes "the receptacle," sometimes
"space," sometimes "matter." However named,
it is the absolutely formless, for "that which is
to receive all Forms should have no form. . . .
The mother and receptacle of all visible and in
any way sensible things ... is an invisible and
formless being which receives all things and in
some mysterious way partakes of the intelli-
gible, and is most incomprehensible."
It is this material or receiving principle which
somehow accounts for the numerical plurality
and the particulanzation of the many copies
of the one absolute model. When a number of
replicas of the same pattern are produced by
impressing a die on a sheet of plastic material
at different places, it is the difference in the
material at the several places which accounts
for the plurality and particularity of the rep-
licas. Yet the one die is responsible for the
character common to them all.
The sensible things of any one sort are not
only particular because the Form they imitate
is somehow received in matter; they are also
perishable because of that fact. The receptacle
is the principle of generation or of change. It is,
Timaeus says, "the natural recipient of all im-
pressions," which is "stirred and informed by
them, and appears different from time to time
by reason of them, but the forms which enter
into and go out of her are the likenesses of real
existences modelled after their patterns in a
wonderful and inexplicable manner."
Matter, as Plato here suggests, is the mother
of changing things, things which, between com-
ing to be and passing away, are what they are
because of the unchanging Forms. The Form
which is received in matter for a time makes
the changing thing an imitation^ as the matter
in which the Form is received makes the chang-
ing thing a participation.
The admittedly mysterious partaking of the
Fo'rms by the formless receptacle constitutes
the realm of becoming, in which being and
nan- being arc mixed. But the Forms or Ideas
themselves, existing apart from their sensible
imitations, are "uncreated and indestructible,
never receiving anything from without, nor
going out to any other, but invisible and im-
perceptible by any sense/' They constitute the
realm of pure being. They arc the intelligible
reality.
THE CRITICISM OF the Forms or Ideas which
we find m the writings of Aristotle is primarily
directed against their separate existence. "Plato
was not far wrong," Aristotle says, "when he
said that there are as many Forms as there are
kinds of natural object"; but he immediately
adds the qualification: "if there are Forms dis-
tinct from the things of this earth." It is pre-
cisely that supposition which Aristotle chal-
lenges.
Aristotle's criticism of Plato stems from his
own notion of substance, and especially from
his conception of sensible substances as com-
posed of matter and form. He uses the word
"substance" to signify that which exists in and
of itself; or, in other words, that which exists
separately from other things. Hence, when he
says that, in addition to sensible substances,
"Plato posited two kinds of substances— the
Forms and the objects of mathematics," he is
translating the affirmation that the Forms have
being separately from the sensible world of
changing things, into an assertion that they are
substances.
"Socrates did not make the universals or the
definitions exist apart," Aristotle writes; but
referring to the Platonists, he says, "they, how-
ever, gave them separate existence, and this
was the kind of thing they called Ideas." What
proof is there, he repeatedly asks, for the sepa-
rate existence of the Forms, or universals, or
the objects of mathematics? "Of the various
ways in which it is proved that the Forms
exist," he declares, "none is convincing." Fur-
thermore, he objects to the statement that "all
other things come from the Forms"; for "to
say that they are patterns and the other things
share in them is to use empty words and poeti-
cal metaphors," There is the additional diffi-
culty, he thinks, that "there will be several pat-
terns of the same thing, and therefore several
Forms; e.g., 'animal' and 'two-footed' and also
'man himself will be Forms of man."
Aristotle's denial of separate existence, or
substantiality, to the Ideas or universals stands
side by side with his affirmation of the place of
forms in the being of substances and the role of
universals in the order of knowledge. Further-
more, he limits his denial of the substantiality
of Ideas to those Forms which seem to be the
archetypes or models of sensible things. Par-
CHAPTER 28: FORM
531
ticular physical things—familiar sensible sub-
stances, such as the stone, the tree, or the man
— are not, in his opinion, imitations of or par-
ticipations in universal models which exist apart
from these things. He leaves it an open question
whether there are self-subsistent Forms or Ideas
— that is, purely intelligible substances— which
do not function as the models for sensible things
to imitate.
Stated positively, the Aristotelian theory
consists in two affirmations. The first is that the
characteristics of things are determined by "in-
dwelling forms," which have their being not
apart from but in the things themselves. To
illustrate his meaning he turns to the realm of
art. When we make a brass sphere, he writes,
"we bring the form," which is a sphere, "into
this particular matter," the brass, and "the re-
sult is a brazen sphere." There is no "sphere
apart from the individual spheres," and no
brass apart from the particular lumps of metal
that are brass. "The 'form' means the 'such,'
and is not a 'this' — a definite thing," such as
this individual brazen sphere.
Aristotle analyzes natural things in the same
manner. It is from "the indwelling form and
the matter," he says, that "the concrete sub-
stance is derived." Men such as Callias or Soc-
rates, for example, consist of "such and such
a form in this flesh and in these bones," and
"they are different in virtue of their matter
(for that is different) but the same in form."
The flesh and bones of Callias are not the flesh
and bones of Socrates; but though different as
individual men, they are the same as men be-
cause they have the same form.
The second point is that our understanding
of things involves the forms of things, but now
somehow in the intellect rather than in the
things themselves. In order to know things,
Aristotle says, we must have within us "either
the things themselves or their forms. The
former alternative is of course impossible: it is
not the stone which is present in the soul," he
maintains, "but its form."
The form in the thing is as individual as the
thing itself. But in the mind, as the result of the
intellect's power to abstract this form from its
matter, the form becomes a universal; it is then
called by Aristotle an "idea," "abstraction," or
"concept." Forms arc umversals in the mind
alone. If there were a form existing apart from
both matter and mind, it would be neither an
individual form nor an abstract universal.
The indwelling forms, according to Aristotle,
are not universals. Except for the possibility of
Forms which dwell apart and bear no resem-
blance at all to sensible things, all forms are
either in matter or, abstracted from matter, in
the human mind. These are often called "ma-
terial forms" because they are the forms which
matter takes or can take, and which the mind
abstracts from matter. Their being consists in
informing or determining matter, just as the
being of matter consists in the capacity to re-
ceive these forms and to be determined by
them.
THE FOREGOING helps to explain Aristotle's use
of the word "composite" as a synonym for "sub-
stance" when he is considering particular sensi-
ble things. The independently existing, indi-
vidual physical things which Aristotle calls
"substances" are all composite of form and mat-
ter. He sometimes also calls form and matter
"substances," but when he uses the word "sub-
stance" strictly and in its primary sense, he
applies it only to the concrete individual. Form
and matter are only principles or constituents
of the concrete thing— the composite substance.
The union of form and matter to constitute
physical substances also explains the Aristo-
telian identification of form with actuality and
of matter with potentiality; and the relation of
form and matter to a third term in the analysis
of change, namely, privation. As a physical thing
changes, its matter gives up one form to take on
another. Its matter thus represents its capacity
or potentiality for form. Matter is thcformable
aspect of changing things. What things are
actually at any moment is due to the forms they
possess. But they may have the potentiality for
acquiring other forms, with respect to which
they are in privation.
'The mutability of mutable things," Augus-
tine writes, "is simply their capacity for all the
forms into which mutable things can be
changed." Change consists in a transformation
of matter, which is another way of saying that it
consists in the actualization of a thing's poten-
tialities. The Aristotelian theory of form and
matter is a theory of becoming as weli as art
532
THE GREAT IDEAS
analysis of the being of changing things. Illus-
trative applications of this theory will be found
in the chapters on ART, CAUSE, and CHANGE.
Some forms arc sensible. Some are shapes,
some are qualities, some are quantities. But not
all forms are perceptible by the senses; as, for
example, the form which matter takes when a
plant or animal is generated and which gives
the generated thing its specific nature. This
type of form came to be called a "substantial
form" because it determines the kind of sub-
stance which the thing is. In contrast, the forms
which determine the properties or attributes of
a thing are called its "accidents" or "accidental
forms." For example, size and shape, color and
weight, are accidental forms of a man; whereas
that by virtue of which this thing (having a
certain size, shape, and color) is a man, is its
substantial form.
Aristotle's distinction between substantial
and accidental form affects his analysis of
change and his conception of matter. Genera-
tion and corruption are for him substantial
change, change in which matter undergoes
transformation with respect to its substantial
form. The various types of motion— alteration,
increase or decrease, and local motion— -are
changes which take place in enduring sub-
stances, and with respect to their accidental
forms.
The substratum of accidental change is not
formless matter, but matter having a certain
substantial form; whereas in the coming to be
or passing away of substances, the substratum
would seem to be a primary sort of matter,
devoid of all form. As indicated in the chapter
on MATTER, this, according to Aristotle, is "the
primary substratum of each thing, from which
it comes to be without qualification, and which
persists in the result." He tries to help us grasp
prime matter by using an analogy. "As the
bronze is to the statue, the wood to the bed,"
he writes, "so is the underlying nature to sub-
stance"—matter absolutely formless to sub-
stantial form.
Aristotle sometimes speaks of the substantial
form as a first act or actuality, and of accidental
forms as second actualities. Accordingly he also
distinguishes between a primary and secondary
kind of matter— the one absolutely potential,
and underlying substantial change; the other
partly actualized and partly potential, and in*
volved in accidental change, "Primary mat-
ter," Aquinas explains, "has substantial being
through its form. ... But when once it exists
under one form it is in potentiality to others."
Perhaps one more distinction should be men-
tioned because of its significance for later dis-
cussions of form. Regarding living and non-
living things as essentially distinct, Aristotle
differentiates between the forms constituting
these two kinds of substances. As appears in the
chapter on SOUL, he uses the word "soul" to
name the substantial form of plants, animals,
and men.
BOTH THE PLATONIC theory of the separate
Forms and the Aristotelian theory of the com-
position of form and matter raise difficulties
which their authors consider and which become
the subject of intense controversy among Pla-
tonists and Aristotelians in the Hellenistic and
mediaeval periods.
The Platonic theory faces a question which
arises from supposing the existence of an eternal
and immutable Form for every appearance in
the sensible world of becoming. If the Idea and
the individual are alike, then "some further
idea of likeness will always be coming to light,"
Parmenides says to Socrates; "and if that be
like anything else, then another; and new
ideas will be always arising, if the idea resembles
that which partakes of it." Because of this dif-
ficulty with the doctrine of participation,
Parmenides suggests that it may be necessary
to conclude that "the Idea cannot be like the
individual or the individual like the Idea." In
addition, the relationships of the Forms to one
another presents a difficulty. Is the relation of
one Form to another, Parmenides asks, de-
termined by the essence of each Form, or by
the relationships among the sensible particulars
that imitate the Forms in question? Either
solution seems to be unsatisfactory because of
the further difficulties which both raise.
Yet, after propounding questions of this sort,
and multiplying difficulties, Parmenides con-
cludes by telling Socrates why the theory of
Ideas cannot be given up. "If a man, fixing his
attention on these and like difficulties," he
says, "does away with the Forms of things and
will not admit that every individual thing has
CHAPTER 28: FORM
533
its own determinate Idea which is always one
and the same, he will have nothing on which
his mind can rest; and so he will utterly destroy
the power of reasoning."
The Aristotelian theory has difficulties of its
own with respect to the ultimate character of
matter apart from all forms. Completely form-
less matter would be pure potentiality and
would therefore have no actual being. It would
be completely unintelligible, since form is the
principle of any thing's intelligibility. Never-
theless, something like formless matter seems to
be involved in substantial change, in contrast
to the substantially formed matter which is the
substratum of accidental change.
The problem of prime matter is related in
later speculations to the problem of the number
and order of the various forms which matter
can take. The question is whether matter must
have a substantial form before it can have any
accidental form; and whether it can have a
second substantial form in addition to a first, or
is limited to having a single substantial form,
all subsequent forms necessarily being acci-
dental.
Aquinas plainly argues in favor of the unity
of substantial form. "Nothing is absolutely
one," he maintains, "except by one form, by
which a thing has being; because a thing has
both being and unity from the same source,
and therefore things which are denominated by
various forms are not absolutely one; as, for
instance, a white man. If, therefore," Aquinas
continues, "man were living by one form, the
vegetative soul, and animal by another form,
the sensitive soul, and man by another form,
the intellectual soul, it would follow that man
is not absolutely one. ... We must, therefore,
conclude," he says, "that the intellectual soul,
the sensitive soul, and the nutritive soul are in
man numerically one and the same soul." In
other words, "of one thing there is but one sub-
stantial form." It is not only "impossible that
there be in man another substantial form be-
sides the intellectual soul," but there is also no
need of any other, because "the intellectual
soul contains virtually whatever belongs to the
sensitive soul of brute animals and the nutritive
soul of plants."
The Aristotelian theory also has difficulties
with respect to substantial forms as objects of
knowledge and definition. The definition which
the mind formulates attempts to state the es-
sence of the thing defined. The formulable es-
sence of a thing would seem to be identical with
its form. But Aristotle raises the question and
his followers debate at length whether the es-
sence of a composite substance is identical with
its substantial form or includes its matter as
well.
Among his followers Aquinas maintains that,
in defining the essence or species of a composite
substance, the genus is used to signify the mat-*
ter and the differentia the form. "Some held,"
he writes, "that the form alone belongs to the
species, while the matter is part of the individ-
ual, and not of the species. This cannot be
true, for to the nature of the species belongs
what the definition signifies, and in natural
things the definition does not signify the form
only, but the form and the matter. Hence in
natural things the matter is part of the species;
not, indeed, signate matter, which is the prin-
ciple of individuation, but common matter."
He explains in another place that "matter is
twofold; common and signate, or individual:
common, such as flesh and bone; individual,
such as this flesh and these bones." In forming
the universal concept man, for example, the
intellect abstracts the notion of the species
"from this flesh and these bones, which do not
belong to the species as such, but to the indi-
vidual. ... But the species of man cannot be ab-
stracted by the intellect from flesh and bones"
As will be seen in the chapters on ONE
AND MANY and UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR,
the Platonic and the Aristotelian theories of
form are equally involved in the great prob-
lem of the universal and the individual. Even
though they seem to be diametrically opposed
on the existence of universals— whether apart
from or only in minds— both Plato and Aris-
totle face the necessity of explaining individu-
ality. What makes the particular that imitates
a universal Form the unique individual it is?
What makes the indwelling form of a composite
substance an individual form, as unique as the
individual substance of which it is the form?
We have already noted that both Platonists
and Aristotelians appeal to matter as somehow
responsible for individuation or individuality,
but that only raises further questions. The
534
THE GREAT IDEAS
Platonists conceive matter as the receptacle of
all Forms, and so in itself absolutely formless.
How, then, can it cause the particulanzations
which must be accounted for? Since prime
matter, like the receptacle, is formless, the
Aristotelians resort to what they call "signatc
matter" or "individual matter" to explain the
individuality of forms and substances; but it
has been argued that this only begs the ques-
tion rather than solves it.
THE CORRELATIVE ttrms form and matter seem
to occur in modern thought under the guise of
certain equivalents; as, for example, the distinct
substances which Descartes calls "thought" and
"extension"— res cogitans and res extensa—or
the infinite attributes of substance which
Spinoza calls "mind" and "body." They ap-
pear more explicitly in Kant's analysis of knowl-
edge, related a$ the a pnort and the a posteriori
elements of experience. But it is in the great
theological speculations of the Middle Ages
that the most explicit and extended use of
these terms is made, often with new interpreta-
tions placed on ancient theories.
The doctrine of spiritual substances, for ex-
ample, has a bearing on the theory of self-
subsistent Forms. The angels arc sometimes
called "separate forms" by the theologians.
They are conceived as immaterial substances,
and hence as simple rather than composite. But
though Plotmus identifies the order of purely
intelligible beings with the pure intelligences,
the Christian theologian does not identify the
Platonic Ideas with the angels. He regards the
angels as intelligences. They exist as pure forms,
and therefore are intelligible as well as intellec-
tual substances. But ohcy are in no sense the
archetypes or models which sensible things re-
semble.
Nevertheless, Christian theology does in-
clude that aspect of the Platonic theory which
looks upon the Ideas as the eternal models or
patterns. But, as Aquinas points out, the sepa-
rately existing Forms are replaced by what
Augustine calls "the exemplars existing in the
divine mind."
Aquinas remarks on the fact that "whenever
Augustine, who was imbued with the doctrines
of the Pktonists* found in their teaching any-
thing consistent with faith, he adopted it; and
those things which he found contrary to faith
he amended." He then goes on to say that,
Augustine could not adopt, but had to amend,1
the teaching of the Platomsts that "the forms
of things subsist of themselves apart from mat-
ter." He did thisy not by denying the ideas,-
"according to which all things arc formed," but
by denying that they could exist outside thti
divine mind. The divine ideas are the eternal
exemplars and the eternal types—types, Aqui-
nas explains, insofar as they are the likenesses of
things and so the principles of God's knowl-
edge; exemplars insofar as they are "the princi-
ples of the making of things" in God's act of
creation.
The profound mystery of the creative act
which projects the divine ideas into substantial
or material being replaces the older problem of
how physical things derive their natures by
participation in the Forms. According to the
Aristotelian theory, both natural generation
and artistic production involve the transforma-
tion of a pre-existent matter. According to the
Platonic myth of the world's origin, only
changing things are created, neither the recep-
tacle nor the Ideas. But the Christian dogma of
creation excludes everything from eternity ex-
cept God.
Ideas ' are eternal only as inseparable from
the divine mind. Being spiritual creatures, the
angels, or sel&subsistent forms, are not eternal.
And in the world of corporeal creatures, mat-
ter as well as its forms must begin to be with
the creation of things. Since matter ,and its
forms cannot exist in separation from one an-
other, the theologians hold that God cannot
create them separately. God cannot be sup-
posed, Augustine says, "first to have made
formless matter, and after an interval of time,
formed what He had first made formless; but,"
he goes on, "as intelligible sounds are made by
a speaker, wherein the sound issues not formless
at first and afterwards receives a. form, but is
uttered already formed; so must God be under-
stood to have made the world of formless mat-
ter, but contemporaneously to have created
the world." God "concreates" form and matter,
Augustine holds, "giving form, to matter's
formlessness without any interVal of time."
Defending Augustine's interpretation of the
passage-in Genesis which says that the earth,
CHAPTER 28: FORM 53$
which God in the beginning created, "was un- who, like Aquinas, adopt his theory must also
formed and void," Aquinas argues that "if adapt it to supernatural conditions when they
formless matter preceded in duration, it already deal with the problems of substance involved in
existed; for this is implied by duration. ... To the mystery of the Incarnation of the second
say, then, that matter preceded, but without person of the Trinity and the mystery of tran-
form, is to say that being existed actually, yet substantiation in the Eucharist,
without actuality, which is a contradiction in Furthermore, Aristotle's identification of
terms. . . . Hence we must assert that primary soul with the substantial form of a living thing
matter was not created altogether formless." makes it difficult to conceive the separate exist-
But neither, according to Aquinas, can the ence of the individual human soul. Again an
form of any material t;hing be created apart adaptation is required., As indicated in the
from its matter, "Forms and other non-sub* chapters on IMMORTALITY and SOUL, the Chris-
sistmg things, which are said to co-exist rather tian doctrine of personal survival is given an
than to exist," he declares, "ought to be called Aristotelian rendering by regarding the human
concreated rather than created things." soul as a form which is not completely material.
Aristotle's theory of physical substances as Hence it is conceived as capable of sclf-subsist-
composite of form and matter raises certain ence when, with death and the dissolution of the
special difficulties for Christian theology. Those composite nature, it is separated from the body.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1. Form in relation to becoming or change 536
la. Forms as immutable models or archetypes: the exemplar ideas
ib. Forms as indwelling causes or principles
ic. The transcendental or a priori forms as constitutive of order in experience 537
id. The realization of forms in the sensible order
(1) Imitation or participation: the role of the receptacle
(2) Creation, generation, production: embodiment in matter or substratum
2. The being of forms ' 538
20. The existence of forms: separately, in matter, in mind
2b> The eternity of forms, the perpetuity of species: the divine ideas
2c+ Form in the composite being of the individual thing 539
(1) The union of matter and form: potentiality and actuality
(2) The distinction between substantial and accidental forms
(3) The unity of substantial form: prime matter in relation to substantial form
2<£ Angels and human souls as self-subsistent forms: the substantiality of thought
or mind in separation from extension or body 540
3. Form in relation to knowledge
30. Sensible forms, intelligible, forms: the forms of intuition and understanding
3^. The problem of the universal: knowledge of the individual 541
y. Form and definition: thq formulable essence; the problem of matter in relation
to definition
4. The denial of form as a principle of being, becoming, or knowledge
536 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of tne passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES . Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer' to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesofthenght-handsideof
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
pf the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283! 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows, e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemtah, 7.45— (D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
liForm in relation to becoming or change 215a; TR v, CH 4-TR ix, CH 14 230b-251d /
Sixth Ennead, TR 11, CH 20-22 278d-280d; TR
la. Forms as immutable models or archetypes: VII> CH ,j- 323c-331a
the exemplar ideas 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a; BK
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 88a-89a; 113c-114a,c / Phae- xii, par 38 108d-109a / City of God, BK vin,
drus, 125a-b / Symposium, 167b-d / Phaedo, CH 3, 266a-b; CH 6, 269b-c; BK ix, CH 22
231b-232b; 247c-248c / Republic, BK in, 333b- 296d-297a; BK xi, CH 7 326a-c; CH 10, 328c d;
334b; BK v, 368c-369c; BK vi, 382a-c; BK vi- CH 29 339a-b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 9-
vii,386c-389c; BK ix-x, 426d-429b / Timaeus, 10 627a-b; BK n, CH 38 654b-c
447a-458b passim, esp 447b-448b / Parmcn- 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 15
ides, 487c-491a / Philebus, 610d-613a / Seventh 91b-94a passim; Q 18, A 4, REP 2 107d-108c;
Letter, 809c-810b Q 44, A 3 240b-241a; Q 47, A i, REP 2 256a-
SARISTOTLF: Topics, BK n, CH 7 [113*24-33] 257b; Q 50, A 3, ANS 272a-273b;o_ 65, A 4, ANS
158d; BK vi, CH 8 [147*5-11] 201a / Generation 342b-343c; Q 108, A i, ANS and REP 2 S52c-
and Corruption, BK n, CH 9 (335b8-24] 437a-b / 553c
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [987*29~bi3] 505b-c; 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c
CH 7 [988*34-b5] 506c; CH 9 [991*19-32] 509c; 35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK in, CH m,
BK vn, CH 8 [1033*19-1034*7] 5S6d-557b; BK SECT 17 258d-259b; SECT 19 259c-260a
xm, CH 4-5 610a-611d 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a; 173b-174a /
Q ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [io96b32-i097* Practical Reason, 352c-353a / Judgement, 551a-
I4)342b-c 552c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a d
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK v [181-194] **' Forms as indwellio« causes or principles
63b-c 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i 259a-268d; BK n,
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR in, CH i 1 46b-c; CH i [i93*30-bi9] 269c-270a; CH 2 [194*12^15]
TR HI, CH I7-TR iv, CH 5 49b-51d; TR iv, CH 270c~271a; BK in, CH 2 [202*9-11] 279c /
15 56c-57a / Third Ennead, TR ix, CH 1 136a-d Heavens, BK i, CH 8 [277*12-27] 368b-c; BK iv,
/ fourth Ennead, TR n, CH 1 139c-140c; TR ix CH 4 [312*3-22] 403c-d / Generation and Cor-
20Sa-207a,c / Fifth Ennead, TR n, CH i 214c- ruption, BK i, CH 3 [318*13-18] 415b-c / Meta-
Ic to 14(2)
physics, BK v> CH 4 534d-535c; BK vii, CH 7-9
555a-558a esp CH 8 556b-557b; BK xn, CH 2-5
598c-601a
9 ARISTOTLE : Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i (640*
12-642*24] 162b-165b / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 20 [729*6 }~CH 22 [73ob33] 269b-271a
10 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 7, A i,
ANS 31a-d; Q 9, A 2, REP 3 39c-40d; Q 14, A 8,
ANS 82c-83b; Q 15, A i, ANS 91b-92a; Q 18, A 3,
ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c; Q
42, A i, REP i 224b-225d; Q 51, A i, REP 3
275b-276b; Q 65, A 4, ANS 342b-343c; Q 85, A
2, ANS 453d-455b; Q 104, A i, ANS and REP 1-2
534c-536c; Q 105, A 2, ANS 539c-540c; Q 115,
AA 1-2 585d-588c; PART i-n, Q 5, A 6, REP 2
641a-642a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS and REP i 5a-6a; Q 52, A i, ANS 15d-
18a; Q 109, A i, ANS 338b-339c; PART n-ii,
Q 23, A 2, REP 3 483d-484d; Q 24, A n, ANS
498b-499c; PART in, Q 13, A i, ANS 780a-781b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
[19-33] 80a» PARADISE, ii [46-148] 108b-109b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 36d-37a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 386d-387a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 51 lllc; BK n, APH
1-2 137a-c; APH 17 149b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxxi,
SECT 6 240d-241d; SECT 13 243a-b; CH xxxn,
SECT 24 247c-d; BK in, CH HI, SECT 15-18
258b-259c; CH vi, SECT 2-3 268c-d; CH ix,
SECT 12 287d-288a
42 KANT- Judgement, 550a-551a,c; 553c-562a,c;
565b-569a; 581c; 584c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
160b
Ic. The transcendental or a priori forms as con-
stitutive of order in experience
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c esp 14a-15c,
23a-33d, 41c-42b, 48d-51d, 53b-55a, 56d-
59b, 63d-64a, 66d-93c, 94d-96d, lOOd-lOlb;
112d-113a; 115d; 129c-137a,c; 153c-155a;
162b-163a; 173b; 176d-177a; 186d-187a;
207c-d; 213d-215a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of
Morals, 253a-c; 282b c; 283b / Practical Rea-
son, 308a-b; 319d; 335c-336a; 350b-c / Judge-
ment, 461a-c; 471b-c; 482d; 492c-d; 515d-
516b; 517b-c; 542c-d; 551a-553c; 562a-
563b; 570b-572d; 612c-d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 627a-631a; 852a; 859a-882a
Id. The realization of forms in the sensible
order
!</(!) Imitation or participation: the role of
the receptacle
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 81a-b / Phaedrus, 126b-c
/ Symposium, 167b-d / Phaedo, 242c-243c /
Republic, BK in, 333b 334b; BK v, 368c-371b;
BK vi, 382a-c; BK x, 427c-429b /
CHAPTEA 28: FORM
53T
455c-477a,c csp 455c-4$8b / Parmenides, 487c-
491a / Seventh Letter, fc<fctf-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 2 [209b5-i7)
J88b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH
9 t335b^24) 437ft-b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH
6 505b-506b; CH 9 [99ob22-99i»8] 509a-b; BK
vni, CH 6 [1045*14-19] 569d-570a; BK xn,
CH 10 [io75bi6-2o] 606C; BK xin, CH 4 [1079*
i9-b3)610d-611a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-
23a; TR vn, CH 2 26c-d; TR vm, CH 8 30d-3ic;
CH 10-11 32a-33d / Second Ennead, TR in, CH
n 46b-c; CH 18 49c-50a; TR iv, CH 5 51b-d;
TR ix, CH 8 70a-d; CH 10-12 72a-73d; CH 16,
76a-b / Third Ennead, TR 11, CH i-382c-84c;
CH 14 89b-d; TR v, CH i, lOOd-lOlb; CH 6,
104a; TR vi, CH 8-19 lllc-119a; TR vn, CH 11
126a-d; TR vm 129a-136a / Fourth Ennead, TR
11, CH i, 140a-c; TR in, CH 4-5 143d-144c; CH
15, 150a-b; TR iv, CH 13 164d-165b; TR vni, CH
3-TR ix, CH 5 202a-207a,c csp TR ix, CH 2
205c-206a / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 4-13 230b-
235b; TR vn, CH i 238a-b; TR vni, CH 1-3
239b-241a; CH 7, 243a-b; TR ix, CH 3 247b-d;
CH 11-14 250c-251d / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH
20-22 278d-280d; TR iv, CH 9-10 301c-302c;
TR v, CH 6 307b-c; TR vi 310d-321b; TR vn,
CH 4-9 323c-326c; CH 18-23 331b-333c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 65,
A 4, ANS 342b-343c; Q 115, A 3, REP 2 588c-
589c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; A 2 18a-19a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113c-115a
ld(2) Creation, generation, production: em-
bodiment in matter or substratum
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 88a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 6-9 264c-268d;
BK n, CH i [i93*9-bl9l 269b-270a; BK in, CH 6
[2o6b33]-CH 7 [208*4] 285b-286c; BK iv, CH 2
288b-289a; CH 9 [2i7*2o-b26] 297a-c / Heav-
ens, BK i, CH 9 [277b26-278b9J 369a-d; BK iv,
CH 3 401c-402c; CH 4 [312*3-22] 403c-d /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 7
[324^-24] 422d-423b / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH 6 [987b3o-988*8] 506a; BK in, CH 4 [999*
24^24) 518a-c; BK v, CH 4 534d-535c; BK xn,
CH 10 [io75b34~37] 606d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[640*1 2-64 ib39] 162b-165a / Generation of
Animals, BK i, CH 20 [729*6]-^ 22 [73ob33]
269b-27la
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 13 271b;
BK vn, SECT 23 281b; BK xn, SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead^ TR iv, CH 6-9 51d-
53b; TR v 57d-60c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 7 90d-91a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3,
A 2, REP 3 15c-16a; Q 7, A i, ANS 31a-d; Q 46,
A r, REP 6 250a-252d; Q 65, A 4, ANS 34 2 b-
538
THE GREAT IDEAS
I to 2b
(\d. The realization qf forms in the sensible order.
ld(2) Creation, generation, production:
embodiment in matter or substratum,)
343c; Q 66, A i, ANS 343d-345c; Q 84, A 3, REP
2 443d-444d; Q 90, A 2 481d-482c; Q 104, A i,
ANS and REP 1-2 534c-536c; Q 105, A i 538d-
539c; Q no, A 2 565d-566d; PART i-n, Q 20,
A i, REP 3 712a-d
20 AQUINAS; Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; PART II-H, Q 24, A n, ANS
498b-499c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [46-148]
108b-109b; vn [121-148] 116b-c; xm [52-84]
126a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, lOOd-lOlb; 186b-d /
Judgement, 556d-558a; 559b-d; 561c-562a;
565b~d; 566d-567a; 575c-576a; 577c-d
2. The being of forms
2a. The existence of forms: separately, in mat-
ter, in mind
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Symposium,
167a-d / Republic, BK v, 368c-373c; BK vi,
385c-386c; BK ix-x, 426d-429b / Timaeus,
457b-458a / Parmenides, 487c-491a / Sophist,
570a-574c / Philebus, 610d-613a / Seventh
Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH n
[77*5-9] 105d-106a; CH 13 [79*6-10] 108c; CH
18 [8i*4o~b5] lllb-c; CH 22 [83*23-35] 113c-d,
CH 24 [85bi7-22] 117a / Topics, BK n, CH 7
[113*24-33] 158d; BK vi, CH 6 [143^1-33]
197 b-c; CH 10 [148*13-22] 202 b / Physics, BK
n, CH i [i93b2-5] 269d; CH 2 [19^23-194*6]
270a-b; BK iv, OH i [2o8bi9-24] 287b-c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 6 505b-506b; CH 9 508c-
Sllc; BK in, CH 2 [997*34-998*19] 516a-d;
CH 4 [999*24^24] 518a~c; CH 4 [iooiR4}-cH 6
[ioo2b3i] 519d-521d; BK vn, CH 2 [io28bi8-28]
551a-b; CH 8 [ro33bi9-io34a8] 556d-557b; CH
13-14 562a-563c; CH 15 [io40ft8-b4] 564a-c; CH
16 [1040^8-1041*4] 564d-565a; BK vm, CH 6
[1045*14-19] 569d-570a; BK ix, CH 8 [io5ob
35-1051*2] 576d-577a; BK x, CH 10 586c-d;
BK xi, CH i [1059*39-^1] 587b-c; CH 2 588a-
589a; CH 3 [io6i*29-b4] 589c; BK xn, CH i
[1069*27-37] 598b; CH 3 [1070*4-30] 599b-d;
CH 6 [io7ibi2-23] 601b-c; CH 10 [io75b25~33]
606c-d; BK xin-xiv (j07a-626d / Soul, BK in,
CH4 [429*10-29] 661b-c;cH 7 [43 ^13-19] 664 b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vn, CH 1-2 26a-d;
TR vm, CH 2-3 27c-28c / Third Ennead, TR
viu, CH 8-10 132d-136a / Fourth Ennead, TR
in, CH 4-5 143d-144c; CH 17 150d-151b / Fifth
Enncad, TR iv 226d-228b; TR vn, CH I-TR
vm, CH 3 238a-241a; TR ix, CH 4-14 247d-
251d / Sixth Enncad, TR H, CH 20-22 278d-
280d; TR v, CH 8 307d-308c; TR vi 310d-321b
csp CH 4-10 312b-315d, CH 15-17 31&b<320c;
TR vn, CH 8-17 325b-331a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a; BK
x, par 19 76a-b; BK xi, par 7, 90d / City of God,
BK vm, CH 6, 269b-c; BK xi, CH 27,337d-338a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
4, ANS 16d-17c; Q 4, A i, REP 3 20d-21b; Q 5,
A 3, REP 4 25a-d; Q 9, A 2, REP 3 39c-40d; Q
13, A i, REP 2 62c-63c; Q 14, A i, ANS 75d-76c;
A 2, ANS 76d-77d; Q 15, A i, ANS and REP i
91b-92a; Q 18, A 4, REP 3 107d-108c; Q 44, A i,
REP 3 238b-239a; A 3 240b-241a; Q 65, A 4
342b-343c; Q 84, AA 1-4 440d-446b; Q 85, A i,
REP 2 451c-453c; Q no, A 2, ANS 565d-566d;
Q 115, A i, ANS 585d-587c; A3, REP 2 588c-
589c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; PART in, Q 4, A 4, ANS and
REP 2 733a-734a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART iv, 269d-271b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, v, 93b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH in,
SECT 11-20 257a-260a; CH v-vi 263d-283a
passim, esp CH v, SECT 9 266a-b, SECT 12 266d-
267a, CH vi, SECT 2-3 268c-d, BK iv, CH iv,
SECT 6 325a-b; CH vi, SECT 4 331d-332b,
CH ix, SECT i 349a
35 BERKELEY : Human Knowledge, SECT 12 415b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 23b-d; 34a-b; 36b-c;
45d-46a; 48d-49a; lOOd-lOlb; 176d-177a;
186b-187a; 211c-213a / Judgement, 461a-c;
551a-553c; 556d-558a; 559b-d; 575c-576a,
577c-d, 580b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 881b
2b. The eternity of forms, the perpetuity of
species: the divine ideas
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113a-114a,c / Phaedrus,
125a-b / Symposium, 167b-d / Phaedo, 231c-
232b / Timaeus, 447a-d; 457c-d / Laws, BK
iv, 685b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK 11,
CH 10 [336^5-34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH
6 [987B29-bi8] 505b-d; BK in, CH 2 [997*34-
bi2] 516a-b; BK vi, CH i [1026*7-18] 548a-b,
BK vn, CH 8 [io33bi9-io34a8] 556d-557b; BK
xi, CH 2 588a-589a; BK xn, CH 6 [107^12-23]
601b-c; BK xm, CH 4 [io78b7-io79*4] 610a-c
/ Soul, BK 11, CH 4 [4i5*23-b8] 645c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [io96*33-b5]
341c-d
11 NICOMACHUS • Arithmetic, BK i, 841a-d
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Enncad, TR vn, CH 2-17
322b-331a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a; BK
xn, par 38 108d-109a / Cay of God, BK vm,
CH 3, 266a-b; CH 6, 269b-c; BK ix, CH 22
296d-297a; BK xi, CH 7 326a-c; CH 10, 328c-d;
CH 29 339a-b / Christian Doctrine, BK 11, CH
38 654b-c
. 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 8 82c-83b; Q 15 91b-94a; Q 16, A 7, REP 2
2cto2c(3)
CHAPTER 28: FORM
539
99a-d; Q 18, A 4, RBP 3 107d-108c; Q 44, A 3
240b-241a; Q 47, A i, REP 2 256a-257b; Q 57,
A i, ANS 295a-d; Q 58, AA 6-7 304c-306b; Q 65,
A 4 342b-343c; Q 84, A 2, ANS and REP 3 442b-
443c; A 4, REP i 444d-446b; A 5 446c-447c; Q
87, A i, ANS 465a-466c; Q 98, A i 516d>517d;
Q 108, A i, ANS and REP 2 552c-553c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-1032b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, v, 93b d / Objec-
tions and Replies, 216d-217c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c; PROP 21-23 364a-365a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113c-115a; 173b-174a /
Judgement, 551a-552c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b
2c. Form in the composite being of the in-
dividual thing
2c(l) The union of matter and form: poten-
tiality and actuality
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK 11, CH i [i93*9~bi9]
269b-270a / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4 [ioi4b26-
1015*11] 535a-b; CH 6 [ioi6bi2-i8] 537a-b;
CH 8 538b-c; CH 24 [io23*32-bi] 545a; BK
VH, CH 17 565a-566a,c; BK vm, CH 6 569d-
570d; BK ix, CH 6-9 573c-577c; BK xn, CH
4-5 599d~601a; CH 10 [iQ75b34-37] 606d /
Soul, BK ii, CH 1-2 642a-644c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [640*
i2-64ib39J 162b-165a / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 20 [729*9]-^ 2i [?29b2i] 269b-270a;
CH 21 (730a24]-cH 22 [730^32] 270c-271a; BK
n, CH 3 [737*6-27] 277d-278a; CH 4 [738^-
28] 279b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 13
271b
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1078a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vni, CH 8 30d-
31c; CH 10-11 32a-33d / Second Ennead, TR iv,
CH 6 51d-52a; CH 8-9 52c-53b; TR v 57d-60c
/ Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 8-19 lllc-119a /
Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 8 307d-308c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 7 90d-
91a; BK xii, par 3-6 99d-100c; par 8, lOlb;
par 9, lOlc; par 14-16 102b-103a; par 24-26
104c-105b; par 28-31 105c-107a; par 38-40
108d-110a; BK xin, par 48 124a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
2, ANS and REP 3 15c-16a; A 8 19d-20c; Q 7,
A i, ANS and REP 2 31a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 3
31d-32c; Q 9, A 2, REP 3 39c-40d; Q 14, A i
75d-76c; A 2, REP 1,3 76d-77d; Q 18, A 4, REP
2-3 107d-108c; Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-163b; A
2, ANS and REP 4-5 163b-164b; Q 50, A 2 270a-
272a; A 5, ANS 274b-275a; Q 55, A 2, ANS 289d-
290d; Q 62, A 7, REP i 322d-323b; Q 66, A i
343d-345c; A 2, ANS 34Sd-347b; Q 70, A 3,
REP 2 365b-367a; Q 76 385c-399b; Q 86, A 3
463 b-d; Q 104, A i, ANS 534c-536c; PART i-n,
Q 10, A i, REP 2 662d-663d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS and REP i 5a-6a; PART ii-n, Q 24,
A iit ANS 498b-499c; PART HI, Q 2, A i, ANS
and REP 2 7lOa-7llc; A 2, ANS 711d-712d;
PART in SUPPL, Q 82, A i, REP 2 968a-970c;
Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Dwmc Comedy, PARADISE, i [127-142]
107c-d; ii U^-H8! 108b-109b; vn [121-148!
116b-c; xin [52-84] 126a-b; xxix [13-36]
150b-c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK n, 30b
33 PASCAL: Pcnsccs, 512 262a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 23b; 34a-b; 36b-c; 45d-
46a; 48d-49a; lOOd-lOlb; 186b-187a; I88d-
189a
2c(2) The distinction between substantial and
accidental forms
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 2,
ANS 31d-32c; Q 8, A 2, REP 3 35c-36b; Q 29,
A 2, ANS and REP 4-5 163b-164b; Q 45, A 4,
ANS 244d-245c; Q 54, AA 1-3 285a-287b; Q
66, A i, REP 3 343d-345c; Q 67, A 3 351b-352a;
Q 76, A 4 393a-394c; A 6 396a-d; Q 77, A i
399c-401b; A 6, ANS 404c-405c; PART i-n, Q 7,
A 4, REP 3 654b-655a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 2, ANS 2b-4a; A 4, ANS and REP i 5a-6a;
Q 50, A 2 7c-8a; Q 52, A i, ANS 15d-18a; Q 85,
A i, REP 4 178b-179b; PART HI, Q 2, A i, ANS
710a-711c; A 2, ANS 711d-712d; PART in
SUPPL, Q 70, A i, ANS 893d-895d; Q 79, A i,
REp4951b-953b
31 DESCARTES . Discourse, PART i, 41d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xii,
SECT 3-6 147d-148c; CH xxm, SECT 3 204c-d;
CH xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; CH xxxn,
SECT 24 247c-d; BK in, CH in, SECT 15-19
258b-260a; CH vi 268b-283a passim, csp SECT
i-io 268b-271b, SECT 21, 273c, SECT 24 274c;
CH ix, SECT 12-13 287d-288d; CH x, SECT 20
296d-297a
42 KANT : Pure Reason, 131c-d / Judgement, 580c-d
2c(3) The unity of substantial form: prime
matter in relation to substantial form
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*3-33]
268a-c / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 3
[3i9*29-b4] 416b-c / Meteorology, BK iv, CH
12 [389b22-390*7] 493d-494a / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH 9 [991*26-32] 509c; BK n, CH 2 [994*
1-6] 512b; BK v, CH 4 [1015*5-11] 535b; BK vn,
CH 3 [1029*11-26] 551c d; CH 8 [io33bi-5J
556c; CH 13 [1039*2-23] 562d*563a; CH 16
[i040b5-i6] 564c; [1041*5] 565a; BK vm, CH 4
[1044*15-32] 568d-569a; BK ix, CH 7 [1049*
24-bi] 57Sa; BK xii, CH 3 [io69b35-io7o*
4] 599a-b; [1070*9-11] 599b; BK xm, CH 5
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7-9 52a-
53b; TR v 57d-60c / Third Ennead, TR vi, CH
7-19 110d-119a / Fourth Ennead, TR ix 205a-
207a,c
540
THE GREAT IDEAS
Id to la
(2c. Form hi the compotite bring of the individual
thing. 2r(3) The unity of substantial form:
prime matter in relation to substantial
form.)
10 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART it Q 3, A
8, REP 3 19d-20c; Q 5, A 3, REP 3 25«-d; Q 7,
A 2, ANS and RBP 3 31d-32c; Q 8, A 4, REP i
37c-38c; Q 14, A 2, REP 3 76d-77d; Q 15, A 3,
REP 3 93b-94a; Q 16, A 7, REP 2 99a-d; Q 47,
A i, ANS 256a-257b; Q 66, AA 1-2 343d-347b;
Q 76, AA 3-4 391a-394c; Q 77, A i, REP 2 399c-
401b; A 2, REP 3 401b-d; Q 84, A 3, REP 2 443d-
444d; Q 115, A li REP 1-2,4 585d-587c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 79, A i, REP 4 951b-953b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT n
415a-b
2d. Angels and human souls as self-subsistent
forms: the substantiality of thought or
mind in separation from extension or
body
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vni, CH 2 27c-d /
Fourth Ennead, TR i, CH i, 139b; TR in, CH
9-12 146d-149b; CH 18 151b-c; TR ix 205a-
207a,c / Sixth Ennead, TR ix, CH 5, 356d-
357a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-
587b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A
2, ANS and REP 2 31d-32c; Q 8, A 2, REP 2-3
35c-36b; Q 50 269a-275a csp A 2 270a-272a;
Q 75 378a-385c csp A 5 382a-383b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy^ PARADISE, vn [121-
148] 116b-c; xxix [13-36] 150b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 80a-b; PART HI,
174b-176d; PART iv, 250c-251c; 258b-261a;
270c-271b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51d 52a;
PART v, 60b-c / Meditations, H 77d-81d;
vi 96b-103d / (Objections and Replies, DBF x
130d; PROP iv 133c; 152b,d-156a; 224d-225b;
225d-226a;23Ia-232d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 10 358a b; PROP
14, COROL 2 360a; PART 11, PROP r-2 373d-
374a; PROP 7 375a-c; PROP 13 377d-378c;
PART in, PROP 2 396c-398b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i (423-431] 102b;
BK v [388-443] 183b-185a; (469-505] 185b-
186a; BK vi [320-353] 203a-204a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH xxm,
SBCT 5 205a-b; SECT 15-37 208c-214b pas-
sim
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 2 413b;
SECT 26-27 418a-b; SECT 89 430b-c; SECT
135-142 440a-441c
40 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 186b
41 . Gi B BON : Decline and Fall, *36b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 121a-128b; 201b-c; 203d-
204c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 25 7c-
258a; PART iv, 360c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 221a-226a
3. Form in relation to knowledge
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus,
125a-c / Republic, BK v, 368c-373c; BK vi,
385c-388a / Timaeus, 457b-458a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH n
[77*5-9] 105d-106a; CH 22 [83*23-35] 113c-d /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 50&b-S06b; CH 9 [990*
33-991*18] 508c-509c; BK xm, CH 4 [i078b6]-
CH 5 [1079*^24] 610a-611c / Soul, BK HI, CH 4
[429*13-28] 661b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Ctfy of God, BK xi, CH 7 326a c;
CH29339a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 2,
REP 2 31d-32c; Q 13, A i, RBP 2 62c-63c; Q 14,
A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 2 76d-77d; Q 15, A i, ANS
and REP 1,3 91b-92a; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c;
Q 34, A i, REP 3 185b-187b; Q 86, A 3 463b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvin
[49-60] 80b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxxi,
SECT 6-13 240d-243b; BK HI, CH vi 268b-
283a passim; CH ix, SECT 12 287d-288a; BK iv,
CH iv, SECT 5-8 324d-325c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c; 173b / Fund.
Prin. Metaphystc of Morals, 282b-c / Practical
Reason, 308a-b
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PREP, 7a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693d-
694c
53 JAMES • Psychology, 859a-860b
3a. Sensible forms, intelligible forms: the
forms of intuition and understanding
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 113c<114a,c/ Phaedrus, 125a-
126c / Symposium, 167a-d / Phacdo, 228a-232b
/ Republic, BK in, 333b-334b; BK v, 370d-
373c; BK vi, 383d-388a / Timaeus, 447a-d;
455c-458a / Theaetetus, 534c-536a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[79*6-10] 108c / Topics, BK n, CH 7 [113*23-33]
158d / Soul, BK in, CH 2 [425^7-26] 657d-
658a; CH 4 661b-662c; CH 8 664b-d / Memory
and Reminiscence, CH i [450*26-451*19] 691a-
692b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 19 76a-b;
BK xn, pat 5 lOOa-b / City of God, BK vm,
CH 6, 269b-c; BK xi, CH 27, 337d-338a; BK xn,
CH 7 346c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 2,
REP231d-32c;gi3, A 9, ANS 71b-72c;g 14, A i,
ANS 75d-76c; A 8, ANS 82c-83b; Q 15, A i, ANS
and REP i,391b-92a;Qi7,A3,ANsl02d-103c;Q
18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-
109c; Q 34, A i, REP 3 18$b-187b; Q 50, A 2,
RBP 2 270a-272a; Q 84 440b-451b; Q 85, AA
1-2 451c-455b; A 5,457d-458d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 62,
A 3, REW L 61c-62b; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i,
ANS 1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES: Lctnathan, PART i, 49d
35 LOCKS: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 9-10 270d-271b
Zbto 4
CHAPTER 28: FORM
541
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c csp 14a-15c,
23a-33d, 41c-42b, 48d-55a, 56d-59b, 61a-64a,
65d-66d, 68a-93c, 94d-96d, lOOd-lOlb; 112d-
113a; 115d; 135a-137a,c; 153c-155a; 173b;
207c-d; 213d-215a / Fund. Prm. Metaphysic
of Morals, 282b-c; 283b / Practical Reason,
308a-b; 319d; 33Sc-336a; 350b-c / Judge-
ment, 461a-c; 471b-c; 517b-c; 542c-d; 552b-c;
562a-b; 603d-604c; 612c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 420a-b; 628b-631a
3£. The problem of the universal: knowledge
of the individual
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedo, 228a-
232b / Republic, BK v, 370d-373c / Parmenides,
487c-491a / Philebus, 610d-613a
8 ARISTOTLE • Categories, CH 5 [2b6-3y] 6c-7a /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH n [77*5-9] 105d-
106a; CH 24 [85*3i-b22] 116c-117a / Topics, BK
ii, CH 7 [113*23-33] 158d / Sophistical Refuta-
tions, CH 22 [i78b37-i79ftio] 246c / Physics, BK
vn, CH 3 [247bi-7J 330b / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH 6 505b-506b; CH 9 508c-511c; BK HI, CH 3
[999*6-14] 517d; CH 4 [999R24~b24] 518a-c; BK
vii, CH 8 [io33bi9~io34a8] 556d-557b; CH 10
[io35b28-32] 559b; CH 11 [1037*5-9] 560c, CH
13-15 562a-564c; BK xin, CH 4-5 610a-611d;
CH 10 618c-619a,c / Soul, BK in, CH 4 [429*18-
29] 661c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 341b-342c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 2,
REP 3 15c-16a; A 3, ANS 16a-d; Q 4, A 3, ANS
22b-23b; Q n, A 3, ANS 49a-c; Q 13, A 9, ANS
and REP 2 71b-72c; Q 14, A n 84c-85c; Q 16, A
7, REP 2 99a-d; Q 39, A 3, ANS 204c-205c; Q 50,
A 2, ANS 270a-272a; A 4, ANS 273b-274b; Q
57, A 2 295d-297a; Q 76, A 2, ANS 388c-391a; Q
85, A 7, REP 3 459c-460b; Q 86, A i 461c-462a;
A 3 463b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 2,
A2,ANs711d-712d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-333b
esp 333a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH in,
SECT 6-20 255c-260a; CH v-vi 263d-283a pas-
sim, esp CH v, SECT 9 266a-b, CH vi, SECT 32
277c-278b, SECT 36-37 279a-b; BK iv, CH iv,
SECT 5-8 324d-325c; CH vi, SECT 4 331d-332b;
CH vn, SECT 9 338d-339b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
6-19 405d-410c esp SECT 15-16 409a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 211c-218d / Judgement,
573a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158b-c;
PART iv, 360c-361a
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 308a-312a
3 c. Form and definition: the formidable es-
sence; the problem of matter in relation
to definition
7 PLATO: Phacdrus, 134b-c / Mcno, 174b-179b /
Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 3-10
123c-128d; CH 13 131b-133c / Physics, BK n,
CH i (i93*3o-bi9) 269c-270a / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [317*17-27] 413b /
Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12 493d-494d / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 6 505b-506b; CH 7 [988*34-
b5J 506c; BK n, CH 2 [994bi6-27] 513a-b;
BK v, CH 2 [1013*27-28] 533b; BK vi, CH i
[io25b28-io26»6] 547d-548a; BK vn, CH 4-6
552b-555a; CH 10-15 558a-564c; BK vm,
CH 1-3 566a-568d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK xii,
CH 9 [1074^7-1075*2] 605c; BK xin, CH 4-5
610a-611d / Soul, BK i, CH i 631a-632d;
BK ii, CH 1-3 642a-645b passim, BK in, CH
4 [429^0-23] 661d-662a; CH 6 [430^6-31]
663b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Part< of Animals, BK i, CH i [641*
14-31] 163d-164a; CH 2-4 165d-168c csp CH 3
166a-167d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 3,
ANS 16a-d; A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 13, A 12, REP
2 74c-75b; Q 17, A 3, ANS 102d-103c; Q 18,
A 4, REP 3 107d-108c; Q 29, A i, REP 4 162a-
163b; Q 50, A 4 273b-274b, Q 75, A 4, ANS
381b~382a; Q 85, A i, REP 2 451c-453c; PART
i-n, Q i, A 3, ANS 611b-612a
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 55,
A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 28c-29d; PART n-n, Q 4,
A i, ANS 402a-403d; PART in, Q 2, A 5, ANS
715a-716b
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PARI i, DEF 4 355b; PROP 8,
SCHOL 2, 357a-d; PART n, PROP 37 386b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxni
204a-214b; CH xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; CH
xxxn, SECT 24 247c-d; BK in, CH in, SECT 12-
20 257b-260a; CH v-vi 263d-283a passim; CH
ix, SECT 11-17 287d 290a; CH x, SECT 17-21
295d-297b; CH xi, SECT 19-20 304b-d; BK iv,
CH iv, SECT 5-8 324d-325c; CH vi, SECT 4-16
331d-336d passim
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i
413a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 342a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176c;
184d-185a
4. The denial of form as a principle of being,
becoming, or knowledge
7 PLATO: Cratylus, J13c-114a,c / Sophist, 567a-
568a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 4 [1007*20-
bi8] 526c-527a; CH 5 528c-530c passim; BK xi,
CH 6 590d-592b
23KoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 49d; PART iv,
269b-271a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 51 lllc;
BK n, APH 1-2 137a-c; APH 17 149b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vui,
SECT 2 133c; CH ^xxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b
passim, esp SECT 6 240d-241d; BK in, CH vi,
SECT 10 271b; SECT 24 274c; CH x, SECT 20
296d-297a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 422a-b
542 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the Forms or Ideas as immutable models or archetypes, see CHANGE 153;
ETERNITY 40; IDEA la, 6b.
Other discussions of forms as indwelling causes or principles in mutable things, see CAUSE la;
CHANGE 23; MATTER la; and for the consideration of form and matter as co-principles of
composite substances, see BEING 7b(2).
Discussions of matter or the receptacle in relation to form, /^CHANGE 2~2b; MATTER i-ib;
SPACE la; WORLD 4b; and for the consideration of matter apart from form, see MATTER 2, 33.
The controversy over the separate existence of the Forms, the objects of mathematics, and
universal*, see BEING 7d(2)~7d(3); MATHEMATICS 2b; SAME AND OTHER 2a; UNIVERSAL
AND PARTICULAR 2a-2c; and for the problem of the cause of individuality, see MATTER ic;
UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 3.
The existence of forms in the mind as concepts abstracted from matter, see IDEA 2g; MATTER
4d; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 6c(i); SENSE 53; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 4C.
Other considerations of the a priori or transcendental forms of intuition, see SENSE ic;
SPACE 43; TIME 6c.
Comparisons of creation, generation, and production as each relates to form and matter,
see ART 2b-2c; MATTER 3d; WORLD 4e(i).
Other terms related to the distinction of form and matter or to the kinds of form, see BEING
70, 7c(i)-7c(3); NATURE 13(2); UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 6a.
The theological doctrine of the angels as self-subsistent forms or simple substances, see
ANGEL 2, 3b~3c; BEING 7^2); for the theological doctrine of the forms as eternal ex-
emplars or types in the mind of God, see GOD 5f; IDEA ic; and for the theory of the soul
as the substantial form of a living thing, see LIFE AND DEATH i; MAN 33; SOUL ib.
Form and matter in relation to definition, see BEING 8c; DEFINITION 6a; MATTER 4b;
NATURE 13(2).
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings, which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
JOHN OP SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho~
*•" misticus, ' Philosophia NaturaKs, PART i, QQ 3-4,
AQUINAS. On Bemg arid Essence 6, 9, 1 1
. Quacstioncs Disputatae, De Antma MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la verttc1
. On Spiritual Ctetttitrcs SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL i,
KANT. De Mundi SensibtUs (Inaugural Dissertation), BK, i-m
SECT w LOTZB* Metaphysics v
C. S. PEIRCB. Collected Papers, VOL vi, par 353-363
*'• BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality
DUNS SCOTUS. Opus Oxoniense, BK i, DIST 7 (24) DESCOQS. Essat critique sur fhy&norphismc
CRESCAS. Or Adonai, PROPOSITIONS 10-11, 16 SANTAYANA. The Realm of Essence i
BRUNO. De la causa, principw, e uno WHITBHBAD. Process and Reality PAJ&T n, CH i
SuXn'BZ. Disputationes Metapnysicae, v (4), xn (3), FOREST.' La structure mftafhystguefy concret
xrti (1-9), xrv-xvi, XVHI (2-6), xxv*i (2), A. E. TAYLOR! Philosophical Studies, cif 3 *
xxvn, xxx (4), xxxi (S, 10; 13), xxxiv <5~6), KONINCK. Leprobleme de Vindttermtriismc
xxxv-xxxvi, XLII (2-3), XLV (4), xtvi BtA^sHARD. The Nature of Thought *
Chapter ip GOD
INTRODUCTION
WITH the exception of certain mathema-
ticians and physicists, all the authors of
the great books are represented in this chapter.
In sheer quantity of references, as well as in
variety, it is the largest chapter. The reason is
obvious. More consequences for thought and
action follow from the affirmation or denial of
God than from answering any other basic ques-
tion. They follow for those who regard the
question as answerable only by faith or only by
reason, and even for those who insist upon
suspending judgment entirely.
In addition to the primary question of God's
existence, there are all the problems of the
divine nature and of the relation of the world
and man to the gods or God. The solutions of
these problems cannot help influencing man's
conception of the world in which he lives, the
position that he occupies in it, and the life to
which he is called.
The whole tenor of human life is certainly
affected by whether men regard themselves as
the supreme beings in the universe or acknowl-
edge a superior — a superhuman being whom
they conceive as an object of fear or love, a
force to be defied or a Lord to be obeyed.
Among those who acknowledge a divinity, it
matters greatly whether the divine is repre-
sented merely by the concept of God—the
object of philosophical speculation— or by
the living God whom men worship in all the
acts of piety which comprise the rituals of re-
ligion.
The most radical differences in man's concep-
tion of his own nature follow from the exclusion
of divinity as its source or model on the one
hand, and from the various ways in which man
is seen as participating in divinity on the other.
"Many fundamental themes dnd issues are there-
fore common to this chapter and to the chapter
on MAN.
SOME OF THE TOPICS IN this chapter are pri-
marily philosophical. They belong to the sub-
ject matter of rational speculation or poetic
imagination in all the great epochs of our cul-
ture, regardless of differences in religious be-
lief. Other topics, however, arc peculiarly re-
stricted to matters of faith or religion. With
respect to such matters, dogmatic differences,
or differences in articles of faith, must be ex-
plicitly recognized.
The materials here assembled must therefore,
in some instances, be divided according to their
origin from pagan or from Jewish and Christian
sources. Though no great books from the Mo-
hammedan traditibn are included in this set,
the fact that Gibbon discusses the Moslem
faith and compares its teachings with those of
Judaism and Christianity explains the inclusion
of Mohammedanism in one group of topics.
That is the group which deals with the doc-
trines common to these three religions, as dis-
tinguished from the tenets on which Judaism
and Christianity differ dogmatically. The ex-
istence of certain common beliefs in the west-
ern tradition enables us to begin, as it seems
advisable to do, with the conception of God
that is shared by the living religions of western
culture today.
In our civilization, what is denied by an
atheist who says there is no God ? Not idols or
images which men may seek to placate. Not
philosophical constructions or mythological fig-
ures. Certainly not the universe itself, either as
an infinite and everlasting whole, or as finite
and temporal, but equally mysterious in its'ul-
timate incomprehensibility to the human mind.
In our civilization, the atheist denies the ex-
istence of a supernatural being, the object of
religious belief and worship among Jews, Chris-
tians, and Mohammedans. He denies the single,
personal God Who created the world out of
543
544
THE GREAT IDEAS
nothing, Who transcends this created universe
and sustains it by His immanent power, Who
has made laws for the government of all things
and cares for each particular by His providence,
and Who created man in His own image, re-
vealed Himself and His will to men, and metes
out eternal rewards and punishments to the
children of Adam, whom He also helps by His
grace,
In this religious conception of God, one term
must be saved from misinterpretation. The
word "personal" should not be read with an-
thropomorphic imagery, though its meaning
does entitle man as well as God to be called a
person rather than a thing. "Although the term
person is not found applied to God in Scripture,
cither in the Old or New Testament," Aquinas
writes, "nevertheless what the term signifies is
found to be affirmed of God in many places of
Scripture; as that He is the supreme self-sub-
sisting being, and the most perfectly intelligent
being,"
Boethius had defined a person as "an individ-
ual substance of a rational nature," or, as Locke
later said, "a thinking intelligent being."
In applying the term person to God, in the
meaning which Boethius had given it, Aquinas
comments on the difference in its meaning when
it is applied to men. God can be said to have a
rational nature, he writes, only "if reason be
taken to mean, not discursive thought, but,
in a general sense, an intelligent nature , . .
God cannot be called an individual" in the sense
in which physical things are, but only in the
sense of uniqueness. "Substance can be applied
to God [only] in the sense of signifying self-
subsistence." Aquinas does not conclude from
this that "person" is said improperly of God,
but rather that when God is called "personal"
the meaning is applied "in a more excellent
way," for God does not possess, God is, an in-
telligence.
We shall use this idea of a personal God, the
reality of which the contemporary atheist
denies; in order to distinguish divergent con-
ceptions in other doctrines. Then we shall ex-
amine more closely what is involved in this
idea itself,
IN THE WESTERN tradition, the various pagan
religions— reflected especially in the poems and
histories of Greek and Roman antiquity— were
all polytheistic. The number of their gods,
Montaigne estimates, "amounts to six-and-
thirty thousand." Augustine offers one explana-
tion of why there were so many. "The an-
cients," he writes, "being deceived either by
their own conjectures or by demons, supposed
that many gods must be invited to take an in-
terest in human affairs, and assigned to each a
separate function and a separate department —
to one the body, to another the soul; and in the
body itself, to one the head, to another the
neck, and each of the other members to one of
the gods; and in like manner, in the soul, to one
god the natural capacity was assigned, to an-
other education, to another anger, to another
lust; and so the various affairs of life were as-
signed—cattle to one, corn to another, wine to
another, oil to another, the woods to another,
money to another, navigation to another, wars
and victories to another, marriages to another,
births and fecundity to another, and other
things to other gods."
That polytheism, no less than monotheism,
conceives the divine as personal, appears in
Plato's Apology. When Socrates is accused of
atheism, he asks whether the indictment means
that he does not "acknowledge the gods which
the state acknowledges, but some other new
divinities or spiritual agencies m their stead."
Meletus answers that he thinks Socrates is a
complete atheist who recognizes no gods at all.
To this Socrates replies by suggesting that his
enemies must be confusing him with Anaxag-
oras, who had blasphemed against Apollo by
calling the sun "a red hot stone." As for him-
self, he offers evidence to show that he believes
in divine or spiritual agencies "new or old, no
matter"; and "if I believe in divine beings," he
asks, "how can I help believing in spirits or
demigods?"
Like the one God of Judaism and Chris-
tianity, the many gods of pagan antiquity have
immortal life, but they are not without origin.
Zeus is the son of Kronos, and he has many
offspring, both gods and demigods, who per-
form different functions and are not of equal
station in the Olympian hierarchy. The realm
of the divine includes such figures as the Titans
and the Cyclops, who are neither gods nor men;
and demigods, like Heracles, who are offspring
CHAPTER 29: GOD
545
of divine and human mating. Thes£ deities ex-
ercise superhuman powers, but none is com-
pletely omnipotent or omniscient, not even
Kronos or Zeus who cannot escape the decrees
of Fate. Moreover, with the exception, perhaps,
of that of Zeus, the power of one divinity 'is
often challenged and thwarted by another. This
aspect of polytheism and its bearing on the in-
tervention of the gods in the affairs of men are
discussed in the chapter on FATE.
The extent to which we think of the pagans
as idolatrous because they made graven images
of their gods in human form, or regard the
pagan conceptions of the gods as anthropomor-
phic, depends on our interpretation of religious
symbolism. Plato for one thinks that many of
the poets' descriptions of the gods and their
activities should be dismissed as unworthy,
precisely because they debase the gods to the
human level.
According to Gibbon, a Greek or Roman
philosopher "who considered the system of
polytheism as a composition of human fraud
and error, could disguise a smile of contempt
under the mask of devotion, without appre-
hending that either the mockery or the com-
pliance would expose him to the resentment of
any invisible, or, as he conceived them, imagi-
nary powers." But the early Christians, he
points out, saw the many gods of antiquity "in
a much more odious and formidable light" and
held them to be "the authors, the patrons, and
the objects of idolatry."
Those who take symbols with flat literalism
might also attack Christianity as anthropomor-
phic and idolatrous; in fact they have. The
defense of Christianity against this charge does
not avail in the case of Roman emperor-wor-
ship, which consisted not in the humamzation
of the divine for the sake of symbolic represen-
tation, but in the deification of the merely
human for political purposes.
Although there are radical differences, there
are also certain fundamental agreements be-
tween paganism and Judaeo-Christianity re-
garding the nature of the divine. As we have
already noted, the deities are conceived per-
sonally, not in terms of impersonal, brute
forces. Conceived as ocings with intelligence
and will, the gods concern themselves with
earthly society; they aid or oppose mart's plans
and efforts; they reward men for fidelity and
virtue or punish them for impiety and sin.
Despite all other differences between pagan-
ism and Christianity, these agreements are sub-
stantial enough to provide many common
threads of theological speculation throughout
our tradition, especially with regard to the
abiding practical problems of how man shall
view himself and his destiny in relation to the
divine or the supernatural. We have therefore
attempted to place passages from the great
books of pagan antiquity under every heading
except those which are specifically restricted to
the dogmas of Judaism and Christianity— even
under headings which arc worded monotheis-
tically, since even here there is continuity of
thought and expression from Homer and Virgil
to Dante and Milton; from Plato, Aristotle,
and Plotmus to Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes,
and Kant; from Lucretius to Newton and Dar-
win.
THE DOCTRINES known as deism and pantheism,
like unqualified atheism, are as much opposed
to the religious beliefs of polytheism as to the
faith of Judaism1 and Christianity.
Of these two, pantheism is much nearer
atheism, for it denies the existence of a tran-
scendent supernatural being or beings. God is
Nature. God is immanent in the world and,
in the extreme form of pantheism, not tran-
scendent in any way. Certain historic doctrines
which are often regarded as forms or kinds of
pantheism seem to be less extreme than this,
for they do not conceive the physical universe
as exhausting the infinite being of God. The
world, for all its vastncss and variety, may only
represent an aspect of the divine nature.
According to Spinoza, the attributes of ex-
tension and thought, in terms of which we un-
derstand the world or nature as being of the
divine substance, are merely those aspects of
God which are known to us, for the divine sub-
stance consists "of infinite attributes, each one
(of which expresses eternal and infinite essence."
In the conception of Plotimis, the whole world
represents only a 'partial emanation from the
• divine source. Yet thinkers like Plotinus and
Spinoza so conceive the relation of the world to
God that-^as in the strictest pantheism— the
religious doctrines of creation, providence, and
546
THE GREAT IDEAS
salvation arc cither rejected or profoundly al-
tered.
In the ancient world, the teaching of the
Stoic philosophers expresses a kind of panthe-
ism. "There is one universe made up of all
things," Marcus Aurelius writes, "and one God
who pervades all things, and one substance, and
one law, one common reason in all intelligent
animals, and one truth." He speaks of the
"common nature," which is apparently divine,
and of which "every particular nature is a part,
as the nature of the leaf is a part of the nature
of the plant." But, although he stresses the one-
ness and divinity of all things, Aurelius also
at times uses language which seems to refer to
a god who dwells apart from as well as in the
world, as, for example, when he debates
whether the gods have any concern with human
affairs,
Another type of ancient pantheism appears
in the thought of Plotmus, for whom all things
have being only insofar as they participate in,
even as they emanate from, the power of The
One, or Primal Source. "God is sovranly pres-
ent through all," he writes. "We cannot think
of something of God here and something else
there, nor of all of God gathered at some one
spot: there is an instantaneous presence every-
where, nothing containing and nothing left
void, everything therefore fully held by the
divine." The relation between The One and
every other thing is compared to the number
series. "Just as there is, primarily or secondarily,
some form or idea from the monad in each of
the successive numbers— the latter still partici-
pating, though unequally, in the unit— so the
series of beings following upon The First bear,
each, some form or idea derived from that
source. In Number the participation establishes
Quantity; in the realm of Being, the trace of
The One establishes reality: existence is a trace
of The One."
But although The One is in all things, and
all things depend upon it for their very exist-
ence, The One itself has no need of them* It is in
this sense that Plotinus says that "The One is
all things and no one of them . . . Holding all—
though itself nowhere held— it is omnipresent,
for where its presence failed something would
elude its hold. At the same time, in the sense
that it is nowhere held, it is not present: thus
it is both present and not present; not present
as not being circumscribed by anything; yet as
being utterly unattached, not inhibited from
presence at any point." Thus all things partake
of The One in absolute dependence. But The
One, considered in itself, is absolutely tran-
scendent. Plotinus even denies it the name of
God or Good or Being, saying it is beyond
these.
Whether or not Spinoza is a pantheist, has
long been debated by his commentators. An
explicit, even an extreme form of pantheism
would seem to be expressed in the proposition
that "whatever is, is in God, and nothing can
be or be conceived without God." But while
the one and only substance which exists is at
once nature and God, Spinoza identifies God
only with the nature he calls "natura naturans"
God is not reduced to the nature that falls with-
in man's limited experience or understanding—
the nature he calls "natura naturata"
"By natura naturans" he explains, "we are
to understand that which is in itself and is con-
ceived through itself, or those attributes of sub-
stance which express eternal and infinite es-
sence, that is to say, God in so far as He is con-
sidered as a free cause. But by natura naturata
I understand everything which follows from
the necessity of the nature of God, or of any
one of God's attributes, that is to say, all the
modes of God's attributes in so far as they are
considered as things which are in God and
which without God can neither be nor can be
conceived."
God is the infinite and eternal substance of
all finite existences, an absolute and unchang-
ing one underlying the finite modes in which it
variably manifests itself. Though God for Spi-
noza is transcendent in the sense of vastly ex-
ceeding the world known to man, in no sense
does God exist apart from the whole of nature.
Spinoza's view thus sharply departs from that
of an orthodox Jewish or Christian theologian.
When the latter says that God is transcendent,
he means that God exists apart, infinitely re-
moved from the whole created universe. When
the latter speaks of God as being immanent in
that universe, he carefully specifies that it is not
by His substance, but by the power of His ac-
tion and knowledge. But Spinoza calls God
"the immanent, and not the transitive, cause of
CHAPTER 29: GOD
547
all things," for the reason that "outside God
there can be no substance, that is to say, out-
side Him nothing can exist which is in itself."
These divergent conceptions of God's im-
manence and transcendence — so relevant to
the question of who is or is not a pantheist —
are further discussed in the chapters on NATURE
and WORLD.
UNLIKE PANTHEISM, deism affirms gods or a
God, personal intelligences existing apart from
this world; but, as in the teaching of Lucretius,
deism sometimes goes to the extreme of believ-
ing in absentee gods who neither intervene in
the order of nature nor concern themselves
with human affairs.
"The nature of the gods," Lucretius writes,
"must ever in itself of necessity enjoy immor-
tality together with supreme repose, far re-
moved and withdrawn from our concerns; since
exempt from every pain, exempt from all
dangers, strong in its own resources, not want-
ing aught of us, it is neither gained by favors
nor moved by anger."
Such gods neither create the world nor
govern it; above all they do not reward or
punish man, and so they do not have to be
feared or propitiated. "To say that for the sake
of men they have willed to set in order the
glorious nature of the world and therefore it is
mee¥ to praise the work of the gods immortal,
and that it is an unholy thing ever to shake by
any force from its fixed seats that which by the
forethought of the gods in ancient days has
been established on everlasting foundations for
mankind, or to assail it by speech and utterly
overturn it from top to bottom; and to invent
and add other figments of the kind ... is all
sheer folly. For what advantage can our grati-
tude bestow on immortal and blessed beings
that for our sakes they should take in hand to
administer aught?"
Divinity seems to have moral significance to
Lucretius only insofar as the gods exemplify the
happy life; and religion is immoral because its
superstitions concerning divine motives and
meddling make men servile and miserable.
When the deism of Lucretius is contrasted
with the more familiar modern forms of that
doctrine, the influence of Christianity is seen.
The modern deist af&hns the supremacy of one
God, the infinite and eternal Creator of this
world, Whose laws are the laws of nature
which are laid down from the beginning and
which govern all created things. Rousseau
speaks of this as "the religion of man" and even
identifies it with Chnstiamty — "not the Chris-
tianity of today, but that of the Gospel, which
is entirely different." He describes this religion
as that "which has neither temples, nor altars,
nor rites, and is confined to the purely internal
cult of the supreme God and the eternal obliga-
tions of morality."
Not all deists, certainly not those of the iyth
and early i8th centuries, go to the Lucretian
extreme of picturing an uninterested and mor-
ally neutral God. Many of them believe in an
after-life. But modern deism did tend toward
this extreme. By Kant's time it had even ceased
to look upon God as a personal intelligence.
Kant therefore takes great pains to distinguish
deism from theism.
The deist, according to Kant, "admits that
we can cognize by pure reason alone the exist-
ence of a supreme being, but at the same time
maintains that our conception of this being is
purely transcendental, and that all we can say
of it is, that it possesses all reality, without be-
ing able to define it more closely." The theist,
on the other hand, "asserts that reason is ca-
pable of presenting us, from the analogy with
nature, with a more definite conception of this
being, and that its operations, as the cause of all
things, are the results of intelligence and free
will."
Kant even maintains that "we might, in
strict rigor, deny to the deist any belief in
God at all, and regard him merely as a main-
tainer of the existence of a primal being or thing
— the supreme cause of all other things." In any
case, deism seems to be an essentially un-fewish
and un-Christian or anti-Jewish and anti-Chris-
tian doctrine, for it denies God's supernatural
revelation of Himself; it denies miracles and
every other manifestation of supernatural agen-
cy in the course of nature or the life of man;
it denies the efficacy of prayer and sacrament.
In short, it rejects the institutions and practices,
as well as the faith and hope, of any religion
which claims supernatural foundation and su-
pernatural warrant for its dogmas and rituals.
Deism, which "consists simply in the worship
548
THE GREAT IDEAS
of a God considered as great, powerful, and
eternal," is, in Pascal's opinion, "almost as far
removed from the Christian religion as atheism,
which is its exact opposite."
What Pascal and Kant call "deism" and
Rousseau "the religion of man," others like
Hume call "natural religion." His Dialogues
Concerning Natural Religion provide a classic
statement of rationalism, which is the same as
naturalism, in religion; though, as die chapter
on RELIGION indicates, it may be questioned
whether the word "religion" can be meaning-
fully used for a doctrine which claims no knowl-
edge,-beyond that of the philosopher, and no
guidance for human life beyond the precepts of
the, moralist.
THE SYSTEMATIC exposition of man's knowl-
edge of God is t,he science of theology. In addi-
tion to considering all things— the whole wprld
and human life— in relation to God, theology
treats especially of God's existence, essence, and
at tributes., Throughout the range of its subject
matter and problems, theology may be of two
sorts: it may be either natural knowledge, ob-
tained by ordinary processes of observation and
reasoning; or knowledge which is supernatural
in the sense of being based on divine revelation.
This i? the traditional distinction between nat-
ural and sacred or, as it is sometimes called,
dogmatic theology, The one belongs to the do-
main of reason; it is the work of the philosopher.
The other belongs to the domain of faith, and
is the work of the theologian who seeks to un-
derstand his faith.
These distinctions are discussed in the chap-
ters on THEOLOGY, METAPHYSICS, and WIS-
DOM. Here we are concerned with different at-
titudes toward the problem of man's knowledge
of God. The deist, as we have seen, rejects su-
pernatural revelation and faith; theology, like
religion, is held to be entirely natural, a work of
reason. The agnostic makes the opposite denial.
He denies that anything supernatural can be
known by reason. It cannot be proved or, for
that matter, disproved. The evidences of nature
and 1 the light of reason do not permit valid in-
ferences or arguments concerning God or crea-
tion, providence or immortality. ;
It is usually with respect to God's existence
that the agnostic most emphatically declares
reason'* incompetence to demonstrate. He
often accompanies the declaration with elabo-
rate criticisms of the arguments which may be
offered by others. This is not always the case,
however. For example, the great Jewish theolo-
gian, Moses Maimonides, thinks that God's ex-
istence can be proved by reason entirely apart
from faith; but with regard to the essence or
attributes of God, his position seems to be one
which might be called agnostic.
When men "ascribe -essential attributes to
God," Maimonides declares, "these so-called
essential attributes should not have any similar-
ity to the attributes of other things, just as
there is no similarity between the essence of
God and that of other beings." Since the mean-
ing of such positive attributes as good or wise is
derived from our knowledge of things, they do
not provide us with any knowledge of God's
essence, for no comparison obtains between
things and God. Hence Maimonides asserts that
"the negative attributes of God are the true
attributes." They tell us not what God is, but
what God is not.
Even though Maimonides holds that "exist-
ence and essence are perfectly identical" in
God, he also insists that "we comprehend only
the fact that He exists, not His essence. ... All
we understand," he goes on to say, in addition
to "the fact that He exists," is the fact that
"He is a Being to whom none of his creatures is
similar." This fact is confirmed in all the nega-
tive attributes such as eternal (meaning non-
temporal), infinite, or incorporeal; even as it is
falsified by all the positive attributes, expressed
by such names as "good" or "living" or "know-
ing," insofar as they imply a comparison be-
tween God and creatures. When they cannot
be interpreted negatively, they can be tolerated
as metaphors, but they must not be taken as
expressing an understanding "of the true es-
sence of God," concerning which Maimonides
maintains, "there is no possibility of obtaining
a knowledge."
Aquinas takes issue with such agnosticism
about the divine nature in his discussion of t;he
names of God. Although he says that "we can-
not know what God is, but rather what He is
not," Aquinas disagrees with Maimonides that
all names which express some knowledge of
God's essence must be interpreted negatively
CHAPTER 29: GOD
54$
or treated as metaphors. He denies that "when
we say God lives, we mean merely that God
is not like an inanimate thing" as "was taught
by Rabbi Moses." On the contrary, he holds
that "these names signify the divine substance
. . . although they fall short of representing
Him. . . . For these names express God, so far
as our intellects know Him. Now since our
intellect knows God from creatures, it knows
Him as far as creatures represent Him." There-
fore, Aquinas concludes, "when we say, God is
good, the meaning is not, God is the cause of
goodness, or, God is not evil: but the meaning
is, Whatever good we attribute to creatures pre-
exists in God, and in a higher way."
IF MAIMONIDES were right that the names
which are said positively of both God and
creatures are "applied ... in a purely equivocal
sense" (e.g-, having literal meaning when said
of creatures but being only metaphorical when
said of God), then, according to Aquinas, it
would follow that "from creatures nothing at
all could be known or demonstrated about
God." Those who say, on the other hand, that
"the things attributed to God and creatures
are univocal" (i.e., are said in exactly the same
sense), claim to comprehend more than man
can know of the divine essence. When the term
wise "is applied to God," Aquinas writes, "it
leaves the thing signified as uncomprehended
and as exceeding the signification of the name.
Hence it is evident that this term wise is not
applied in the same way to God and to man.
The same applies to other terms. Hence no
name is predicated univocally of God and crea-
tures" but rather all positives names "are said
of God and creatures in an analogous sense."
A further discussion of the names of God
will be found in the chapter on SIGN AND
SYMBOL; and the consideration of the analogi-
cal, the univocal, and the equivocal will also
be found there as well as in the chapter on
SAME AND OTHER. We have dealt with these
matters here only for the sake of describing that
degree of agnosticism, according to which
Maimomdes, by contrast with Aquinas, is an
agnostic. But agnosticism usually goes further
and denies that man can have any natural
knowledge of God—either of His existence or of
His essence.
So understood, agnosticism need not be in*
compatible with religion, unless a given reli-
gion holds, as an article of faith itself, that the
existence of God can be proved by reason. In
fact, the agnostic may be a religious man who
accepts divine revelation and regards faith as
divinely inspired.
Montaigne's Apology for Raimond de Scbondc
illustrates this position. Sebonde had written a
treatise on natural theology, which to Mon-
taigne seems "hardy and bold; for he under-
takes, by human and natural reasons to estab-
lish and make good against the atheists all the
articles of the Christian religion." Though
Montaigne says of his work, "I do not think it
possible to do better upon that subject," and
though he entertains the conjecture that it may
have been "drawn from St. Thomas Aquinas,
for, in truth, that mind full of infinite learning
and admirable subtlety, was alone capable of
such imaginations"; nevertheless, Montaigne
does "not believe that means purely human are,
in any sort, capable of doing it."
According to Montaigne, "it is faith alone
that vividly and certainly comprehends the
deep mysteries of our religion." In his view,
reason by itself is incapable of proving anything,
much less anything about God. "Our human
reasons," he writes, "are but sterile and un-
digested matter; the grace of God is its form;
it is that which gives it fashion and value." The
light and value in Sebonde's arguments come
from the fact that faith supervenes "to tint and
illustrate" them, and "renders them firm and
solid."
Such arguments, Montaigne says, may serve
as "direction and first guide to a learner" and
may even "render him capable of the grace of
God"; but for himself, skeptical of all argu-
ments, the way of faith alone can provide "a
certain constancy of opinion. . . . Thus have I,
by the grace of God, preserved myself entire,
without anxiety or trouble of conscience, in
the ancient belief of our religion, amidst so
many sects and divisions as our age has pro-
duced."
Far from being religious as Montaigne was,
the agnostic may be a skeptic about faith as
well as reason. He may look upon faith either
as superstition or as the exercise of the will to
believe with regard to the unknowable and the
550
THE GREAT IDEAS
unintelligible— almost wishful thinking. He
may even go so far as to treat religion, as if it
were pathological, ls,
Freud, for example, regards religion as an il-
lusion to be explained in terms of man's need
to create gods in his own image— to find a sur-
rogate for the father, on whom his infantile
dependence can be projected. Freud finds con-
firmation for this in the fact that in the reli-
gions of the west, God "is openly called Father,
Psychoanalysis/* he goes on, "concludes that he
really is the father, clothed in the grandeur in
which he 0ncc appeared to the small child."
Though the grown man "has long ago real-
ized that his father is a bemg with strictly hm-
itcd powers and by no means endowed with
every desirable attribute/* Freud thinks that
he nevertheless "looks back to the memory-
image of the overrated father of his childhood,
exalts it into a Deity, and brings it into the
presentand into reality. The emotional strength
of this memory-image and the lasting nature
of his need for protection"— for, as Freud ex-
plains, "in relation to the external world he is
still a child"— "arc the two supports of his
belief in God."
AT THE OTHER extreme from agnosticism is, as
the name implies, gnosticism. Like deism, it
dispenses with faith, but it exceeds traditional
deism in the claims it makes for reason's power
to penetrate the divine mysteries. Between ex-
clusive reliance on faith and an exaltation of
reason to the point where there is no need for
God to reveal anything, a middle ground is held
by those who acknowledge the contributions
of both faith and reason. Those who try to
harmonize the two usually distinguish between
the, spheres proper to each, and formulate some
principle according to which they are related
to each other in an orderly fashion.
Whatever is purely a matter of faith, Aquinas
says, is assented to solely because "it is revealed
by God." The articles of Christian faith are
typified by "the Trinity of Persons in Almighty
God, the mystery of Christ's Incarnation, and
the like." With regard to such matters, whkh
Aquinas thinks belong primarily to faith, some
auxiliary use can be made of reason, "not, in-
deed, to prove faith," he explains, but to make
clear the things that follow from it. Certain
matters, such as God's existence anci attributes,
he classifies as belonging to "the preambles to
faith" because they fall, in his view, within
reason's power to demonstrate, unaided by
faith. Yet even hsfe he does not assign the
affirmation of the truth to reason alone.
Just as "it was necessary for the salvation of
man that certain truths which exceed human
reason should be made known to him by divine
revelation," so even with regard to "those
truths about God which human reason can
investigate," Aquinas thinks it was also nec-
essary that "man be taught by a divine reve-
lation. For the truth about God, such as reason
can know it, would only be known by a few,
and that after a long time, and with the admix-
ture of many errors." Because "human reason
is very deficient in things concerning God" —
"a sign of which is that philosophers . . . have
fallen into many errors and have disagreed
among themselves"— men would have no
knowledge of God "free from doubt and un-
certainty" unless all divine truths were "de-
livered to them by the way of faith, being told
to them, as it were, by God Himself Who can-
not he."
In different ways faith supports reason and
reason helps faith. On matters which belong to
both reason and faith, faith provides a greater
certitude. On matters strictly of faith, reason
provides some understanding, however remote
and inadequate, of the mysteries of religion.
"The use of human reason in religion," Bacon
writes, "is of two sorts: the former, in the con-
ception and apprehension of the mysteries of
God to us revealed; the other, in the inferring
and deriving of doctrine and direction there-
upon. ... In the former we see God youch-
safeth to descend to our capacity, in the ex-
pressing of his mysteries in sort as may be sensi-
ble unto us; and doth grift his revelations and
holy doctrine upon the notions of our reason
and applieth his inspiration to open our under-
standing, as the form of the key to the ward
of the lock. For the latter, there is allowed us
an use of reason and argument, secondary and
respective, although not original and absolute.
For after the articles and principles of religion
are placed and exempted from examination
of reason, it is then permitted unto us to
make derivations and inferences from and ac-
cording to the analogy of them, for our better
direction.'*
In addition to all discursive knowledge of
God, whether it be by faith or by reason, there
is the totally incommunicable and intimate ac-
quaintance with the supernatural which the
mystic claims for his vision in moments of re-
ligious ecstasy or which is promised to the
blessed as their heavenly beatitude. When, at
the culmination of Paradise, Dante sees God,
"my vision," he declares, "was greater than our
speech."
Knowing that his "speech will fall more
short . . . than that of an infant who still bathes
his tongue at the breast," he tries nevertheless
to communicate in words "one single spark of
Thy glory for the folk to come." In the pres-
ence of God, he wntes, his mind, "wholly rapt,
was gazing fixed, motionless, and intent, and
ever with gazing grew enkindled. In that Light
one becomes such that it is impossible he should
ever consent to turn himself from it for other
sight; because the Good which is the object
of the will is all collected in it, and outside of
it that is defective which is perfect there."
THE ARGUMENTS FOR the existence of the gods
or of one God constitute one of the greatest
attempts of the human mind to go beyond the
sensible or phenomenal world of experience.
The attempt has been made in every age and
by minds of quite different persuasions in re-
ligious belief or philosophical outlook. It is
possible, nevertheless, to classify the arguments
into two or three main types.
Within the domain of pure or speculative
reason there seem to be two ways of approach-
ing the problem of God's existence.
One is in terms of the conception of God
as an infinite, perfect, and necessary being,
whose non-existence is therefore inconceivable.
According to Anselm, God cannot be conceived
in any other way than as "a being than which
nothing greater can be conceived." But since
"the fool hath said in his heart, there is no
God," how shall he be made to know that the
God, which exists in his understanding at the
moment when he denies His real existence, also
really exists outside his understanding? "For
it is one thing for an object to be in the under-
standing, and another to understand that the
551
object exists." Hence Anselm considers the
consequence of supposing that God exists in
the understanding alone.
"If that, than which nothing greater can be
conceived," he argues, "exists in the under-
standing alone, the very being, than which
nothing greater can be conceived, is one than
which a greater can be conceived"-* for to
exist in reality as well as in the understanding
is to have more being. But this leads to "an
irreconcilable contradiction," since "if that,
than which nothing greater can be conceived,
can be conceived not to exist, it is not that than
which nothing greater can be conceived."
Therefore Anselm concludes that a being "than
which nothing greater can be conceived" must
exist "both in the understanding and reality."
Anselm summarizes his argument by saying
that "no one who understands what God is,
can conceive that God docs not exist." Since
the non-existence of God is inconceivable, God
must exist. Descartes gives the same argument
a slightly different statement in terms of the
inseparability of God's essence from God's
existence.
"Being accustomed," he writes, "in all other
things to make a distinction between existence
and essence, I easily persuade myself that the
existence can be separated from the essence of
God, and that we can thus conceive God as not
actually existing. But, nevertheless, when I
think of it with more attention, I clearly see
that existence can no more be separated from
the essence of God than can its having its three
angles equal to two right angles be separated
from the essence of a rectilinear triangle, or
the idea of a mountain from the idea of a
valley; and so there is not any less repugnance
to our conceiving a God (that is, a Being su-
premely perfect) to whom existence is lacking
(that is to say, to whom a certain perfection is
lacking), than to conceive of a mountain which
has no valley."
Spinoza defines a "cause of itself as "that
whose essence involves existence; or that whose
nature cannot be conceived unless existing*"
Since in his conception of substance, substance
is necessarily infinite, it is also cause of itsclL
Hence he concludes that "God or substance
* . . necessarily exists"; for "if this be denied,
conceive if it be possible that God does not
552
THE GREAT IDEAS
exist. Then it follows that His essence does not
involve existence. But this is absurd. Therefore
God necessarily exists. v
This mode of argument, which takes still
other forms, is traditionally called the "on to-
logical argument" or the "0 priori proof of
God's existence. Its critics sometimes deny that
it is an argument or proof in any sense at all.
Aquinas, for example, interprets Anselm not as
proving God's existence, but rather as asserting
that God's existence is self-evident. Those who
say that the proposition "God does not exist"
is self-contradictory, arc saying that the oppo-
site proposition "God exists" must be self-
evident.
Aquinas does not deny that the proposition
"God exists" is intrinsically self-evident. On
this point he goes further than Anselm, Des-
cartes, and Spinoza. Where they say God's
essence involves His existence, Aquinas asserts
that in God essence and existence are identical.
When Moses asks God, "If they should say to
me, What is His name? what shall I say to
them?" the Lord says unto Moses, "I AM
THAT I AM," and adds, "Say to the children
of Israel: HE WHO IS hath sent me to you."
This name-HE WHO IS— Aquinas holds to
be "the most proper name of God" because it
signifies that "the being of God is His very
essence."
For this reason he thinks that the proposition
"God exists" is self-evident in itself. Its subject
and predicate are immediately related. Never-
theless, Aquinas holds that the proposition is
not self-evident to us "because we do not know
the essence of God." Even supposing, he
writes, "that everyone understands this name
God as signifying something than which noth-
ing greater can be thought, nevertheless, it
docs not therefore follow that he understands
that what the name signifies exists actually, but
only that it exists mentally. Nor can it be ar-
gued that it actually exists, unless it be ad-
mitted that there actually exists something
than which nothing greater can be thought; and
this precisely is not admitted by those who
hold that God docs not exist."
The writer of the First Set of Objections
to Descartes' Meditations maintains that the
criticism advanced by Aquinas applies to Des-
cartes as well as to Anselm. Whether stated in
terms of the conception of an absolutely perfect
being or in terms of essence and existence, the
argument is invalid, he thinks, which asserts
that God actually exists because His non-exist-
ence is inconceivable. Kant's later criticism of
the ontological argument takes a similar course.
A proposition may be logically necessary with-
out being true in fact.
"The conception of an absolutely necessary
being," he writes, "is a mere idea, the objective
reality of which is far from being established
by the mere fact that it is a need of reason. . . .
The unconditioned necessity of a judgment
does not form the absolute necessity of a
thing." From the fact that "existence belongs
necessarily to the object of the conception,"
we cannot conclude that "the existence of the
thing ... is therefore absolutely necessary—
merely," Kant says, "because its existence has
been cogitated in the conception. . . . What-
ever be the content of our conception of an
object, it is necessary to go beyond it, if we
wish to predicate existence of the object. . . .
The celebrated ontological or Cartesian argu-
ment for the existence of a supreme being is
therefore insufficient."
THE SECOND MAIN approach to the problem
of God's existence lies in the sort of proof
which, Locke thinks, "our own existence and
the sensible parts of the universe offer so clearly
and cogently to our thoughts." He refrains
from criticizing the argument from "the idea
of a most perfect being," but he does insist that
we should not "take some men's having that
idea of God in their minds ... for the only
proof of a Deity." He for one prefers to follow
the counsel of St. Paul, that "the invisible
things of God are clearly seen from the creation
of the world, being understood by the things
that are made, even his eternal power and God-
head."
We have, according to Locke, ari intuitive
knowledge of our own existence. We know, he
says, that "nonentity cannot produce any real
being"; and so "from the consideration of our-
selves, and what we infallibly find in our con-
stitution, our reason leads us to the knowledge
of this certain and evident truth— That there
is an eternal, most powerful, and most knowing
Being"
29: GOD
553
Without labelling it a 'proof of God's exist-
ence, Augustine in his Confessions presents a
similar argument— from the visible creation.
"Behold," he says, "the heavens and the earth
are; they proclaim that they were created; for
they change and vary. . . . They proclaim also
that they made not themselves: 'therefore we
are, because we have been made; we were not
therefore, before we were, so as to make our-
selves*. . . . Thou therefore, Lord, madest them."
This second approach to the existence of God
by reasoning from the facts of experience or
the evidences of nature is called the "a posteriori
proof." In the tradition of the great books, it
has been formulated in many different ways.
What is common to all of them is the principle
of causality, in terms of which the known exist-
ence of certain effects is made the basis for in-
ferring the existence of a unique cause*-a first
cause, a highest cause, an uncaused cause.
Aristotle, for example, in the last book of his
Physics, argues from the fact of motion or
change to the existence of an unmoved mover.
He sums up his elaborate reasoning on this
point in the following statement. "We estab-
lished the fact that everything that is in mo-
tion is moved by something, and that the
movent is either unmoved or in motion, and
that, if it is in motion, it is moved either by
itself or by something else and so on through-
out the series: and so we proceeded to the posi-
tion that the first principle that directly causes
things that are in motion to be moved is that
which moves itself, and the first principle of the
whole series is the unmoved."
Aristotle's argument, unlike that of Augus-
tine or Locke, does not presuppose the creation
of the world, at least not in the sense of the
world's having a beginning. On the contrary,
he holds the world and its motions to be as
eternal as their unmoved mover. "It is im-
possible," he writes in the Metaphysics, "that
movement should either have come into being
or cease to be." Precisely because he thinks the
world's motions are eternal, Aristotle holds
that the prime mover, in additioh to being
everlasting, must be immutable. This for him
means "a principle whose very essence is ac-
tuality." Only a substance without any poten-
cy, only one which is purely actual, can be an
absolutely immutable, eternal being.
Whatever has any potentiality in its nature
is capable x>f not existing. If everything were
of this sort, nothing that now is "need be,
for it is possible for all things to be capable of
existing, but not yet to exist." Hence, in still
another way, Aristotle seems to reach the con-
clusion that a purely actual being must exist;
and, furthermore, he seems to identify this
being with a living and thinking God. "Life
also belongs to God," he writes; "for the ac-
tuality of thought is life, and God is that ac-
tuality; and God's self-dependent actuality is
life most good and eternal."
Where Aristotle argues from motion and
potentiality to a prime mover and a pure ac-
tuality, Newton gives the a posteriori proof
another statement by arguing from the design
of the universe to God as its designer or archi-
tect. "The most wise and excellent contrivances
of things, and final causes" seem to him the best
way of knowing God. "Blind metaphysical
necessity, which is certainly the same always
and everywhere, could produce no variety in
things. All that diversity of natural things
which we find suited to different times and
places could arise from nothing but the ideas
and will of a Being necessarily existing,"
In similar fashion Berkeley maintains that
"if we attentively consider the constant regu-
larity, order, and concatenation of natural
things, the surprising magnificence, beauty,
and perfection of the larger, and the exquisite
contrivance of the smaller parts of the creation,
together with the exact harmony 'and corre-
spondence of the whole, but, above all, the
never enough admired laws of pain -and pleas-
ure, and the instincts or natural inclinations,
appetites, and passions of animals; I say if we
consider all these things, and at the same time
attend to the meaning and import of the at-
tributes, one, eternal, infinitely wise, good,
and perfect, we shall clearly perceive that they
belong to the . . . Spirit, who 'works all in all/
and 'by whom all things consist.' " This seems
to him so certain that he adds, "we may even
assert that the existence of God is far more
evidently perceived than the existence of men."
But, according to Berkeley, all the visible
things of nature exist only as ideas in our minds,
ideas which, unlike our own memories or imagi-
nations, we do not ourselves produce. "Every-
554
THE GREAT IDEAS
thing we sec, hear, feel, or anywise perceive by
sense/' he writes, must have some other cause
than our own will, and is therefore "a sign or
effect of the power of God/' To the "unthink-
ing herd" who claim that "they cannot see
God," Berkeley replies that "God ... is in-
timately present to our minds, producing in
them all that variety of ideas or sensations
which continually affect us."
The existence of any idea in us is for Berkeley
ground for asserting God's existence and power
as its cause. But for Descartes one idea alone
becomes the basis of such an inference. He
supplements his a priori or ontological argu-
ment with what he calls an "a posteriori dem-
onstration of God's existence from the mere
fact that the idea of God exists in us."
That he is himself imperfect, Descartes
knows from the fact that he doubts. Even
when doubting leads to knowledge, his knowl-
edge is imperfect, "an infallible token" of
which, he says, is the fact that "my knowledge
increases little by little." But the idea which
he has of God, he declares, is that of an abso-
lutely perfect being, "in whom there is nothing
merely potential, but in whom all is present
really and actually." On the principle that
there cannot be more reality or perfection in
the effect than in the cause, Descartes con-
cludes that his own imperfect mind cannot be
the cause of the idea of a perfect being. "The
idea that I possess of a being more perfect than
I," he writes, "must necessarily have been
placed in me by a being which is really more
perfect."
The radical imperfection of man, and indeed
of all creation, offers Augustine still another
proof for God's existence, which he attributes
to the "Platomsts." "They have seen," he
writes, "that whatever is changeable is not the
most high God, and therefore they have tran-
scended every soul and all changeable spirits
in seeking the supreme. They have seen also
that, in every changeable thing, the form which
makes it that which it is, whatever be its mode
or nature, can only be through Him who truly
is, because He is unchangeable. And therefore,
whether we consider the whole body of the
world, its figure, qualities, and orderly move-
ment, and also all the bodies which are in it;
or whether we consider all life, either that
which nourishes and maintains, as the life of
trees; or that which, besides this, has also sensa-
tion, as the life of beasts; or that which adds
to all these intelligence, as the life of man; 01
that which does not need the support of nutri-
ment, but only maintains, feels, understands,
as the life of angels — all can only be through
Him who absolutely is. For to Him it is not
one thing to be, and another to live, as though
He could be, not living; nor is it to Him one
thing to live, and another to understand, as
though He could live, not understanding; nor
is it to Him one thing to understand, another
to be blessed, as though He could understand
and not be blessed. But to Him to live, to
understand, to be blessed, are to be. They have
understood, from this unchangeableness and
this simplicity, that all things must have been
made by Him, and that He could Himself
have been made by none."
The variety of arguments we have so far
examined seems to fit the "five ways" in which,
according to Aquinas, the existence of God can
be proved a posteriori. "The first and most man-
ifest way is the argument from motion," which
Aquinas attributes to Aristotle. "The second
way is from the nature of an efficient cause."
Berkeley's argument or Locke's would seem,
in some respects, to offer a version of this mode
of reasoning. "The third way is taken from
possibility and necessity," and seems to develop
the argument from potentiality in Aristotle's
Metaphysics, and to contain the inference from
mutability and contingency which is implicit
in the argument attributed to the Platomsts
by Augustine. "The fourth way is taken from
the gradation to be found in things." Proceed-
ing from the existence of the imperfect to ab-
solute perfection, it resembles in principle the
reasoning of Descartes concerning the perfec-
tion in the cause relative to the perfection in
the effect. "The fifth way is taken from the
governance of the world"— from the fact that
everything acts for an end — and so is like the
argument which Newton offers from final
causes and the existence of order in the uni-
verse.
These "five ways" may or may not be re-
garded as an exhaustive list of the it posteriori
proofs. It may even be questioned whether the
five ways are logically distinct and indcpend-
CHAPTER 29: GOD
555
cnt. Aquinas himself says that "in speculative
matters the medium of demonstration, which
demonstrates the conclusion perfectly, is only
one; whereas probable means of proof are
many." Since he considers the argument for
God's existence to be a certain, not a probable
proof, it would seem to follow that, in strict
logic, only one principle can be involved in
that proof.
As already suggested, the principle— com-
mon to all the various ways in which such a
posteriori reasoning is expressed — seems to be
the principal of causality, This appears in the
argument from the existence of contingent
beings, which cannot cause their own being,
to the existence of a being which needs no cause
of its being, because its very essence is to exist.
This may be the one argument for God's exist-
ence or, if one among many, it may be the core
of all the others. It has the distinction at least
of conceiving God as the cause of being, rather
than of motion or of hierarchy and order in
the world.
According to the statement of Aquinas that
"being is the proper effect of God," it estab-
lishes God as the unique and direct cause of the
being possessed by every finite thing. This for-
mulation of the proof is more fully examined in
the chapter on NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY;
and its relation to the question of whether the
world had a beginning or is eternal, and if
eternal, whether it is created or uncreated, will
be seen in the chapters on CAUSE, ETERNITY,
and WORLD.
THE VALIDITY OF the a posteriori argument for
God's existence — in one form or another — is
questioned by those who think that the causal
principle cannot be applied beyond experience,
or who think that our knowledge of cause and
effect is not sufficient to warrant such infer-
ences.
"The existence of any being can only be
proved by arguments from its cause or its ef-
fect," Hume writes; "and these arguments
are founded entirely on experience. ... It is
only experience which teaches us the nature
and bounds of cause and effect, and enables us
to infer the existence of one object from that
of another." But Hume doubts "whether it be
possible for a cause to be known only by its
effect ... or to be of so singular and particu-
lar a nature as to have no parallel and no sim-
ilarity with any other cause or object, that has
ever fallen under our observation. ... If ex-
perience and observation and analogy be, in-
deed, the only guides which we can reasonably
follow in inferences of this nature," as Hume
thinks is the case, then it follows that "both
the effect and the cause must bear a similarity
and resemblance to other effects and causes
which we know.
"I leave it to your own reflection," he adds,
"to pursue the consequences of this principle."
One seems obvious enough; namely, that God
— a unique and unparalleled cause— cannot be
proved by reasoning from our experience of
effects and their causes. Hume himself draws
this conclusion when he declares that theology,
insofar as it is concerned with the existence of
a Deity, has "its best and most solid founda-
tion," not in reason or experience, but in "faith
and divine revelation."
Like Hume, Kant thinks that our notions
of cause and effect cannot be applied outside
experience or to anything beyond the realm
of sensible nature. But he offers an additional
reason for denying validity to all a posteriori
reasoning concerning God's existence. "It im-
poses upon us," he says, "an old argument in a
new dress, and appeals to the agreement of two
witnesses, the one with the credentials of pure
reason, and the other with those of empiricism;
while, in fact, it is only the former who has
changed his dress and voice."
The principle of the argument from the con-
tingency of the world or its parts Kant states
as follows: "If something exists, an absolutely
necessary being must likewise exist." One
premise in the argument, namely, that con-
tingent things exist, has its foundation in ex-
perience and therefore Kant admits that the
reasoning "is not completely a priori or on to-
logical." But in order to complete the proof, he
thinks it must be shown that an cnsrealissimum,
or most perfect being, is the same as an abso-
lutely necessary being, in order for the obtained
conclusion (a necessary being exists) to be trans-
lated into the conclusion desired (God exists).
That "anensreakssimum must possess the ad-
ditional attribute of absolute necessity"— or,
in other words, that a perfect being is identical
556
THE GREAT IDEAS
with one which necessarily exists — is, according
to Kant, "exactly what was maintained in the
ontological argument." Hence he maintains
that the argument from contingency is invalid
because it cannot avoid including what is for
Kant the invalid premise of the ontological
argument as "the real ground of its disguised
and illusory reasoning."
THE CONTROVERSY concerning the proof of
God's existence raises issues in logic, in meta-
physics and physics, and in the theory of knowl-
edge. Philosophers are opposed on the ques-
tion whether a valid demonstration is possible.
Those who think it possible differ from one
another on the way in which the proof should
be constructed. Those who think it impossi-
ble do not always go to the opposite extreme
of making the affirmation of God's existence
a matter of faith; or of denying with the skep-
tic that we can have any light on the ques-
tion at all, Pascal and Kant, for example, reject
the theoretic arguments as inconclusive or
untenable, but they do not think the problem
is totally insoluble. They offer instead practical
grounds or reasons for accepting God's exist-
ence.
"The metaphysical proofs of God are so re-
mote from the reasoning of men," Pascal as-
serts, "and so complicated, that they make
little impression." He will "not undertake," he
tells us in his Pensees, "to prove by natural
reasons . . . the existence of God." In his view
"there arc only three kinds of persons: those
who serve God, having found Him; others who
arc occupied in seeking Him, not having found
Him; while the remainder live without seeking
Him, and without having found Him." Since
he regards. the first as "reasonable and happy,"
the last as "foolish and Unhappy," he addresses
himself to the middle group whom he regards
as "unhappy and reasonable."
He asks them to consider whether God is or
is not. "Reason can decide nothing here," he
says. If a choice is to be made by reason, it must
be in the form of a wager. "Which will you
choose then ? Let us see. Since you must choose,
let us sec which interests you least. You have
two things to lose, the true and the good; and
two things to stake, your reason and your will,
your knowledge and your happiness; and your
nature has two things to shun, error and misery.
Your reason is no more shocked in choosing one
rather than another, since you must of necessity
choose. This is one point settled. But your
happiness? Let us weigh the gain and the loss
in wagering that God is. Let us estimate these
two chances. If you gain, you gain all, if you
lose, you lose nothing. Wager then, without
hesitation, that He is."
We are incapable of knowing either that
God is or what God is, according to Pascal, be-
cause "if there is a God, He is infinitely incom-
prehensible" and "has no affinity to us." Never-
theless, proceeding on the practical level of the
wager, reason may lead to Christian faith, yet
not in such a way as to give adequate reasons
for that belief, since Christians "profess a re-
ligion for which they cannot give a reason."
Kant also makes the affirmation of God a
matter of faith, but for him it is a "purely
rational faith, since pure reason ... is the sole
source from which it springs." He defines a
matter of faith as any object which cannot be
known through the speculative use of reason,
but which "must be thought a priori, either as
consequences or as grounds, if pure practical
reason is to be used as duty commands . . .
Such is the summum bonum" he says, "which
has to be realized in the world through free-
dom . . . This effect which is commanded,
together with the only conditions on which its
possibility is conceivable by us, namely, the exist-
ence of God and the immortality of the soul,
are matters of faith and are of all objects the only
ones that can be so called."
For Kant, then, the existence of God is a
"postulate of pure practical reason ... as the
necessary condition of the possibility of the
summum bonum." The moral law commands
us to seek the highest good, with perfect happi-
ness as its concomitant; but Kant thinks that
"there is not the slightest ground in the moral
law for a necessary connexion between morality
and proportionate happiness in a being that
belongs to the world as a part of it." Since man is
a part of the world or nature, and dependent
on it, "he cannot by his will be a cause of this
nature, nor by his own power make it thorough-
ly harmonize, as far as his happiness is con-
cerned, with his practical principles." The only
possible solution lies in "the existence of a
CHAPTER 29: GOD
557
cause of all nature, distinct from nature itself,
and containing the pnnciple of this connexion,
namely, of the exact harmony of happiness
with morality.*' That is why, Kant explains,
"it is morally necessary to assume the existence
of God."
IN THE TRADITION of the great books, the com-
mon -ground shared by reason and faith is
marked by the convergence of the contribu-
tions made by pagan, Jew, and Christian—and
by poets, philosophers, and theologians— to the
problem of God's existence and the understand-
ing of the divine nature, the essence of God
and His attributes.
Certain attributes of God, such as simplicity,
immateriality, eternity, infinity, perfection,
and glory, are usually regarded as so many dif-
ferent ways in which the human understanding
apprehends the divine nature in itself. Other
attributes, such as the divine causality, omni-
potence, omnipresence, omniscience, love, jus-
tice, and mercy, are usually taken as ways of
considering God's nature in relation to the
world or to creatures. But to divide the at-
tributes in this way, as is done in the Outline
of Topics, is to make a division which cannot
be fully justified except in terms of convenience
for our understanding. God's will, for example,
no less than God's intellect, can be considered
in relation to Himself. God's intellect, no less
than God's will, can have the world for its
object. So, too, the divine goodness can be con-
sidered with reference to things, even as God's
love can be considered with reference to Him-
self.
The difficulties we meet in classifying or
ordering the attributes of God confirm the
opinion of almost all theologians, that our
understanding is inadequate to comprehend the
essence of God. The fact that we employ a
multiplicity of attributes to represent to our-
selves what in itself is an absolute unity is
another indication of the same point. The one
attribute of simflicity would seem to deny us
the right to name others, unless we take the
plurality of attributes to signify something
about man's understanding of God rather than
a real complexity in the divine nature.
"He that will attribute to God," Hobbes
writes, "nothing but what is warranted by
natural reason, must either use such negative
attributes, as infinite, eternal, incomprehensible;
or superlatives, as most high, most great, and the
like; or indefinite, as good, just, holy, creator,
and in such sense, as if he meant not to declare
what He is (for that were to circumscribe Him
within the limits of our fancy), but how much
we admire Him, and how ready we would be
to obey Him; which is a sign of humility and of
a will to honor Him as much as we can: for
there is but one name to signify our conception
of His nature, and that is, I AM: and but one
name of His relation to us, and that is GOD; in
which is contained Father, King, and Lord."
Even when they are discussed by the philos-
ophers and reflected on by the poets, certain
matters belong especially to theology because
they constitute the dogmas of religion— articles
of religious faith based solely on divine revela-
tion, not discovered by human inquiry or
speculation. That God created the world out
of nothing and of His free will; that the world
had a beginning and will have an end are, for
example, dogmas of traditional Judaism and
Christianity. Philosophers may argue about
the freedom or necessity of the creative act, or
about the possibility of a beginning or an end
to time and the world, but Jewish and Christian
theologians find in Sacred Scripture the war-
rant for believing that which may not be thor-
oughly intelligible to reason, much less demon-
strable by it. What is true of creation applies
generally to the religious belief in divine provi-
dence and the positive commandments of God,
to the gift of grace which God bestows upon
men, and to the performance of miracles.
Judaism and Christianity share certain
dogmas, though the degree to which Jewish
and Christian theologians commonly under-
stand what is apparently the same dogma varies
from great similarity of interpretation (as in
the case of creation and providence) to differ-
ences so great (as, for example, with regard to
grace) that there may be some doubt whether
the dogma in question is really the same. The
line of demarcation between these faiths would
seem to be more easily determined than their
common ground; yet even here such matters
as the resurrection of the body— even when we
take differences of interpretation into account
— may be regarded as a dogma shared by both.
558
THE GREAT IDEAS
The basic differences between Jewish and
Christian theology center, of course, oh the
issue between a Unitarian and a tnnitarian con-
ception of the Godhead, with immediate con-
sequences for disbelief or belief in Christ as the
incarnate second person of the Trinity— the
Word become flesh. This in turn has conse-
quences for doctrines of salvation, and of the
nature and mission of the church, its rituals
and its sacraments. Even within Christianity,
however, there have been and still are serious
doctrinal differences on all these matters. The
most fundamental heresies and schisms of early
Christianity concerned the understanding of
thd' Trinity and the Incarnation. The great
modern schism which divided Christendom
arose from issues about the sacraments, the
organization and practices of the church, and
the conditions of salvation.
It would seem to be just as easy to say what
beliefs are common to religious Jews and
Christians, as to articulate the faith common
to all sects of Christianity. If all varieties of
Protestant doctrine are included, little remains
in common except belief in the God of Abra-
ham, Isaac, and Jacob— creator and provider,
governor and judge, dispenser of rewards and
punishments.
ONE BOOK STANDS our from all the rest be-
cause, in our tradition, it is — as the use of
"Bible" for its proper name implies — the
book about God and man. For those who
have faith, Holy Writ or Sacred Scripture is
the revealed Word of God. Its division into
Old and New Testaments represents the his-
toric relation of the Jewish and Christian
religions.
Without prejudice to the issue between be-
lief and unbelief, or between Jewish and Chris-
tian faith, we have attempted to organize the
references to specifically religious doctrines
concerning God and His creatures according
to their origin and foundation in cither the
Old or in the New Testament, or in both. On
certain points, as we have already seen, the line
of distinction can be clearly drawn. For exam-
ple, the doctrines of God's covenant with Is-
rael, of the Chosen People, of the Temple and
the Torah, are indisputably drawn from the
Old Testament; and from the New Testament
come such dogmas as those concerning Christ's
divinity and humanity, the Virgin Birth, the
Church as the mystical body of Christ, and the
seven sacraments.
Under all these topics we haVe assembled
passages from the Bible, interpretations of them
by the theologians, and materials from the
great books of poetry and history, philosophy
and science. Since the criterion of relevance
here is the reflection of sacred or religious
doctrine in secular literature, the writings of
pagan antiquity are necessarily excluded,
though they are included in the more philo-
sophical topics of theology, such as the existence
and nature of one God.
Despite its length, this chapter by no means
exhausts the discussion of God in the great
books. The long list of Cross- References, which
follows the seventy- three topics comprising the
Reference section of this chapter, indicates the
various ways in which the idea of God occurs
in the topics of other chapters. The reader will
find that list useful not only as an indication
of the topics in other chapters which elaborate
on or extend the discussion of matters treated
here, but also as a guide to other Introductions
in which he is likely to find the conception of
God a relevant part of the examination of some
other great idea.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
i. The polytheistic conception of the supernatural order
la. The nature and existence of the gods
ib. The hierarchy of the gods; their relation to one another
ic. The intervention of the gods in the affairs of men: their judgment of the deserts
of men
PAGE
561
562
CHAPTER 29: GOD 559
PAOB
2. The existence of one God 563
2a . The rcvektion of one God
2^. The evidences and proofs of God's existence 564
2<r. Criticisms of the proofs of God's existence: agnosticism
2d. The postulation of God: practical grounds for belief 565
3. Man's relation to God or the gods
30. The fear of God or the gods
3#. The reproach or defiance of God or the gods
y. The love of God or the gods 566
3^. Obedience to God or the gods x 567
3^. The worship of God or the gods: prayer, propitiation, sacrifice 568
3/. The imitation of God or the gods: the divine element in human nature; the
deification of men ; man as the image of God 569
4. The divine nature in itself: the divine attributes 570
40. The identity of essence and existence in God: the necessity of a being whose
essence involves its existence 571
4& The unity and simplicity of the divine nature
4^. The immateriality of God 572
4^. The eternity and immutability of God
4^. The infinity of God: the freedom of an infinite being 573
4/. The perfection or goodness of God
4£. The intellect of God 574
4^. The happiness and glory of God
5. The divine nature in relation to the world or creatures 575
50. God as first and as exemplar cause: the relation of divine to natural causation
5^. God as final cause: the motion of all things toward God , 576
5^. The power of God : the divine omnipotence 577
5</. The immanence of God: the divine omnipresence 578
5*. The transcendence of God: the divine aseity
jf. God's knowledge: the divine omniscience; the divine ideas 579
5£. God's will: divine choice 580
5^. God's love: the diffusion of the divine goodness
51. Divine justice and mercy: divine rewards and punishments 581
6. Man's knowledge of God 583
6a. The names of God: the metaphorical and symbolic representations of God; the
anthropomorphic conception of God 584
6b. Natural knowledge : the use of analogies; the evidences of nature; the light of reason
560 THE GREAT IDEAS
PAGE
6V. Supernatural knowledge 585
(1) God as teacher: inspiration and revelation
(2) The light of faith 586
(3) Mystical experience 587
(4) The beatific vision
7. Doctrines common to the Jewish, Mohammedan, and Christian conceptions of God
and His relation to the world and man 588
ja. Creation
7^. Providence
JC. Divine government and law 589
7</. Grace 590
ye. Miracles 591
7/1 The Book of Life 592
7£. The resurrection of the body
jh. The Last Judgment and the end of the world
8. Specifically Jewish doctrines concerning God and His people 593
80. The Chosen People: few and gentile
Sb. God's Covenant with Israel: circumcision as sign of the Covenant
Sc. The Law: its observance as a condition of righteousness and blessedness 594
8J. The Temple: the Ark of the Torah
8f. The messianic hope ^^
9. Specifically Christian dogmas concerning the divine nature and human destiny
ga. The Trinity
gb. The Incarnation: the God-man 5p6
(1) The divinity of Christ
(2) The humanity of Christ ^
(3) Mary, the Mother of God
gc. Christ the Saviour and Redeemer: the doctrines of original sin and salvation
gd. The Church: the mystical body of Christ; the Apostolate 598
gc. The sacraments ^99
o/. The second coming of Christ
10. The denial of God or the gods, or of a supernatural order: the position of the atheist
n. The denial of God as completely transcending the world or nature: the position of
the pantheist 600
12. The denial of a revealed and providential God: the position of the deist
13. God as a conception invented by man: its emotional basis
14. The worship of false gods: deification and idolatry
CHAPTER 29: GOD
?6t
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES -.Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of tjie right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g , Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES • The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The polytheistic conception of the super-
natural order
la. The nature and existence of the gods
4 HOMER- Iltad, BK v [330-351] 33c-d; [814-
909] 38b-39a,c / Odyssey, BK vin [266-366]
224d-225d
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound 40a-51d /
Agamemnon [158-183] 53d-54a
5 SOPHOCLES : Oedipus at Colonus [607-614] 120a
/ Antigone [780-792] 138a
5 EURIPIDES : Helen [1137-1150] 309a / Bacchan-
tef 340a-352a,c esp [272-327] 342b-c / Heracles
Mad [815-874] 371d-372c, [1302-1353] 376c-d
/ Iphigenia Among the Taun [354-391] 414a-b;
[57°-575l ««*
5 ARISTOPHANES- Clouds 488a-506d esp [263-
428] 491a-493d, [813-833] 498c-d, [1462-1477]
506c / Birds 542a-563d esp [684-736] 551 b-
552a, [1492-1765] 560c-563d / Plutus [87-93]
630a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, lOa-lld; 31a-b;
48c; BK ii, 58b-60d; 75a-b; 79d-80c; 86c;
BK in, 95a-c; BK rv, 134a; 140c-d
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 91c-d / Phaedrus, 124c-125b /
Symposium, 152b; 153b-c; 159d-161a; 163a-
164c / Euthypkro, 193a-c / Apology, 204c-
205c; 209a-b / Republic, BK n, 313d-314d;
BK ii-ni, 320c-328a / Timaeus, 451d-452b;
465d / Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws, BK vn,
730a d; BK x, 757d-769d; BK xir, 787d-788a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 3 [27obi-26]
361c-362a; BK n, CH i 375b,d-376a / Meta-
physics, BK in, CH 4 [1000*8-18] 518d-519a;
BK xii, CH 8 [io74bi-i4) 604d-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [ii78b8-23)
433b-c / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 23 [i397bi2-i4J
645d; [1398*15-17] 646c; [1398*27-28] 647b;
[i399b5-S] 648a-b; BK HI, CH 18 [1419*6-13]
673d-674a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK 11 [646-651]
23b; [1090-1104] 29a; BK in [14-24] 30b; BK
v [146-173] 63a-b; [306-310] 65a; [1161-1193]
76b-c; BK vi [56-78] 81a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
CH 12, 118d-119b; BK in, CH 13, 188b-189a;
BK iv, CH 4, 227d-228a; CH n, 240d-241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT n 258a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 140d / Coriolanus, 101d-
192b / Pelopidas, 239d-240c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 59d-60a
17 PLOTINUS : Third Ennead, TR v, CH 2-3 lOlc-
102c; CH 6 103b-104a; CH 8-10 105a-106b /
Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 7, 212b-c; TR vin,
CH 3, 241a; CH 10 244c-245a / Sixth Ennead,
TR VIM, CH i 342d-343c; CH 3 344a-b
562
THE GREAT IDEAS
\b to \c
(I. The polytheistic conception of the supernatural
order, la. The nature and existence of the
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i-x 129a-322a,c
passim, csp BK vi, CH 5-9 234d-241b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q n,
A 3, REP i 49a-c; Q 63, A 7, ANS 331c-332b;
Q 115, A 3, REP i 588c-589c
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 79a-b; 79d-80a;
81a-b
32 MILTON- Chnsts Nativity la-7b / Lycidas 27b-
32a / Comus 33a-56b / Paradise Lost, BK i
[331-621] 100b-107a/ Samson Agonistes [896-
902] 359a / Areopagitica, 384b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 15 116c-d
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
103-110, 498b-501b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 152a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12b-c; 98a-c;345b-
347a; 461b-c; 584a; 600d-601a
41 GIBBON -.Decline and Fall ,226^227 a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-b;
237a-239c; 244c-245a; 251b-257c; PART n,
263d-265c; 268b-271c; PART HI, 290b-292a
Ib. The hierarchy of the gods: their relation to
one another
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [493-611] 8a-9a,c; BK vm
[1-52] 51a-c; BK xv [184-217] 105d-106b; BK
xvin [356-367] 133d; BK xix [74-144] 137d-
138c; BK xx [1-160] 142a-143d / Odyssey, BK i
[11-79] 183a-d; BK v [1-147] 208a-209c; BK
xm [125-158] 256b-d
5 AESCHYLUS. Suppliant Maidens [22-28] Ib;
[524-600] 7c-8d; [882-894] 12b; [1008-1073]
13d-14a,c / Prometheus Bound 40a-51d /
Agamemnon [158-183] 53d-54a / Eumemdes
81a-91d
5 EURIPIDES: Heracles Mad [1302-1353] 376c-d
/ Iphigema Among the Taun [1234-1283]
422b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [403-426] 530d / Bird;
542a-563d esp [684-736] 551b-552a, [1195-
1266] 557c~558b, [1494-1693] 560c-562d /
Plutus [111-146] 630b-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 21d-22a; BK n,
58a-60d; 79d-80c; 82d-83b; BK iv, 134a; 155c<
156a; BK vm>269a
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 91c-d / Phaedrus, 124d-125a
/ Symposium, 152b; 153b-c; 159d-161a; 163a-
164c / Euthyphro, 193a-c / Timaeus, 452b /
Laws, BK iv, 683b; BK vin, 731d-732a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK in, CH 4 [1000*8-
i8]518d-519a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2
446a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3, 108b; CH
14, 121a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [1-156] 103a-107a; BK x
[1-117] 302a-305a; {606-632] 318b*319b
14 PLUTARCH: Pelopidas, 239d-240b / Pompey,
525b
15 TACITUS : Histories, BK iv, 293b-294a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 9, 71b-c
/ Third Ennead, TR v, CH 6 103b-104a / Fifth
Ennead, TR i, CH 7, 212b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 17
645d-646a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22,
A 3, ANS 130d-131c; Q 63, A 7, ANS 331c-332b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi 46a-47c
22 CHAUCER: TroilusandCressida, BK in, STANZA
1-7 54b-55b
27 SHAKESPEARE. Tempest, ACT iv, sc i [60-133]
542b-543a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [331-621] lOOb-
107a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 435b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12b-d; 59c-60a-
346b-d, 461b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-b;
228a-b; 252a-253c; PART n, 262b-c
Ic. The intervention of the gods in the affairs
of men: their judgment of the deserts of
men
4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d esp BK i [33-317] 3b-
6b, [493-611] 8a-9a,c, BJC iv [1-140] 24a-25b,
BK v [311-519] 33b-35c, [711-909] 37b-39a,c,
BK vm 51a-56d, BK xiv-xv 98a-llld, BK xvi
[431-461] 117a-b, [843-867] 121c-d, BK xvin
[356-367] 133d, BK xix [74-144] 137d-138c, BK
xx-xxi 142a-154d, BK xxiv [507-551] 176c-
177a / Odyssey 183a-322d esp BK n 188a-192d,
BK ix [16-38] 229a-b, [67-8!] 229d-230a> BK
xvin [124-150] 285b-c, BK xx 296a-300a,c,
BK xxiv [438-548] 321c-322d
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [79-175] 2a-
3a; [1008-1073] 13d-14a,c / Persians [535-547]
20d; [738-842] 23a-24b / Seven Against Thebes
27a-39a,c esp [790-801] 35d-36a / Prometheus
Bound 40a-51d esp [227-243] 42c, [436-502]
44c-45a, [564-891] 45d-49c / Agamemnon 52a-
69d esp [355-475] 55d-57b, [1200-1222] 64d-
65a, [1485-1488] 67d, [1559-1570] 68c / Cho-
ephoroe 70a-80d esp [269-314] 72d-73a, [1021-
1076] 80a-d / Eumemdes 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES. Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[1297-1415] lllb-112b / Oedipus at Colonus
114a-130a,c esp [229-253] 116b-c, [939-1015]
142d esp [100-162] 132a-c, [1348-1353] 142d /
Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [394-459] 146c-147a,
[733-783] 149b-d/ Elcctra 156a-169a,c esp [516-
576] 160a-c / Trachiniae 170a-181a,c esp [94-
140] 171a-b, [247-306] 172b-d, [1275-1278] 181c
/ Philoctetes 182a-195a,c esp [169-200] 183d-
184a, [446-452] 186a, [1408-1471] 194d-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus 203a-211d esp [594-674]
208b-209a, [890-996] 210d-211d / Medea
[1415-1419] 224c / Hippolytu$ 225a-236d esp
\cto2a
CHAPTER 29: GOD
563
[1-55] 225a-c, [520-568] 229c-d, [1202-1466]
234d-236d / Akestis 237a-247a,c csp [1-76]
237a 238a, [1159-1163] 24 7c / Heracleidae
[750-1055] 254d-257a,c / Suppliants 258a-
269a,c csp [113-283] 259a-260d, [1183-1234]
268c-269a,c / Trojan Women 270a-281a,c esp
[1-97] 270a-271a, [914-1032] 277d-278d / Ion
282a-297d csp [1-81] 282a-d,[ 429-451] 286b-c,
[1470-1622] 296a-297d / Helen 298a-314a,c
esp [1-67] 298a-d, [7n-7i5]304d-305a, [1644-
1692] 313d-314a,c / Andromache [1225-1288]
325c-326a,c / Electra 327a-339a,c esp [1233-
1359] 338b-339a,c / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c /
Hecuba [488-500] 357a / Heracles Mad 365a-
377d esp [1260-1390] 376a-377b / Phoenician
Maidens 378a-393d esp [1-87] 378a-379a,
[930-959] 386c, [1758-1763] 393d / Orestes
394a-410d esp [317-357] 397a-b, [1625-1693]
410b-d/ Iphigema Among the 70«n411a-424d
esp [1-41] 411a-b, [939-986] 419b-d, [1435-
1499] 424a-d / Iphigema at Aulis 425a-439d
esp [1185-1 194] 435d-436a, [1526-1629] 439a-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace 526a- 541 d esp [195-220]
528b-c / Thesmophonazusae [655-687] 607c-
608a / Plutus 629a-642d esp [86-92] 630a,
[489-498] 634c-d, [653-747] 637a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7b-10a esp 9d-10a;
20b-22a; BK n, 54d-55a; 77a-b; 78d-79c; BK
in, 98b-c; BK iv, 124d-125a; 144c-d; 150b-
d; 151b-153d; 155b-c; 158d-159d esp 159d;
BK vi, 190c-d; 198b-d; 199d-200a; 200c-
201a; 201d-202c; 205c-d; 211b-d; BK vn,
216d-217c esp 217c; 218b-220a; 224d-225a;
226d-227a; 239c-240d; 246b-247a; 250a-d;
BK vm, 262b-c; 266a-d; 269c-270a; 270c-
271a; 274b-c; 276b-d; 279d-280a; 283d;
284d-285a; BK ix, 302c; 308a-c, 309d-310a
6 TiiucYDiDEs:Peloponnesian War, BK i,355b-c;
378a-b; BK n, 407a-b; 415d-416c; BK v,
506b-c; BK vii, 559d-560a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Symposium,
152d-153b / Apology, 21 Id / Republic, BK n,
313b-314d; 322a-324c; BK vi, 378a-b; BK x,
436c-437a; 437c^438c / Cntias 478a-485d /
Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws, BK iv, 679a-b;
681b-683b; BK ix, 757a; BK x, 765d-768d;
BK xn, 787d-788a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99b9~i8]
345a; BK x, CH 8 [1179*23-33] 434a / Rhetoric,
BK n, CH 5 [i383b3~8] 629d; CH 17 [1391*30-
b3] 638d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Sacred Disease, 154a-155d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1090-
1104] 29a; BK v [1194-1240] 76d-77b; BK vi
[43-79] 80d-81b; [379-422] 85b-d
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-120b;
CH 22, 128a-b; BK n, CH 8 146a-147c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 17 255d-
256d; BK n, SECT 3 257a-b; BK in, SECT n
262a-b; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK vi, SECT
40-46 277d-278d; BK x, SECT 5 296d; BK xn,
SECT 5 307d<3Q8a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid 103a-379a csp BK i [223-417]
109a-114b, [657-722] 121a-123a, BK n [162^
200] 128b-129b, [588-633] 140b-142a, BK in
[84-120] 149b-150b, BK iv [90-128] 169b^l70b,
[173-278] 171b-174b, BK v [604-699] 202b-
205b, [779-871] 207b-21Qa, BK vi [42-101]
212a-213b, BK vn [286-600] 243b-252b, BK
vm [369-453] 269a-271a, [608-731] 275a-278b,
BK ix [1-24] 279a-b, [77-122] 281a-282a,
[638-663] 296a-297a, BK x [1-117] 302a-
305a, [606-688] 318b-321a, BK xi [532-596]
342b-344b, [762-867] 349a-351b, BK xn [134-
160] 357b-358a, [405-440] 365a-b, [766-886]
374b-377b
14 PLUTARCH Romulus, 27d-29c / Numa Pom-
pihus, 50d-51c; 57b-58a/ Solon, 6S&/Camillus,
104b-d; 107b-d / Fabius, 142d-143b / Cono-
lanus, 185b-186a; 188d-191b/ Anstides, 268a-
273c / Lysander, 365a-366a / Sulla, 370c-
371b / Lucullus, 404d-405a/ Alexander, 553b-
554b / Caesar, 602c-604d esp 604b-d / Pho-
cton, 615 b-d / Cato the Younger, 639d / De-
mosthenes, 698a-699a / Dion, 781d-782a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 59d-60a; BK vi,
91b-d; BK xvi, 179d; 183d / Histories, BK i,
189d-190a; BK n, 235a-c; BK iv, 284b; 292c-
294a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 9, 71a /
Third Ennead, TR ii-in 82c-97b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22,
A 3, ANS 130d-131c
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, HELL, xiv [43-72]
20a-b; PARADISE, iv [49-63] lllb; vm [1-12]
116d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
30-35 5a-b; BK HI, STANZA 89 66a / Knight's
Tale 174a-211a esp [1303-1333] 181b-182a,
[2663-2699] 203b-204a, [3099-3108] 21 la /
Merchant's Tale [10,093-230] 335a-337a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 81b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc i [33-39]
269d; [69-74] 270b; sc n [38-50] 270d-271a;
sc vi [35-40] 273d; ACT v, sc in [166-174]
281a / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT n, sc i [1-8]
317d / Cymbehne, ACT v, sc iv [1-151] 481a-
482c; sc v [425-485] 488b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 435a-436a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [8582-8590] 209a;
[8610-8637] 209b-210a
2. The existence of one God
2a. The revelation of one God
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 17:1-14 / Exodus, 3
csp 3:6, 3:14-16; 6:1-8; 19:9-20:6 esp 20:1-6;
20:18-22 / Deuteronomy, 4:39; 5:1-10; 6 esp
6:4-5; 32:1-47 esp 32:36-43 / / Kings, 8:22-62
csp 8:23, 8:6o-(D) /// Kings, 8:22-62 esp
8:23, 8:60 / I Chronicles, 16:7-36— (D) IPara-
hpomenon, 16.7-36 / Psalms, 18 csp 18:30-32
— (D) Psalms f 17 csp 17:31-33 / Isaiah, 37:15-
20; 43-45 passim, esp 43:3, 43:10-13, 44-6,
564
THE GREAT IDEAS
Ib to 2c
(2. Tbt existence qf one God. 2a. The revelation
oj one God.)
44:8, 44:24, 45:5-7, 45:18, 45:21-22; 48:12
—(D) Isaias, 37:15-20; 43-45 passim, esp 43 :3,
43:10-13, 44:6, 44:8, 44:24, 45:5-7, 45.18,
45:21-22; 48:12 / Jeremiah, 10 esp 10:6,
10:10— (D) Jeremias, 10 esp 10:6, 10:10 /
Daniel, 6 esp 6*20, 6 ^6-27 / Hosea, 13 '4—
(D) Osee, 13:4 I Joel, 2:27 / Zechariah, 14:9
— (D) Zacharias, 14:9 / Malachi, 2:10— (D)
Malachias, 2:10
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 12:13— (D)
OT, Boof( of Wisdom, 12:13 / Ecdesiasticus,
1:8— (D) OT, Ecdesiasticus, 1:8 / II Macca-
bees, 1:24-29— (D) OT,IIMachabees,i'24~29
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 23:9 / Mar\, 12:28-
34 / John, 1:1-2; 10:30; 17:3 / Acts,
ij '.22-29 I Romans, 1:14-32 / / Corinthians,
8:4-6; 12:4-6 / Ephesians, 4:5-6 / / Timothy,
2:5-6; 4:10; 6:14-16 / I John, 5:5-9
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 16 48c-
49a / City of God, BK vin, CH 11, 272c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 12 627c-d; CH 32
633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa 'Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 2, REP i lld-12c; Q 11, A 3, CONTRARY and
REP i 49a-c; Q 13, A u, CONTRARY 73c-74b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 74,
A 10, REP 3 136c-137c; Q 102, A 5, REP i 283c-
292c; PART II-H, Q i, A 5, REP 3383b-384b;
A 8, ANS and REP 1 387a-388c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxiv [115-
147] 143d-144a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38a; 41b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [267-318]
238a-239a; BK xn [106-151] 321b-322b;
[223-248] 324a-b / Samson Agonistes [472-478]
350a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 242-290 217b-225a, 428
244b; 557 272b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 245d-
247b passim
2b. The evidences and proofs of God's exist-
ence
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:14-32 esp 1.18-21
7 PLATO: Laws, BK x, 758b-765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH i 326a-327b;
BK vni, CH 1-6 334a-346b; CH 10 [267ft2i-b27J
354d-355d / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2 512 b-
513b; BK ix, CH 8 575b-577a; BK xn, CH 6-7
601b-603b; CH 8 [io74»33~bi] 604d; CH 10
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK r, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 12 118d-120b; CH 16 121d-122d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK v, par i 27a-b; BK vn, par 16-23 48c-50c;
BK x, par 8-38 73b-81a; BK xi, par 6 90c-d /
City of God, BK vin, CH 6 268d-269c; BK x,
CH 14 307c-308a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 8 626c 627a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2
10c-14a esp A 3 12c-14a; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 16d-
17c; Q 8 34c-38c; Q 11, A 3 49a-c; Q 19, A 5,
REP 3 112d-113c; Q 44, A i, REP i 238b-239a;
Q 65 339a-343c esp A i, REP 3 339b-340b; Q
75, A i, REP i 378b-379c; Q 79, A 4, ANS 417a-
418c; Q 104, AA 1-2 534c-537b; PART i-n, Q i,
A2610b-611b
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [3003-3016] 209a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78d-79a; 79d-80a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38a; 41b-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b /
Meditations, 71d-72a; in 81d-89a; v 93a-96a /
Objections and Replies, 108a-115a,c passim;
120c-123a; 126b-127c; DBF vm 130d; POSTU-
LATE v 131b-c; AXIOM i 131d; AXIOM ix-x
132b; pROPi-inl32b-133a; 137d-138a; 158b-
162a; 168d-169a; 211c-212a; 213a<d; 217d-
218a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF i 355a; DBF
3,6 355b; PROP 7 356c; PROP n 358b-359b;
PROP 14, DEMONST and COROL i 359d-360a;
PROP 20, DEMONST and COROL i 363d-364a
32 MILTON: Psalm 136 8a-10a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 242-244 217b-218a; 469
256a;557272b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a / Optics, BK in, 528b-529a; 542a-
543a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvn,
SECT 17 172b-c; SECT 20, 173a; BK iv, CH x,
SECTi-n349c-352a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, PREF, 404a;
SECT 6-7 414b-c; SECT 25-33 417d-419a esp
SECT 29-33 418c-419a; SECT 146-156 442a-
444d passim
35 HUME' Human Understanding, SECT xi 497b-
503c passim
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 187d-188a
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 143a-b [thesis]; 177b-
192d; 236b-240b esp 239a-240b / Practical
Reason, 353a-3S4d / Judgement, 593c-d; 607d-
609b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 401a-b
46 HEGEL' Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 280
94d-95a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3431-3468] 84a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b-d;
217c-d
2c. Criticisms of the proofs of God's existence:
agnosticism
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
REP 2 10d-lld; A 2 lld-12c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, HOa-llla;
112d-114c; 137d-138a
33 PASCAL: Pcnsfa, 242 217b<218a; 428 244b;
543 266a; 547-549 266b-267a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi 497 b-
503c pa&iirt, esp DIV 115 503 b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 143a-145c; 152a-
I53c; 177b-192d esp 177b-179c, 190a-192d;
Utolb
CHAPTER 29: GOD
565
200c-203d esp 202a-203b; 205a-208d esp
208a-b; 218d-223d; 234c-240b esp 239a-c;
241d-242c/ Practical Reason, 291a-292c;348b-
349b; 351b-352c//fl/ro. Metaphy sic of Morals,
384a,c / Judgement, 567b; 568c-570a; 588a-
613a,c esp 588a-593d, 596c-599b, 600d-603d,
607d-613a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 280
94d-95a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 593c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
120d-121c; BK x, 292d-293a; BK xi, 337a-
346a esp 341c-342c
2d. The postulation of God: practical grounds
for belief
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 184-241 205a-217b esp 233,
214b-216a; 425-427 243b-244b; 430 245a-
247b; 436-438 251a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-243c esp 239a-240b,
241d-242c / Practical Reason, 291a-292a;
314c-d; 344c-349b esp 345a-c; 351b-352c;
353a-354d / Science of Right, 432c-433a /
Judgement, 588a-607c esp 593d<596c, 606d-
607c; 608c-611d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
120b-121c, BK xi, 313c-314a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 653a
3. Man's relation to God or the gods
3*. The fear of God or the gods
OLD TESTAMENT' Leviticus, 19:14,32; 25:17 /
Deuteronomy, 6:1-2,12-15; 8:6; 10:12-13,20-
22; 31:10-13 /Joshua, 24:14-16— (D) josue,
24:14-16 / II Samuel, 2^-(D) II Kings,
23.3 / Nehemiah, 57-13—0) // Esdras,
5:7-13 /Job, 28:12-28 / Psalms, 2:10-12; 19:9;
25:12-14; 34 esp 34:9-11; 111:5,10; 112; 128—
(D) Psalms, 2:10-13; 18:10; 24:12-14; 33 esp
33:10-12; 110:5,10; ii i ; 127 / Proverbs, 1:7,
22-33; 2:3~5? 8:13; 9:i°5 I0:275 H -'26-27;
15:16,33; 16:6; 19:23; 22:4; 23:17-18; 24:21 /
Ecclesiastes, 5:2-7; 8:10-13; 12:13-14 / Isaiah,
8.11-14; 11:1-5; 33:6— (D) Isaias, 8:11-14;
11:1-5; 33:6 / Jeremiah, 2:19; 5:19-31— (D)
Jeremias, 2:19; 5:19-31 /Jonah, 1:1-16— (D)
Jonas, i
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 1-2; 10:19-24; 15:1,
13; 19:20-24; 23:18-28; 25.10-12; 34.13-17;
40:26-27— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1-2; 10*23-
27; 15:1,13; 19:18-21; 23:25-38; 25:13-16;
34:14-20; 40:26-28
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 10:34-35 / Colosstans,
3:22/7 Petei ', 2:17 / Revelation, 14.6-7— -(D)
Apocalypse, 14:6-7
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK v [282-312] 210d-211a;
BK XVIH [124-150] 285b-c
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [419-500] 6a-
7b / Agamemnon [901-954] 61c-62b / Cho-
ephoroe [269-301] 72d-73a; [885-1076] 78d-
80d / Eumcmdcs [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the A!w£ [863-910] 107b-c
/ Oedipus at Colonus [158-291] 116c-d; [1448-
1485] 127b-c / Electra [221-250] 157d-158a
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [251-316] 396c-397a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 78d; BKvi,211b-c;
BK vu, 216d-218a; 218c-220a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 400d-
401a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK ix, 757a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-158]
ld-3a; BK HI [1-93] 30a-31b; [978-1023] 42d-
43b; BK v [1161-1240] 76b-77b; BK vi [43-95]
80d-81c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [259-282] 174a-b; BK
VH [445-459] 248b-249a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 123c-124a / Nicias,
435b-d / Crassus, 445d-446b / Alexander,
575a-576a / Phocion, 615b-d
15 TACITUS- Histories, BK iv, 292c-294a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 2 27b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c; BK n,
CH 7 638d-639c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 42,
A i, ANS 801c-802a; A 3, REP i 802d-803c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67,
A 4, REP 2 84d-85d; Q 68, A 4, REP 4 91b-92c;
Q 69, A 3, REP 3 98c-100c; Q 99, A 6 250a-251a;
PART II-H, Q 7, A 1 415c-416b; Q 19 465a-474d;
Q 22, A 2 481d-482c; 0,25, A i, REP i 501b 502a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [100-136]
5a-b; PURGATORY, xm [103-129] 73a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 79d-80a; 82b-c;
90b-d
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART 11, 267b-c
32 MILFON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [561-566] 331b
33 PASCAL: Pensces, 262 221a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 155-156
444b-d
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals,
278b-c / Science of Right, 432c-433a / Judge-
ment, 502d-503a; 504b-505a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 264c;
PART in, 304b
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 688a-b
^. The reproach or defiance of God or the
gods
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:4-9; 1 1 .1-9 / Exodus,
5; 7-12; 14:10-15; 16:1-30 / Numbers, 11; 14;
20:1-13; 21:4-9 / Deuteronomy, 1:26-46; 9 /
Joshua, 22— (D) Josue, 22 II Samuel* 12:14-
15; 15:22-23— (D) I Kings, 12:14-15; 15:22-
23 / II Kings, 19:22-23— (D) IV Kings, 19:22-
23 / Job f Psalms, 2; 5:8-10; 22:1-2; 44; 74;
79:12; 107:10-12— (D) Psalms, 2; 5:9-11;
21:2-3; 43; 73; 78:12; 106:10-12 / Proverbs,
14:31; 17:5 / Isaiah, 1:2-4; 3:8-9; 30-31; 36-
37; 45:9; 48:1-9; 59:1-15; 63'-i°; 65:2-7-
(D) Isaias, 1:2-4; 3:8*9; 30-31; 36-37; 45:9;
48:1-9; 59:1-15; 63 :io; 65:2-7 /Jeremiah pas-
sim— (D) Jeremias passim / Lamentations,
566
THE GREAT IDEAS
Sbtolc
(3. Mtn't relation to God or fa gods. 3*. The
reproach or defiance of God or the gods.)
1:18- 3:42 / Ezelyel, 2:3; 5:5-8; 12-15; 17;
20; 22-23; 28— (Z>) Ezechicl, 2:3; 5:5-8;
12-15; 17, 20; 22-23; 28 / Hosea—(D) Osce
/ Jonah— (D) Jonas
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 5; 7:20-8:27— (D) OT,
Judith, 5; 7:11-8:27 / Wisdom of Solomon,
12:12— (D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 12:12
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 27:46 / A/ar^, 15:34
/ ^r/y, 9:1-6; 11:17 / Romans, 8:7; 9:19-21 /
/flm«, 4 14
4 HOMER: 7/W, BK i [1-120] 3a-4b; [428-487]
7c-8a; BK v [431-549] 34c-35d; BK xxi [114-
148] 149b-c; [200-382] 150b-152a / Odyssey,
BK ix [475-5351 234a-d
5 AESCHYLUS.* Suppliant Maidens [151-175] 2d-
3a; [882-894] 12b / Persians [679-842] 22a-
24b / Agamemnon [901-954] 61c-62b; [1200-
1222] 64d-65a
5 SOPHOCLES- Oedipus the King [864-910] 107b-c
/ Antigone [988-1090] 139c-140b / /#** 143a-
155a,c csp [1-133] 143a-144c, [430-459] 146d-
147a, [748-783] 149c-d / Electra [516-576]
160a-c / Trachiniae [1264-1278] 181c / Philoc-
tetes [446-452] 186a
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d csp [1-55]
225a-c / Heracleidae 248a-257a,c / Suppliants
258a-269a,c csp [113-283] 259b-260d / Tro-
jan Women [1-98] 270a-271a / Ion 282a-297d
csp [429-451] 286b-c / Helen [255-305]
300c-d / Andromache [994-1045] 323c-324a
/ Bacchantes 340a-352a,c / Heracles Mad
365a-377d csp [339-347] 368a, [750-760] 371c,
[1258-1347] 376a-d / Iphigema Among the
Tauri [570-575] 416a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [263-428] 491a-493d;
[813-833] 498c-d; [1462-1477] 506c / Birds
542a-563d / Thesmophoriazusae [655-687]
607c-608a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20d-22a; 39a-b;
BK ii, 77a-b; BK in, 95a-c; BK iv, 140c-d; 151b-
152a; BK vn, 222c-d; 226d-227a; BK vm,
283d
, 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 400d-
401a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK ix, 757a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 12 118d 120b; CH 27, 132c 133a; BK in, CH
22,195c-d;198a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [i-n] 103a; BK xn [500-
508] 367b
14 PLUTARCH: Agesilaus, 483a-b / Dion, 801 be
15 TACITUS . Histories, BK iv, 292c-294a
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART x-n, Q 78,
A i, CONTRARY 152b-153b; Q 84, A 2, ANS and
REP 2 175b-176a; PART II-H, QQ 13-14 444b-
452a; PART HI, Q 64, A 6, ANS 874d-875d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [100-136]
5a-b; xi [16-90] 15b-16a; xiv [1-72] 19c-20b;
xxv {1-15] 36b-c; xxxi [82-96] 46d-47a
22 CHAUCER: KniMs Tale [1303-1335) 18Ib-
182a / Monffs Tale [14,149-188] 437a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, lOb-llb
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc i [30-37]
269d
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [667-709] 354a-
355a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl(, 30a-34a; 123a-b;
370b-371b, 380a-381a
52 DOSTOEVSKY- Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
121d-127b passim
3c. The love of God or the gods
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:5-6 / Deuteronomy,
6:4-9; 7:9~I][5 10:12-11:1; 11:13-25; 13:1-3;
19:9; 30:6,15-20 / Joshua, 22:5; 23 'ii— (D)
Josue, 22:5; 23:11 / Psalms, 5:11-12; i8:i-2;
31:23; 42:1-2; 63; 97:10; 116:1; 119:132;
122:6; 145:20— (D) Psalms, 5:12-13; 17:2-3;
30:24; 41:2-3; 62; 96:10; 114:1; 118:132;
121 :6; 144-20 / Isaiah, 26:8-9; 56:6-7— (D)
Isaias, 26:8-9; 56:6-7 / Jeremiah, 2:1-3—
(D) Jeremias, 2:1-3
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 13:12-18— (D) OT, Tobias,
13:14-23 / Ecclesiasticus, 2:15-16; 13 :i4; 25 :i i-
12— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 2:18-19; 'S'18*
25:14-16
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:37-38; 22:35-38
/ Mark i2:28~33 / *-«fc» 7:37-475 10.25-27,
11:42 /John, 5:40-42; 8:42; 14:15-31; 16:26-
27; 17:23-26; 21 115-17 / Acts, 20:22-24; 21:7-
15 / Romans, 5:5; 8:28-39 / ^ Corinthians, 2:9,
8*1-3; I3:I~I4'II 16:14,22 / // Corinthians,
5:14-15 / Ephesians, 1:3-6; 3:14-21; 6:24 / //
Thessalomans, 3 15 / / Timothy, i -5 / // Timothy,
i • 13-1 4-, y 1-5 / James, i • 12; 2 :5/ / Peter, 1:7-8
/ I John, 2.5,15-17; 3:17; 4:7-53 / 11 John, 6 /
Jude, 20-21
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xm [217-351] 257b-
258c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK ii, CH 16, 158b-d;
CH 22, 168d; BK iv, CH i, 219a-b
12AuRELius: Meditations, BK ii, SECT 13 258c
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 510a-b
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1050b;
1080a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions^ BK i, par 5-6 2b-c;
par 28 7d-8a; BK n,par 15 12b-c; BK in, par 15
17a-b; BK iv, par 15-19 23a-24b; BK v, par 1-2
27a-c; BK vn, par 6 44d-45a; par 23 50b-c; BK
VIH, par 9 55a-c; BK ix, par 3 62a-b; BK x,
par 8-40 73b-81c; BK xi, par 1-4 89b-90b; BK
xn, par 10 lOlc; par 23 104b-c / City of God,
BK x, CH i 298b,d-299d; CH 3 300b-301a; BK
xiv, CH 28 397a-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 3-5 625b-626a; CH 10 627b; CH 15 628b-c;
CH 22-23 629b-630c; CH 26-27 631b-d; CH 29-
30 632a 633b; CH 33 633d-634b; CH 35 634c-d;
CH 37-40 635b-636a,c; BK n, CH 7 638d-639c;
CH 38, 654c; CH 41 656a-c; BK in, CH 10-24
661c-666d passim
CHAPTER 29: GOD
567
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
HEP 5 14b-15b; Q 8, A 3, ANS and RHP 4 36b-
37c; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 82, A 3, ANS and
REP 3 433c-434c? Q 95, A 4, ANS 509b-510a;
PART I-H, Q i, A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A i, REP 3 615d-
616c; Q 26, A 3, REP 4 735c-736b; Q 28, A 2,
CONTRARY 741a-742a; A 4, ANS 742d-743c;
Q 35, A 5, REP i 775d-777a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 65,
A 5, ANS and REP i 74c-75a; Q 66, A 6 80c-81b;
Q 68, A 2, ANS 89c-90c; A 8, REP 2 95c-96c; Q
69, A 4, ANS lOOc-lOlc; Q 70, A 3, ANS 103 b-
104d; Q 73, A 4, REP 3 122b-123a; A 5, ANS
123a-d; Q 77, A 4, CONTRARY and REP 1 148b-
149a; Q 78, A 2, REP i 153b-154a; Q 84, A i,
REP i 174b-175a; Q 88, A 2, REP i 194b-195b;
A 6, REP 2 198a-d; Q 89, A i, REP 3 199a-c; A 2,
ANS 199c-200d; Q 99, A i, REP 2 245c-246b; Q
100, A 6, REP i 257c-258c; A 10 262b-263b; A
u, REP i 263c-264d; Q 102, A i, REP i 270c-
271b; Q 109, A3340c-341b; PARTII-II, Q i, AI,
REP 3 380b-381a; A 3, REP i 381d-382c; Q 3,
A 2, REP i 401a-d; Q 7, A 2 416b-d; Q 19, A 4,
REP 3 467c-468b; A 12, ANS 473d-474d; Q 22,
A 2, ANS 481d-482c; QQ 23-27 482c-527b; Q
1 80, A i, ANS and REP 2 607d-608c; A 2, REP i
608c-609c; A 7, ANS 614d-616a; Q 182, A 2, ANS
621d-623a; A 4, REP i 623d-624d; Q 184, A 2,
ANS 629d-630d; A 3, ANS and REP 3 630d-
632c; A 7, REP 2 636a-637a; Q 185, A 2, REP i
641c-643a; A 4, ANS 644a-645c; Q 186, A 2, REP
2 651d-652d; A 7, REP 2 658d-660a; Q 187, A 2,
ANS 665a-666a; Q 188, A 2, ANS 675d-677a
21 DANTE* Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvn feij-xvin [75] 79b-80c;
PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d; in 109b-110c; v
[1-12] 112a-b; vi [112-126] 114d-115a; xx [94-
138] 137d-138a; xxi [52-102] 138d-139b; xxvi
, [1-81] 145d-146c; XXXH [i39]-xxxni [145]
156a-157d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
263-267 154b-155a / Second Nun's Tale 463b-
471 b / Parson's Tale, par 6, 497a; par 21
509a-b; par 31 517b-518b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 240d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 210d-211a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Henry VIII, ACT HI, sc n [435-
457l573c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
31 DESCARTES : Meditations, HI, 88d-89a / Objec-
tions and Replies, 227b-228a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 14-16 456b-c;
PROP i8-ao 456d-458a; PROP 32-34 4$0b-d;
PROP 36-37 461a-c ,
32 MILTON: Paradise Last, BK xn [561-566] 331 b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 78b-80b / Pensees,
430 245a-247b; 463 255a; 468 255b-256a;
471 256a-b; 476 256b-257a; 479 257b; 482-
483 2S8a-t>; 485 258b; 487-489 258b-259a;
.49^ 259a; 544 266a; 821 331b-332a
35 JLocKE: Hunwn Understanding, p& n, CH vn,
SECT 5-6 132c-d
42 K\m:Pund. Prin. Mctaphy 'sic of 'Morals, 278b-
279d / Practical Reason, 321b-329a csp 326b-
327a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1178-1185] 29b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf(, 318b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xv, 631a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov^ BK in,
54a-b; BK v, 127b-137c passim; BK vi, I64d-
165a; BK xi, 313c-314d
^. Obedience to God or the gods
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:15-17; 3; 22:1-18 csp
22:18; 26:4-5 / Exodus, 3 .-4-4 .-17; 24:1-8 /
Deuteronomy, 4-11 passim; 27-30 passim /
Joshua, 22; 24:1-28— (D) Josue, 22; 24:1-28 /
/ Samuel, 12:14-15; 15 csp 15:22-23— (D)
/ Kings, 12:14-15; 15 csp 15:22-23 / / Kings,
8:54-62— (D) HI Kings, 8:54-62 / / Chronicles,
28:9— (D) / Parahpomenon, 28:9 / Ezra, 7:23
— (D) / Esdras, 7:23 / Job / Ecclesiastes, 5:1;
12:13— (D) Ecclesiastcs, 4:17; 12:13 / Isaiah,
1:19-20— (D) Isaias, 1:19-20 /Jeremiah passim,
csp 3, 7, n, 35, 42-44— (D) Jeremias passim,
csp 3, 7, 11, 35, 42-44 / Daniel, 7:27 / Micah,
6:8-(D) Micheas, 6:8
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6 :io; 7:21; 12:46-50;
26:36-39 / Mar^, 14:32-36 / Luke, 22:40-45 /
John, 5:30; i8:io-|i / Acts, 5 129-32; 21:8-1 5 /
Romans, 5:19/7! Corinthians, 10:5-6 / Philip-
pians, 2:1-18 csp 2:7-8 / // Thessahmans,
1:7-9 / Hebrews, 5:8-9; 11:8
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [188-222] 5a-b
5 AESCHYLUS : Suppliant Maidens [410-434] 6a-b
/ Choephoroe [269-301) 72d-73a; [885-1076]
78d-80d / Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [863-910] 107b-c
/ Antigone 131a-142d esp [374-378] 134b, [443-
465] 134d-135a, [1351-1353] 142d / Ajax [666-
676} 148d / Electro 156a-169a,c esp [23-37]
156b
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [513-563] 262d-263b /
Helen [1644-1692] 313d-314a,c / Iphigenia
Among the Tauri [67-122] 411d-412b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK r, 39c-d; BK n, 55a;
BK iv, 124d-125a; 126d427a; ISOb-d; 151b-
152a; BK vi, 201d-202c; BK vn, 218c-220a;
BK ix, 308a-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BKI, 355b-c;
382c-d
7 PLATO: Apology, 206b*d / Laws, BK iv, 681 b-
683b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK u, CH 16-17, 158a-
161a; BK in, CH 24, 204c-d; 208d-210a; BK iv,
CH i 213a-223d passim, esp 218b-219a; CH 3
224b-d; CH 7, 234b; CH 12, 242d-243c
12 AuRELiusi Meditations, BK in, SECT 13 262c;
BK v, SECT 27 272d; BK vi, SECT'IO 274b-c;
BK ix, SECT i 291a-c
, 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK ui (84-120] 149b-150b; BK
iv [25^-282] 174«-b; b5^3^i] 176b-177a
15 TACITUS: Histor^/, *K^ iv, 292c-294a
568
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. Man's relation to God or the gods. *>d. Obedi-
ence to God or the gods.)
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c
19 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-u, Q 19,
A 5, REP 2 705d-707a ; A 6, ANS and REP 2 707a-
708a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 88,
A i, REP 2 193a-194b; Q 96, A 4 233a-d; Q 97,
A 3, REP i 237b-238b; PART n-ii, Q 2, A 9,
ANS 398c-399b; Q 4, A 7, REP 3 407d~409a; Q
33, A 7, REP 5 556a-557d; Q 186, A 7, REP 3
658d-660a; PART m, Q 7, A 3, REP 2 747b-748a
21 DANTE: Dwme Comedy, PARADISE, m [i]-v
{87] 109b-113a; vn [19-120] 115b-116b
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Man of Law [5240-5253]
249b / Clerks Tale 296a-318a csp [9018-9038]
316b-317a / Tale of Melibeus, par 17 407b-
408a / Parson's Tale} par 24 511a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 82b-d; PART 11,
137b-138b; 154b-155c; 159d-160a, 162a; PART
HI, 199b-204a; 240a-241a; 244d-246a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213a-215a; 233a-234a;
238c-239c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT n, sc n [77-
95] 120b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK iv
[411-439] 161b-162a, [720-749] 168a-b, BK v
[506-543] 186a-187a, BK vi [164-188] 199b-
200a, BK vn [449-518] 227a-228b, BK vin
[311-333] 239a-b, [630-643] 246a, BK ix [366-
375] 255b, [647-654] 261b, BK x [IOI}]~BK xi
[44] 296b-300a, BK xi [133-161] 302a-b, BK
xii [386-410] 327b-328a, [561-566] 331b /
Samson Agonistes [373-419] 347b-348b / Are-
opagitica, 394b-395b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 460 254b; 476 256b-257a;
482 258a; 489,491 259a; 531 264b; 539 265b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a; 16c / Civil Gov-
ernment, CH n, SECT 6 26b-c / Human Under-
standing, BK i, CH n, SECT 5-6 105a-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2a-b;
BK xii,85d-86a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 259b-260a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 32lb-329a; 345c-d /
Intro. Metaphystc of Morals, 383b,d-384a,c /
Judgement, 504b-505a; 509a-c; 593a<d; 611a-c
> 43 MILL: Liberty, 296b-d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 394a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc^ 30a-36b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in, 64c-
67a; BK v, 1 2 7b-137c passim; BK vn, 177b-180a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 582a / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 776b
3*. The worship of God or the gods: prayer,
propitiation, sacrifice
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:3-7; 15:7-21; 22:1-
t8 / Exodus passim, esp 12, 13:11-16, 15:1-21,
33:18-19 / Leviticus passim, esp 2, 4-7, 16-17,
22:1-24:9, 27:1-34 / Numbers, 5-8; 15; 18-19;
28-30 / Deuteronomy, 10-12; 14:22-17:1 /
Joshua, 22:10-34— (D) Josue, 22:10-34 / 7
Samuel, 15 esp 15:22-23— (D) / Kings, 15 esp
15:22-23 /lKmgs,%; 18:21-39— (D) III Kings,
8; 18:21-39 / 77 Chronicles, 5-8; 29-31 — (D) II
Parahpomenon, 5-8; 29-31 / Nehemiah, 10:29-
39— (D) II Esdras, 10:29-39 / Psalms / Prov-
erbs, 15:8; 21:3 / Isaiah, 1:11-20; 58 — (D)
Isaias, 1:11-20; 58 / Lamentations, 5 / Ezefyel,
43:18-27; 45:13-46:24— (D) Ezechiel, 43:18-
27; 45:13-46:24 / Hosea, 6 esp 6:6; 8— (D)
Osee, 6 esp 6-6; 8 / Joel, 2:12-18 / Amos, 4 /
Micah, 6:6-8— (D) Micheas, 6:6-8 / Malachi,
1:6-14— (D) Malachias, 1:6-14
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 13— (D) OT, Tobias, 13 /
Rest of Esther, 13:12-14— (D) OT, Esther,
13:12-14 / Ecclesiasticus, 18:22-23; 35— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18-22-23; 35
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6-1-18; 9:9-13;
26:36-44 / Mar^, 9*14-29 esp 9:29; 12:32-33
— (D) Mar{, 9*13-28 esp 9:28; 12:32-33 /
Lu^e, 11:1-13; 18*1-14 /John, 17 / Colossians,
4:2-4 / I Thessalonians, 5:17 / Hebrews, 10:1-
22; 13:15-16 / Revelation, 5— (D) Apocalypse, 5
4 HOMER. Iliad, BK i [428-487] 7c-8a; BK n
[394-431] 14a-b; BK ix [485-526] 62a-b /
Odyssey, BK in [1-68] 193a-d
5 AESCHYLUS' Suppliant Maidens [1-175] la-3a;
[525-600] 7c-8d; [1018-1073] 13d-14a,c /
Seven Against Thebes [80-320] 28a-30d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [151-215] lOOc-
lOla; [863-910] 107b-c / Oedipus at Colonus
[465-509] 118b-d / Electra [516-576] 160a-c /
Philoctetes [1440-1444] 195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Trojan Women [1277-1283] 280d
/ Bacchantes 340a-352a,c esp [200-209] 341c,
[337-433] 342c-343b / Iphigenta at Auhs 425a-
439d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [173-195] 528a; [922-
1126] 536c-539a / Birds 542a-563d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6a; lOa-lld; 20d-
22a; 31a-c; 40d-41b; 48c; BK n, 57b-60a;
79a-c; 86c; BK HI, 95a-c; BK iv, 126d-127a;
134a; 140c-d; 142b-c; 155c-156a; 156d-157a;
BK v, 175d-176a; BK vi, 196d-197a; 199d-
200a; 200d; 205c-d; BK vn, 226c; 235a;
248b-c; 250b-d; BK vra, 267a; 270b-c; 282b-c
6THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK n,
407a-b> BK vi, 517d-518a
7 PL^rro: Phaedrus, 127c-128a / Symposium,
156d-157a / Euthyphro, 197d-198c / Phaedo,
251d / Republic, BK i, 295a-d; 297a-b; BK
n, 313d-314d; BK iv, 345d-346a / Timaeus,
447a / Laws, BK iv, 683a-b; BK vn, 721a-c;
BK vin, 731d-732d; BK x, 768d-769c; BK
xn, 791d-792a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH n [105*2-6] 148c
/ Heavens, BK i, CH i (268*12-15] 359a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, erf 12 347a-b; BK iv,
CH 2 [na2bi8-23] 369c; BK vm, CH 9 [1160*19-
29] 412b-c / Politics, BK vii, CH 9 [1329*26-34]
533d
CHAPTER 29: GOD
569
1£ LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1-43]
" la-d; [80-101] 2a-b; BK n [589-660] 22c-23b;
BK in [41-58] 30c-d; BK v [1194-1240] 76d-
77b;BK vi [68-79] 81a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 16 121d-
122d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 7 269d;
BK ix, SECT 40 295b; BK xn, SECT 14 308c
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, v [62-80] 18a-b / Aeneid
103a-379a passim, esp BK n [108-125] 127a-b,
BK in [84-120] 149b-150b, [543-550] 162a, BK
iv [54-67] 168b-169a, [198-221] 172b-173a,
BK vi [42-76] 212a-213a, BK vin [558-584]
274a-b, BK ix [621-631] 295b-296a, BK xi
[783-798] 349b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c passim / Numa
Pompihus 49a-61d esp 56d-57b / Camillus,
104b-d; 107b-d / Fabius, 142d-143b / Corio-
lanus, 185b-186a / Aemihus Paulus, 214b-d /
Pelopidas, 239d-240c / Marcellus, 247c-249d /
Lucullus, 404d-405a / Agesilaus, 483a-b /
Alexander, 541a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 59d-60c; BK XH,
112d-113a / Histories, BK n, 214d-215a; BK iv,
282d-283b; 292c-294a; BK v, 296a
16 KEPLER- Harmonies of the World, 1009a;
lOlla; 1050b; 1080a-b; 1085b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b;
BK xni, par i llOd-llla / City of God, BK vii,
CH 27-31 259c-262a; BK x 298b,d-322a,c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 6 626a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 30,
A i, REP i 749a-d
20 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 99,
A 3 247a-248a; A 4, REP 2 248a-d; QQ 101-103
265d-304a; PART II-H, Q 30, A 4, REP i 536a-d;
Q 32, A 2, ANS 541a-542c; QQ 179-189 606a-
v 700d esp Q 181, A 3, REP 3 618c-619b, Q 182,
A 2, REP 3 621d-623a, Q 186, A 4, ANS 655c-
656b, A 5, REP 5 656c-657d, A 6, REP 2 657d-
658d, Q 1 88, A i, REP i 674d-675d; PART HI,
QQ 21-22 823d-833a; Q 25 839c-845a; Q 60, A
5, ANS 850b-851b; Q 62, A 5, ANS 862b-863a;
Q 63, A 2, ANS 865c-866c; A 4, REP 1,3 867d-
868b; A 5, ANS 868c-869b; A 6, ANS, 869b-
870b; PART in SUPPL, QQ 71-72 900d-922b;
Q 99, A 3, REP 2 1081d-1083a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [133-
145] 57b-c; iv [127-135] 58d; vi [25-48] 61a-b;
xi [1-36] 68d-69a; PARADISE, v [13-84] 112b-
113a; xiv [67-108] 127c-128a; xx [31-138]
137a-138a passim; xxxin [1-45] 156b-c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
263-267 154b-155a / Knight's Tale [2209-2437]
196b-200a / Summoner's Tale [7455-7529]
288a-289a / Franklin's Tale [11,176-206] 353b-
354a; [11,340-398] 356b-357a / Prioress's Tale
391a-395b / Parson's Tale, par 93-94 547b-
548a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 80c; 81c-d; PART
n, 154d-155a; 161b-163d; PART in, 182d-183b;
PART iv, 261a c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
117c-118a; BK iv, 265b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays* 91b-c; 152b-156d;
246b-d; 300c-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT iv, sc vni [96-
131] 561c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc in [36-96]
53d-54b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 369b 371d
passim
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK m [185-197] 139b;
BK iv [720-735] 168a-b; BK v [136-208] 178a-
179b; BK vii [550-640] 229a-231a; BK x [1086]-
BK xi [71] 298a-300b / Arcopagitica, 402a-b
33 PASCAL: Pcnstcs, 431 247b; 476 256b-257a;
487-489 258b-259a; 491 259a; 499 260b; 504
261a; 513-514 262a-263a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3b-5c; lOc-JSa
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 41,
468a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 187d-188a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxv,
209a-b; 209d-210a; 211a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 59c-60a; 81d-82a;
93b-c; 98a; 121a-b; 180d-182c esp 181b-c;
184d-185d; 208a-211a passim, esp 209a; 327d-
328b; 349c-350b; 356d-358a; 457b,d-467d
passim; 547a-b; 583d-584b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, llOb-c; 195a-198d;
207a-208c; 226a-228a, 232c-233c
42 KANT:7tt^(?mtfn/,504b-505a;509a-c
43 MILL. Liberty, 307d-309a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 52c-53a; 394a; 481d-482d
46 HEGFL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-
225a; 227c-228a; 234d-235c; 245b-247b;
253c-254b; PART HI, 291d-292b; PART iv,
322a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3587-3619] 87b-88a;
PART ii [8568-8603] 208b-209b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 30a-36b; 39a-b;
130b-131a; 370b-371b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 122b-c; BK
vii, 281d-282a; BK vni, 323b; BK ix, 373b-
377b; BK x, 435c<436c; BK xn, 544b-545a;
553c-554a; BK xin, 585b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim; BK vi, 164d-165a; 167b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 203a-204b
3/. The imitation of God or the gods: the divine
element in human nature; the deification
of men; man as the image of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:26-27; 3 esp 3:4-5,
3:22; 5:1-2; 9:6 / Exodus, 7:1 / Leviticus,
11:44-45; 19:2; 20:7-87 Psalms, 82:6-7— (D)
Psalms, 81:6-7 / ^aiah, 40:10-31; 42:8; .46—
(D) Isaias, 40:10-31; 42:8; 46 / Ezefal* 16:17-
19; 2^:1-19— (D) Ezechicl) 16:17-19; ,28:1-19
/ Daniel, 6:7-9
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 3:8; 5:23-6 :4-(£>) OT, Ju-
dith, 3:12-13; 5:27-6:4 / Wisdom of Solomon,
570
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. Man's relation to God or the gods. 3/. The
imitation of God or the gods: the divine
element in human nature,' the deification
of men; man as the image of God.)
2:23; 13-15— (D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 2:23;
13-15 / Ecclesiasticus, 17:1-3— (D) OT, Reck-
siasticus, 17:1-3
NfiW TESTAMENT: John, 10:34-35 / Acts, 12.21-
23; 14:7-18; 17.27-29; 28:3-6 / Romans, 1.14-
32 // Corinthians, 11:7; 15:49 / // Corinthians,
3:18 / Colossians, 3:8-10 / // Thessalonians,
2:3-4 / James, 3:9/1 Peter, i .15-16 /// Peter,
1-3-4
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7a-b; 12d-13b;
14a-d; BK n, 79d-80a; BK iv, 140c-141a; BK v,
168d-169a, 183d-184a; BK vn, 217c; 235b-c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 127c-128a / Ion, 144b-145c
/ Republic, BK ii-m, 320c-328a / Timaeus,
/ Laws, BK iv, 681b-683b, BK v, 686d-687c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982^8-
983*11] 501a-b; BK xn, CH 7 [io72bi4-29]
602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d / Soul, BK 11, CH 4
[4i5a22-b8]645c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99b9~i8]
345a; CH 12 347a-b; BK vn, CH i [1145*15-33]
395a-b; BK x, CH 8 [1178*8-27] 433b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1-54]
61a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c; CH
6 110c-112b; CH 9 114c-116b; CH 13-14 120b-
121c; CH 17 122d-124a csp 123d; BK n, CH 7-8
145b-147c; CH 14, 153d-154c; BK in, CH 13,
188b-d; BK iv, CH n, 240d-241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
SECT 13 258c; BK HI, SECT 12-13 262b-c; BK
v, SECT 27 272d; BK xn, SECT 2-3 307b-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [283-290] HOb-llla;
[586-593] 119a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 27d-29c / Numa Pom-
pilius, 50d-51c; 52b-53c / Alexander, 541a-
542a; 553b-554b/ Dion, 784d-785a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 4c-d; BK iv, 73b-d;
80c-d / Histories, BK iv, 285d-286a; 287b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 849a-b / Harmonies
of the World, 1038a; 1048a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n 6b-10a / Second
Ennead, TR ix, CH 15 74d-75b / Fourth Ennead,
TR in, CH 12, 148d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 14 12a-b;
BK iv, par 26 25c-d; par 31 26c-27a; BK vi,
par 4 36a-b; BK xm, par 32 119a-b / City of
God, BK vni, CH 8 270a-d; BK xi, CH 26-28
336d-338d; BK xii, CH 23 357d-358a / Chris-
tian Doctrine, BK i, CH 22 629b-630a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies, PART i, Q 3, A
i, REP 2 14b-15b; Q 14, A 2, REP 3 76d-77d;
Q 26, A 4 151c-152a,c; Q 27, A i, ANS 153b-
154b; Q 59, A i, CONTRARY 306c-307b; Q 72,
A i, RBP 3 368b-369d; Q 77, A 2, ANS and REP
I 401b-d; Q 88, A 3, REP 3 472c-473a; Q 91, A
3//o4
4, REP 1-2 487d-488c; Q 92, A 2, ANS 489d-
490c; Q 93 492a-501c; Q 106, A i, REP 3 545d-
546d; PART i-n, Q i, A 8, 615a-c; Q 2, A 4, REP
i 618a-d; Q 3, A 5, REP i 626b-627a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ir, Q 55,
A 2, REP 3 27a-d; Q 87, A 8, REP 2 191d-192d;
Q 93, A 3 217b-218a; A 6, ANS 2I9d-220d; Q
no, A 4, ANS 350d-351d; PART n-ii, Q 2, A 9,
REP 3 398c-399b; Q 10, A n, ANS 435d-436b;
Q 19, A 3, REP i 466d-467c; Q 31, A 3, REP 2
538b-539c; PART in, Q 4, A i, REP 2 730d-
731d, PART III SUPPL, Q 71, A 12, CONTRARY
914c-915c; Q 75, A i, REP 4 935b-937a; Q 91,
A 2, CONTRARY 1017c-1020c; Q 92, A 3, RFP 9
1034b-1037c, Q 93, A i, REP i 1037d-1039a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
90] 77d; xxv [58-78] 92a; PARADISE, v [19-
24] 112b; vn [64-84] 115d-116a', xm [52-78]
126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,189-192] 353b-
354a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 82b-c; PART iv,
263a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215a; 233b-234a; 248a-c;
256c-d; 294a-b; 541d-543a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE. Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [314-322]
43d; ACT iv, sc iv [33-66] 59a-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 41b-d, 80b-
81a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 214a-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [345-353] 118b-
119a; BK vn [150-173] 220b 221a; [519-528]
228b; BK xi [466-522] 309b-310b / Areopa-
gitica, 384a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 430-431 245a-247b; 434-435
248a-251a; 485 258b; 537 265b; 555 270a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6 26b-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 187d-188a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12b-c; 28b-d;
547a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 136b; 379b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 90,
130d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 168b-d;
PART i, 224a-228a; 234d-235c; 245a; PART n,
266d-267a; 268b-271c esp 270c-271c; PART HI,
306a-d; 308a-b; PART iv, 339b-d; 349c-350c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [614-736] 17a-19b;
[1566-1569] 38a
48 MtfviLLE: Moby Dicl(, 84b-85a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace , BK xi, 525c-526b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
121d-122c; BK xi, 313c-314d; 345a-c
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 692a-693a esp 693a
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 778d-779a;
790d
4. The divine nature in itself: the divine attri-
butes
7 PLATCK Phaedrus^ 126a / Symposium, 167b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [ii78b8-23]
433b-c
CHAPTER 29: GOD
571
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 8, 146a; BK
in, CH 13, 188b-c
17 PLOTINUS : Fifth Ennead, TR i-vi 208a-237d pas-
sim/ Sixth Ennead, TR VH-IX 321b-360d passim
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 4 2a; BK
iv, par 29 26b; BK vn, par 1-8, 43b-45d / City
of God, BK vin, CH 6 268d-269c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 3-11
14a-50b; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxxni
[76-145] 157a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 162a-163b; PART
iv, 271b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52b-d /
Meditations, in 81d-89a / Objections and Re-
plies, PROP in 132d-133a; 211c-212a; 232b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i 355a-372d esp DEF 4,6
355b, PROP 5 356b, PROP 8-13 356d-359d,
PROP 14, COROL 2-PROP 15 360a-361d, PROP
19-20 363c-364a; PART n, PROP 1-2 373d-374a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-371a / Optics, BK in, 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 15 116c-d; BK n, CH xvii, SECT i 167d-
168a; CH xxin, SECT 33-35 212d-213c; BK in,
CH vi, SECT 11-12 271b-272b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 146
442a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 229c-230b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 187a-c; 190c; 236b-240b
esp 239a-c / Practical Reason, 303b-304a;
325d-326a; 344b-c; 345a-c; 347d-348b; 350c-
351a; 352a~c / judgement, 592a-c; 608c-611d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 161
143a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b-d
a. The identity of essence and existence in
God: the necessity of a being whose
essence involves its existence
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 3:13-14
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [io72b
4-14] 602c-d
17 PLOTINUS. Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH 14 349d-
350c; CH 18-21 351d-353d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 23, 50c /
City of God, BK vin, CH n, 272c / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A 4 16d-17c; A 7, ANS and
REP i 19a-c; Q 4, A i, REP 3 20d-21b; A 2, ANS
and REP 3 21b-22b; A 3, REP 3 22b-23b; Q 6,
A 3 29c-30b; Q 8, A i, ANS 34d-35c; Q 10, A 2,
ANS and REP 3 41d-42c; Q 11, A 4, ANS 49d-
50b; Q 13, A u, ANS 73c-74b; Q 14, A 13, REP
i B6d-88c; Q 19, A 3, REP 6 HOb-lllc; Q 44,
A i, ANS 238b-239a; Q 50, A 2, REP 3 270a-
272a; Q 54, A i, ANS 285a-d; A 3, REP 2 286c-
287b; Q 75, A 5, REP 4 382a-383b; PART i-ii,
Q 3, A 7, ANS 628a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 3,
A 2, REP 3 724a-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI 81d-89a; v 93a-
96a / Objections and Replies, 110a-112a; 112d-
114c; 126b-127c; POSTULATE v 131b-c; AXIOM
i 131d; AXIOM x 132b; PROP i 132b-c; 158b-
162a; 217d-218a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF i 355a; DEF 6-8
355b-c; PROP 6-8 356b-357d; PROP n 358b-
359b; PROP 20 363d-364a; PROP 24 365a;
PROP 34 369a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 469 256a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 143a-145c; 153a; 177b-
192d esp 177b-179c, 187a-c, 192c<d; 205a-b;
239a-c / Practical Reason, 344c-355d esp 353a-
354d / Judgement, 570b-571c; 606d-609b esp
608b-609a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 280,
95a / Philosophy of History, PART in, 305c-
306c
4b. The unity and simplicity of the divine nature
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vm, CH 10 353b-355d
/ Metaphysics, BK xii, CH 7 [1073*2-11] 603a-b;
CH 8 [1074*32-39] 604d; CH 9 [1075*5-11]
605c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [n 54^0-31]
406c
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR ix 353d-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
par 12 4a; BK iv, par 24 25b-c; par 29 26b; BK
vn, par 2 43c-44a; par 16 48c-49a; par 21 49d-
50a, BK xni, par 4 lllc; par 19 115c-d / City
of God, BK vin, CH 6 268d-269c; CH n, 272c;
BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 5 625d-626a; CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3
14a-20c; Q 4, A 2, REP 1-2 21b-22b; A 3 22b-
23b; Q 6, A 3 29c-30b; Q 7, A 2 31d-32c; Q 8,
A 2, REP 2-3 35c-36b; A 4 37c-38c; Q u 46d-
50b; Q 13, A i, REP 2-3 62c-63c; A 4, REP 3
65c-66b; Q 14, A i, REP 2 75d-76c; A 4 78b-
79a; Q 26, A i, REP i 150b-c; Q 27, A i, REP 2
153b-154b; Q 28, A 2, REP i 158d-160a; Q 30,
A i, REP 3-4 167a-168a; A 3 169b-170c; Q 40,
A i, REP i 213b-214b; Q 44, A i, ANS 238b-
239a; Q 47, A i 256a-257b; Q 50, A 2, REP 3
270a-272a; A 3, REP 2 272a-273b; Q 54, A i,
ANS 285a-d; A 3, REP 2 286c-287b; Q 57, A i,
ANS 295a-d; Q 84, A 2, ANS and REP 3 442b-
443c; Q 88, A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; PART i-n,
Q 18, A i, ANS 694a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; Q 50, A 6, ANS lla-12a; Q 73, A
i, REP 3 119c-120c; PART in, Q 2, A 2, ANS and
REP i 711d-712d; Q 3, A 2, REP 3 724a-c;
A 3 724c-725b; Q 6, A 5, REP 2 744a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xni [52-
66] 126a; xxiv [115-154] 143d-144b; xxix
[127-145] 151c-d; xxxni [76-145] 157a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 151d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52a-d /
Meditations, in, 86a-88b esp 88b / Objections
and Replies, 122b-c; 232b
572
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The divine nature in itself: the divine at-
tributes. 4h. The unity and simplicity of the
divine nature.)
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 2-8 355d-
357d; PROP 12-14 359b-360a; PART 11, PROP
4 374c; PROP 7, SCHOL, 375b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 15 116c-d; BK II, CH XXIII, SECT 35
213b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 307 b-c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 229c-230b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 176b-c; 192c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a-b;
227d-228a; PART in, 306a; PART rv, 322a-c
4c. The immateriality of God
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 6 [ioyib
2-23] 601b-c; CH 8 [1074*31-39] 604d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [146-155]
63a
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 53b-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 296a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH 26, 266a;
CH 27, 266c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK iv, par 29 26b;
par 31 26c-27a; BK v, par 19-20 32b-33a;
BK vi, par 4 36a-b; BK vn, par 1-2 43b-44a /
City of God, BK vin, CH 5-6 267d-269c
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
2 15c-16a; A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 8, ANS and REP
3 19d-20c; Q 7, A i, ANS and REP 2 31a-d; Q 14,
A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 11 84c-85c; Q 40, A i, REP
i 213b-214b; Q 50, A i, REP i 269b-270a; A 2,
REP 3 270a-272a; Q 54, A i, ANS 285a-d; A 3,
REP 2 286c-287b; Q 75, A 5, REP 1,4 382a-383b;
0 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c; A 4, REP i 444d-
446b; Q 86, A 2, REP i 462a-463a; Q 91, A 2,
ANS 485b-486b; Q 105, A 3, ANS 540c-541b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART m, Q 2,
A i, ANS and REP 2 710a-711c, A 2, ANS 711d-
712d; Q 25, A 3, REP i 841c-842d; PART in
SUPPL, Q 92, A i, REP 12 1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 172d-173a
28 GILBERT. Loadstone, BK v, 105a
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 122b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 12-15 359b-
361d; PART n, DEF i 373a; PROP 1-2 373d-
374a; PROP 5-7 374c-375c
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK HI, 529a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH HI,
SECT 17 117a-c; BK n, CH xxni, SECT 28 211b-
d; BK HI, CH VI, SECT II, 271b-CJ BK IV, CH
x, SECT8-i7351a-353c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 334b-335b
4<£ The eternity and immutability of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:18 / Deuteronomy,
32:39-40 / / Chronicles, 16:34-36— (D) I Para-
lipomenon, 16:34-36 / Psalms, 9:6-7; 10:16;
29:10-11; 33:10-11; 45:6; 48 csp 48:8, 48:14;
66:7; 90 csp 90:1-4; 93:1-2; 102 csp 102:11-12,
102:26-27; 103:13-18; 136; 145:10-13; 146:5-
10— (D) Psalms, 9:7-8; 9:16; 28:10; 32:10-11;
44:7; 47 csp 47:9, 47:15; 65:7; 89 csp 89:1-4;
92:1-2; 101 esp 101:12-13, 101:27-28; 102:13-
18; 135; 144:10-13; 145:5-10 / Isaiah, 40:8,28;
43:10-13; 57:15— (D) Isaias, 40:8,28; 43:10-
I3> 57:I5 / Jeremiah, 10:10— (D) Jeremias,
io-io / Lamentations, 5:19 / Daniel, 6:26 /
Micah, 5:2— (D) Micheas, 5:2 / Malachi, 3:6
— (D) Malaccas, 3:6
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 36-17; 39:20; 42:21 —
(D) OT, Eccksiasticus, 36:19; 39:25; 42:21-22
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:35 / Romans,
1 120-25 / Colossians, 1:16-177 / Timothy, i :i7;
6:15-16 / Hebrews, 1:8-12; 7:23-25; 13:7-8 /
James, 1:17 / Revelation, 1:17-18; 10:6; 11:15-
17— (D) Apocalypse, 1:17-18; 10:6; 11:15-17
7 PLATO Republic, BK n, 322d-323c; 324a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vni, CH 6 [258^0-
259b3J] 344b-345d / Heavens, BK i, CH 9
[279a23-b4] 370c-d; BK H, CH 3 [286*8-13] 377c
/ Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
I3376l5~23] 439a-b / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH i [io69R30-b2] 598b-c; CH 6-7 601b-603b;
CH 9 605a-d esp [1075*5-11] 605c-d / Soul,
BK H, CH 4 (4i5a22-b8j 645c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [ii54b2o-3i]
406c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 296a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1071b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vn, CH 2-6 119c-
122d esp CH 5 121c-122a / Sixth Ennead,
TR vni, CH ii 348b-c; CH 18-21 351d-353d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK iv, par 26 25c-d; par 29 26b; BK vn, par
1-7 43b-45d; par 16-18 48c-49b, par 21 49d-
50a; par 23 50b-c; par 26, 51c; BK xi, par 12-
16 92b-93a; BK xn, par 1 1 lOld; par 18, 103a-b;
par 40 109b-110a; BK xm, par 44 122d / City
of God, BK vii, CH 30 261b-d; BK vni, CH n,
272c; BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d; CH 21-22 333a-
334c esp CH 22, 334c; BK xii, CH 1-3 342b,d-
344b; CH 14-17 350d-354a csp CH 14 350d-
351 b, CH 17 353a-354a / Christian Doctrine, BK
i, CH 5-6 625d-626b; CH 8 626c-627a; CH 10
627b; CH 22-23 629b-630c; CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP 4 14b-15b; QQ 9-10 38c-46d; Q 14, A 9,
ANS 83b-d; A 13, ANS and REP 3 86d-88c; A 15
89b-90b; Q 18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 19; A 7 114d-
115d; Q 22, A i, REP 2 127d*128d; Q 26, A i,
REP 2 150b-c; Q 42, A 2 225d-227a; Q 43, A 2
230d-23Ic; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 61,
A 2, ANS 315c-316a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologka, PART I-H, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; Q 91, A i 208b-d; PART in,
Q i, A i, REP 3 701d-703a; A 5, REP 3 707a-
708c; Q 2, A i, ANS 710a-711c
21 DANTE: Dttxnc Comedy, PARADISE, vn [64-
72] 115d; xm [52-66] I26a; xxiv [130-141]
144a; xxix [13-36] 150b-c; XXXIH 156b-
157d
CHAPTER 29: GOD
573
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 79d-80a; PART HI,
173a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 293d-294a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428c
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART iv, 52b-c / M«fc-
tations, in, 84a-b; 86a; v, 94d-95a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 6 355b; DEF 8
355c; PROP 6 356b-c; PROP 11-13 358b-359d;
PROP 17 362b-363c; PROP 19-20 363c-364a;
PROP 33, SCHOL 2, 367d-368c esp 368b-c;
PART n, PROP 44, COROL 2-PROP 47 390a-391a;
PART v, PROP 17 456c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [1-12] 135b;
[372-382] 143b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 469 256a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 3-4 162d-163b; CH xvn, SECT 16-17
172a-c; SECT 20 172d-173c; CH xxm, SECT 21
209c; BK iv, CH x 349c-354c esp SECT 3-5
349d-350b, SECT 8-n 351a-352a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 117 436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 176b-c; 190c; 192c-d /
Practical Reason, 334b-335b; 344b-c; 352a-b
/ Judgement, 592a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; PART in, 306a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xiv, 608a-b;
EPILOGUE n, 684c-d
4e. The infinity of God: the freedom of an
infinite being
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [io73a
3-10] 603a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 19-20 32b-
33a; BK VH, par 7 45a-d; par 20-21 49d-50a;
BK xni, par 12 113b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
REP 1 12c-14a; Q 7 31a-34c; Q 14, A i, ANS 75d-
76c; A 3 77d-78b; Q 25, A 2, ANS and REP i
144c-145b; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 75, A
5, REP 1,4 382a-383b; Q 79, A 2, ANS 414d-
416a; Q 86, A 2, REP i 462a-463a; PART I-H,
Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 64,
A 4, REP 3 69b-70a; Q 87, A 4, REP 2 188b-d;
PART II-II, Q 20, A 2, REP 2 475d-476cj Q 24,
A 8, ANS 495b-496a; PART HI, Q i, A 2, REP 2
703a-704d; Q 2, A i, ANS 710a-711c; Q 3, A i,
REP i 723b-724a; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i,
REP 6,12 1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 162b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 86a-88d / Ob-
jections and Replies, 112a-d; 123c-d; PROP in
132d-133a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 2 355a; DEF 6-7
355b; PROP 8-14 356d-360a; PROP 15, SCHOL-
PROP iy360b-363c; PROP 21, DEMONST364a-c;
PROP 29 366b-c; PROP 32-35 367a-369a; PART
n, PROP 1-4 373d-374c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [411-421] 241a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 231-233 213b-216a; 469 256a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 2-4 162c-163b; SECT 12 165b-c; CH xvii,
SECT 1 167d-168a; SECT 16-17 172a-c; SECT 20
172d-173c; CH xxin, SECT 33-36 212d-213d;
BK III, CH VI, SECT II 271b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 117 436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 188c; 192c-d; 201b-c;
205a-b / Practical Reason, 325d-326a; 344b-c
/ Judgement, 590b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 237d-
238a;246b-c
4/. The perfection or goodness of God
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:48 / Luke, 18:19
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 321d-323a / Ttmaeus,
447d-448a / Theaetetus, 530b-531a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 60 2a-
603b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 12 347a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 8 146a-147c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1009a
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK i, par 12 4a; BK
in, par 12 16b; BK iv, par 24 25b-c; BK v, par
19-20 32b-33a; BK vn, par 1-7 43b-45d esp
par 4-7 44b-45d; par 16-23 48c-50c; BK x,
par 38 81a; BK xi, par 6 90c-d; BK xn, par
18, 103b; BK xni, par 1-5 HOd-llld; par 53
124d-125a,c / City of God, BK xi, CH 10
327d-328d; BK xii, CH 1-3 342b,d-344b; CH
8-9 346d-348b / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 5-7 625d-626c; CH 31-32 633b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A i, REP 2 lOd-lld; A 3, ANS and REP i 12c-
14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a;
A 7, REP 2 19a-c; Q 4 20c-23b; Q 6 28b-30d; Q
13, A 2, ANS 63c-64d; A n, REP 2 73c-74b; Q
18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 19, A i, REP 1-3 108d-
109c; Q 21, A i, REP 4 124b-125b; Q 51, A i,
REP 3 275b-276b; Q 61, A 3, REP 2 316a-d; Q
62, A 8, ANS and REP 1-2 323c-324a; Q 66, A i,
CONTRARY 343d-345c; Q 84, A 2, ANS and REP
3 442b-443c; Q 91, A i, ANS 484a-485b; Q 100,
A 2, ANS 521c-522b, Q 103 528a-534b passim;
Q 104, A 3, REP 2 537b-d; A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q
105, A 4, ANS 541c-542a; A 5, ANS 542a-543b;
PART i-ii, Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a; Q 2, A 4,
REP i 618a-d; Q 9, A 6 662a-d; Q 18, A i, ANS
694a-d; Q 19, A 4 705b-c; Q 22, A 2, REP i 721c-
722c; Q 24, A 3, REP 2 728c-729c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; Q 64, A 4, ANS and REP 3
69b-70a; PART n-n, Q 9, A 4, REP i 425d-426c;
Q 13, A i, ANS 444b-445a; Q 17, A i, ANS
457a-d; Q 23, A 4, ANS 485d-486b; Q 34, A i,
ANS 559a-c; Q 39, A 2, REP 3 575b-576b; Q
184, A 2, ANS 629d-630d; PART in, Q i, A i,
ANS 701d-703a; Q 23, A i, ANS 833a-d; PART in
SUPPL, Q 91, A 2, REP 4,10 1017c-1020c; Q 99,
A 2, REP 3 1081a-d
574
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4, The divine nature in itself: the divine at-
tributes. 4f. The perfection or goodness of
God.)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy ', PURGATORY, xxvm
[91-93] 97a; PARADISE, vn [64-66] 115d; xix
[40-90] 135c-136a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays* 300c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52a-d; 53d /
, Meditations, i, 76d-77c; m-iv, 86a-93a / Ob-
jections and Replies, 123d-124c; DBF vin 130d;
142c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 33, SCHOL 2
367d-369a; PART v, PROP 17, DEMONST 456c-d
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 580 276b
34 NEWTON- Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK m, CH vi,
SECT n-12 271b-272b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
78-81 485c-487a; SECT xi, DIV 106-107 499b-
500b passim; DIV 113, 502a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 205a-b / Fund. Prin.
Metaphync of Morals, 263a-b / Practical Rea-
son, 307a-d; 325d-326a; 342c; 345a-c; 351b-
352c / Judgement, 592a-c
4g. The intellect of God
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [io72b
14-29] 602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [ii78b8-23]
433b~c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14 120d-121c;
BK H, CH 8, 146a
17 PLOI INUS : Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 1 65d-66d
/ Fifth Ennead 208a-251d esp TR v-vi 228b-
237d, TR ix 246c-251d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VIH, CH 6 268d-
269c; BK xi, CH 21 333a-d; BK xur CH 17 353a-
354a; BK xxn, CH 29, 614b / Christian Doc-
trine, BK i, CH 13 627d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP 2-3 14b-15b, Q 14, AA 1-4 75d-79a; Q 18,
A 3 106b-107c, Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c; A 2,
REP 4 109c-110b; A 3, REP 6 HOb-lllc; A 4,
ANS and REP 4 lllc-112c; Q 26, A 2 150c-151a;
Q 27, A 3, REP 3 155c-156a; Q 46, A 2, REP 3
253a-255a; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-270a; Q 54,
A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 55, A i, ANS and REP 3
289a-d; A 3, ANS 291a-d; Q 57, A i, ANS 295a-d;
A 2, ANS 295d-297a; Q 59, A 2, ANS 307c-308b;
0 79, A i, ANS 414a-d; A 2, ANS 414d-416a; A 4,
ANS 417a-418c; A 10, REP 2 423d-424d; Q 84,
A a, ANS 442b-443c; Q 85, A 5, ANS 457d-
458d, Q 87, A i, ANS 465a-466c; A 3, ANS 467b-
468a; Q 89, A i, ANS 473b-475a; Q 105, A i,
REP 2 538d-539c; A 3, ANS 540c-541b; Q 116,
A i, ANS 592d-593d; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP i
612a-613a; Q 19, A 4, ANS and REP 3 705b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcohgtca, PART MI, Q 51,
A i, REP 2 12b-13c; Q 6r, A 5, ANS 58b-59d;
Q 93, A i 215b,d-216c; PART in, Q 6, A 2, ANS
741c-742a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK H, APH 15 149a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 228a*c
31 SPINOZA: Ethtcs, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c; PROP 21 364a-c; PROP 32, COROL 2 367b;
PROP 33, SCHOL 2, 368 b-c; PART n, PROP i
373d-374a; PROP 3-6 374a-375a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH i,
SECT 10, 123b, CH x, SECT 9 143a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 52c-53b / Practi-
cal Reason, 303b-304a; 344b-c; 350c-351b /
Judgement, 590b-d, 592a-c; 600d-601c; 610b-
613a,c
4b. The happiness and glory of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:1-21; 33:13-23 /
7 Chronicles, 16:23-27; 29:11-13— (D) I Par-
ahpomenon, 16:23-27; 29:11-13 / Psalms,
8; 19; 24; 57 5-11; 96-3~6; 104-1; 1134,
H8:5; 145:11-12— (D) Psalms, 8; 18; 23,
56:5-11; 95:3-6; 103:1; 112:4; 137:5; 144:11-
12 / Isaiah, 6:1-4; 42.8— (D) Isaias, 6:1-4;
42:8
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:13— (D) OT, Judith,
16:16 / Rest of Esther, 13:12-14— (D) OT,
Esther, 13:12-14 / Song of Three Children, 28-
31— (D) OT, Daniel, 3:51-53
NEW TESTAMENT. Mar\, 8:38 / John, 5:44; 8:54
/ Hebrews, 2-10 / 7 Peter, 4.7-11 / 77 Peter,
1:16-18 / Revelation, 5:9-14; 7:9-12; 21— (£>)
Apocalypse, 5 9-14; 7:9-12; 21
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK XH, CH 7 [io72b
i3-29]602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [i 154^0-31]
406c; BK x, CH 8 [ii78b8-23] 433b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xm, par 4 lllc /
City of God, BK v, CH 14 220a-d; BK vm,
CH 6 268d-269c; BK xn, CH 17 353a-354a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26
150a-152a,c; Q 62, A 3, REP 3 319c-320b; A 4,
ANS 320b-321b; Q 63, A 3 327b-328b, Q 65, A
2, ANS 340b-341b; Q 70, A 2, ANS 364b-365a;
Q 73, A 2, REP 3 371b-d; PART I-H, Q 2, A 2,
REP 2 616d-617b; A 3, ANS and REP i 617b-
618a; Q 3, A i, REP i 622c-623a; A 2, REP 1,4
623a-624b; A 8, REP 2 628d-629c; Q 5, A 3,
REP 2 638b-639a; A 7, ANS, 642a-d
20AoTuNAS. Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 8,
A 4, ANS 759b-d; Q 16, A 4, REP 2 799b-800b;
Q 26, A i, REP 2 845b-846a; PART in SUPPL,
Q 71, A 8, REP i 909d-910d; Q 92, A i, REP 5
1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-9]
106a; xxxin [46-145] 156c-157d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, J*ROP 17 456c-d;
PROP 35-36 460d-461c
32 MILTON: Upon thet Circumcision 12b-13a /
Paradise Lost, BK in [56-415] 13$b-144b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 233, 216a
5*050
CHAW ER 29: GOD
575
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 347d-346b / Judge-
ment, 594d [in i]
5. The divine nature in relation to the world or
creatures
7 PLATO: Republic, B* n, 321d-3£2d / Timaeus,
447b-458b;465d-466a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH i 326a-327b;
BK viii, CH 1-6 334a-346b
9 ARISTOTLB: Ethics, BK vn, CH 14 [ii54b20-»3i]
406c; BK x, CH 8 [i 178^-27] 433b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iir, CH 22, 195a-b;
BK iv, CH n, 240d-241a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 4 257b;
f BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK vi, SECT 40-46
277d-278d
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1017b-
1018a; 1071b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR m, CH 13
149b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 4 2a; par
10 3b-c; BK iv, par 25 25c; BK iv, par SI-BK v,
par i 26c-27b; BK vn, par 1-8, 43b-45d; par
16-23 48c-50c; BK x, par 38 81a; BK xi, par 6
90c-d; BK xni, par 19 115c-d / City of God,
Bk vii, CH 29-31 261a-262a; BK vin, CH i-io
264b,d-271d; BK x, CH 1-2 298b,d-300a; BK
xi, CH 24 335c-336a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 9-10 627a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 14-
25 75c~150a; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-3]
106a; [97-142] 107b-d; n [112-148] 109a-b; x
[1-27] 120b-c; xin [52-87] 126a-b; xix [40-90]
135c-136a; xxvn [100-120] 148b-c; xxvm
148d-150b; xxxm [76-145] 157a-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52a-d / Ob-
jections and Replies, 123c-d; 214a-d; 229c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [412-436]
241a-b
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK HI, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-371a / Optics, BK HI, 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvn,
SECT i 167d-168a; BK in, CH vi, SECT 11-12
271b-272b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 57 423d-
424a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
106 499b-c; DIV 113 502a-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c-d; 187d-188a
38 ROUSSBAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 439a
40 GIWON: Decline and Fall, Slb-c \mc\3Q7b-c;
346b-347a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 303b-304a; 321b-c;
325d-326a; 327d-328b; 342 c; 344b-c; 345a-c;
347d-348b; 350c-351a; 352a-c / Judgement,
592a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
' 120d-121c
5a. God as first and as exemplar cause: the rer
lation of divine to natural causation
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2; 7:4 / Nehemiah,
9.6— (D) II Esdras, 9:6 / Job, 9:1-9; 12;
26:7-14; 28:24-27; 36:24-42.2 / Psalms, 8:3;
33:6-9; 65:5-13; 74:16-17; 89:11-12; 95:4-5;
96:5; 102:25-27; 104; 107:23-30; 115:3;
119:73; 121:2; 136:5-9; 146:5-6; 147-148— (D)
Psalms, 8:4; 32:6-9; 64:6-14; 73:16-17; 88:12-
13; 94:4-5; 95:5; 101:26-28; 103; 106:23-30;
113:3; 118:73; 120:2; 135:5-9; 145:5-6; M6-
148 / Proverbs, 3:19 / Isaiah, 40:26-28; 42:5;
44:24; 45:7-12,18; 48:13; 51:13; 65:i7-(D)
Isaias, 40:26-28; 42:5; 44:24; 45:7-12,18;
48:13; 51:13; 65:17 / Jeremiah, 10:12; 27:5;
31-35; 51:15-16— (D) Jeremias, 10.12; 27:5;
31:35; 51:15-16 / Amos, 5:8 / Zechariah, 12:1
— (D) Zachanas, 12:1 / Malachi, 2:10— (D)
Malachias, 2:10
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:14— (D) OT, Judith, 16:17
/ Rest of Esther, ly.io-(D) OT, Esther, 13:10
/ Wisdom of Solomon, 1*14; 2 23; 9:1-2; 11:17
-(D)OT,Bool(of Wisdom, 1:1452:23; 9:1-2;
11:18 / Ecclesiasticus, 18:1; 24 8-9; 33:10-13;
39:16-35; 43— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18:1;
24:12-14; 33:10-14; 39:21-41143 / Bel and
Dragon, 5— (D) OT, Danitl, 14:4 / II Macca-
bees, 7:23,28— (D) OT, // Machabees, 7:23,28
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1-1-3 / ^cts, 7:49-50;
14-14-17; 17:22-28 / Colossians, 1:16-17 /
Hebrews, 1:10-11; 2:10; 3:4; 11:3 / // Peter,
3-5-7 / Revelation, 4:11; 10.6; 14 7— (D)
Apocalypse, 4:11; 10:6; 14:7
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 427c-429c / Timaeus,
447a-448b / Sophist, 577d-578b / Statesman,
587a-589c / Laws, BK x, 758b-765c esp 762b-
765c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vin, CH 1-6 334a-
346b / Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 10
[336^5-34] 438d; [337*15-23] 439a b/ Meta-
physics, BK I, CH 2 [983*7-9] 501b; BK XII, CH 4
[io7ob22~35J 600b; CH 5 [1071*30-36] 601a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 3 (699*11]-
CH 4 [700*5] 234a-235a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [146-194]
63a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14 120d-121c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5a-b
16 KEPLER- Epitome, BK iv, 853b-854a / Har-
monies of the World, 1017b-10l8a; 1025a-b;
1049b-1050a;1061a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
par 12 4a; BK vn, par 16-23 48c-50c; BK xi,
par 4-11 90a-92b; BK XH, par 2-9 99c-101c;
par 14-40 102b-110a esp par 38 108d-109a; BK
xin, par 6-48 112a-124a / City of God, BK vii,
CH 29-31 261a-262a; BK vin, CH i 264b,d-
265b; CH 4-6 266d-269c; CH 9 270d-271a; BK
xi, CH 4-24 324a-336a; BK XH 342b,d-360a,c;
BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a; BK xxi, CH 4 562a-
576
(3. The dMne nature in relation to the world or
creatures, la. God as first and as exemplar
cause: the relation oj divine to natural
causation.)
563c; CH 7-8 565d-568d; UK xxn, CH 2 587b-
588a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 32 633c-d;
CH 34 634b-c
19 AQUINAS : Swnma Theologies PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-15b;
A 2, ANS 15c~16a; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; A 5, REP 2
17c-18b; A 6, ANS 18c-19a; A 7, ANS and REP i
19a-c; A 8, ANS and REP 1-2 19d-20c; Q 4 20c-
23b csp A 3 22b-23b; Q 18, AA 3-4 106b-
108c; g 26, A 4 151c-152a,c; o 51, A i, REP 3
275b-276b; Q 52, A 2 279b-280a; Q 56, A 2,
ANS 292d-294a; Q 60, A i, REP 2-3 310b-
311a; Q 65 339a-343c; Q 74, A 3, REP i 375a-
377a,c; Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-379c; Q 76, A 5,
REP i 394c-396a; Q 83, A i, REP 3 436d-438a;
Q 84, A 2, ANS and REP 3 442b-443c; A 4, REP i
444d-446b; Q 88, A 3, REP 2 472c-473a; Q 89,
A i, RLH 3 473b-475a; Q 92, A i, REP i 488d-
489d; A 2, REP 2 489d-490c; A 4, ANS 491b-d;
Q 93 492a-501c; Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a; QQ
103-105 528a-545b; Q 116 S92d-595c; PART
i-n, Q i, A 2 610b-611b; Q 2, A 3, ANS 617b-
618a; Q 6, A i, REP 3 644d-646a; Q 9, A 6
662 ad; Q 10, A 4 665d 666a,c; Q 12, A 5, ANS
672a-c, Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 65,
A 3, ANS 72d-73d; Q 66, A i, REP 3 75b-76b;
Q 68, A i, ANS 87c-89c; Q 79, A i, REP 3 156b-
157b; A 2, ANS and REP 1 157b-158a; Q 80, A i,
ANS and REP 2-? 159d-160c; Q 85, A 6 182d-
184a; Q 93, A i 215b,d-216c; Q 100, A 6, REP 2
257c-258c; Q 102, A 3, ANS 272b-276c; Q 109,
A i, ANS 338b-339c; Q no, A i, REP 2 347d-
349a; Q in, A 2, ANS 352d-353d; PART H-II,
Q 18, A 4, ANS 464c-465a; PART in, Q 2, A 5,
REP 3 715a-716b; Q 5, A 3, REP 2 737d-739a;
Q 13, A 3, CONTRARY 782b-783b; PART in
SUPPL, Q 74, A 2, REP 3 926c-927c; Q 75, A 3
938a-939d; Q 88, A i, ANS lOOOd-lOOld
21 DANTE: Dunne Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-108]
107b; ii [112-148] 109a-b; XXVH [100-120]
148b-c; xxix [10-36] 150b-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2987-3040] 209a-
210a
23 HOBBBS: Leviathan, PART i, 78d-79a; 79d-80a;
PART n, 113b-c; 149d; PART in, 185d; 241c-
242a; PART iv, 272b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 390d-391a;
406b-407b; 415b-417a csp 416b-c; 426a-429b;
443a-c; 490d-493a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-d; 4b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55d-56a /
Meditations, in 81d-89a esp 84b-85a, 87b-
88c / Objections and Replies, 110b-112a; 158b-
161d; 213b-214d; 229c-d
THE GREAT IDEAS 5a to 5b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 16-18 362a-
363c; PROP 24-29 365a-366c; PROP 33, SCHOL
2 367d-369a; PART 11, PROP 7 375a-c; PROP 10,
SCHOL 376d-377a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-134] 137a-
138a; [630-735] 149a-l51b; BK v [468-474]
185b; BK vn 217a-231a esp [162-169] 220b,
[601-640] 230a-231a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 77 186a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a / Optics, BK in, 528b-529a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 2 178c; CH xxni, SECT 28 211b-d; BK iv,
CH in, SECT 28-29 322a-323a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a esp SECT 32 418d-419a; SECT ^6
419c-d; SECT 51-53 422d-423a; SECT 57 423d-
424a; SECT 60-75 424b-427d; SECT 105-109
433b-434b; SECT 141 441a-b; SECT 146-153
442a-444a esp SECT 150 442d-443b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54-57 474b-475d
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 140b,d-145c; 177b-179b;
187a-191d; 205a-209a; 236b-240b esp 239a-c
/ Practical Reason, 332d-337a,c esp 334b-
335c / Judgement, 569a-570a; 581b-582c;
592c-596c; 597d-599d; 600d-601c; 608b-609a;
610b-613a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; PART i, 245d-246c; PART iv, 368d-369a,c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239d; 243c-d
5b. God as final cause: the motion of all things
toward God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33.13-23 / Deuteron-
omy, 4 129 / / Chronicles, 28 -9 — (D) IParalipom-
enon, 28:9 / II Chronicles, 15 12-4, 12-15— (D)
11 Paralipomenon, 15:2-4,12-15 / Psalms, 24:6;
27:4-9; 42; 63; 70:4; 73:25-28; 84; 119:10—
(D) Psalms, 23.6, 26.4-9; 41? 62; 69:5; 72:25-
28; 83; 118:10 / Proverbs, 16:4 / Isaiah, 26 8-
9; 43:7; 58:2— (D) Isatas, 26:8-9; 43:7; 58:2
APOCRYPHA- Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1; 13:1-7—
(D) OT, Boo \ of Wisdom, ri; 13:1-7
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 3:10-11 / Colossians,
1:16-17 / Hebrews, 2:10 / Revelation, 4.11 —
(D) Apocalypse, 4:11
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [1072*
23^4] 602b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR H, CH 2 41a-c /
Fifth Ennead, TR vni, CH 7, 243b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i, la; par 5,
2b; BK iv, par 15-19 23a-24b; BK v, par 1-2
27a-c; BK x, par 29-33 78d-80b; BK xin, par 3
lllb-c / City of God, BK vni, CH 4 266d-267c;
CH 8-9 270a-271a; BK x, CH 1-3 298b,d-301a;
BK xn, CH i 342b,d-343c; BK xix, CH 13 519a-
520a / Christian Doctrine, BK 1 624a-636a,c esp
CH 3-5 625b-626a, CH 9-11 627a-c, CH 22-23
629b-630c, CH 34 634b-c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 4,
ANS 5a-b; Q 2, A i, REP i lOd-lld; A 3, ANS
CHAPTER 29: GOD
577
12c-14a; Q 6, A 3, ANS 29c-30b; A 4 30b-d;
Q 12, A I, ANS 50c-51c; Q 13, A II, REP 2 73c-
74 b; Q 19, A i, REP i 108d-109c; Q 26, A 3
151a-c; Q 44, A 4 241a-d; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c;
Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; Q 65, A 2 340b-341b;
Q 103, A 2 529a-530a; PART i-n, Q i, A 8
615a-c; Q 2, A 4, REP 1 618a-d; A 5, REP 3 618d-
619c; Q 9, A 6 662a-d; Q n, A 3, REP 3 667d-
668d; Q 12, A 3, REP i 670d 671b; Q 16, A 3,
CONTRARY and REP 3 685b-686a; Q 34, A 3,
ANS 770c-771c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 55,
A 2, REP 3 27a-d; Q 70, A i, REP 2 101d-102d;
Q 72, A 4, ANS 114a-115a; A 5, ANS 115a-116b;
Q 73, A 3, ANS 121c-122b; A 9, ANS 126d-128a;
Q 79, A i, ANS 156b-157b; Q 91, A i, REP 3
208b-d; Q 99, A 3, ANS 247a-248a; A 4, ANS
248a-d; Q 100, A 6, ANS 257c-258c; QQ 101-103
265d-304a passim; PART n-n, Q 5, A i, ANS
410a-411b; Q 19, A 2, REP 2 465d-466d, Q 20,
A i, REP i 474d-475d; Q 24, A 4, ANS 491d-
492b; Q 26, A 13, REP 3 5l9d-520d; Q 34, A i,
REP 3 559a-c; Q 44, A 2, REP 2,4 593d-594c;
PART III, Q 2, A II, ANS 721c-722bj Q 6, A I,
REP i 740b-741b; PART in SUPPL, Q 91, A 3,
REP 6 1020d-1022c; Q 96, A i, REP 4 I050a-
1052a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [94-142]
107b-d; iv[i24-i32]112a,xxvi [i6-5i]146a-b;
xxvin 148d-150b; xxxn [i39]-xxxm [145]
156a-157d
28 HARVEY- On Animal Generation, 428c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [468-474] 185b;
BK xn [451-465] 329a; [537-551] 331a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 314 229a, 425-426 243b-
244b; 430 245a-247b; 438 251a, 487-489
258b-259a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 107-109
433d-434b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-240b / Practical
Reason, 337a-348b esp 340c-341a, 344a-347d
/Judgement, 584c-d; 587a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 306a-c
5c. The power of God: the divine omnipotence
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 18:13-14 / Exodus,
15:1-21; 19:5 / Deuteronomy, 10:14; 32.39 / /
Samuel, 2:6-8— (D) I Kings, 2:6-8 / II Samuel,
22— (D) II Kings, 22/1 Chronicles, 29:10-19—
(D) I Paralipomenon, 29:10-19 / 77 Chronicles,
20 :6 ; 25 :8 — (D) 77 Paralipomenon, 20 :6 ; 25 -8 /
Job csp 9, 12, 26, 34, 36:1-42-3 / Psalms, 29;
33; 47; 50:7-12; 62; 65:5-13; 66:1-7; 76; 78;
89:8-13; 95-96; 104; 107:23-41; 135; 147:1-11
— (D) Psalms, 28; 32; 46; 49:7-12; 61; 64:6-
M; 65''i-7; 75; 77; 88:9-14; 94-95; 103;
106:23-41; 134; 146 / Proverbs, 16:33 / Isaiah,
2:10-22; 26:4-6; 40:9-31; 43:13; 44:24-28;
55:10-11— (D) Isaias, 2:10-22; 26:4-6; 40-9-
31; 43:13; 44:24-28; 55:10-11 / Jeremiah,
10:12-13; 18:1-10; 27:5; 32:27— (D) Jeremias,
10:12-13; 18:1-10; 27:5; 32:27 / Ezef(iel, 18:4
— (D) Ezechiel, 18:4 / Daniel, 2 esp 2:19-23,
2:36-47; 4-5— (D) Daniel, 2 esp 2:19-23,
2:36-47»' 3:9&-5:3! / Hosea, 57-14— (D) Osec,
5 7-1 4 /Amos, 9
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:13-17— (D) OT, Judith,
16:15-21 / Rest of Esther, 13:9-11— (D) OT,
Esther, 13:9-11 / Wisdom of Solomon, 7:16;
11:17-22; 12:8-18— (D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom,
7:16; 11:18-23; 12:8-18 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:12-
17; 15 18; 16:18-19; i8.i-7-(D) OT, Ecclesi-
asticus, 10:15-21; 15.19; 16:18-19; 18:1-6 /
Bel and Dragon, 5~(D) OT, Daniel, 14-4/77
Maccabees, 8:i8-(£>) OT, // Machabees, 8:18
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:9; 19:16-26 csp
19:26 / Mar}(, 10:17-27 csp 10:27 / Luke, 1:26-
38 csp 1:37; 18:18-27 esp 18.27 / Acts, 17:15-
34 / Romans, 9:19-23 / Ephesians, 1:15-23;
6.IO-H / Revelation, 19-6— (D) Apocalypse,
19-6
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 465d / Laws, BK iv, 682d-
683a; BK x, 766d-767c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [1073*3-
10] 603a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 191d-192b
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK i, par 12 4a; BK v,
par 20 32d-33a; BK VH, par 6-7 44d-45d /
City of God, BK v, CH 10 215c-216c; BK vn, CH
30 261b-d; BK xn, CH 25 358b-359a; BK xiv,
CH 27 396c-397a; BK xxi, CH 5-8 563d- 568d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, P\RT i, Q 2, A 3,
, REP 1 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, REP 1,4 14b-15b; Q 25
143c-150a; Q 26, A 4, ANS 151c-152a,c; Q 45,
A 2 242d-244a; A 5 245c-247a; Q 52, A 2 279b-
280a; Q 6^, A 3 327b-328b; Q 65, A 3, REP 3
341c-342b; Q 75, A 5, REP i 382a-383b; A 6,
REP 2 383c-384c; Q 76, A 5, RHP i 394c-396a;
Q 77, A i, ANS 399c-401b; A 2, ANS 401b-d;
Q 91, A i, REP i 484a-485b; A 2 485b-486b;
Q 92, A i, REP 3 488d-489d; A 2, REP 2 489d-
490c; Q 104, A 3 537b-d; A 4, ANS and REP 1-2
538a-c; Q no, A 2, ANS 565d-566d; Q 112, A i,
ANS 571d-573a; PART 1-11, Q i, A 4, REP i
612a-613a; Q 2, A 4, REP i 618a-d; Q 5, A 7,
ANS and REP i 642 a- d; Q 6, A 4, REP i 647b-
648a; Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c; Q 19, A 5, REP 2
705d-707a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 64,
A 4, ANS 69b-70a; Q 68, A 4, ANS 91b-92c; Q
80, A 3, REP 1 161d-162b; Q 88, A i, ANS 193a-
194b; Q 113, A 9 368d-369c; PART H-II, Q i,
A 8, REP 2 387a-388c; Q 23, A 2, REP 3 483d-
484d; PART in, Q i, A 3, REP 2 704d-706a; Q 3,
A 7, AN$ 728a-729a; Q 7, A 7, REP 2 750a-d;
A 12, REP 2 754c-755c; Q 13 779d-784a; Q 15,
A 8, REP 3 794a-c; A 9, REP 3 794c-79Sb; Q 20,
A i, ANS 821b-822c; Q 60, A 5, ANS 850b-851b;
PART in SUPPL, Q 71, A 13, REP 3 915d-916c;
Q 72, A 2, REP i 919a-920c; Q 74, A 3, ANS and
REP 2-3 927c-9!?8d; A 8, REP 3 933b-934a; Q
76, A i, REP 1-2 939d-941a; Q 82, A i, ANS
968a-970c; Q 83, A 2, REP 3 976c-978c; A 3,
ANS 978c-980d; Q 87, A 2, REP 2 998d-999d
578
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The divine nature in relation to the world or
creatures. 5c. The power of God: the divine
omnipotence.)
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 160c-161a; 162c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation •, 428c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17c; 81a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Rep lies, HUb-llla',
158b-159a; 229a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17 362b-363c;
PROP 33, SCHOL 2-PROP 35 367d-369a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [106-225] H3b-
116a; BK in [372-415] 143b-144b; BK VH [139-
173] 220a-221a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 654 292b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 12 165b-c; CH xxi, SECT 2 178c; CH
xxni, SECT 28 211b-d; BK in, CH vi, SECT
H-I2 271b-272b; BK iv, CH x, SECT 4 350a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 33 419a;
SECT 36 419c-d; SECT 152 443c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VH, DIV
56 475a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 334a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 180b-c; 181b; 192c-d /
Practical Reason, 351b-352c / Judgement,
504b-d; 592a-c; 594d [fn i]; 600d-601c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 790d
5d. The immanence of God: the divine omni-
presence
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 28:15 / Exodus, 20*24;
25:8; 29:45-46 / Leviticus, 26:11-12 / Num-
bers, 5 :i~3 / Joshua, 3 ,10-1 1— (D) Josue, 3 10-
ii / // Samuel, 7:1-13— (D) // Kings, 7:1-13 /
/ Kings, 6:11-1318:12-1 3,26-30— (D) III Kings,
6:11-13; 8:12-13,26-30 / / Chronicles, 17:1-12
— (D) 1 Paralipomenon, 17:1-12 / Psalms,68'j-
8,16-18; 119:151; 139 esp 139:7-12; 145:18-19
— (D) Psalms, 67.8-9,17-19; 118:151; 138 csp
138:7-12; 144.18-19 / Proverbs, 15:3 / Isaiah,
50:7-9— (D) Isaias, 50:7-9 /Jeremiah, 23:24—
(D) Jeremias, 23:24 / Amos, 9:1-4 / Zechartah,
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:7; 12:1— (D)
OT, BooJ(of 'Wisdom, 1:7; 12:1
NEW TESTAMENT -.John, no / Acts, 7:49; 17:22-
29 / Romans, 11:36/7 Corinthians, 6:15-20 /
II Corinthians, 6:14-18 / Ephesians, 4:6 /
Colossians, 1:16-19; 2:8-13 / II Timothy, 1:14 /
Hebrews, 13:5 / I John, 4:4-16
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14 120d-121c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
BK vn, SECT 9 280b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 16, 75c-d
/ Fifth Ennead, TR vni, CH 7 242d-243c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 2-3 lb-2a;
BK in, par 10 ISb-d; par 18 18b; BK iv, par 26
25c-d; par 31 26c-27a; BK vi, par 4 36a-b; BK
vn, par 1-2 43b-44a; par 7 45a-d; par 21 49d-
50a; BK x, par 8-10 73b-74a; BK XH, par 7
lOOd-lOla; par 21 103d-104a / City of God, BK
VH, CH 6, 248a; CH 30 261 b-d; BK x, CH 14
307c-308a; BK XH, CH 25 358b-359a / Chris-
tian Doctrine, BK i, CH 12 627c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8 34c-
38c; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 52, A 2
279b-280a; Q 90, A i 480d-481d; PART i-n,
Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-H, Q 26,
A 2, REP 3 511a-d; PART HI SUPPL, Q 84, A 2
REP i 984c-985d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxxm [76-
93] 157a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428c-d
31 DESCARTES: Mediations, vi, 99c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics^ PART 1 355a-372d esp DBF 3-5
355b, AXIOM 1-2 355c-d, PROP 2-8 355d-357d,
PROP 10, SCHOL 358a-b, PROP 13, COROL-PROP
1 8 359d-363c, PROP 22-23 364d-365a, PROP 25
365b, PROP 28-31 365c-367a, PROP 33 367b-
369a; PART n, PROP i-n 373d-377c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [334-346] 306b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xiii, SECT 18 152a-c; CH xv, SECT 2-4 162c-
163b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 149-150
442d-443b; SECT 155 444b-c
42 KANTP Pure Reason, 192c-d / Practical Reason,
334b-335b; 351b-352c / Judgement, 580c-d;
592a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
157b; PART i, 224a-b; 227d-228a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK v, 217c-218a; BK
xiv, 608a-b; BK xv, 631a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
153b-d
5e. The transcendence of God: the divine aseity
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:11 / / Samuel, 2-2—
(D) I Kings, 2-2/1 Chronicles, 17-20— (D)
I Paralipomenon, 17:20 / Job, 11:7-9; 33:12;
35:6-7; 36:22-42:3 / Psalms, 89.6-8; 97:9;
99:2; 113*4-5 — (P) £w/ww, 88.7-9, 96:9; 98 .2,
112:4-57 Isaiah, 29:16; 40:12-26; 45:9; 46:5,9;
55.8-9— (D) Isaias, 29:16; 40:12-26; 45:9;
46:5,9; 55:8-9 / Daniel, 4:35— (D) Daniel,
4:32
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 11:22; 12:12—
(D) OT, Boo{ of Wisdom, 11:23; 12-12 /
Ecclesiasticus, 16:20-21; 18:4-7— (P) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 16:20-21; 18:2-6
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 3*31 / Acts, 7:47-50 /
Romans, 9:19-21 / Ephesians^ 1:19-23; 4:6 /
I Timothy, 6:15-16
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 10 [1075*
12-16] 605d
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 3 [699*11!-
CH 4 [700*5] 234a-235a
CHAPTER 29: GOD
579
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 2-3 lb-2a;
BK in, par 10, 15c-d; BK vi, par 4 36a-b; BK
vii, par 17 49a; BK x, par 8-10 73b-74a / Ctty
of God, BK vu, CH 30 261b-d; BK xu, CH 17
353a-354a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP i 14b-15b; A 8 19d-20c; Q 8, A i, ANS and
REP 1,3 34d-35c; Q 18, A 4 107d-108c; Q 51,
A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 61, A 3, REP 2 316a d;
Q 90, A i, ANS 480d-481d; Q 103, A 2 529a-
530a; PART I-H, Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [112-
148] 109a-b; xin [52-66] 126a; xix [40-66]
135c-d; xxvin 148d-150b; xxix [127-145]
151c-d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, HQb-llIsi',
123c-d; 158b-159a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT ii-i2 271b-272b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vii, DIV
56 475a-b
42 KANT Pure Reason, 192c-d / Practical Reason,
334b-335b; 342c / judgement, 566c-d; 580c-d
5/. God's knowledge: the divine omniscience;
the divine ideas
OLD TESTAMENT. Deuteronomy, 31 119-21 / I Sam-
uel, 2 3; 16.7— (D) / Kings, 2:3; 16:7 /
/ Chronicles, 28:9— (D) / Parahpomenon, 28 9
/ Job, 12:12-25; 21:22; 22:12-14; 24:1;
28:3,10-28; 34:21-25; 42:2-3 / Psalms, 33:3-
15; 44:20-21; 69.5, 73.11; 94:7-12; 113-4-6;
139; 147 4-5,15-18— (D) Psalms, 32.3-15;
43-21-22; 68-6; 72-11; 937-12; 112-4-6; 138;
146:4-5; 147:15-18 / Proverbs, 3:19-20; 5:21;
15:3,11; 16:2; 24:12 / Isaiah, 29:15-16; 40:13-
14,27-28, 46.9-10; 47:io-n--(D) Isaias,
29-15-16; 40.13-14,27-28; 46 9-10; 47 10-11
/ Jeremiah, 1-5; 16:14-17; 17:9-10; 20-12;
23:23-24— (D) Jeremias, 1:5; 16:14-17; 17:9-
10; 20:12; 23:23-24
APOCRYPHA. Rest of Esther, 13:12; 14:14-19— (D)
OT, Esther, 13.12; 14*14-19 / Wisdom of
Solomon, i-6-n— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom,
1:6-11 / Ecclesiasticus, 15:18-19; 16:17-19;
17:15,17-20; 23:18-20; 39:19-20; 42:18-21 —
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:19-20; 16:16-20;
17 13-17; 23.25-29; 39-24-25; 42.18-22 /
Susanna, 42-44— (D) OT, Daniel, 13:42-44
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:1-3; 6:64,70-71; 14-67
Romans, 8:27; 11:33-36 / I Corinthians, 1:25;
2:6-16; 3.18-20 / Colosstans, 2:2-3 / Hebrews,
4:12-13 / I John, 3:18-20
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 140d / Ttmaeus, 465d /
Parmenides, 489d-490d / Laws, BK x, 766d-
767c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [98ab28-
983*11] 501 a- b; BK xn, CH 7
602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d; CH 10
606c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14 120d-121c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 44, 278b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR ix 136a-138a,c /
Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 4 209d-210c; CH 6-7
211a-212c; TR in, CH 8-13 219d-224b; TR iv,
CH 2-TR ix, CH 14 227b-251d
18 AUGUSTINE '.Confessions, BKXii,pari8,103a-b;
BK xni, par 19 115c-d / City of God, BK v, CH
9-10 213b-216c; BK vii, CH 30 261b-d; BK xi,
CH 10 327d-328d; CH 21 333a-d; BK xn, CH
17-18 353a-354d; BK xx, CH 15 543d-544b;
BK XXH, CH 2 587b-588a / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 9-10 627a-b; CH 13 627d; CH 34
634b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP i 14b-15b; A 6, REP i 18c-19a; Q 4, A 2,
REP 3 21b-22b; QQ 14-15 75c-94a; Q 18, A 4
107d-108c; Q 19, A 3, REP 6 HOb-lllc; Q 34,
A 3, ANS and REP 3-4 188b-189a; Q 44, A 3
240b-241a; Q 55, A i, ANS and REP 3 289a-d;
A 2, ANS and REP i 289d-290d; A 3, ANS and
REP i 291a-d; Q 56, A 2, ANS 292d-294a; Q 57,
A i, ANS 295a-d; A 2, ANS 295d-297a; A 3, ANS
297b-298a; A 4, ANS 298a-299a; Q 62, A 9, ANS
324a-325b; Q 63, A 7, REP 2 331c-332b; Q 79,
A 10, REP 2 423d-424d; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-
443c; A 4, REP i 444d-446b; A 5 446c-447c;
Q 85, A 4, ANS 457a-d; Q 86, A 4, ANS 463d-
464d; Q 87, A i, ANS 465a-466c, A 3, ANS 467b-
468a; Q 89, A i, ANS 473b-475a; Q 93, A 4,
ANS 494c-495b; A 8, ANS 499b-500c; Q 105,
A 3 540c-541b; Q 107, AA 2-3 550b-551c; PART
I-H, Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a; Q 2, A 3, ANS
617b-618a; Q 3, A 5, REP i 626b-627a; Q 14,
A i, REP 2 677b-678a; Q 40, A 3, REP i 794c-
795a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A i, REP 2 12b-13c; Q 61, A 5, ANS 58b-59d;
Q 79, A i, ANS 156b-157b; Q 91, A 3, REP i
209d-210c; Q 93, A i 215b,d-216c; Q 100, A 9,
ANS 261b-262b; Q 102, A i, ANS 270c-271b;
Q no, A 2, REP 2 349a-d; PART n-n, Q 2, A 6,
REP 3 395b-396a; Q 9, A i, REP i 423c-424b;
Q n, A 4, REP i 441b-442b; Q 33, A 7, REP i
556a-557d; PART HI, Q 3, A 8, ANS 729b-730b;
Q 5, A 4, ANS 739a-740b; Q 7, A 12, ANS 754c-
755c; Q 13, A i, REP 2 780a-781b; Q 18, A 4,
REP i 813a-d; Q 21, A i, REP 2 823d-824d; Q
60, A 4, ANS 849c-850b; PART in SUPPL, Q 72,
A i, ANS and REP 5 917c-919a; A 2, REP 4 919a-
920c; Q 84, A 2, ANS 984c-985d; Q 88, A 3, ANS
1002d-1004b; Q 91, A 3, ANS 1020d-1022c; Q
92, A i, REP 2 1025c-1032b; Q 94, A i, REP 2
1040d-1041b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vm [94-
112] 118a; xv [49-63] 128d-129a; xvn [13-45]
132b>c; xxvi [103-108] 146d-147a
22 CHAUCER: Troilusand Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
138-154 lQ6b-lQ&b/Nun'sPriest'sTale[i5,2$6-
256] 456b-457a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 162c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-c /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 23 108c; APH 124
133c-d; BK n, APH 15 149a
580
THE GREAT IDEAS
5g to 5h
(5. The divine nature in relation to the world or
creatures, If. God's knowledge: the divine
omniscience; the divine ideas.)
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 86a / Objections
and Replies, 122a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17 362b-363c;
PROP 21, DEMONST 364a-C; PROP 33, SCHOL 2
367d-369a; PART n, PROP i 373d-374a; PROP
3-4 374a-c; PROP 7, SCHOL-PROP 8 375b-376a;
PROP 32 385c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [188-193] 115b?
BK in [56-134] 136b-138a; BK x [1-16] 274b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH x,
SECT 9 143a-c; CH xv, SECT 12 165b-c; BK in,
CH vi, SECT 3 268d; SECT n 271b-d; BK iv,
CH x, SECT 5-6 350a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
78, 485d-486a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 344a-c; 351b-352c /
judgement, 592a-c
44 BoswELL:/0A/MO«, 173c; 392d-393a
5g. God's will: divine choice
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2 / Psalms, 135:6 —
(D) Psalms, 134:6 / Isaiah, 14:24-27; 46:9-11
~(D) Isaias, 14:24-27; 46:9-11 / Jeremiah,
4:28; 51:29— (D) Jeremias, 4:28; 51:29
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 18:14; 20:1-16 /
John, 5:21; 6:38-40 / Romans, 8:27-29; 9-11-
19; 12:1-2 // Corinthians, 12 / Ephesians, r8-
12; 3:10-11 / / Thessalonians, 4.3-6; 5:18 /
// Timothy, i :8-io / James, i :i8
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [86-103] 2a-b
5 EURIPIDES. Bacchantes [1388-1391] 352a,c
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 45 2c
12 EPICTEFUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 3, 224d;
CH 7, 232d-233a
12 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vin 342d-353d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 6-7 44d-
45d; BK xi, par 12 92b; BK XH, par 18, 103a-b;
BK xin, par 5 Hid; par 19 115c-d / City of
God, BK v, CH 9-10 213b-216c; BK x, CH 7
302d-303a; BK xn, CH 14 350d-351b; CH 17
353a-354a, BK xxi, CH 7-8 565d-568d;
BK xxn, CH 2 587b-588a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14, A
8, ANS 82c-83b; Q 19 108d-119d; Q 20, A i, REP
3 120a-121b; A 4, ANS 122c-124a; Q 23, A 4
135a-d; Q 25, A 5, ANS and REP i 147d-149a;
Q 26, A 2, REP 2 150c-151a; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-
270a; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d*286c; Q 57, A 5, ANS
299b-300b; Q 59, A 2, ANS 307c-308b; Q 60,
A i, REP 2 310b-311a; Q 61, A 2, REP 1,3 315c-
316a; Q 62, A 6, REP i 322a-d; Q 63, A i, ANS
325c-326c; Q 104, AA 3-4 537b-538c; Q 105,
A i, REP 2 538d-539c; PART 1-11, Q i, A 2, REP 3
610b-611b; Q 10, A i, REP 2 662d-663d; Q 19,
AA 9-10 709d-711d; Q 39, A 2, REP 3 790d-791b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A 4, REP i 218b-d; Q 97, A 3, REP i 237b-238b;
PART in, Q 18, A i, REP 1,4 810a-811c; Q 21,
A i, ANS 823d-824d; A 4, ANS 826b-827c; Q 61,
A 4, REP 3 857c-858b; Q 64, A 7, ANS 875d-
876c; PART in SUPPL, Q 72, A 3, ANS and REP 5
920c-922b; Q 74, A 4, ANS 928d-929d, Q 91,
A i, REP 2 1016b-1017c; A 2, ANS 1017c-1020c,
Q 92, A 3, REP 6 1034b-1037c
21 DANTE: Dwme Comedy, PARADISE, in [64-90]
HOa-b; xix [85-90] 135d-J36a
23 HOBBES. leviathan, PART n, 113b-c, 162c;
PART iv, 271b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
265b
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 38a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 228a-c,
229c
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART i, PROP 17 362b-363c;
PROP 32 367a-b; PROP 33, SCHOL 2 367d-369a;
APPENDIX, 370c-371a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-134] 137a-
138a; BK vn [139-173] 220a-221a / Samson
Agonistes [300-329] 346a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 50-51 191 b-c
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33
417d-419a esp SECT 29-30 418c
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 150c-151b
42 KANT: Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals,
265b-c csp 265b,d [fn i]; 276b-277a; 278b-c /
Practical Reason, 303b-304a; 321b-c; 324b-
32Sa; 325d-326a, 328b / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 393c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b; BK
xn, 553b; BK xin, 563a-b; BK xv, 631c;
EPILOGUE ii, 675a-677b; 680b-c; 684b-d
h. God's love: the diffusion of the divine good-
ness
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33 19; 34:6 / Deu-
teronomy, 4:37-38; 7:7-8; 10:15,18; 32:4 /
/ Chronicles, i6:7~34--(D) / Parahpomenon,
16:7-34 / Job passim, csp 2-10 / Psalms /
Proverbs, 3:12 / Song of Solomon — (D) Can-
tick of Canticks / Isaiah, 43; 45:7; 63:7-9—
(D) Isaias, 43; 45:7; 63 7-9 / Jeremiah, 31 :i-6;
32:17-44; 33:1-16 — (D) Jeremias, 31:1-6;
32*17-44; 33-1-16 / Lamentations, 3*25,38 /
Ezefycl, 16:1-15— (D) Ezechiel, 16:1-15 / Ho-
sea, 1-3; n— (D) Osee, 1-3; 11 / Joel, 2:12-
3 :2 ' Micah, i -12— (D) Micheas, i :i2 / Zech-
ariah, 9:17— (D) Zacharias, 9:17 / Malachi,
1:1-3— (D) Malachias, 1:1-3
APOCRYPHA: Tobtt, 13:10— (D) OT, Tobias,
13:12 / Wisdom of Solomon, 7:28; 11:22-26;
12:13-16; 16:20-29^(0) OT, Boof( of Wis-
dom, 7:28; 11:23-27; 12:13-16; 16:20-29 /
Ecclesutsticus, 4:14; 11:14-17; 16:29-30; 17.8-
18,29; 33:10-15; 39:16,25-34— (D) OT, Eccle-
siasticus, 4:15; 11:14-17; 16:30-31; 17 18-18,28;
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew^ 6:25-34; 7:7~irJ
10:29-31 / Lufa 11:1-13; 12:6-7,16-33 /John,
5h to 5i
CHAPTER 29: GOD
581
3:16-21; 13:31-35; 14:21; 15:9-16; 17:21-26 /
Romans, 2:4; 5:5; 8:28-39 / // Corinthians,
13:11 / Galatians, 2:20 / Ephesians, 3:14-21;
5:1-2 / / Timothy, 1:14 / Titus, 3:3-7 / He-
brews, 12:6 / I John, 3-4 / Revelation, 3:19-21
— (D) Apocalypse, 3:19-21
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 321d-322d / Timaeus,
447c-448a
8 ARISTOTLE : Generation and Corruption, BK 11,
CH 10 [336b25~34] 438d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 8 146a-147c
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompihus, 50d-51c
16 KEPLER- Harmonies of the World, 1049b-
1050b;1071b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR ix, CH 9 358d-
359c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK i, par 7 2c-d; par
31 8d-9a; BK v, par 2 27b-c; BK vn, par 16-23
48c-50c; BK xi, par 6 90c-d; BK xn, par 18,
103a-b; BK xm, par 1-5 HOd-llld / City of
God, BK vn, CH 31 261d-262a; BK xi, CH 21-24
333a-336a; BK xn, CH i, 343b-c; CH 9 347b-
348b; BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a; BK xxi, CH
15-16 572c-574a; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b;
CH 24 609a~612a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 31-32 633b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
REP i 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, REP i 14b-15b; Q 6,
A 4 30b-d; Q 13, A 2, ANS 63c-64d; Q 19, A 2,
ANS and REP 2-4 109c-110b; A 4, ANS and REP i
lllc-112c; Q 20 119d-124a; Q 21, A 3, ANS
126a-c; Q 27, AA 3-4 155c-156d; Q 37 197c-
200c; Q 44, A 4, ANS and REP i 241a-d; Q 49
264d-268a,c; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-270a; A 3,
ANS 272a-273b; Q 51, A i, REP 3 275b-276b;
Q 59, A i, ANS 306c-307b; A 2, ANS 307c-308b;
Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 74, A 3, REP 3-4 375a-
377a,c; Q 75, A 5, REP i 382a-383b; Q 82, A 5,
REP i 435c-436c; Q 89, A i, REP 3 473b-475a;
Q 91, A i, ANS 484a-485b; Q 93, A 4, ANS 494c-
495b; A 8, ANS 499b-500c; Q 103 528a-534b
passim; Q 104, A 3, REP 2 537b-d; A 4, ANS
538a-c; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-542a; Q 106, A 4,
ANS 548b-549a; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP i
612a-613a; Q 2, A 4, REP i 618a-d; A 5, REP 3
618d-619c; Q 22, A 3, REP 3 722d-723b; Q 28,
A 3, CONTRARY 742a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 64,
A 4, ANS 69b-70a; Q 65, A 5, ANS and REP 3
74c-75a; Q 73, A 10, ANS 128a-d; Q 75, A 3,
ANS 139 b-d; Q 79, A i 156b-157b; A 3, REP i
158a-d; A 4, REP 1 158d-159c; Q 90, PREAMBLE,
205a; Q 92, A i, REP i 213c-214c; Q 93, A 6,
REP i 219d-220d; Q 96, A 5, REP 2 233d-234d;
Q 1 10, A i 347d-349a; A 4, ANS 350d-351d;
Q in, A 3, REP i 353d-354b; PART n-n, Q 6,
A 2, REP 2 414c-415c; Q 19, A i, REP 3 465a-d;
A 5, REP 3 468b-469a; Q 23, A 2, REP 1-2
483d-484d; Q 24, A 2, ANS 490b-d; A 3, ANS
491a-d; A 8, ANS 495b-496a; A 11, REP i 498b-
499c; A 12, ANS 499c-500d; Q 26, A 3, ANS
51l4-512c; Q 30, A 2, REP i 534b-535a; Q 189,
A 10, REP 1 699a-700d; PART in, Q i, A 3, REP 3
704d-706a; Q 4, A 5, REP 2 734b-d; Q 23, A i,
REP 2 833a-d; Q 62, A 2, CONTRARY 859d-860c;
PART HI SUPPL, Q 71, A 3, REP 1 903c-904dj
Q 80, A 3, REP 3 958b-959c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i [37-40] Ib-c;
PURGATORY, HI [103-145] 57a-c; xi [1-30] 68d-
69a; xv [40-81] 75d-76a; xxvni [91-96] 97a;
PARADISE, n [112-148] 109a-b; vn [64-75]
115d-116a; x [i-27]120b-c;xm [52-^7] 126a-b;
xix [86-90] 135d-136a; xxvi [1-81] 145d-146c;
xxvii [97-120] 148b-c; xxix [13-36] 150b-c;
[127-145] 151c-d; xxxii [i39]-xxxin [145]
156al57d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK m, STANZA
1-7 54b-55b; STANZA 250-253 87a-b; BK v,
STANZA 263-267 154b-155a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 229c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP i7,coROL456d;
PROP 19 45 7a; PROP 35-36 460d-461c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-343] 137a-
143a esp [135-166] 138b-139a; BK iv [411-439]
161b-162a; BK vn [499-518] 228a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 12 115b-116a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 3
405b-c; SECT 154 444a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, I86c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 345a-c / Judgement,
592a-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 539d~540a
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dtd(, 318b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
24a-c; BK v, 120d-137c; BK vi, 153a-d; BK vn,
189a-191a,c; BK xi, 313c-314d
5i. Divine justice and mercy: divine rewards
and punishments
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:1-4:16; 6-9; 11:1-9;
18:17-19 29; 22:1-19 CSP 22:15-18 / Exodus,
7-12; 20:3-7; 32 csp 32.9-14; 33:19; 34:5-10 /
Leviticus, 26 / Numbers, 11-14; I^» 21 :5"95 25 /
Deuteronomy, i-n passim; 28-32 passim / 7
Samuel, 15— (D) I Kings, 15 / // Samuel, 6:6-
8; 24-(D) // Kings, 6:6-8; 24/7 Kings, 8;
13; 14:2-16— (D) III Kings, 8; 13; 14:2-16 /
11 Kings, 9:1-10:11— (D) IV Kings, 9:i-io'ii /
7 Chronicles, 10:13-14; 21— (D) I Paralipome-
non, 10:13-14; 21 / II Chronicles, 6; 12; 19:6-7;
21:12-20; 26:16-21— (D) 77 Paralipomenon, 6;
12; 19.6-7; 21:12-20; 26:16-21 / Nehemiah,
9:5-38— (D) UEsdras, 9:5-38 /Job/ Psalms/
Proverbs, n :i, 20-21; 20:22; 22:22-23 / Ecclesi-
astes, 12:14 / Isaiah passim, esp i, 3-4, 10, 13-
27. 30. 34-35. 4o» 42. 47. 52-53* 59* 65-66-
(D) Isaias passim, csp i, 3-4, 10, 13-27, 30,
34-35, 40, 42, 47, 52-53, 59, 65-66 / Jeremiah
passim, csp 3-8, 15, 19, 24-25, 29-31, 33, 46-52
— (D) Jeremias passim, esp 3-8, 15, 19, 24-25,
29-31, 33, 46-52 / Lamentations / Ezcfyl
582
THE GREAT IDEAS
5/
(5, The divine nature in relation to the world or
creatures. 5i. Divine justice and mercy:
divine rewards and punishments.)
passim, csp 4-9, 11, 14-18, 25-33, 35-39—
(D) Ezechiel passim, csp 4-9, n, 14-18, 25-
33, 35-39 /Daniel, 4:4-5:31— (D) Daniel 4-5
/ Joel/ Amos / Obadiah— (D) Abdias / Jonah
— (D) Jonas / Micah—(D) Micheas / Nahum
/ Habak$(uk-(D) Habacuc / Zephamah—(D)
Sophonias / Zechanah— (D) Zacharias / Mai-
achii-(D) Malachias
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 2-3; 13— (D) OT, Tobias,
2-3; n /Judith, 5— (D) OT, Judith, 5 / Wis-
dom of Solomon, 1-5; 11:23; I2— (P) OT,
Bool( of Wisdom, 1-5 ; 1 1 124 ; 12 / Ecclesiasticus,
16; 17*19-29; 18:1-14; 23:18-21; 35; 39:25-31
— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 16; 17:16-28; 18:1-
14; 23:25-31; 35; 39:30-37 / Susanna— (D)
OT, Daniel, 13 / Bel and Dragon, 23-42— (D)
OT, Daniel, 14:22-42 / // Maccabees, 6.12-17
— (D) OT, // Machabees, 6-12-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:1-22,29-30,45;
9-9-13; 11:20-24; 12:36-37; 13:24-30,36-43;
18:7-14; 19:16-20:16; 23 / Marl(, 9:37-47;
10:17-31; 16:16 / Lu^e, 1:46-5556:36-3857:36-
50; 10:25-28; 14:7-14; 15; 16:19-31; 18:1-8;
19:1-10; 23-34,39-43 / John, 5:30; 8:1-11 /
Acts, 12-18-23; 13:1-12 / Romans, 1:16-2 '16;
6:23; 9-14-18 / // Corinthians, 4 / Galatians,
6:7-8 / Ephesians, 2/11 Thessalonians, 1 13-10;
2:10-12 / // Timothy, 4:8 / Titus, 3:4-6 /
Hebrews, 10:26-31 / / Peter, 3:18 /// Peter /
I John, 1 15-10 / Jude / Revelation passim, csp
17-20— (D) Apocalypse passim, csp 17-20
5 AESCHYLUS • Suppliant Maidens [1-175] la-3a /
Agamemnon [636-781] 58d-60b; [1560-1566]
68c / Eumenides 8 la 91 d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a413a,c esp
[1-275] 99a-101c, [703-738] 105d-106a, [863-
910] 107b-c, [1187-1285] mb-llla / Antigone
[279-289] 133c / Oedipus at Colonus 114a-
130a,cesp [521-545] 119a-b, [939-1014] 123a-d,
[1254-1396] 125d-126d / Ajax 143a-155a,c esp
[430-459] 146d-147a, [748-783] 149c-d / Elec-
tra [173-179] 157c / Trachimae [1264-1278]
181c / Philoctetes [446-452] I86a
5 EURIPIDES : Suppliants [598-617] 263c-d / Hec-
uba [1023-1033] 361c-d / Heracles Mad [772-
780] 371c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20b-22a; BK n,
77a-b; BK iv, 158d-159d esp 159d; BK vi,
199c-d; 201d-202c; 203a-b; BK vm, 278d-
279a;283d;BKix,308a-c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK v, 506b-c;
BK vii, 560a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 437c-441a,c / Laws,
BK iv, 682d-683a; BK ix, 757a; BK x, 765d-
769d csp 767c-768c / Seventh Letter, 80€a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [978-
1023] 42d-43b; BK vi [43-79] 80d-81b; [379-
422] 85b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 26b-27a / Camillus,
107b-d / Aristides, 265c-d / Cato the Younger,
639d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 189d-190a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 15 12b-c;
BK v, par 2 27b-c; BK vii, par 5 44c-d; BK ix,
par 34-36 70c-71a / City of God, BK v, CH 10-
ii 215c-216d; CH 14-26 220a-230a,c; BK ix,
CH 10 291a; BK xi, CH 23 334c-335c; BK xm,
CH 1-8 360a-363c; CH 12-16 365d-367d;
BK xm, CH 2I-BK xiv, CH 28 371a-397d csp
BK xiv, CH 15 388d-390a, CH 26 39Sd-396c;
BK xv, CH 24-25 418d-419b; BK xvi, CH 4
425b-426a; BK xix, CH 10-13 516c-520a; CH 15
521a-c; BK xx 530a-560a,c; BK xxi 560a-
586a,c esp CH 11-12 570b-571c, CH 18 574c-
575b, CH 24 577b-579d; BK xxn 586b,d-618d
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c;
CH 32 633c-d; BK n, CH 23 648a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 6 113c-114d; A 9, ANS 116d-117d; Q 21 124b-
127c; Q 23, A 5 13Sd-137d; Q 62 317c-325b,
Q 63, A 8, ANS 332c-333b; Q 64, A 2, REP 2
335d-336d; Q 65, A 2, REP 3 340b-341b; Q 66,
A 3, ANS 347b-348d; Q 95, A 4 509b-510a; Q 96,
A 3, REP 3 512a-c; Q 103, A 5, REP 2 531b-532b;
Q 105, A 6, REP 2 543b-544a; Q 113, A 7, ANS
580b-581a; Q 114, A i, REP i 581d-582c; PART
I-H, Q 5, A i 636d-637c; A 4, ANS 639a-640b;
A 7 642a-d; Q 17, A 9, REP 3 692d-693d; Q 21,
A 4 719d-720a,c; Q 39, A 2, REP 3 790d-791b;
Q 47, A i, REP i 819c-820b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; Q 62, A i 60a-d; Q 63, A 3
65a-d; Q 68, A 2 89c-90c; Q 72, A 5 115a-116b;
Q 73, A 9, REP 3 126d-128a; A 10, REP 2 128a-d;
Q 79, AA 3-4 158a-159c; Q 81, A 2, REP i 164d-
165c; Q 85, A 5, ANS 181d-182d; A 6 182d-184a;
QQ 87-88 185c-198d; Q 91, A 6 212c-213c; Q 94,
A 5, REP 2 224d*225d; Q 98, A 2, REP 3 240c-
241b; A 4 242b-243c; Q 100, A 7, REP 3 258c-
259c; A 8, REP 2-3 259d-261a; A 12 264d-265d;
Q 103, A 2 299b-300d; Q 106, A 2 322b-323a;
Q 112, A 4, REP i 358d-359c; QQ 113-114 360d-
378a,c; PART n-ii, Q 13, A 4, ANS 446c-447a;
Q 14, A 2, ANS 448d-449d; Q 18, A 4, REP 2
464c-465a; Q 19, A i, REP 2 465a-d; Q 20, A i,
ANS 474d-475d; Q 21, A 2, ANS 479a-c; Q 24,
A 10, AKS 496d<498a; Q 28, A 3 528d-529c; Q
182, A 2 621d-623a; Q 184, A 4, ANS and REP i
632c-633c; PART HI, Q 2, A n 721c-722b; Q 9,
A 2 764c-765a; Q 64 870b-879c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 69, A 2 886c-887d; Q 70, A 3 897d-
900d; Q 71 900d-917b passim; Q 72, A 3, REP
4 920c-922b; QQ 73-74 922b-935a,c passim;
Q 75, A i 935b-937a; Q 78, A i, ANS 947d-
949b; A 3, REP 3 950b-951a; QQ 82-99 968a'
1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy esp HELL, nr [1-18]
4a-b, xi 15a-16b, PURGATORY, HI [103-145]
57a-c, vi [25-48] 61a-b, xix [97-126} 82c-d,
PARADISE, m [i]-v [87] 109b-I13a, vn [19-120]
5i,to6
CHAPTER 29: GOD
583
115b-116b, xix [22-99] 135b-136a, xxxn [37-
84] 155a-c
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [653-662] 170b / Friar's
Tale 278a-284a esp [7056-7085] 281a-b, [7227-
7246] 284a / Physician's Tale 366a-371a esp
[12,212-220] 370b-371a / Pardoner's Tale
[12,397-852] 374a-381b / Tale of Meltbeus,
par 42-45, 419b-420a; par 77-78, 431a-432a /
Mon^s Tale 434a-448b / Parson's Tale 495a-
550a esp par 10 498b-502a, par 56 S27b-528b,
par 68 533b-534a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 88c-89a; PART 11,
160c-161a; 163d-164a; PART in, 191b-198a;
245b-c; PART iv, 250c-251c; 253b 258b;
260b-c; 272b-c; 276d-277a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98c-99a; 152d-153a;
250a-251c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [42-
63] 115a-b; [186-225] 116c-117a / Richard II,
ACT i, sc ii [1-44] 322d-323a / Merchant of
Venice, ACT iv, sc i [184-202] 427c
27 SHAKESPEARE- Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [9-22] 37a;
ACT in, sc in [36-98] 53d-54b / Measure for
Measure, ACT n, sc n [73-79] 182d / Cymbe-
line, ACT v, sc iv [9-28] 481a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 71c-d
31 DESCARTES' Meditations, 69b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 369b-371a
esp 370b
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xv 66b / Paradox Lost, BK
in [80-216] 137a-140a esp [i3i-i34]138a;[274-
415] 141b-144b esp [397-411] 144a-b; BK v
[224-247] 180a-b, BK x 274a-298b esp [1-16]
274b, [162-223] 278a-279a, [1046^1104] 297a-
298b; BK xi [46-83] 300a-301a; BK xn [285-
465] 325b-329a / Samson Agomstes [293-299]
346a; [667-709] 354a-355a; [1156-1177] 364b-
365a; [1669-1707] 376a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 430 245a-247b; 497 259b-
260a; 513 262a-263a; 562 273a; 584 276b-
277a
35 LOCKE* Toleration, 17a-b / Civil Government,
CH in, SECT 20 29c-d, CH xvi, SECT 176 66a>b
/ Human Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT 5-6
105a-c; SECT 12-13 107b-108c; CH in, SECT 5
113c; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 54, 192b; SECT 62
194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c; CH xxvin, SECT 8
230a; BK iv, CH xiv, SECT 2 364c
35 HUME: Human Understanding^ SECT xi, DIV
108-109 500b-501a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 20b-21a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XH, 85d-
, 869; BK xxvi, 219a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 237b-238b / Intro, Mcta-
fhysic of Morals^ 383b,d-384a,c / Science of
Right, 432c<433a / Judgement, 592a-c; 594d
lfn'l
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458a-b
44 BOSWEUL: Johnson, 345 b-c; 394a-c; 482a-d;
539d-540a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 234d-
235a . , ,
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART n [11,676-12,111]
284a-294b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 30a-36b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xiv, 606a-607a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK m,64c-
67a; BK v, 125d-127d; BK vif 151a-152a; 163b-
164a; 169c-170b; BK vn, 177d-178b; 185a-c;
189a-191a,c; BK vm, 217c-218c; BK xi, 313c-
314d; 341c-342c
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 878a-b
6. Man's knowledge of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:12-23 /Job, 11 7-9;
26:14; 34:29; 36:23-33 / Proverbs, 2:1-5 /
Ecclcsiastcs, 3:11; 8:16-17; n '5 / Isaiah, 40:12-
14 ; 45:15 155:8-9; 60 :i6—(Z>) /flf/aj, 40:12-14;
45:15; 55:8-9; 60-16 /Jeremiah, 24:7; 31:34—
(D)Jeremias, 24 .7; 31 134
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:13-16; 15:3
-(D) OT, Boo^of 'Wisdom, 9:13-16; 15:3
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 17:22-30 / Romans, i .18-
21 ; 11:33-34 / / Corinthians, 2:16; 15:34
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 93d-94a; 106b / Republic,
BK u, 314c-d / Ttrnaeus, 44 7c / Cnttas, 478b d
/ Laws, BK vii, 730a-c; BK x, 757d-761c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982b
28-983an] 501a-b; BK xi, CH 7 [io64*28-b5]
592d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6, llOc-lllc;
CH 12, 118d-119a; CH 16 121d-122d
14 PLUTARCH': Numa Pompihus, 53b-c
18 AUGUSTINE v Confessions, BK vi, par 8 37b-c;
BK x 71c-89a / City of God, BK xx, CH 2-3
531a 532b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 6
626a-b; CH 8-n 626c-627c, BK n, CH 7 638d-
639c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i
lOd-lld; Q 12 50b-62b; Q 13, AA 1-2 62c-64d;
A 5, ANS 66b-67d; A 12 74c-75b; Q 86, A 2,
REP i 462a-463a; Q 87, A 3 472c-473a
21 DANTE: Dwjne Comedy, PURGATORY, m [34-
45] 56b; PARADISE, iv [28-48] Ilia; [124-132]
112a; v [1-12] 112a-b; xm [112-142] 126c-d;
xix [1-99] 135a-136a; xx [79-93] 137c; [130-
138] 138a; xxi [73-102] 139a-b; xxvi [13-69]
146a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 160b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Ew0>tf,98b-99a;209a-d;212a-d;
238c-239c; 207c-268a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c; 17b-
20a; 38a; 55b-d; 95d-101d esp 95d-97c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43c; PART iv
51b-54b passim / Meditations, 69a-71a,c pas-
sim; 74a,c; in-iv, 81d-89b esp HI, 88d-89a; v
93a-96a / Objections and Replies, 108a-114c;
120c-123a; 127b-c; POSTULATE iv-v 131a-c;
PROP i-ui 132b-133a; 140b; 158b^l61d; 168d-
169a; 211c-212a; 212c-213a; 213d-214a;215b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP n, softoL
358d-359b; PART n, PROP 5 374c-d; PRJOP 21-
42 38^d-388c esp PROP 24-2 5 383c-384a, PROP
PROP 36 38^b; PROP 45-47
584
THE GREAT IDEAS
6a to 6b
(6. Man's knowledge of God.)
390a-391a; PART iv, PROP 28 431c; PROP 36-37
434a-436a; APPENDIX, iv 447b-c; PART v,
PROP 24-32 458d-460b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [114-130] 234b-
235a; [412-416] 241a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 194, 205d-206a; 229-230
213a-b; 233, 214a-b; 242-290 217b-225a;
566*567 273b; 586 277a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 7-18 113d-117c; BK n, CH xvn, SECT i
167d-168a; SECT 17 172b-c; CH XXIH, SECT
33-35 ai2d-213c;BK in, CHVi,SECTii271b-d;
BK iv, CH xvin-xix 380d-388d
35 BERKELEY' Human Knowledge, SECT 146-149
442a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 200c<201a; 308b-
309d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-b; 173b-248d esp 177b-
192d, 218d-223d, 234c-240b, 241d-242c /
Practical Reason, 292a-c; 320c-321b; 349b-
352c csp 350c-351a; 354d-355d / Judgement,
575b-577a; 589b-590b; 598b-599b; 600d-
601c; 603a d; 606d-608c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 159b-
160a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196a-197c
6a. The names of God: the metaphorical and
symbolic representations of God; the
anthropomorphic conception of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 3:13-15; 6.2-3; 15:3>
20:7; 33:20-23; 34:5-7,14 / Leviticus, 19:12;
21.6; 22:32 / Deuteronomy, 5-11; 28*58 /
II Samuel, 22— (D) II Kings, 22 / Psalms pas-
sim, esp 18, 23, 28:7; 29:1-11, 31:2-3, 61:1-8,
68:4, 71:3, 78:35, 78:65, 83:18, 95:i-n-(D)
Psalms passim, csp 17, 22, 27:7, 28:2-10, 30:3-
4, 60:2-9, 67:5, 70:3, 77:35, 77:65, 82.19,
94:1-11 / Proverbs, 18:10; 30.4 / Isaiah,
17:10; 30:27-30; 40:11; 41:4; 42.8; 44:6; 47 4;
48:2,12; 51:15; 54:5; 55:13; 63:16— (D) Isaias,
17:10; 30:27-30; 40:11; 41:4; 42:8; 44-6;
47:4; 48:2,12; 51:15; 54:5; 55:13; 63:16 /
Jeremiah, 10:16; 16:21; 23:6; 31:35; 32:18;
33:2; 50:34; 51:19 — (D) Jeremias, 10,16;
16:21; 23:6; 31:35; 32-18; 33:2; 50:34; 51:19
/ Daniel, 7 9,13 / Amos, 4:13; 5:8, 9:6
APOCRYPHA : Wisdom of Solomon, 1 4 : 1 2-2 1 — (D)
OT, Bool(of Wisdom, 14:12-21
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:9 / Luke, 11:2 /
John, io:i-i8/7 Cormthians, 10:4 / Revelation,
1:8; 21 :6; 22:13— (Z?) Apocalypse, 1.8; 21:6;
22:13
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [160-175] 53d-54a
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia Among the Tauri [376-
391] 414b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 49d-50a; 60a-d;
80a-c
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 91c-92b; 93d-97d / Philcbus,
609d-610a / Laws, BK x, 759d-760c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 8 [io74bi-
7] 604d-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [i252bi9-27]
446a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 853b-854a; 860a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK iv, CH n, 194c-
195b; CH 24-25 201c-202a; BK vn, CH 10-12
250b-251c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 6-7
626a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q i, AA
9-10 8d-10c; Q 3, A i, REP 1-5 14b-15b; A 2,
REP 1-2 15c-16a; A 3, REP i 16a-d; Q 4, A i,
REP i 20d-21b; Q 13 62b-75b; Q 14, A i, REP
1-2 75d-76c; QQ 27-43 153a-237a,c passim;
Q 102, A i, REP 4 523d-525a, Q 113, A 7, REP i
580b-581a; PART i-n, Q 47, A i, REP i 819c-
820b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 99,
A 3, REP 3 247a-248a; Q 102, A 2, ANS 271b-
272a; PART in, Q 2, A 5, ANS 715a-716b; Q 16,
A 3, ANS 798c-799b; PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 2,
ANS 1052a-1053b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [28-48]
Ilia; xxvi [124-138] 147a-b; xxx [34-99]
152a-d
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 54b; 79d-80a;
PART n, 162c-d; PART m, 172d-173a; 181a-
182c; 183d-184a; PART iv, 271c; 272b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 238d-239b; 256c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428c-d; 443c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60c-61b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c; PART ii, PROP 3, SCHOL 374b-c
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 17 117a-c; BK n, CH xin, SECT 18 152a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 176a-b; 192c-d / Judge-
ment, 547b-d; 593c-d; 598b-599b; 599d-600a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 248d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
345a-c
54 FREUD. Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-b
/ New Introductory Lectures, 875d-876b
6b. Natural knowledge: the use of analogies;
the evidences of nature; the light of
reason
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 12:7-9; 26:7-14; 36:24-
42-2 / Psalms, 8; 19:1-6; 65; 75:1; 95:1-6;
104; 107; 147:12-20— (D) Psalms, 8; 18*1-7;
64; 74 '2\ 94:1-6; 103; 106; 147 / Ecclesiastes,
3:11; 8:17; 11:5 / Isaiah, 45:5-8— (D) Isaias,
45:5-8
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 13:1-5—00)
OT, Boof(of Wisdom, 13:1-5 / Ecclesiasticus,
16:26-30; 18:4-7; 42:i5-43:33-(£) OT'
Ecclesiasticus, 16*26-31; 18-2-6; 42:15-43:37 /
77 Maccabees, 7:28-(D) OT, 77 Machabees,
7:28
NEW TESTAMENT: 'Matthew, 6:26^30 /
12:24-28 / Romans, i : 18-24
CHAPTER 29: GOD
585
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 465d-466a / Laws, BK vn,
728b-730c; BK x, 758b-759a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK u, CH i 375b,d-376a
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 (982b28~983*i i ]
501a-b; BK vi, CH i 547b,d-548c esp (1026*23-
33] 548b-c; BK xi, CH 7 [io64b6-i3] 592d-593a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH 9, 114c-115a; CH 16-17 121d-124a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xn, SECT 28 310a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 123c-124a / Coriolanus,
191d-192b / Nictas, 435b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par i 27a-b;
BK vi, par 8 37b-c; BK vn, par 16-23 48c-50c;
BK x, par 8-10 73b-74a; BK xi, par 6 90c-d /
City of God, BK vm, CH 3 266a-d; BK x, CH 14
307c-308a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 4
625b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, AA
1-2 10d-12c; Q 3, A i, REP 1-5 14b-15b; A 3,
REP i 16a-d; A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; A 6, REP i
18c-19a; Q 12, A 4 53b-54c; AA 12-13 60d-62b;
Q 32, A 1 175d-178a; Q 50, A 2, ANS 270a-272a;
Q 65, A i, REP 3 339b-340b; Q 79, A 9, ANS
422b-423d; Q 86, A 2, REP i 462a-463a; Q 88,
A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; A 3 472c-473a; Q 94, A i
501d-503a; Q 103, A i, ANS 528b-529a; PART
i-U, Q 5, A 5, ANS 640b-641a; Q 14, A i, REP 2
677b-678a; Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; Q 66, A 5 79b-80c; Q 68, A i,
ANS and REP 2 87c-89c; Q 90, A 4, REP i 207d-
208b; Q 93, A 2 216c-217b; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-
223a; Q 99, A 3, REP 3 247a-248a; Q 100, A i
251b-252a; Q 109, A r, REP i 338b-339c; PART
II-H, Q i, A 5, REP 4 383b-384b; Q 4, A 7, ANS
407d-409a; Q 10, A 12, REP 4 436b-437d; Q 27,
A 3, REP 2 522c-523b; A 4, REP 3 523c-524a;
A 6, REP 3 524c-525c; PART HI, Q 3, A 3,
ANS 724c-725b; Q 12, A 3, REP 2 778b-779a;
PART III SUPPL, Q 91, A I, ANS 1016b-10l7c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [34-
45] 56b; PARADISE, iv [28-48] Ilia; x [1-27]
120b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; 66a-c; 78d-
79a; 79d-80b; 83a-b; PART u, 137b~c; 149c-d;
160b; 163a-b; PART in, 165a-167b; 172d-
173a; 183d-184a; 241a-242a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a;209a-d;212a-d;
238c-239c; 246a-d; 251c-252b; 267c-268a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 421d; 429b
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c; 17b-
20a; 38a; 39d-40a; 41b-d; 55b-c; 96c-97c esp
96d-97a / New Atlantis, 203a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43c; PART iv,
52a-d / Meditations, 69a-71a,c passim; 71d-
72b; m-iv, 81d-89b; v 93a-96a / Objections
and Replies, 110c-114c; 120c-122b; 127a-c;
PROP mi 132b-133a; 140b; 158b-161d;
168d-169a; 211c-212a; 212c-213a; 213d-214a;
215b-c; 232b; 283d-284a; 284d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART u, DBF i 373a; PROP
45-47 390a-391a; PART iv, PROP 28 43 Ic; PROP
36-37, DEMONST434a-d; APPENDIX, iv447b-c;
PART v, PROP 21-42 458a-463d esp PROP 24-25
458d-459a, PROP 30-33 459d-460c, PROP 36
461a-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [109-130] 219b-
220a; BK vm [114-130] 234b-235a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 163a-164b / Pen-
sees, 229 213a-b; 242-253 217b 220a; 263-290
221b-225a, 557-567 272b-273b
34 NEWTON* Principles, BK HI, GENERAL SCHOL,
371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 12, 107c-d; CH in, SECT 7-18 113d-
117c; BK u, CH vn, SECT 6 132d; CH xvn,
SECT i 167d-168a; SECT 17 172b-c; SECT 20,
173a; CH xxm, SECT 33-37 212d-214b; BK
in, CH vi, SECT u 271b-d; BK iv, CHX 349c-
354c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 29-33
418c-419a; SECT 146-156 442a-444d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT u, DIV 14
456b; SECT xi 497b-503c passim; SECT XH,
DIV 132, 509c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 12d-13a; 200d;
308b-309c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 173b-192d / Prac-
tical Reason, 320c-321b; 346b-347a; 349b-
352c; 354d-355d / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 384a,c / Judgement, 547b-d; 598b-
599b; 602b-603a; 603b-d; 607d-609b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 159b-
160a; PART in, 304d-305b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3432-3468] 84a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 217c-d; BK vi,
248d-249a
52 DOSTOEVSKY- Brothers Karamazov,wi\, 120d-
121c
6c. Supernatural knowledge
6c(l) God as teacher: inspiration and revela-
tion
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:15-17; 3:8-24; 9:1-
17; 17:1; 26:24; 3*>:I1J 46:2~3 / Exodus, 3:4-
6,13-15; 4:10-12; 6:2-8; 20:1-7; 24:12; 29:45-
46; 33:11-34:8 / Leviticus, 11:44-45; 18.1-2
/ Numbers, 12.1-8; 15:41 / Deuteronomy,
4:1-5,10-13,32-36; 5:4-11; 18:18-22; 2929 /
I Kings, 3-5-15: 8:35-36-^) /// Kings, 3 5-
*5J835-36/M33; 343M2; 35:10-11; 38-
42 / Psalms, 25-3-5,8-12; 32-8-9; 94:10-13;
119; 143 esp 143:8-10— (D) Psalms, 24:4-5,8-
12; 31:8-9; 93:10-13; 118; 142 esp 142:8-10 /
31:8-9; 93:10-13; 118; 142 esp 142:8-10 /
Proverbs, 2:5-6; 6:23 / Isaiah, 6:1-9; "'I-35
28:0-13; 48:3-8— (D) Isaias, 6:1-9; ";i-3;
28:9-13; 48:3-8 / Daniel, 2\ 4— (D) Daniel, 2;
3:98-4:34/70^,2:28-29
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 17:5-14— (D) OT,
Eccksiasticus, 17:5-12
586
THE GREAT IDEAS
6c(l) to 6r(2)
(6c. Supernatural knowledge. 6c(l) God a*
teacher: inspiration and revelation!)
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew passim, csp 4:23,
7:28-29, 10:1-20, 11:25-27, 13:1-23, 17:5,
28:18-20 / Marl( passim, csp 1:1-11, 4:1-2 /
Luke passim, csp 2:41-50, 3-21-22, 8:4-15,
9:34-35, 10:21-22 / John passim, esp 3:2,
5:31-47, 10:26-27, 12:23-30, 15:15, 16.25-29,
17:6-8 / Acts, 22 :6-i4 / Romans, i :i6-2o; 10:17
/ / Corinthians, 2; 12:1-8 / Galatians, i :n-i2 /
Ephesians, 1 19,17; 3:1-5 / // Timothy, 3:15-16 /
Hebrews, i \i-y, 2 3-4 / / Peter, i :io-i2,22-25 /
II Peter, 1:19-21 / I John, 2:20-27
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 7 lOb-c;
BK iv, par 30-31 26b-27a; BK vi, par 8 37b-c;
BK ix, par 23-25 68a-c; BK xi, par 2-5 89c-
90c; BK xin, par 16-18 114d-115c / City of
God, BKVII, CH3o261b-d; BK x,cHi3307b-c;
BK xi, CH 2-4 323a-324d; BK xix, CH 18
523a-b; CH 22 525b-c; BK xx, CH 28 556c-
557a / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 15 643c-
644a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i 3a-
lOc; Q 3, A i, REP 1-5 14b-15b; Q 8, A 3, REP 4
36b-37c; Q 12, A 13 61c-62b; Q 32 175d-180d;
Q 46, A 2 253a-255a; Q 57, A 3, REP i 297b-
298a; Q 68, A i, ANS 354a-355c; Q 89, A i, REP 3
473b-475a; A 2, REP 3 475a-d; Q 94, A 3 504a-
505a; Q 104, A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q 105, A 3 540c-
541b; Q 106, A 3, ANS and REP 2 547c-548b;
Q 113, A i, REP 2 576a-d; Q 117, A i, REP i
595d-597c; A 2, REP 2 597c-598c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 63,
A 3 65a d; Q 68 87c-96c; Q 91, AA 4-5 210c-
212c; Q 98, AA 2-6 240c-245b; Q 100, A 3, ANS
253a-d; Q 101, A 2, REP i 267a-268a; QQ 106-
107 321a-330d; Q in, A 4 354c-355d; Q 112,
A 5, ANS 359c-360c; PART n-n, Q i, A 7, REP 3
385c-387a; Q 2, A 10, ANS 399b-400b; Q 4, A 4,
REP 3 405a-406a; Q 6, A i, ANS 413d-414c;
PART in, Q i, A 3, ANS 704d-706a; Q 3, A 8
729b-730b; Q 7, A 7 750a-d; Q n, A 6, REP 2
775d-776b; Q 12, A 3, ANS and REP 1-2 778b-
779a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy ', PURGATORY, xxx-
XXXHI 99b-105d passim; PARADISE, xix [1-99]
135a-136a; xxiv [52-147] 143b-144a; xxv [64-
96] 145a-b; xxvi [25-45] W6a-b
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,787-816]
467a-b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 83a-b; PART n,
137b-138b; 160b; PART m, 165a-167b; 176d-
177c; 181a-186c; 205 b-d; CONCLUSION, 281d-
282a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 212a; 238c-239c; 267c-
268a; 273a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 19b-c; 38a;
54b-c; 95d-101d esp 95d-96c / New Atlantis,
203a-c
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART i, 43c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [3o8]-BK vin
[653] 182a-246a esp BK vm [283-477] 238b-
242a; BK xi [99J-BK xn [649] 301b-333a
33 PASCAL: Pcnsees, 185 205a; 585-588 277a-b;
642-692 290b-301a; 881 345b / Vacuum,
355b / Geometrical Demonstration, 440a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH ix,
SECT 23 291b-c; BK iv, CH vn, SECTir,340b-c;
CH xvi, SECT 14 371b-c; CH xvm-xix 380d-
388d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
132, 509c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 333d; 366c*d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 201a; 307d-308a;
346b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 227d-228a; 231a-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 455a-c
44 Bos WELL -Johnson, 394a-b; 481d-482a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157c-d;
159b-160a; PART in, 306c-d
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK i, 50b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY : Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c; BK vi, 150d-153d
6c(2) The light of faith
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 44-50 csp 44:20, 45:4,
46:15, 49:10, 50,28-29— (D) OT, Ecclestastt-
cus, 44-50 csp 44:21, 45:4, 46:17-18, 49.12,
50-30-31
NEW TESTAMENT: Luty, 8:4-17 / John, 6:28-
40; 10:37-38; 12:44-46; 14:1,7-11; 1627-31;
20:24-29 / Romans, 3:21-5:2; 10:14-17 /
// Corinthians, 4:3-6 / / Thessalonians, 2:13 /
Hebrews, 4.2; n / / Peter, 1:7-9,21-23 / 1 John,
2:20-29; 5:4-10
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b; BK
iv, par 25 25c; BK vi, par 6-8 36c-37c; BK vn,
par 16 48c-49a; BK xm, par 19 115c-d / City of
God, BK x, CH 1-2 298b,d-300a; BK xi, CH 2
323a-c; BK xix, CH 18 523a-b; BK xxi, CH 5
563d-564d; BK xxn, CH 4-5 588b-590a; CH 7
591c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628 b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 2, REP i lld-12c; Q 32, A i, ANS 175d-178a;
Q 46, A 2, ANS 253a-255a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 62,
AA 3-4 61c-63a; Q 65, AA 4-5 73d-75a; Q 66,
A 6 80c-81b; Q 67, A 3 83b-84d; A 5 85d-86d;
Q ioo, A 4, REP i 253d-255a; Q 108, A 2, REP i
332b-333d; Q no, A 3, REP i 350a-d; A 4, ANS
350d-35ld; PART H-II, QQ 1-16 380a-456d;
Q 45, A i, REP 2 598d-599d; PART HI, Q 14, A i,
ANS 784b-785c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [34-45]
108a; xxiv 142d-144b
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale 463b-471b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 66a~c; PART n,
137b-d; 149c-d; 160b; PART HI, 165b-c; 172d-
173a; 209b; 209 d; 241a-242a
25 MONTAIGNE: Ew^,98b-99a; 209a-d; 212a-d;
238c-239c; 267c-268a; 294a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 19b-c; 95d-
96c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 65 114b-c
to 6V(4)
CHAPTER 29: GOD
587
31 DESCARTES: Rules, m, 4d-5a / Discourse,
PART i, 43c / Meditations, 69a-71a,c passim;
HI, 88d-89a / Objections and Replies, 125c-
126b; 168c-169a; 232b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XH [552-587] 331a-
332a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 147b; 163a-164b /
Pensees, 229 213a-b; 242-290 217b~225a; 425
243b-244b; 523 264a; 561-567 272b-273b;
794-796 327b; 880-881 345b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi,
SECT 14 371b-c; CH XVH, SECT 24 380c-d;
CH XVIH-XIX 380d-388d passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT x, DIV 101
497a-b; SECT XH, DIV 132, 509c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 379c-380a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 190c-191a; 309a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 242a-243a / Practical
Reason, 320c-321b; 345c-d; 353a-354d /
Judgement, 599d-600a; 604d-609b csp 606a-d
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 395a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 306b-
307b;pARTiv,349b-350a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,111-121] 246b-
247a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, I96a-198b;
BK xv, 631a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKi,lla-b;
BK n, 26b-27d; BK in, 64c-67a; BK v, 127b-
137c passim; BK vn, 177b-180a; BK xi, 338a-b
6c(3) Mystical experience
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 15; 18; 22:9-18; 26:1-
6,24-25; 28 10-22; 31-11-13; 32 23-32; 46.1-4
/ Exodus, 3-1-4-17; 19-20; 24 / Numbers, 12;
22:21-35; 24:12-24 /Joshua, 3:7-8; 5*13-15—
(D) Josue, 3:7-8; 5:13-16 /Judges, 6:11-26; 13
/ / Samuel, $—(D) I Kings, 3/7 Kings, 3 15-15 ;
9.1-9; 19— (£>) /// Kings, 3 5-15; 9 1-9; 19 /
/ Chronicles, 17 1-15— (D) I Parahpomenon,
17:1-15 /Job, 4-12-21; 33:14-17; 38:1-42:8 /
Isaiah, 6—(D) Isaias, 6 / Jeremiah, i—(D)
Jeremias, i / Ezefyelcsp 1-4, 8-12, 40-48— (D)
Ezechiel csp 1-4, 8-12, 40-48 / Daniel, 7-12 /
Amos, 7-8 / Zechariah, 1-6 — (D) Zachanas,
1-6
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:20-25; 3:16-17;
17:1-8; 28 / Lu^e, 1.1-38; 2:8-15,25-35;
9*28-36; 24 / Acts, 2:2-11; 7, 9.1-20; 10 esp
10.9-20; 11.5-10, 18:9-11; 22:1-21; 23.11;
26-13-18 / // Corinthians, 12:1-9 / II Peter,
1:17-18 / Revelation— (D) Apocalypse
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 16 48c-
49a; BK viu, par 25-30 60a-61c; BK ix, par
23-25 68a-c; BK x, par 65 87d-88a / City of
God, BK ix, CH 16 294a-295a; BK xvi, CH 6
426c-427a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A 11, REP 2 59d-60d; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-xi, Q 98,
A 3, REP 2 241c-242b; PART n-n, Q 180, A 5,
ANS 611d-613a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-81]
106a-107a; xxi 138b-139c passim; xxm [1-69]
141b-142a; xxx [34-99] 152a-d; xxxii [139}-
xxxiii [145] 156a-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52a-b; 68d-69b;
PART n, 137b-138a; 149c-d; 160b; PART HI,
165d-166a; 174b-176d; 183d-185c; CONCLU-
SION, 281d-282a
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 277-288 222b-224b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 476b-477a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 320d-321b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vn,
189a-191a,c
6c(4) The beatific vision
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 28:10-22; 32:24-30 /
Exodus, 24 esp 24:9-11; 33:11-23; 34:5-7 /
Numbers, 12:6-8 / Deuteronomy, 34:10 / Job,
19:26-27; 42:5
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43:30-31 — (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43:32-35
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:8 / John, 1:18 /
Acts, 7:55-57 / / Corinthians, 13:12 / // Corin-
thians, 5:6-7; 12:1-4 / / Timothy, 6:13-16 /
I John, 3 '2-3
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK ix, par 25 68c /
City of God, BK XH, CH 20, 355b; BK xxn,
CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12
50b-62b; Q 26, A 3 151a-c; Q 60, A 5, REP 5
313b 314c; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; A 2,
ANS 318d-319c; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c; Q 89, A 2,
REP 3 475a-d; Q 93, A 8, REP 4 499b-500c;
Q 94, A i 501d-503a; Q 100, A 2, ANS 521c-522b;
PART i-n, Q 3, A 8 628d-629c; Q 4, AA 2-3
630b631d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67,
A 3, CONTRARY 83b-84d; A 4 84d-85d; A 6,
REP 3 87a-c; Q 69, A 2, REP 3 97b-98c; A 4,
ANS and REP 3 lOOc-lOlc; Q 98, A 3, REP a
241c-242b; PART n-n, Q i, A 8, ANS 387a-388c;
Q 8, A 7, ANS 421d-422c; Q 9, A 4, REP 3 425d-
426c; Q 180, A 5 611d-613a; PART in, Q i, A 3,
REP i 704d-706a; Q 9, A 2, ANS and REP 3 764c-
765a; PART HI SUPPL, Q 72, A i, ANS and REP i
917c-919a; Q 82, A 3, REP 4 971a-972d; Q 84,
A 2, ANS and REP 4 984c-985d; Q 87, A 3, ANS
999d-1000c; Q 90, A 3 1014d-1016a; Q 99
1025b-1037c; Q 98, A 5, ANS 1075b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-12]
106a; n [37-45] 108a; v [1-12] 112a*b; vi [10-
21] 113d; xiv [28-51] 127b; xv [28-84] ^8c-
129b; xxi [52-102] 138d-139b; xxvi [103-108]
146d-147a; xxvm [106-114] 150a; xxxn[i39]-
xxxiii [145] 156a-157d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 10, 499b-500a;
par 103 549b-550a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, m, 88d-89a
32 MILTON: On Time [9-22] 12a-b / Paradise
Lost, BK HI [256-265] 141a
588
THE GREAT IDEAS
7. Doctrines common to the Jewish, Moham-
medan, and Christian conceptions of God
and His relation to the world and man
la. Creation
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2; 5:1-2 / Exodus,
20:11 I I Samuel, 2:8-(D) / Kings, 2:8 /
Nehemiah, 9.6— -(D) II Esdras, 9 6 / Job, 9:1-
13; 10:8-13; 12.7-10; 26:7-14; 28 24-27;
37.14-38-41 esp 38-4-11 / Psalms, 8 esp 8:5;
19:1-6; 24:1-2; 33; 74:16-17; 89:11-12; 90:2;
95:1-7; 96:5; 102:25-28; 104; 11973,90;
121:2; 136:5-9; 13914-16; 146:5-6; 148—
(D) Psalms, 8 esp 8 6-7; 18-1-7; 23:1-2; 32;
73 -16-17; 88 112-13 589-2; 94:1-7; 95 15; 101:26-
29; 103; 118:73,90; 120:2; 135*5-9; 138:14-16;
145:5-6; 148 / Proverbs, 3-19-20; 822-31 /
Ecclcsiastes, yu I Isaiah, 40-26-28; 42 5-8;
44:24-28; 45:5-13; 48-12-16; 51-12-16; 64-8;
65:i7~(D) Isaias, 40:26-28; 42:5-8; 44:24-
28; 45:5-13; 48.12-16; 51:12-16; 64:8; 65:17
/Jeremiah, 10:11-13; 27:5; 31:35; 51:15-16—
(D) Jeremtas, 10.11-13; 27 5; 31 35; 51:15-16
/ Amos, 4-13; 5 -8 / Jonah, i 9— (D) Jonas,
1:9 / Zechanah, 12 i — (D) Zachanas, 12-1
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:14— (D) OT, Judith,
16:17 / Rest of Esther, 13:10— (D) OT, Esther,
13:10 / Wisdom of Solomon, 1-14; 2 23; 67,
9:1,9; 11:17,24— (D) OT, Bool^ of Wisdom,
1:14; 2:23, 6-8; 9-1,9; 11:18,25 / Eccle-
siasticus, 17 -1-9; 18:1-5; 23:19-20; 24:8-9;
33*9-i3; 19:iH5; 42:i5-43-'33-(0) OT»
Ecclesiastic us, 17:1-8; 18.1-5; 23:27-29;
24:12-14; 33 IO~M; 39-2i~4i; 42 15-43:37 /
Song of Three Children, 34-60— (D) OT,
Daniel, 3 56-82 / Bel and Dragon, $-(D)
OT, Daniel, 14:4 / // Maccabees, 7:23,28—
(D) OT, UMachabees, 7:23,28
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:1-10 / Acts, 14.14-15;
17:23-27 / Romans, i 19-20 / Colossians, i .12-
17 / Hebrews, 1:10; 3:4; 11:3 / // Peter, 3-57
Revelation, 4 n; 10:6; 14:7— (D) Apocalypse,
4:11; 10:6; 14:7
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 7 45a-d;
BK xi, par 5-11 90b-92b; BK xii-xm 99b-
125a,c / City of God, BK vn, CH 29 261a-b; BK
VHI, CH 9-12 270d-273a; BK x, CH 31 319b-d;
BK xi, CH 4-34 324a-342a,c; BK xn 342b,d-
360a,c csp CH 1-2 342b,d-343d, CH 4-5 344b-
345 b, CH 9-27 347b-360a,c; BK xm, CH 24
373d-376a,c; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b;
CH 24, 609c-610a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 2, REP 3 31d-32c; o 8, A i 34d-35c; A 2, ANS
35c-36b; A 3, ANS and REP i 36b-37c; Q 9, A 2,
ANS 39c-40d; Q 21, A 4, ANS and REP 4 126c-
127c; QQ 44-46 238a-255d; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-
270a; A 3, ANS 272a-273b; Q 56, A 2, ANS and
REP 4 292d-294a; Q 57, A 2, ANS and REP 2
295d-297a; Q 61 314d-317c; QQ 65-74 339a-
377a,c; Q 75, A 6, REP 1-2 383c-384c; Q 84,
A 3, REP 2 443d-444d; QQ 90-93 480c-501c;
Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a; Q 104, A i csp REP 4
534c-536c; AA 3-4 537b-538c; Q 118, AA 2-3
601c-604b; Q 119, A i, ANS 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q 24,
A 5, ANS 492b-493d; PART HI, Q 2, A 7 718b-d;
Q 3, A 8, REP 2 729b-730b; Q 6, A 3, REP 2
742a-743a
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv [58-
78] 92a; xxvin [91-96] 97a; PARADISE, vn
[64-75] H5d-116a; [121-148] 116b-c; x [1-27"
120b-c; xni [52-87] 126a-b; xix [40-51] 135c:
xxix [1-48] 150b-d
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 162b; PART in,
188d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-d /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 15 149a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a /
Meditations, in-iv, 87a-90b / Objections and
Replies, PROP HI 132d-133a; 137d-138a;
140b-c;214a-c;229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c; APPENDIX, 370c-372d passim; PART iv,
PROP 68, SCHOL 445a-b
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK i [6-10] 93b; [650-
659] 107b; BK n [345-353] 118b-119a; BK HI
[56-134] 136b-138a; [708-735] 150b-151b; BK
iv [720-735] 168a-b; BK v [468-505] 185b-
186a; [577-599] 187b-188a; [800-863] 192b-
194a; BK vn [59-640] 218b-231a esp [139-161]
220a-b, [216-550] 221b-229a; BK vm [452-
499] 242a-243a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 482 258a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 56-57
36d-37b / Human Understanding, BK n,
CH XV, SECT 12, 165c; BK IV, CH X, SECT 15
352d-353a; SECT 18-19 353c-354c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 46
421b-c
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
i32,509d[fni]
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 228a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 81d 82a /Judgement, 594d
[fni]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 245d-
246a; PART iv, 361a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-270] 7a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239c-243d
54 FREUD: New Introductory lectures, 875d-876a
tb. Providence
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-3; 6-9 csp 8:21-22;
12-13 esp 12:1-3, 12:7, 13:14-18; 15 esp 15:13-
21 ; 17-18; 21-22 esp 22:15-18; 26:1-6,22-25;
28:10-22; 35:9-15; 37-50 esp 45:7-8 / Exodus,
3; 12; 13:21-17:7; 19-20; 40 134-38- (D)
Exodus, 3; 12; 13:21-17:7; 19-20; 40:32-36 /
Numbers, 9:15-23; 12; 22-24 / Deuteronomy,
4 11-40; 6-1 1 ; 29-33 /Joshua, i-i i ; 23-24— (D)
Josuff, i-n; 23-24 / Judges , 1-16 / / Samuel,
8-10; i5-i6-(D) I Kings, 8-10; 15-16 / //
Samuel, J—(D) II Kings, 7 / 1 Kings, n ; 13-22
n to 7c
CHAPTER 29: GOD
589
passim— (D) /// Kings, n; 13-22 passim / //
Kings passim— (D) IV Kings passim / / Chron-
icles, 17:3-15— (#) / Paralipomenon, 17-3-15 /
II Chronicles, 11-36 passim— (D) II Paralipo-
menon, 11-36 passim / Esther esp 4:13-14—
(jD) Esther, 1:1-10:3 esp 4:13-14 / Job esp
1-2, 24, 27, 38-41 / Psalms passim, €$0)3-4,
9-11, 13, 17-18, 65, 77, 104— (D) Psalms pas-
sim, esp 3-4, 9-10, 12, 16-17, 64, 7^> i°3 /
Proverbs, 16-33 / Ecckstastes, 3; 7:13-15; 8-9;
11-12 I Isaiah, 36-37; 46; 51— (£>) Isaias, 36-
37; 46; 51 / Jeremiah, 17:5-8; 18-19; 3*J 45~
(D) Jeremias, 17:5-8; 18-19; 31? 45 / DanM
passim, esp 3:1-4:3, 6:1-28— (D) Darnel, 1:1-
3 123 passim, esp 3 11-23 > 3 :9i~12 :13 passim, esp
3.91-100, 6.1-28 / Jonah esp i, 4— (D) Jonas
esp i, 4 / Malachi, 1 12-3 — (D) Malachias, r 12-3
APOCRYPHA. Tobit—(D) OT, Tobias / Judith esp
5-6, 8-16— (D) OT, /«<//>£ esp 5-6, 8-16 /
fort of Esther— (D) OT, Etffor, 10:4-16:24 /
H'/tt/ow of Solomon, 14:1-3— (D) OT, fioo^o/
Wisdom, 14:1-3 / Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-20— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-22 / &>;?£ of Three
Children— (D} OT, D0fl/f/, 3:24-90 / Susanna
—(D) OT, D0;w/, 13:1-64 / &?/ 0/w/ £>r0£0fl
— (D) OT, £>0m<?/, 13.65-14:42 / I Maccabees,
3 13-26— (D) OT, / Machabees, 3-13-26 /
// Maccabees, 6*i-i6— (D) OT, // Machabees,
6:1-16
NEW TESTAMENT* Matthew, 6.25-34; 7:7-11; 10
esp 10:17-20, 10:29-33; 23:37 / Lufy, 11:1-13;
12:1-34; 21:12-19 / John, 6:22-71 esp 6:40,
6:44-45, 6:64-65— (D) John, 6:22-72 esp
6:40, 6-44-45, 6-65-66 / Acts, 1:15-26; 6.8-
7:60; 13 48— (D) Acts, 1:15-26; 6:8-7.59;
13 48 / Romans, 8 28-11-36; 13.1-2 / Ephe-
sians, i 4-2 10, 4.1-7 / Philippians, 2 12-13 /
// Timothy, i 9 / Hebrews, 1.1-3; I3'5~^ /
I Peter, 1-1-5
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, EK ix, par i 61c-d /
City of God, EK i, CH 8-9 133a-135a; BK iv, CH
33 206c-d; BK v, CH i 207d-208c; CH 8-n
212c-216d; CH 19 224b-225b; CH 21-22 226a-
227a; BK x, CH 14-17 307c-310b; BK xi, CH 22
333d-334c; BK xn, CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK xiv,
CH 27 396c-397a; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 27 650a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
REP i 14b-15b; Q 8, A 3, ANS 36b-37c; Q 13,
A 8, ANS and REP i 70d-71b; Q 15, A 3, REP 4
93b-94a; QQ 22-24 127c-143c; Q 96, A i, ANS
and REP 2 510b-511b; PART i-n, Q 9, A 6, REP 3
662ad
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A 5, REP 3 219a-d; PART n-n, Q i, A 7, ANS
385c-387a; Q 25, A n, REP 3 508d-509c; PART
in, Q 6 1, A i, ANS 855a-d; PART in SUPPL, Q 69,
A 3, ANS 887d-889c; Q 71, A 5, ANS 905c-908b;
Q 77, A i, ANS 943a-944d; Q 78, A 3, ANS 950b-
951a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-c; PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d; vi [i-uij
113c-114d; viii [85-148] 117c-118c; xi-xn
122a 125a esp xi [28-39] 122b, xn [37-45]
124a; xx [31-138] 137a-138a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
138-154 106b-108b / Knight's Tale [1251-1267]
180b; [1663-1672] 187b / Tale of Man of Law
236b-255b esp [4869-4924] 242b-243b, [5247-
5253] 249b / Friar's Tale [7064-7085] 281a-b
/ Franklin's Tale [11,177-206] 353b-354a /
MonJ($ Tale [14,021-052] 434b-435a; [14,149-
252] 437a-438b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53d; PART n,
113b-c; 160a; 162b; PART iv, 254b; 271b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a
26 SHAKESPLARE: Richard III, ACT n, sc n [77-
95] 120b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc 11 [i-n]
67d-68a; [47-53] 68b-c; [230-235] 70a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 19d; 38a /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 93 125d-126a
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xvi 66b-67a / Paradise Lost,
BK in [80-134] 137a-138a / Samson Agonistes
[210-214] 344a; [373-380] 347b-348a; [667-
709] 354a-355a / Areopagitica, 394b-39Sb
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 619-641 284b-290a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 3
405b-c; SECT 60-66 424b-426a; SECT 93-94
431b-c; SECT 105-107 433b-434a; SECT 146-
155 442a-444c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54-57 474b-475d; SECT xi, DIV 108 500b-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 75c-d; 377c-378a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 331c-d / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 414d; BK iv, 437d-438b
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 292d-294a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 542a-b
44 Bos WELL Johnson, 95c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
160b; 168d-170b; PART iv, 321b-c; 368d-
369a,c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 85a; 237a; 396b-
397a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a~b; BK
ix, 342a-344b; 357b-358b; BK x, 447c-448a;
465c-467c passim; BK xn, 553b; BK xin,
563a-b; BK xv, 619d-620a, 631a-c; EPILOGUE
i, 650b-c; EPILOGUE n, 675a-677b; 680b-c;
684b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY : Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c passim; BK xi, 343b-c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-b
7c. Divine government and law
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:1-7 / Exodus, 12-13;
15:18; 19-31 esp 20:1-17; 34-35 / Leviticus
passim / Numbers passim, esp 5-10, 15, 18-19,
27-30, 35-36 / Deuteronomy passim, esp 5 :6-2i
/ / Chronicles, 29: 11-12— (D) I Parahpomenon,
29:11-12 / Job, 9:1-13; 34:12-18; 37-41 /
Psalms, i; 10:16; 19:7-14; 37:30-31; 40*8;
47; 59:13; 66:7; 72:8; 78:1-8; 89:30-32; 93;
590
(7. Doctrines common to the Jewish, Mohamme-
dan, and Christian conceptions of God and
His relation to the world and man. 7c.
Divine government and law.)
96.10-13; 97:1-2; 99.1; 103:19-22; 119 pas-
sim; 145:11-13— (D) Psalms, i; 9:16; i8'8-
15; 36:30-31; 39:8-9; 46; 58:*4; 657; 71-8;
77:1-8; 88:31-33; 92; 95 10-13; 96-1-2;
98:1; 102:19-22; 118 passim; 144-1 1-13 /
Eeclcsiastes, 12:13-14 / Isaiah, 51:4-8; 52:7—
(D) Isaias, 51 14 -8 ; 52 7 / Jeremiah, 31-34— (D)
Jeremias, 31-34 / Ezefyel, i8-(D) Ezechiel, 18
/ Daniel, 4; 7 27— (D) Daniel, 3 -98-4 -34;
7:27 / Amos, 2:1-8 / Malacht, 1:14— (D)
Malachias, 1:14
APOCRYPHA: Bel and Dragon, $—(D) OT, Daniel,
14.4
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 5:17-20 / Luke,
16:17 / Romans passim, esp 2.11-16, 7:21-25,
8:7/7 Timothy, 1:17 / Hebrews, i 8; 8 10;
10:16 / James, 2:8-12 / Revelation, 11:15-18;
19:6— (D) Apocalypse, 11:15-18; 19:6
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9, lOd; par
14 12a-b; BK in, par 13-17 16c 18a / City of
God, BK v, CH 1 1 216c-d; BK vn, en 30 261b-d;
BK ix, CH 22 296d-297a; BK x, CH 13-15 307b-
308b; CH 17 309c 310b; BK xi, CH 18 331d-
332a; CH 22 333d-334c, BK xn, CH 5 345a-b,
BK xix, CH 12-15 517b-521c, CH 21 524a-525a;
CH 23-25 525c-528d; CH 27 529a-d; BK xxn,
CH 1-3 586b,d-588b; CH 24 609a-612a pas-
sim
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS 12c-14a; Q 21, A i, ANS 124b-125b; A 2,
ANS 125c-d; Q 26, A 4, ANS 151c-152a,c; Q 47,
A 3, RLP i 258c-259a; Q 63, A 7, ANS 331c-
332b; Q 65, A 3, REP i 341c-342b; Q 83, A i,
REP 3 436d-438a; QQ 103-119 528a-608d;
PART i-n, Q 10, A 4, ANS 665d-666a,c; Q 17,
A 8, REP 2 692a-c; Q 19, A 4 705b-c; A 6, ANS
and Rtp 2 707a-708a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 71,
A 2, REP 4 106d-107c; A 6 HOb-lllb; Q 72, A 2,
ANS 112b-113a; A 4, ANS 114a-115a; Q 74, A 8,
REP i 134b-136a; Q 91, AA 1-2 208b-209d; AA
4-5 210c-212c; Q 93 215b,d-220d; Q 97, A 3,
ANS and REP i 237b-238b; A 4, REP 3 238b-
239b; QQ 98-108 239b-337d; PART II-H, Q 23,
A 6, ANS 487a-d; Q 187, A 5, REP 3 671d-673b;
PART III, Q 60, A 4, REP 2 849c-850bj PART III
SUPPL, Q 69, A i, ANS 885c-886c; Q 72, A 2,
ANS 919a-920c
21 DANTE : Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [70-76] lOb;
xi 15a-16b; PURGATORY, xvi [52-105] 77b-d;
PARADISE, i [94-142] 107b-d; n [112-148]
109a-b; in [34-90] 109d-110b; x [1-27] 120b-c;
xxvn [IOO]-XXVHI [139] 148b-150b; XXXH
[37-84] 155a-c
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1663-1672] 187b /
MonJfs Tale [14,221-228] 438a-b / Canon's
Yeoman's Tale [16,935-949] 467a
THE GREAT IDEAS Icto 7d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 95d-96b; PART n,
136d-138b; 159d-164a,c; PART HI, 167b-c;
171a-172a; 177c-180a; 199b-204a; 216b-219d;
240a-241a; 245c-246a,c; PART iv, 247a-249b;
272b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 491d-492a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-b;
94b-c; lOOd
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54c; 55b /
Objections and Replies, 229c-d
31 SPINOZA.: Ethics, PART 11, PROP3,SCHOL 374b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [237-249] 116b;
[310-328] 118a; BK in [274-343] 141b-143a csp
[317-333] 142b; BK v [600-615] 188b; BK vi
[169-188] 200a; BK vn [139-173] 220a-221a;
[550-609] 229a-230b, BK xn [223-248] 324a-b
/ Samson Agomstes [667-673] 354a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 876 34Sa
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 5-6 105a-c; BK 11, CH xxvin, SECT 8
230a; BK iv, CH in, SECT 28-29 322a-323a
35 BFRKLLEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 29-33
418c-419a; SECT 51-53 422d-423a; SECT 57
423d-424a; SECT 60-66 424b-426a; SECT 93-
94 431b-c, SECT 105-107 433b-434a; SECT
146-155 442a-444c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54-57 474b-475d, SECT vni, DIV 78-81 485c-
487a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 261b-266b csp
261b-262a, 266b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 20a~d
38 MONTLSQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-2b;
BK xn, 85d-86a; BK xxvi, 214b,d-215a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 252c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 237b; 238b-240b / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn i]
46 HEGEL Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
160b; 168d-170b; PART HI, 309d-310a; PART
iv, 368d-369a,c
52 DOSTOLVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
Id. Grace
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 84:11— (D) Psalms,
83 12 / Proverbs, 3.1-4,21-26 / Jeremiah, 31 18
— (D) Jeremias, 31-18 / Lamentations, 5-21 /
Zechariah, 12:10— (D) Zachanas, 12:10
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:11-18 / Acts, 4:33 /
Romans passim, esp 1.3-5, 3.1-6.23, 11:5-7 /
/ Corinthians, 2:11-3-10; 15,9-10 / // Corin-
thians, i; 4-6; 8:7-9; 9:5-15; 12 / Galatians
I Ephesians / Philippians, 2:12-13; 4:13 /
II Thessalonians, 2:15-16 / // Timothy esp
i .8-9 / Titus, 2:9-3:7 / Hebrews, 2:9; 12.14-29
/ James, 4:6/7 Peter passim, esp i, 5,5
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 5-6 2b-c;
BK n, par 15 12b-c; BK vi, par 4 36a-b / City
of God,, BK xin, CH 3-5 361a-362c; CH 7 362 d-
363b; CH 14-15 366b-d; CH 20 370c-371a; BK
XIH, CH 23-BK xiv, CH i 372a-377a; BK xiv,
ca 26 395d-396c; CH 27, 397a; BK xv, CH 1-3
Idtolc
CHAPTER 29: GOD
591
397b,d-399c; BK xvi, CH 26-27 438c 439d;
BK xxi, CH 15-16 572c-574a; BK xxn, CH 22
606d-608b esp 608a-b / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH i 624b,d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 2,
REP i lld-12c; Q 8, A 3, ANS and REP 4 36b-37c;
Q 12, A 2, ANS 51c-52c; A 4, ANS 53b-54c; \ 5,
ANS 54c-55b; A 13 61c-62b; Q 38 200c-202b;
Q 43 230a-237a,c; Q 62 317c-325b; Q 89, A i,
REP 3 473b-475a; A 2, REP 3 475a-d, Q 95
506b-510a; Q 104, A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q 108, A 8,
ANS and REP 1-2 561a-562a; Q 113, A i, REP 2
S76a-d; PART I-H, Q 5, AA 5-7 640b-642d esp
A 7, REP 3 642a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 50,
A 2 7c-8a; Q 51, A 4 15a-d; Q 55, A 4, ANS and
REP 6 28c-29d; Q 58, A 3, REP 3 43b-44a; Q 62
59d-63a; Q 63, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 64b-65a;
AA 3-4 65a-66c; Q 65, AA 2-5 72a-75a; Q 66,
A 2, REP i 76c-77c; Q 68 87c-96c; Q 76, A 2,
REP 2 141d-142c; Q 79, AA 3-4 158a-159c; Q 81,
A 3, REP 3 165d-166b; Q 83, A i, REP 4-5 171a-
172b; A 2, REP 2 172b-173a; Q 85, A 6, ANS
182d-184a; Q 95, A i, ANS 226c-227c; Q 98, \ i
239b-240c; Q 100, A 5, RFP 2 255a-257c; A 10,
REP 3 262b-263b; A 12, ANS 264d-265d; Q 106,
A i, ANS and REP 1,3 321a-322a; QQ 109-114
338a-378a,c; PART ii-n, Q 2, AA 9-10 398c-
400b, Q 24, A 3, REP i 491a-d; A n, ANS 498b-
499c; PART in, Q 6, A 3, REP 3 742a-743a; OQ
7-8 745c-763b; Q 10, A 4, RHP 3 771b-772a,
Q 14, A 4, REP 2 786d-787c; Q 15, A 2, \NS
789a-d; Q 22, A i, ANS and REP 3 827c 828c;
Q 23, A i, REP i 833a-d; A 4, REP 2 835b-836a,
Q26, A 2, REP i 846b-d,Q6i,Ai,REP2855a-d,
Q 62 858b-864c; PART in SUPPL, Q 75, A 2,
REP 5 937a-938a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i-n la 4a; PUR-
GATORY, vn [40-60] 62d-63a; [112-123] 63d-
64a; ix [13-69] 66a-c; xi [1-24] 68d-69a, xin
[10-21] 72a; PARADISE, vn [16-120] 115b-116b,
xx [31-138] 137a-138a; xxiv 142d-144b esp
[58-60] 143b, [118-123] 143d-144a, xxix [58-
66] 150d-151a; xxx [34-99] 152a-d; xxxn
[40-84] 155a-c; xxxn [i39]-xxxm [145] 156a-
157d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
144 19b-20a / Second Nun's Tale [15,788-822]
467a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 88c-89a; PART n,
137c-d; 149c-d; PART in, 176d-177c; 186a-b;
191b-193c esp 193a; 241c-242a; PART iv, 250c-
251b; 253b-254b; 255b; 264a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 209a-d; 212a-d; 238c-
239c; 267c-268a; 273a-b; 294a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 125d-
126a
32 MILTON '.Paradise Lost, BK n [1024-1033] 133b;
BK in [56-415] 136b-144b esp [130-134] 138a,
[167-184] 139a-b, [227-238] 140b; BK xi [1-31]
299a-b; [251-262] 304b-305a / Samson Agonis-
tes [356-372] 347b; [652-666] 353b-354a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters^ la-14a; 19a-26b;
29b; 154b-159a / Fences, 202 211a; 430-435
245a-251a; 505 261a-b; 507-511 261b; 513-517
262a 263b; 520-524 263b-264a; 643 290b-
291a; 88 1 345 b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 238b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 310d-
311a; PART iv, 354a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c passim
7e. Miracles
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, I7:i8-r8'i6; 19:9-
11,24-26; 21:1-8 / Exodus, 3-4; 7-12; 14-17 /
Numbers, 9 15-23; 11-12; 16-17; 20*1-13;
21-5-9; 22-21-34; 26-9-10 / Joshua, 3-4;
6:1-20; 10:12-14; 24:6-7— (D) Josue, 3-4;
6:1-20; 10:12-14; 24:6-7 /Judges, 6:36-40 /
/ Samuel, 12:16-19— (D) 7 Kings, 12:16-19 /
/ Kings, 17; 18.30-39 — (D) III Kings, 17;
18 30 39 / // Kings, 1-6; 13:20-21; 20:1-11
— (I)) IV Kings, 1-6; 13-20-21; 20:1-11 /
Nchemtah, 9.9-2i—(D) // Esdras, 9-9-21 /
l^alm^ 78; 105; 106:7-11; 114— (D) Psalms,
77; ioj, 1057-11; 113:1-8 / Isaiah, 38:1-9—
(D) Isaias, 38:1-9 / Daniel, 3:1-4:3; 5-6— (D)
Daniel, 3-1-23,91-100; 5-6 / Joel, 2.30-31 /
Jonah— (D) Jonas
APCM RYPHA: Song of Three Children, 1-27— (D)
OT, Daniel, 3 124-50 / Bel and Dragon, 28-42
— (D) OT, Daniel, 14:27-42 / II Maccabees,
1.18-22; 2:10— (D)JOT, 11 Machabees, 1:18-
22, 2.10
NEW TESIAMENT. Matthew, 1.18-25, 8-9; 12-9-
13,22-29; 14:13-36; 15:22-39; 17; 2029-34
/ Marl(, 1:29-34,40-44; 2:3-12; 3-1-5; 4.34-
40; 5; 6:34-56; 7:24-8:26; 9-1-10,16-29;
10-46-52; 13:24-26 / Luke, 1:5-66; 4*31-
5.26, 6.6-10, 7.1-16; 8.22-56, 9:12-17,28-43;
11.14-26; 13:11-17; 14:1-6; 17:11-19, 18.35-
43 / John, 2-1-11; 3-2; 4*46-54, 5 1-16; 6 5-
26, 7:31, 9.1-33; 11:1-45; 12:37-38; 21 i-n /
Acts, 2:1-22; 3:2-11; 5:12-16; 8-6; 9:36-43;
14:7-10; 15:12; 19:11-12; 207-12; 28-1-10
/ / Corinthians^ 12:8-10 / Galatians, 3:5-7 /
Hebrews, 2:3-4
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 8-13 303a-
307c; CH 16-18 308b-310d, BK xxi, CH 5-8
563d-568d; BK xxn, CH 5-10 589a-599b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 89,
A 8, REP 2 479c-480c; Q 92, A 4, ANS 491b-d;
Q 104, A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q 105, AA 6-8 543b-
545b; Q 106, A 3, ANS 547c-548b; Q no, A 4
567c-568b; Q 114, A 4 584a-585a; PART i-n,
Q 10, A 4, REP 2 665d-666a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 63,
A 4, REP 3 65d-66c; Q 81, A 4, ANS 166b-167a;
Q 113, A 10 369c-370b; PART in SUPPL, Q 75,
A 3, ANS 938a-939d; Q 83, A 3 978c-980d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy^ PARADISE, xxiv [88-
m] 143c-d
592
THE GREAT IDEAS
If to 7h
(7. Doctrines common to the Jewish Mohamme-
dan, and Christian conceptions of God and
His relation to the world and man. 7e.
Miracles.)
22 CHAUCER. Tale of Man of Law 236b-255b
esp [4869-4924] 242b-243b / Prioress's Tale
[13,418-620] 392a-395b / Second Nun's Tale
[16,001-021] 471a-b
23 HOBBRS: Leviathan, PART i, 83c; PART 11,
137b-c; 160b; PART in, 166a-167b; 188a-191a;
PART iv, 249b-250a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 19b-c;
33c-d; 41b-d / New Atlantis, 201d-203c csp
203a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [173-222] 323a-
324a
33 PASCAL: Pensces, 643-644 290b-291b, 803-856
328b-341b; 876 345a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi,
SECT 13 371a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 62-63
425a-c; SECT 84 429b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
54 474b-c; SECT x 488d-497b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 180b-c, 189b-191a;
206b-d; 295c-296b; 465d-466c; 605b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 227d-228a; 232a-c;
398b-399b
44 EOSWELL: Johnson, 126b-c; 359a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 247a;
PART in, 307a-b; PART iv, 338b-c; 348d-
349a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [762-770] 20a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 219b-220a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
lla-b; BK n, 21d-22b; BK v, 127b-137c passim;
BK vii, 171a-177b; 189d-190a
If. The Book of Life
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 32:31-33; 33:19 /
Psalms, 69:28— (D) Psalms, 68-29 / Isaiah,
4:3~(D) Isaias, 4:3
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasttcus, 33:10-13— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 33-10-14
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 20:1-16; 22-1-14 /
Lufa, 10:20 /John, 5:21 ; 6-44; 10-26-29 / Acts,
13:48 / Romans, 8:28-9:23 / Ephesians, 1-3 /
// Thessalonians, 2:12-14 / // Timothy, 1:8-9;
2:19-20 / Hebrews, 12:22-23 / / Peter, 1:1-5;
2 :i~9 / // Peter, i :io / Revelation, 3 14-5 ; 13:4-8 ;
17:7-8; 20:11-21:27 esp 20:15, 21'27; 22:18-
19— (D) Apocalypse, 3:4-5; 13:4-8; 17:7-8;
20:11-21:27 csp 20:15, 21:27; 22:18-19
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xv, CH i 397b,d-
398c; BK xx, CH 8 536d-538c; CH 14-16 542d-
544d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PAAT i, Q 24
141b-143c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 63,
A i, REP i 864c-865b; PART HI SUPPL, Q 87, A i
997b-998c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xix [103-
148) 136a-c; xx [94-138] 137d-138a; xxi [52-
102] 138d-139b; XXXH [40-84] 155a-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [356-363] lOla
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 884 346a
41 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 238c; 334b-c
7g. The resurrection of the body
OLD TESTAMENT: ]ob, 14:13-15; 19:25-27 /
Isaiah, 26 19; 66.14— (D) tsatas, 26.19; 66.14
/ Ezetyel, 37:1-14— (D) Ezechiel, 37:1-14 /
Daniel, 12:1-3
APOCRYPHA // Maccabees, 12:41-45— (D) OT,
// Machabees, 12 42-46
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22:23-33; 27 '52-53;
28 / Mar\, 12-18-27; 16:1-9 / Lu%e, 20 27-38;
24-1-12 /John, 2:18-22 / Acts, 23-1-10; 24 15;
26-8 / Romans, 4-17; 6-3-11; 8 10-11 / / Co-
rinthians, 6:14; 15 / II Corinthians, 1.9-10;
^-i^ / 1 Thessalonians, 4:13-17 /Hebrews, 6-1-2
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 29, 317b-
318a; BK xin, CH 1-2 360a-361a; CH 16-20
367a-371a; CH 22-24 371c-376a,c; BK xx, CH
6-7 534a-536d; CH 9-10 538c-541a; CH 12-17
541c-545c; CH 20-23 547c-552c; CH 26, 555d-
556a; BK xx, CH ^O-BK xxi, CH 10, 559d-
570b; BK xxn 586b,d-618d esp CH 4-5 588b-
590a, CH 7 591c-d, CH 11-21 599c-606d, CH
25-30 612a-618d / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 19-21 629a-b; CH 23-24 630a-631a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
QQ 75-86 935a-996a,c; Q 93, A i 1037d-1039a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vi [94-111]
9b-c; x [1-15] 13d; xnr [85-108] 18d-19a;
PARADISE, vii [121-148] 116b-c; xiv [1-66]
126d-127c; xxv [64-129] 145a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 191b-193c;
195b-d; PART iv, 253b-255b; 259b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 248c-249c;311a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [227-343] 140b-
143a esp [294-329] 141b-142b; BK xn [386-
445] 327b-329a esp [411-429] 328a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 95 431c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 205d-
206a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233d; 234d
44 Bos'w ELL: Johnson, 472a-b
Ih. The Last Judgment and the end of the world
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 19:25-27; 21:27-34 /
Psalms, 50; 96:10-13— (D) Psalms, 49; 95:10-
13 / Ecclesiastes, 3:16-17; 11:9-10; 12:14 /
Isaiah, 2-4; n:n-i6; 13:6-22; 24; 26-27;
3°; 34-35J 65:17-25; 66-(D) Isaias, 2-4;
n:ix-i6; 13:6-22; 24; 26-27; 3°J 34-35?
65:17-25; 66 / Daniel, 7-21-27; 12 / Joel /
Micah, 4—(Z>) Micheas, 4 / Zephaniah—(D)
Sophomas / Zechariah, 14— (D) Zacharias,
14 / Malachi, 3-4— (D) Malachias, 3-4
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:17— (D) OT, Judith,
16:20-21 / Rest of Esther, 10:4-11:12— (D)
OT, Esther, 10:4-11:12
8/o 8^
CHAPTER 29: GOD
593
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 7:1-2; 10:14-15;
11:20-24; 12:36; i3'-36-43»47-5°; 24-25 /
Mark 13:4-37 / £«& i7:2°-37; 2i:5~36 /
John, 12:48 / Acts, 2:17-21; 17:31 / Romans,
2:5-11 / I Corinthians, 4:15-5:4; 15:23-28 /
/ Thessalonians, 1:9-10; 2:19; 4:14-5:4 /
II Thessalonians, 1-2 / // Timothy, 3:1-4:9 /
Hebrews, 9 126-27 / 7<0w*i 5 :7~9 / 1 Peter, 4 15-6
/ II Peter, 2:9; 3.7-13 / I John, 2:18-29; 4-17
/ Judc I Revelation passim, esp 14:15-16:21,
20:1-22:21— (D) Apocalypse passim, esp 14:15-
16:21,20:1-22:21
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvm, en 53
504d-505c; BK xx 530a-560a,c; BK xxi, CH
11-27 570b-586a,c / Christian Doctrine, BK in,
CH 37, 673d-674a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
QQ 73-74 922b-935a,c; Q 77, A 2 945a-946b;
QQ 87-99 997a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vi [94-115]
9b-c; x [1-15] 13d; PARADISE, xix [100-148]
136a-c
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 10 498b-502a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 230a; 244b-c
32 MILTON- Christs Nativity [133-172] 4b-5b /
Paradise Lost, BK in [274-343] 141b-143a esp
[326-341] 142b; BK vn [139-173] 220a-221a;
BK xi [45-83] 300a-301a; BK xn [451-465]
329a; [537-551] 331a / Areopagitica, 410a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 17a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 187c-189a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 233c-234d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim, esp 134d-135a, BK xi,
337a-346a passim
8. Specifically Jewish doctrines concerning
God and His people
8a. The Chosen People: Jew and gentile
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 12:1-4; 13-14-17; 15;
17:1-18:19, 22.1-18 esp 22.15-17; 2^:1-6,23-
25; 27-28; 35:9-13; 46:1-7; 48-49 / Exodus,
3-17; 19-20; 33:1-34:18 / Leviticus, 26 / Deu-
teronomy, i; 4-12 passim, esp 4:37-38, 7:6-8,
10:15; 14:1-2; 15:6; 23:1-8; 26-32 passim, esp
26:17-19, 28:1-68, 31:16-21, 32 19-14 / Joshua,
10:12-14; 23:1-13— (D) Josue, 10:12-14; 23:1-
13/7 Samuel, 12— (D) I Kings, 12 // Kings,
8;5I..53_(D) /// Kings, 8:51-53 / II Kings,
11:17— (D) W Kings, inij / 1 Chronicles, 17—
(D) I Paralipomenon, 17 / Nehemiah, g—(D)
II Esdras, 9 / Psalms passim, esp 33:12, 50:7,
78-1-72, 81:1-16, 89:1-52, 105:1-106:48,
132:1-18, 135:4-14, 136:1-26— (D) Psalms
passim, esp 32:12, 49:7, 77:1-72, 80:2-17,
88:2-53, 104:1-105:48, 131:1-18, 134:4-14,
135:1-27 / Isaiah passim, esp 40:1; 42:1-6,
43:1-7, 44:1-5, 46:3-4, 49:1-26, 637-8-(D)
Isaias passim, esp 40:1, 42:1-6, 43:1-7, 44:1-
5, 46:3-4, 49:1-26, 63:7-$ / Jeremiah passim,
- esp 3, 7:23, 11:4, 24:7, 30:22, 31:1, 31:33,
32:38— (D) Jeremias passim, esp 3, 7:23, 11:4,
24:7, 30:22, 31:1, 31:33, 32:38 / Ezetycl,
11:15-20; 14:11; 16-17; 20? 345 36-37— (D)
Ezechiel, 11:15-20; 14:11; 16-17; 2°5 34 J
36-37 / Amos, 3:1-2 / Obadiah—(D) Abdias
I Micah, 5:7-15— (D) Micheas, 5:7-11 / Zcch-
ariah, 1:12-2:13; 8-10 esp 8:8— (D) Zacharias,
i 12-2:13; 8-10 esp 8:8 / Malachi, 1:1-3—
(D) Malachias, 1:1-3
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 14:5— (D) OT, Es-
ther, 14:5 / Wisdom of Solomon, 16.20-26 —
(D) OT, Boo I( of Wisdom, 16:20-26 / Ecclcsi-
asticus, 17:17-21; 47:22— (D) OT, Ecclesiasti-
cus, 17:14-17; 47:24~25
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:5-6 / Acts, 15:1-
29, 21:19-25 / Romans, 1-13-16; 2^45,9; 10:11-
13, zx / / Corinthians, 12-13 / Galatians, 2:6-
16; 3:13-29, 4 21-31; 5:6; 6:15 / EphesianS)
2 : 1 1-3 .8 / Colossians, 3 19-1 1
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 295d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK iv, CH 34 206d-
207a,c; BK xvi, CH 16 433c-434a; CH 18 434c;
CH 21-28 435a-440b; CH 32 441c-442c; BK
xvn, CH 7 458c-459d; BK xix, CH 22 525b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A 4, REP2l26c-127c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 98,
AA 4-5 242b-244b; QQ 102-105 270b-321a
passim, esp Q 102, A 6 292e-298a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 82d-83a; PART n,
160b-c; PART in, 177c<180d
32 MIL i ON- Paradise Lost, BK xii [101-269] 321b-
325a / Samson Agonistes 339a-378a esp [210-
292] 344a-346a, [420-471] 348b-350a, [843-
902] 358a-359a, [1156-1223] 364b-366a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 603 279b; 610-612 280b-
282b; 619-641 284b-290a; 713-718 304b-308b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 435b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 179d-183a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 245d-
247b; PART in, 305b-c; PART iv, 322a-b
^. God's Covenant with Israel: circumcision
as sign of the Covenant
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 12:1-3,7; 15:17-21;
17; 22:16-18; 26:2-3 / Exodus, 2:23-4:31 esp
2:24; 6:1-9^ 19:3-8; 24:7-8; 31:16-17; 32:11-
13; 34 esp 34:10, 34:27-28 / Leviticus, 2-13;
26 / Deuteronomy, 1:8; 4-11 passim, esp 4:23,
5:2-3, 7:12-13, 8:18-20, 10:16; 29-31; 34:4
/ Joshua, 5:1-9; 7:10-12; 23:16-24:28— (D)
Josue, 5:1-9; 7:10-12; 23:16-24:28 / Judges,
2:1-5 / ' Kings* 8:56; i9-.9-i8—CD) /// Kings,
8:56; 19:9-18 / // Kings, ir.ij; 13:22-23; 17
esp 17:14-16, 17:34-40; 22-23 esp 23:2-3—
(D) IV Kings, 11:17; 13:22-23; 17 esp 17:14-
16, 17:34-40; 22-23 ^P 23:2~3 / f Chronicles,
16:13-22— (D) I Paralipomenon, 16:13-22 /
//, Chronicles, 6:14-15— (D) // Paralipomenon,
6 114-15 / Nehemiah, 1 55 ; 9— (D) II Esdras, 1 15 ;
9 / Psalms, 25^4;, 44117; 74:19-20; 78; 105
esp Z057-8; in— (D) Psalms, 24:14; 43:18;
594
THE GREAT IDEAS
8r to %d
(8. Specifically Jewish doctrines concerning God
and His people. 86. God's Covenant with
Israel: circumcision assign of the Covenant.)
73:19-20; 77; 104 csp 104:7-8; no / Isaiah,
24:1-5; 33:i-8; 54 csp 54:10; 56 csp 56:4-6;
59:20-21; 61 csp 61:8— (7)) Isaias, 24:1-5;
33:1-8; 54 csp 54:10; 56 csp 56:4-6; 59:20-
21; 61 esp 61:8 /Jeremiah, 4:4; u; 14:19-22;
22:5-9; 31-33 CSP 3i:3'-33. 32:40, 33:20-26;
34:13-20; 50:4-5— (D) Jeremias, 4:4; n;
14:19-22; 22:5-9; 3'-33 csp 3i:3i-33> 32 -'40.
33:20-26; 34:13-20; 50:4-5 / Ezetyel, 16-17;
20:33-38; 37.21-28; 44:6-9— (D) Ezechiel,
16-17; 20:33-38; 37:21-28; 44*6-9 / Hosea,
2:16-20; 6 csp 6:7; 8— (D) Osee, 2:16-20;
6 csp 6:7; 8 / Haggai, 2:4-5— (D) Aggeus,
2-5-6
APOCRYPHA- Ecclesiasticus, 44:19-45:5— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 44 120-45 :6 / 7 Maccabees, i -44-
63 ; 2 : 1 9-6 :8 esp 4 7-1 4 — (D) OT, / Machabees,
1:46-66; 2:19-6:8 esp 4:7-14
NEW TESTAMENT: Lu^e, 1:70-75; 2:21 / John,
7:22-23 / Acts, 3:25; 7:1-8,51-53; 15:1-29;
21:20-21 / Romans, 2:25-4:16; 11:25-27 /
/ Corinthians, 7:18-197 Galatians, 3:13-5:11;
6:12-15 / Ephesians, 2:11-13 / Cobsstans,
2:10-14; 3:9-11 / Hebrews, 8.6-10:17
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvi, CH 16 433c-
434a; CH 18 434c; CH 21-28 435a-440b; CH 32
441c-442c; CH 36-38 443d-446a; BK xix, CH
22 525b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 98,
AA 4-6 242b-245b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 82d-83a; PART in,
177c-180a; 199b-201b; 206c
32 MILTON: Upon the Circumcision 12b-13a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 610-612 280b-282b; 637-639
289b-290a; 675 296b-297a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 322a b
8c. The Law: its observance as a condition of
righteousness and blessedness
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 26:4-5 / Exodus, 12-
13; 19-40 csp 20:1-17 / Leviticus passim, esp 26
/ Numbers passim / Deuteronomy passim, esp
4:1-15, 5:6-21, 6:1-9, 6:I7~25» 7:9-26, 10:12-
13, 11:1-32, 12:32, 28:1-68, 30:11-20 /Joshua,
1:7-8; 8:30-35; 22:1-6— (D) Josue, 1:7-8;
8:30-35; 22:1-6 / / Kings, 8:54-62-(D) ///
Kings, 8:54-62 / // Kings, 17; 2i:8-(D) IV
Kings, 17; 21 :8 / / Chronicles, 22-12-13— (7))
/ Paralipomenon, 22:12-13 / // Chronicles, 31;
33:8; 35:i-i9—(7)) 77 Paralipomenon, 31;
33:8; 35*1-19 / Ezra, 9-10— (£)) / Esdras, 9-10
/ Nehemiah, 1:5-9; 9:16-38— (D) II Esdras,
1:5-9; 9:16-38 / Psalms, i; 19:7-14; 37:3°-3IJ
40:8; 78; 89:20-36 csp 89:30-32; 94:12;
i°5:43-455 "9— P) Psalms, i; 18:8-15;
36:30-31; 39:9; 77; 88:21-37 C*P 88:31-33;
93:12; 104:43-45; 118 / Proverbs passim, csp
6:20-23, 28:7, 29:18 / Isaiah passim, esp
5:24-25, 30:9, 42-21-25, 51:7-8— (D) Isaias
passim, esp 5:24-25, 30-9, 42:21-25, 51:7-8
/ Jeremiah passim, esp 2:5-8, 6:19, 9-13-16,
16:10-13, 26:4-6, 31:33, 44:10-14, 44:23—
(D) Jeremias passim, esp 2-5-8, 6:19, 9:13-16,
16:10-13, 26:4-6, 31:33, 44:10-14, 44:23 /
Ezetyel, 5:5-9; 11:17-20; 18; 22:26; 36:25-
27; 43-48— (D) Ezechiel, 5:5-9; 11:17-20;
18; 22:26; 36:25-27; 43-48 / Daniel, 9:1-15 /
Hosea, 4:6; 8:1— (D) Osee, 4:6; 8:1 / Amos
2:4-6 / Zephaniah, 3:1-7— (D) Sophomas
3:1-7 / Zechariah, 7:12-14— (D) Zachanas
7:12-14 / Malachi, 2:1-10; 3:7; 4:4— (D)
Malachias, 2:1-10; 3.7; 4-4
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 14-8-9— (D) OT, Tobias,
14 IO-H / Ecclesiasticus passim, esp 2:16,
9:15, 10-19, "''5» I7'ii-i4» 19:17-20, 19:24,
24:23, 32-15, 33:2, 34-8, 39:1-11, 41:8, 42.1-
2, 45:1-5— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus passim,
esp 2.19, 9:22-23, 10:23, 11:15, 17:9-12,
19:17-18, 19:21, 24:32-33, 32:19, 33:2, 34:8,
39:1-15, 41-11, 42:1-2, 45:1-6 / Baruch—
(D) OT, Baruch / I Maccabees, 1:38-63;
2:19-68— (D) OT, / Machabees, 1:40-66;
2:19-68 / II Maccabees, 2:2-3; 6-7; 11:22-26
— (D) OT, // Machabees, 2:2-3; 6-7; n 122-26
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 5.17-20; 12:1-13;
15:1-20, 19.3-9 / M0r^, 7:1-23; 10-2-12 /
Lu^e, 6:1-9; Ii:37~4r; M:2~5; 16:16-17 /
John, 1:17; 5:1-18,45-47; 7:19-23 / Acts,
10*9-15,25-28; 13:38-39; 15 i-io; 21:20-21 /
Romans passim / Galatians passim / Ephesians,
2 14-15 / / Timothy, 1-5-11 / Hebrews, 7-10
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK x, CH 17 309c-
310b; BK xx, CH 28 556c-557a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
AA 4-5 210c-212c; QQ 98-105 239b-321a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, v [13-84]
112b 113a passim
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 177d-178a;
180a-d; 206c-207a; 216b-218a; 223a-c; PART
iv, 269a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 18b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XH [223-260] 324a-
325a; [285-314] 325b-326a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 610 280b-282a; 619-620
284b-286a; 628-634 287a-289a; 678 297a-b;
680 298a
35 LOCKE. Toleration, 14b-15a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 179d-182c esp 181a-
182a; 208a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 246c-d
/. The Temple: the Ark of the Torah
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 25-27; 30:1-6; 35:10-
38:31; 39:32-40:36 / Leviticus, 26:11 / Num-
bers, 9:15-22 / Deuteronomy, 10:1-5; 12:5-6;
16:5-6; 31:24-26 / Joshua, 3-4; 6:1-16— (D)
Josue, 3-4; 6:1-16 / 7 Samuel, 4:3-7:2— (D)
/ Kings, 4:3-7:2 / // Samuel, 6:1-17; 7:1-13
-(/>) 77 Kings, 6:1-17; 7:^3 / ' *««*. 5~*
-(D) III Kings, 5-8 / 77 Kings, 12:4-16;
8* to 9a
CHAPTER 29: GOD
595
25:1-17— (D) IV Kings, 12:4-16; 25:1-17 /
/ Chronicles, 13; 15:1-17:12; 22:1-29:10— (D)
I Paralipomenon, 13; 15:1-17:12; 22:1-29:10
/ // Chronicles, 2-7 esp 7:12-16; 8:n;
24:4-14; 29; 34; 36— (D) // Paralipomenon,
2-7 csp 7:12-16; 8:11; 24:4-14; 29; 34; 36 /
Ezra, 3-6— (D) I Esdras, 3-6 / Psalms, 57;
11:4; 27:4-6; 65:4; 68:29; 138:2— (D) Psalms,
5:8; 10:5; 26:4-6; 64:5; 67:30; 137:2 / Isaiah,
2:2-3; 56:6-7— (D) Isaias, 2:2-3; 56:6-7 /
Jeremiah, 7:1-4,29-30; 26:1-7— (D) Jeremias,
7:1-4,29-30; 26:1-7 / Eze^iel, 40-42— (D)
Ezechiel, 40-42 /Jonah, 2-4— (D) Jonas, 2:5 /
Micah, 4 1-2— (D) Micheas, 4:1-2 / Habafy
tytl(, 2:20— (D) Habacuc, 2:20 / Haggat—
(D) Aggeus / Zechanah, 8 9— (D) Zacharias,
8:9 / Malachi, 3:1— (£>) Malachias, 3:1
APOCRYPHA: 7o&/, 14:4-7— (£>) OT, Tobias,
14:6-9 / W/A/0W of Solomon, 9'.S-(D) OT,
#00^ o/ Wisdom, 9-8 / Baruch, 2:26— (D)
OT, B^rwrA, 2:26
NEW TESTAMENT, /o/w, 2 13-17 / Hebrews,
9 i-io
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK v, 296a; 297d-298a
18 AUGUSTINE. Cafy of God, BK x, CH 17 309c-
310b
20 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 101,
A 4, ANS and REP 1,4 269a-270b; Q 102, A 4
276d-283c
23HoBBEs. Leviathan, PART in, 178c; 180a-c;
184c; 198a-b
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK xn [244-256] 324b;
[284-371] 325b-327a esp [331-343] 326b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 180a; 180d-181a;
352c-354d csp 354a-b
8e. The messianic hope
OLD TESTAMENT, Genesis, 49-10-12 / Numbers,
24:15-25 / Deuteronomy, 30:1-10 / Psalms,
22:27-31; 44; 46-48; 60; 67-69 passim; 74;
102; 106:40-48; 126; 132; 147:1-11— (D)
Psalms, 21:28-32; 43; 45-47; 59; 66-68 pas-
sim; 73; 101; 105:40-48; 125; 131; 146 /
Isaiah, 2-4; 7:10-16; 9:1-7; 11-12; 25-27;
30:18-33; 32; 40-46 esp 41:25-42:4; 49;
51-56 esp 52:13-53:12; 59:20-62:12; 65:17-
66:24— (D) Isatas, 2-4; 7:10-16; 9:1-7; 11-12;
25-27; 30:18-33; 32; 40-46 esp 41:25-42:4;
495 51-56" esp 52:13-53:12; 59:20-62:12;
65:17-66:24 / Jeremiah, 23:3-6; 30-33— (D)
Jeremias, 23:3-6; 30-33 / Ezefyel, 17:22-
24; 345 36-37-(£) Ezechiel, 17.22-24; 34;
36-37 / Daniel, 9:20-27 / Hosea, 1:10-11;
2:16-23; 3:3~5J I3~I4~(^) Osee, 1:10-11;
2:16-24; 3:3-5; 13-14 / Joel, 2-3 / Amos,
9:9-15— (D) Amos, 9:9-14 / Micah, 2:12-13;
4-5; 77~2o--(D) Micheas, 2:12-13; 4-5; 77-
20 / Zephaniah, 3— (D) Sophomas, 3 / Zecha-
nah, 2; 8-10; 12-14— (D) Zacharias, 2; 8-10;
12-14 / Malachi, 3-4— (D) Malachias, 3-4
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, i esp 1:20-23; 3:1-
3,13-17; 12:14-21; 16:13-16; 17:1-13; 26:63-
64 / Marl(, 8:27-29; 9:2-13; 14:61-62 /
I:3°-35J 3:I-6»I5-16? 7:24~28; 9 :" 8-20,28-
36; 22:66-70 /John, 1:15-41 csp 1:41; 4:4-30
esp 4:25-26; 7:26-53; 10:24-38
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q i,
A 6 708c-709c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART m, 229c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [235-244]
324b; [284-330] 325b-326b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 607 280a; 609 280b; 613
282b-283a; 616-619 283b-285a; 642 290b;
662 293b; 673 296a; 675 296b-297a; 692
300b-301a; 719 308b-309a; 727 315b-316b;
729-730 316b-317a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 181b; 207d-208a;
308a
41 GIBBON :Dechne and Fall, 134b-135a
9. Specifically Christian dogmas concerning
the divine nature and human destiny
9a. The Trinity
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:26
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1-18-20; 3:11,16-
17; 10.19-20; 12:31-32; 28:19 / Mar^ 1:8-12;
3.28-30; 13:11 / Luty, 1:15,26-35; 2:25-27;
3:16,21-22; 11:13; 12:10-12 / John, 1:1-8,14,
18,32-34; 3 esp 3:16-17, 3:35-36; 14-16;
20:22-23 / 4ctst 1:2,5-8; 2:1-41 esp 2:32-39;
4:23-31; 5:32; 8:17-22; 9:31; 10:38,44-48;
11-15-17; 13:2-4; 15.7-9; 19-1-6; 20:28;
28:25-27 / Romans, 5 esp 5:5-10; 8:1-9:1;
14:17; 15:13,16 / / Corinthians, 2:9-14;
3:16-23; 6:19; 12:2-13 / // Corinthians,
1:18-22; 4:4; 13:14— (D) II Corinthians,
1:18-22; 4-4; 13:13 / Ephesians, 1-3 passim
/ Colossians, 1:13-15 / / Thessalomans,
1:5-6 / // Timothy, 1:14 / Titus, 3:4-7 /
Hebrews, 1:2-3; 6:4-6; 10:14-17 / / Peter,
1:1-12 / II Peter, 1:21 / / John, 4-5 esp
4:9-10, 4:14-15, 5:1-2, 5:5-7, 5:10-12 / Judc,
17-21
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xin, par 6-12
112a-113d; par 32, 119b / City of God, BK x,
CH 23-24 312c-313c; BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d;
CH 23-29 334c-339b; CH 32 340b-d; BK xin,
CH 24 373d-376a,c; BK xvi, CH 6, 426c /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 5 625d-626a;
CH 34 634b-c; BK m, CH 2, 657b-658a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 27-43
153a-237a,c; Q 59, A i, CONTRARY 306c-307b;
Q 61, A 2, ANS 315c-316a; Q 88, A 3, REP 3 472c-
473a; Q 91, A 4, REP 2 487d-488c; Q 93, A i,
REP 2 492a-d; AA 5-8 495b-500c; Q 108, A i,
ANS 552c-553c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A i, REP 2 215b,d-216c; Q 106, A 4, REP 3 324a-
32 5c; PART n-ii, Q i, A 8, REP 3 387a-388c; Q 2,
A 8 397d-398b; PART HI, Q 2, A 3, REP 3 713a-
714c; Q 8, A i, REP i 756d-757c; Q 16, A i, REP 2
796b-797d; A 2, REP 2 797d-798b; A 5, REP i
800c-801b; Q 17, A i, REP 5 807a-808d; A 2,
596
THE GREAT IDEAS
9b to 9*(1)
(9. Specifically Christian dogmas concerning the
divine nature and human destiny. 9a. The
Trinity.)
REP 3 808d-809d; Q 19, A i, REP i 816a-818b;
QQ 20-24 821a*839c; Q 25, A i, ANS and REP 1,3
839d 840d; Q 26, A 2, ANS and REP 2 846b-d;
0 63, A 3, REP i 866c-867c; A 4, CONTRARY
867d 868b; PART in SUPPL, Q 95, A i, REP 2
1042c-1044c; A 3, ANS 1045b-1046d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [34-
45] 56b; PARADISE, x [1-6] 120b; xiv [28-33]
127b; xxiv [124-147] 144a; xxxui [76-145]
157a-d
22 CHAUCER* Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
267 155a / Second Nun's Tale [15,794-808]
467a-b
23HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 97c; PART HI,
• 182a-c; 207b; 207d-208c; 227b; PART iv, 259d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, lOOc
31 DRSCARIES: Objections and Replies, 159a;
232b
32 MILTON: Christ* Nativity [1-14] la-b / Paradise
Lost, BK in [56-415] 136b-144b esp [167-172]
139a, [372-389] 143b-144a; BK v [600-615]
188b; BK vi [719-733] 212a; BK XH [469-551]
329b-331a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 307a-314a csp 310b-
311a; 438b-441d csp 438b-c, 441a-b; 605a-b;
607a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 422a-c; 520b-521c
csp 521c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 303d-
304a; 306a-c
9^< The Incarnation: the God-man
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:1-14
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK v, par 20 32d-33a;
BK VH, par 13-14 47c-48b; par 24-25 50d-51c;
BK x, par 67-70 88b-89a; BK xi, par 4 90a-b /
City of God, BK ix, CH 15 293a-294a; CH 17
295a-c; CH 21 296b-d; BK x, CH 20 311b-c, CH
22 312a-b; CH 24 312d-313c; CH 27-29 315b-
318b; BK xi, CH 2 323a-c; BK xxi, CH 15-16
572c-574a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 11-14
627b-628b; CH 34 634b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 62, A 9,
REP 3 324a 325b; Q 64, A i, REP 4 334a-
335c; Q 73, A i, REP i 370a-37la; Q 95, A i,
REP i 506b-507c; PART I-H, Q 5, A 7, REP 2
642a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, QQ 1-26
701b,d-a46d esp Q 26, A i, REP 3 845b-846a;
PART HI SUPPL, Q 76, A i 939d-941a; Q 95, A 3,
ANS 1045b-1046d; A 4 1046d-1047d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxix
[106-120] 98d-99a; xxxi [76-126] 101c-102a;
xxxu [19-63] 102c-103a; PARADISE, n [31-45]
108a; vi [10-21] 113d; VH [16-120] 115b-116b;
xiii [37-87] 125d-126b; xxxn [i39]-xxxm
[145] 156a-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 182a-c
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity la-7b / The Passion
10b-12a / Upon the Circumcision 12b-13a /
Paradise Lost, BK ui [56-415] 136b-144b csp
hi5-34i] 142a-b, [383-389] 143b-144a; BK XH
[307-385] 326a-327b
33 PASCAL' Pensees, 512 262a; 763-765 322a; 785
325b; 862 342b-343a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 307d-308b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 134a-161a,cespl34a-
138a, 150c-151b; 230d-231a
46 HEGEL, Philosophy of History, PART HI, 306b-c;
308a-b
52 DOSTOLVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c
The divinity of Christ
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 9:6-7— (D) Isaias,
9-6-7
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew passim, csp 1:18-25,
3:16-4:11, 7:21, 8:29-32, 10:32-33, 11:25-30,
14:22-33, 16:13-20, 17.1-8, 26:63-68, 27:38-54
/ Mar\ passim, esp 1:1, 1:10-11, 1.21-28, 2:3-
12, 3:11-12, 5:2-7, 9.1-8, 14.60-65, 15:39, 16:19
/ Luke passim, esp 2.49, 4:41, 9:28-36, 10:21-
22, 22:29, 24,49 //oAn passim, esp i .1-14, 1:49,
5.17-27, 8.16, 10.30, 10.38, 11.27, 14510-11,
14:20, 14-28, 17*1-3, 20:17 / Acts, 8 37 / Rom-
ans, 1-3-4; 8 3,29-33 / / Corinthians, i 24;
15 28 / // Corinthians, i 19; 5.18-21 / Philip-
pians, 2-5-6 / Colossians, 1-15-17; 2:8-9 /
7 Timothy, 3-16 / Hebrews, 1-1-8; 4-14; 5*5,8:
13:8 / / John, 2 22-24; 3 '8; 4:9-1 0*13-1 5;
5:1-13,20 / II John, 7-11 / Jude
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 25 51a-c
/ City of God, BK ix, CH 15 293a-294a; CH 17
295a-c, BK x, CH 20 311b-c; CH 22 312a-b;
CH24312d-313c, CH 27-29 315b-318b; BK xi,
CH 2 323a-c; BK xxi, CH 15-16 572c-574a;
BK xxn, CH 6 590a-591c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 3
723a-730b, QQ 16-24 796a-839c; Q 25, A i
839d-840d, PART HI SUPPL, Q 95, A 3, ANS
1045b-1046d
21 DANTE- Dmne Comedy, PARADISE, vn [16-120]
115b-116b
22 CHAUCER- Prioress's Tale 391a-395b
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity la-7b / The Passion
10b-12a / Upon the Circumcision 12b-13a /
Paradise Lost, BK in [56-415] 136b-144b esp
[135-142] 138b, [167-172] 139a, [281-314] 141b-
142a, [383-389] 143b-144a; BK v [600-615]
188b; BK vi [719-733] 212a; BK xn [307-385]
326a-327b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 734 317a; 763-765 322a; 785
325b; 841-842 336a-337a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 308a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 134b-138a esp 135b-
136b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART 11, 270d-
271c; PART in, 306d-307b
52 DOSTOBVSKY; Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c passim; BK vn, 189c-190c
9b(2) to 9c
CHAPTER 29: GOD
597
9&(2) The humanity of Christ
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:18-25; 2:11; 11:19;
1 3 :54-56; 25-37-45; 26-1-28:8 / Mar\, 6:2-3;
15:37-16:6 / Luke, 1-2; 7.33-34; 11:27-28; 22-
23; 24:2-7,36-43 / John, 1:1-18 esp 1:14;
5:27; 6:42; 19:28-20:29 / Romans, 1:3-4; 8.3 /
// Corinthians, 5:167 Galatians, 4 54 / Ephesians,
2:14-16 / Philippians, 2:5-8 / Colossians, 1:20-
22/7 Timothy, 3:16 / Hebrews, 2:14-18; 4 '15;
5 17 ; 7 -20-24 / 7/0 An, 4 12-3
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK vn, par 25 51a-c /
Ctfy o/ Go</, BK ix, CH 15 293a-294a; CH 17
295a-c; BK x, CH 20 311b-c; CH 22 312a-b;
CH 24 312d-313c; CH 27-29 315b-318b; BK xi,
CH 2 323a-c; BK xxi, CH 15-16 572c-574a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 14 627d-628b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 51, A 2,
REP i 276b-277a; A 3, REP 5 277a-278c; Q 113,
A 4, REP i 578b-579a; Q 119, A 2, REP 4 607b-
608d
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q i,
A i, REP i 380b-381a; Q 18, A 2, REP i 462d-
463d; PART in, QQ 4-24 730c-839c; Q 25, AA 1-2
839d-841c; PART HI SUPPL, Q 76, A i 939d-941a;
Q 90, AA 1-2 1012b-1014d; Q 92, A 3, REP 12
1034b-1037c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vn [16-120]
115b-116b; xm [37-45] 125d; [73-87] 126b
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 12 503b-504b
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity la-7b / The Passion
10b-12a esp [15-21] lOb-lla / Upon the Circum-
cision 12b-13a / Paradise Lost, BK m [56-415]
136b-144b esp [238-241] 140b, [281-294] 141b;
BK xi [22-44] 299b-300a; BK xn [307-385]
326a-327b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 553 268a-270a; 763-765
322a;785325b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 308a
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 134b-138a esp
134b-135b, 137a-d;330a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 270d-
271c; PART in, 306b-307a
52 DOSTOEVSKY* Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim; BK vn, 189c-190c
9£(3) Mary, the Mother of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 7:14— (D) Isaias, 7:14
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 1:18-25; 12:46-50 /
Mar1(, 3:31-35 / Luke, 1-2; 8:19-21; 11:27-28
/John, 2:1-12; 19:25-27
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvn, CH 16 465c-
466d esp 466c-d; CH 24 471d-472a,c; BK xvm,
CH 35, 491d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 14
627d-628b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART HI, Q 7,
A 10, REP i 752c-753c; Q 25, A 5 843d-844b;
PART III SUPPL, Q 83, A 3, CONTRARY 978C-
980d; Q 96, A 5, REP 2 1055c-1058a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, n [43-126]
3a-4a esp [94-99] 3c; PURGATORY, x [34-45]
67d; PARADISE, xm [79-87] 126b; xxm 141b-
142c; xxx-xxxi 151d-154c esp xxxi [94-
142] 154b-c; xxxn [85]-xxxin [45] 155c 156c
22 CHAUCER: Prioress's Tale 391a-395b
32 MILTON • Christs Nativity la-7b / Paradise Lost,
BK in [274-285] 141b; BK xii [307-385] 326a-
327b esp [375-382] 327b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 62b-64b / Pcnstcs,
742 319a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 134d-137c passim;
140a;154d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 338b*c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3587-3619] 87b-88a;
PART n [11,989-12,111] 291b-294b
9c. Christ the Saviour and Redeemer: the doc-
trines of original sin and salvation
OLD TESTAMENT. I Samuel, 2:1-10— (D) I Kings,
2-1-10 / Isaiah, 53— (D) Isaias, 53 / Lamenta-
tions, 4 :20
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:21; 9:2-8; 10:32-
33; 16:24-27; 18:11-14; 26:26-28 / Marf(, 211-
12', 8.34-38, 14:22-24 / Luke, 1:67-79; 2:11;
5:17-26; 7:37-50; 9:23-26,56; 15; 19:1-10;
22-19-20; 24-46-47 / John esp 1:29, 3:16-18,
4:42, 6-31-59, 10:9-18, 14*6-7, 14-18-19, 15:1-
4 / Acts, 3:12-26; 4-10-12; 5*30-31; 13*15-50
esp 13 38-39; 16:30-31 / Romans esp 3:20-26,
5:1-6:23, 8:1-4 / f Corinthians, 15.3,12-23 /
// Corinthians esp 2-10, 4:13-14, 5:14-21, 8:9,
13:4-5 / Galatians passim, esp 2:20-3:14, 4:1-5
/ Ephesians esp 1:5-7, i'i2~i4» 2:1-22 / Colos-
sians&p 1-12-14, 1*19-22, 2-13-147 I Timothy,
1:12-17; 2:5-6 / Titus esp 2 11-3.7 / Hebrews
esp 2:1-18, 5*9,7:25-27, 9.1-10:397 / Peter esp
1:3-11, 3:17-4.6 I I John esp 3:16, 4.9-10, 4:14
/ Revelation passim, esp 5-7— (D) Apocalypse
passim, esp 5-7
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 15 12b-c;
BK iv, par 18-19 23d-24b; BK vn, par 24-27
50d-52c; BK x, par 67-70 88b-89a / City of
God, BK vii, CH 31-32 261d-262b; BK ix, CH
15 293a-294a; CH 17 295a-c; BK x, CH 4-6
301a-302d; CH 19-20 310d-311c; CH 22-25
312a-314c; CH 27-32 315b-322a,c; BK xi, CH
2 323a-c; BK xm, CH 2-4 360b-362a; CH 12-
15 365d-366d; CH 23-24 372a-376a,c; BK
xvn 449a-472a,c passim; BK xvm, CH 23
483d-485a; CH 31-35 488a-493a; BK xx, CH
26 555a-556b; CH 30 5S7c-560a,c; BK xxi, CH
15-16 572c-574a; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-S87b;
CH 3 588a-b; CH 22-24 606d-612a; CH 29-30
614b-618d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 11-12
627b-d; CH 14-18 627d-629a; CH 34 634b-c;
BK n, CH 41 656a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 97,
A i, REP 3 513c-514c; PART i-n, Q 5, A 7, REP
2 642a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 85,
A 5, REP 2 181d-182d; Q 87, A 7, REP 3 190c-
191d; Q 89, A 5, REP i 202c-203b; Q 91, A 5,
REP 2 211c-212c; Q 98, A i, ANS and REP 3
239b-240c; A 2 240c-241b; A 4, ANS and REP i
598
THE GREAT IDEAS
(9. Specifically Christian dogmas concerning the
divine nature and human destiny. 9c.
Christ the Saviour and Redeemer: the doc-
trines of original sin and salvation.)
242b-243c; A 6, REP 2 244c-245b; Q 100, A
12 264d-265d; Q 101, A 3, ANS and REP i 268a-
269a; Q 102, A 2, ANS 271b-272a; A 4, REP 2,5-
6 csp REP 6 276d-283c; A 5, REP 5 283c-292c;
Q 103, A i, ANS 298b-299b; A 2 299b-300d; A 3,
REP 2 300d-302a; o 104, A 3, ANsr305d-306d;
QQ 106-108 321a-337d, PART ii-n, Q i, A 7, REP
1,4 385c-387a; A 8, RLP 4 387a-388c; Q 2, A 7
396a-397c; o 14, A 2, REP 3 448d-449d; PART
, in, Q i 701b,d-709c, Q 26 845a-846d; Q 60, A
3, ANS 848d-849c; A 5, REP 3 850b-851b; Q 61,
A i, REP 3 855a-d; A 3 856c-857c; Q 62, A 5,
REP 2 862b-863a; A 6, ANS and REP 1-2 863a-
864c; PART in SUPPL, Q 69, A 4 889c-890c; Q
71, A 14, REP 2 916c-917b; Q 75, A 2, REP 3-4
937a-938a; Q 76, A i 939d-941a; Q 78, A i,
REP 3 947d-949b; Q 89, A 2, ANS and REP 4
1006b-1007c; A 5, ANS 1009b-d; Q 90 1012a-
101 6a; o 95 1042c-1049d; Q 99, A 3, REP i
1081d-1083a
21 DANTE: Dunne Comedy, HLLL, iv [46-63] 5d-
6a; PURGATORY, xxxii [28-63] 102c-103a;
xxxin [52-72] 104d-105a; PARADISE, vn
[16-120] 115b-116b; xm [37-87! 125d-126b,
xix [103-111] 136a, xxin 141b-142c; xxxn
[1-138] 154d-156a
22 CHAUCER' Trotlus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
263-267 154b-155a / Second Nun's Tale
[15,788-822] 467a-b / Parson's Tale, par 8
497b-498a; par 13 504b-505a; par 68-69
533b-534b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART HI, 191b-192c;
195d-196a; 197c-198a, 204a-207b, 240c;
242b-245a; PART iv, 260b-c
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Panfagruel, BK iv,
269c-270b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT 11,
sc n [71-79] 182d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 68, SCHOL
445a-b
32 MILTON: Chnsts Nativity la-7b passim / The
Passion 10b-12a / Upon the Circumcision 12b-
13a / Lycidas [165-185] 31b / Paradise Lost
93a-333a csp BK i [1-26] 93b-94a, BK HI
[56-415] 136b-144b, BKX [615-640] 287b-288b,
BK xi [22-44] 299b-300a, BK XH [285-484]
325b-329b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 425-856 243b-341b passim,
esp 556-588 270b-277b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 181b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 334b-c
44 BO$\VELL: Johnson, 482a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI,
306b-c; PART iv, 331d-332a; 354a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 318b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
54 FREUD: War and Death, 763b-c
9</. The Church: the mystical body of Christ;
the Apostolate
OLD TESTAMENT: Song of Solomon — (D) Canticle
of Canticles
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3; 4:18-22; 8:18-23;
9.35-10:42; 11:1-15; I3:I~531 16:17-24; 18:15-
20; 20:25-28; 24:14; 25; 28:16-20 / Mar/(,
1:1-9,16-20; 3:13-19; 10:42-45; 13:10; 16:14-
20 / Luke, 3* 1-20 ; 4*43-44; 5:1-11; 6*13-16;
8:16-17; 9:1-6; 11:48-50; 12:11-12; 22*24-30;
24:47 / John, 1:6-8,15-42; 4:34-38; 10; 13:31-
17:26; 20:19-21*24 csp 20:20-23, 21:15-17 /
Acts esp 1:8, 1:13-26, 2*1-47, 5'r~42» I3'47i
16:1-40, 22.14-15 / Romans / I Corinthians
passim, esp 3.1-23, 4:9-13, 6:1-20, 10:16-17,
12.12-31, 15:1-11 / // Corinthians esp 1:12-21,
2.10-11, 3:1-4*18, 5:20-21, 7*8-13, 10:1-13:10
/ Galatians passim, esp 1-2, 3:28, 4:1-31 /
Ephestanscsp 1*22-23, 3:8-12, 4:1-12, 5:23-33
/ Phihppians, i -27-2 -4 / Colossians passim, esp
i 15-29, 2:13-19, 3.6-11 / Hebrews, 3:5-6 /
/ Peter, 2:4-10 / 1 John
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 4 36a-b /
City of God, BK i, CH 35 149b-c; BK x, CH 20
311b-c; BK xm, CH 21 371a-c; BK xvn, CH 9
461b-d; CH 11 462c-463a; CH 15-16 465b-
466d, CH 20 469a-470c; BK xvin, CH 48-52
501b-504d; BK xix, CH 22 525b-c; BK xx, CH
7-12 535b-541d, BK xxn, CH 17-18 603a-604b
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 16 628c-d; CH 18
628d-629a; BK in, CH 31-32 669c-670a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 95,
A i, REP i 506b-507c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART H-II, Q i,
A 9, CONTRARY and REP 3,5 388d-389d; A 10,
ANS 389d-390d, Q 2, AA 6-8 395b-398b; Q 5
410a-413c; QQ 18^-189 625a-700d; PART HI, Q
8 756c-763b, PART in SUPPL, Q 71, A 9 910d-
912b; Q 95, A 3, ANS and REP 4 1045b-1046d;
A 4, REP 1,5 1046d-1047d
21 DANTE* Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, ix [73-
145] 66c-67b; xix [127-141] 82d-83a; xxrx
[i]~xxx [21] 97d-99c, xxxii [i]-xxxin [78]
102b-105a; PARADISE, xi 122a-123c esp [28-
39] 122b; xn 123c-125a; xxin [i]-xxvi [81]
141b-146c passim; xxvn [1-66] 147b-148a;
xxix [109-114] 151b; xxx-xxxn 151d-156a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 151a-c; PART HI,
198a-199a; 207b-224c; PART iv, 247a-249b,
275a-278d
32 MILT ON -.Paradise Lost, BKXII [436-5i4]328b-
330b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 473-484 256b-258b; 646
291b; 801-802 328b; 832 334a; 849 339b-
340a; 852 341a-b; 857-861 342a, 867-905
343b-349a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 4b-Sd
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 307b-
310c; PART iv, 315d; 331d-332c; 338a<d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
54 FRBUD: Group Psychology, 674c-d; 691d-692a
CHAPTER 29: GOD
399
9*. The sacraments
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3; 18:18; 19:4-6,10-
12; 20:20-23; 26:26-29; 28:19 / Mar\, 1:4,8-
10; 10:2-12,35-40; 14:22-24; 16:16 / Lufe,
3:3,16; 22:14-20 /John, 1:25-27,33; 3:1-8; 6
csp 6:32-35, 6:47-59; 19:33-34? 20:21-23 /
Acts, 2:40-42; 8:12-17,26-40; 11:16; 19:1-7;
22:16 / Romans, 6:3-4 / / Corinthians, i '12-17;
6:n; 7:8-14,34-39; 10:16-17; 11-23-30; 12:13;
15:28-29 / Galatians, 3:27 / Ephcsians, 4:5;
5:21-33 esp 5:31-32 / Colosstans, 2:11-12 /
Hebrews, 5:1-6 / James, 5:14-16 / I Peter,
3 120-22
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK ix, par 12 64d-
65a; BK xm, par 26-29 117c-118c / City of
God, BK x, CH 5-6 301b-302d; CH 19-20 310d-
31 Ic; BK xm, CH 3-4 361a-362a; CH 7 362d-
363b; BK xx, CH 26 555a-556b; BK xxi, CH 16
573b-574a; CH 20 575c-d; CH 25 579d-581a /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 3 637c-d; CH 41
656a-c; BK in, CH 9 661a~c; BK iv, CH 21,
690d-691b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A 3, ANS 490c-491b; Q 113, A 5, ANS and REP 3
579a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n,
Q 102, A 5 283c-292c; Q 103, A 4, ANS 302a-
304a, Q 108, A 2, ANS and REP 2 332b-333d;
PART ii-n, Q i, A i, REP i 380b-381a; A 3,
REP 4 381d-382c; A 8, REP 6 387a-388c;
Q 3, A i, REP i 400c-401a; Q 10, A 12,
REP 5 436b-437d; PART in, QQ 60-65
847a-884a,c; PART in SUPPL, Q 83, A 3,
ANS and REP 4 978c-980d; Q 99, A 4 1083a-
1084a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvn [67-132]
40c-41a
22 CHAUCER: Pardoner's Tale [12,829-849] 381b
/ Parson's Tale, par 12-22, 504b-510b esp
par 22, 510b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 71b; PART in,
180c-d; 206c-207a; 208b; 211c-212c; PARTIV,
249b-250c; 263d-264a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, lOla
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 162d-165d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BKXII [436-445] 328b-
329a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 71b-80b; 128b-
137b / Pensees, 554 270a; 862, 343a, 870
344a-b; 904-905 348b-349a; 923 351b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 12a / Human Understand-
ing, BK ii, CH xxni, SECT 17 250d-251a; BK
iv, CH xx, SECT 10 391c-392a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 221a-224a; 260b-
261a;373b-376a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 193a-b; 297c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 329d; 334b-c
44 Bos WELL '.Johnson, 173d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 331d-
, 332c;338a-d;349d-350a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
80c-81a
9/. The second coming of Christ
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew^ 10:14-15; 11:20-24;
12:36-37; 13:36-43.47-5°; 24-25 / Mar\,
13:4-37 / Luty, 10:11-15; 17:20-37; 19:11-28;
21 15-36 / John, 14 :i-4 / Acts, 1 19-1 1 ; 2 :i7-2i ;
17:31 / Romans^ 2:5-11 / / Corinthians, 15:23-
28 / Philippians, 3:20-21 / / Thessalonians,
1:9-10; 2:19; 4:14-5:4 / II Thessalonians, 1-2 /
II Timothy, 3:1-4:8 / James, 5:7-9 / // Peter,
2:9; 3:7-13 / I John, 2:18-29 / Jude, 17-25 /
Revelation esp 1:4-20— (D) Apocalypse esp
1 14-20
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xm, CH 2 360b-
361a; CH 6 362c-d; CH 23-24 372a-376a,c;
BK xvin, CH 53 504d-505c; BKXX 530a-56Qa,c;
BK xxi, CH 11-27 570b-586a,c / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 73, A i 922b-923c; A 3 924b-925b; Q 77, A 2,
ANS 945a-946b; QQ 87-90 997a-1016a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 179d; 191 b-
192c; 197c; 229c-230a; 244b-c; PART iv,
248a-b, 251c-252b; 254b-255b
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity la-7b esp [133-172]
4b-5b / At a Solemn Musid{ 13a-b / Paradise
Lost, BK in [274-343] 141b-143a; BK vn [139-
173] 220a-221a; BK xi [72-83] 300b 301a /
Areopagitica, 404a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 757 321a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 187b-188a
52 DOSIOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
13c-d; BK v, 127a-137c
10. The denial of God or the gods, or of a super-
natural order: the position of the atheist
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 14:1-3; 53:1-3— (D)
Psalms, 13:1-3; 52:1-4
5 ARISTOPHANES: Thesmophoriazusae [443-458]
605b
7 PLATO: Apology, 204c-205c / Laws, BK x,
758b-765d esp 758b-759a, 759d-760c, 761b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3, 263c;
BK ix, SECT 39 295a
18 AUGUSTINE. City of God, BK v, CH 9, 213c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
REP 1-2 12c-14a
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART n, 160a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 211b-212a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 4b-c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 72a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [569-723] 311b-
315a esp [617-623] 312b / Samson Agonistes
[293-299] 346a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 184-241 205a-217b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 18b / Human Understand-
ing, BK i, CH in, SECT 8 114a-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 92-96
431a-d; SECT 133, 439d-440a; SECT 154-155
444a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
116, 503c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29a
600
THE GREAT IDEAS
(10. The denial of God or the gods, or of a super-
natural order: the position of the atheist.)
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 379c-380c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 200b-
201a; BK xxv, 208a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 13a-b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, llb-c; 192c-d / Judge-
ment, 595d-596c
43 MILL: Liberty, 280d-281c
50 MARX: Capital, 31c-d; 35b-c; 305d [fn 2]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKV: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,lla~c;
BK v, 135b-136b; BK xi, 312b-314d; 345a-c
11. The denial of God as completely tran-
scending the world or nature: the posi-
tion of the pantheist
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 14 120d-121c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
SECT 13 258c; BK VH, SECT 9 280b-c; BK xn,
SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Enncad, TR ix, CH 16, 75c-
76a / Third Ennead, TR vm 129a-136a /
Fourth Ennead, TR ix 205a-207a,c / Fifth
Ennead, TR i, CH 1-2 208a-209b, FR n 214c-
215c; IR in, en 15-17 224c-226c; TR vm,
CH 7-10, 242d-244d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 2-3 lb-2a;
BK in, par 10 15b*d; par 18 18b; BK iv, par 26
25c-d; par 31 26c-27a; BK vn, par 1-3 43b-
44b; BK x, par 8-10 73b-74a; BK xn, par 7
lOOd-lOla; par 21 103d-104a / City of God, BK
iv, CH 12-13 19Sd-196b; BK VH, CH 6 248a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
8 19d-20c, Q 6, A 4 30b-d, Q 8, A i, ANS 34d-
35c; A 3, REP i 36b-37c, Q 16, A 6 98b-d; Q
90, A i 480d-481d; Q 105, A 5 542a-543b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 162b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 1 355a-372d esp DBF 3-6
355b, PROP 1-15 355d-361d, PROP 18 363c,
PROP 25 365b, PROP 28-29 365c-366c; PART n,
PROP i-n 373d-377c; PART iv, PREF, 422b,d-
423b; PROP 4 425b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 18 152a-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 564c-565d csp 565c-d;
566c-d; 580c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176b-c;
PART i, 220c 221a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^ 115b-117a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 216d-218b;
BK xm, 581c-582a; BK xiv, 608a-b; BK xv,
631ac
12. The denial of a revealed and providential
God: the position of the deist
7 PLATO: Parmenides, 489d-490d / Laws, BK x,
765d-768c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-158]
ld-3a; BK n [167-183] 17a-b; [580^660! 22c-
23b; [1090-1104] 29a; BK v [55-90] 61d-62b;
[146-234] 63a-64a; [306-310] 65a; [1161-1240}
76b-77b; BK vi [43-95] 80d-81c
15 TACITUS : Annals, BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 16, 75c-
76a
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK v, par 19 32b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 162a-b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 137a-b / PensSes,
242-290 217b-225a passim; 430-434 245a-
250a; 543-549 266a-267a; 556-588 270b-277b
37 FIELDING. Tom Jones, 38c-39c; 53c; 75c-76a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 190a-c / Judgement, 547d
52 Dos rocv SKY . Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 120d-
121c; 127b-137c passim; BK x, 292d-294a
13. God as a conception invented by man: its
emotional basis
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 14:12-21 — (D)
OT, BooJ^ of Wisdom, 14:12-21
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PARI i, 79a-b; 79d*80a
25 MONTAIGNF Essays, 256c-d
42 KANT- Judgement, 593c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 302b-303d; 593b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 31c-d
52 DOSFOEVSKY Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
67d-68c, BK v, 120d-121a, BK x, 293a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 692a-693a / War
and Death, 763b-c / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 771a-b; 778d / New Introductory
Lectures, 875d-878c
14. The worship of false gods: deification and
idolatry
OLD TESTAMENT' Genesis, 31:19-35 / Exodus,
20:1-6,22-23; 22.20; 23:13; 32, 34:11-17 /
Leviticus, 17 7, 19.4; 20.1-6, 26 1,28-30 /
Numbers, 25:2-5; 33 -5 1-52 / Deuteronomy
passim, esp 4:1-3, 4.15-19, 4:23-28, 5:7-9,
6:14-16, 7:1-6, 7.25-26, 8.19-20, 9:15-21,
11:16-17, 11.28, 12:2-3, 12*29-13.18, 16:21-
22, 17:2-7, 18.9-14, 20:16-18, 27.15, 28.14-
68, 29*16-29, 30*15-20, 31*16-21, 32 15-39 /
Joshua, 22-23; 24:14-25— (D) Josue, 22-23;
24:14-25 / Judges, 2:10-23; 3:5-8; 6:24-32;
8:33-34; 10 ; 17-18 / 7 Samuel, 7:3-4; 15:22-
23— (D) / Kings, 7:3-4; 15*22-23 / I Kings,
3:1-4; 9*6-9; 11-16; 18:17-29; 20.22-28;
21:25-29; 22:5i-53-(D) /// Kings, 3:1-4;
9:6-9; 11-16; 18:17-29; 20:22-28; 21:25-29;
22:51-54 / II Kings passim, esp 1:1-18, 8:16-
9:10, 10:1-36, 11:17-18, 14:1-18:37, 19:16-19,
21:1-23.37— (D) IV Kings passim, esp 1:1-
18, 8*16-9:10, 10:1-36, 11:17-18, 14:1-18:37,
19:16-19, 21:1-23:37 / // Chronicles, 13:8-9;
28; 33— (D) II Paralipomenon, 13:8-9; 28;
33 / Psalms, 81:8-16; 97:7; 106; 115:1-8;
135:15-18— (D) Psalms, 80:9-17; 96:7; 105;
113:1-8; 134:15-18 / Isaiah, 1-2 esp 1:29,
2:8-9, 2:18-21; 10:10-11; 19 esp 19:1-3;
30-31 csp 30:22, 31:7; 36 esp 36:18-20;
40:18-20; 41 esp 41:29; 42:8,17; 44 esp
14
44:9-20; 45-20-2I; 46:5-9; 57:3-8; 65:3-5;
66:3— (D) Isatas, 1-2 esp 1:29, 2:8-9,
2:18-21; 10:10-11; 19 esp 19:1-3; 30-31 esp
30:22, 31:7; 36 esp 36:18-20; 40:18-20; 41
esp 41:29; 42:8, 17; 44 esp 44:9-20; 45:20-21;
46-5-9; 57:3-8; 65:3-5; 66:3 / Jeremiah,
1-13 passim, esp 5:19, 7:9-10, 7.17-19, 8:1-2,
8:12, 8:19, 9:13-14, 10:2-15, 11:10-17, 13:10;
16 esp 16:10-13, 16:17-20; 23:20-27; 25.3-7;
32-30-35; 44; 50:38; 51 esp 51-17-18, 51-47,
51:52— (D) Jeremias, 1-13 passim, esp 5 19,
7:9-10, 7:17-19, 8:1-2, 8:12, 8:19, 9:13-14,
10:2-15, 11:10-17, 13:10; 16 esp 16:10-13,
16:17-20; 23:20-27; 25:3-7; 32:30-35; 44;
50-38; 51 esp 51-17-18, 51:47, 51:52 / Eze^iel,
5 esp 5-11, 6; 14; 16; 20; 22-23; 36 17-19;
37 23— (D) Ezechiel, 5 esp 5:11; 6; 14; 16;
20; 22-23; 36.17-19; 37.23 / Daniel, 3; 6 —
(D) Daniel, 3:1-23,91-97; 6 / Hosea passim,
esp 2-8-13, 4-12-13, 8-3-6, 10:1-2, 13*2—
(D) Osee passim, esp 2 8-13, 4-12-13, 8*3-6,
10:1-2, 13:2 / Amos, 5 esp 5.25-27 / Nahum
passim, esp 1:14 / Habatfaf^, 2:18-19— (D)
Habacuc, 2:18-19 / Zepnaniah passim, esp
1-4-6— (D) Sophomas passim, esp 1-4-6 /
Zechariah, 10-1-3; 13-2— (D) Zacharias,
10.1-3; 132
APOCRYPHA. Judith, 3 8; 5:23-6.4-^) OT, Jud-
ith, 3:12-13; 5-27-6:4 / Rest of Esther, 14:6-
10— (D) OT, Esther, 14:6-10 / Wisdom of
Solomon, 12-15— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom,
12-15 / Ecclesiasticus, 34:1-7— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 34:1-7 / Baruch, 6— (D) OT,
Baruch, 6 / Bel and Dragon- (D) OT, Darnel,
14-2-41 / / Maccabees, 1:41-2:28— (D) OT,
/ Machabees, 1:43-2:28 / II Maccabees, 6-7—
(D)OT,HMachabees,6-7
NEW TESTAMENT. Acts, 7.39-44; 147-18;
15:20,28-29; 17:16-31 / Romans, 2:22 / /
Corinthians, 5:9-11; 6:9; 8; 10:7,14-21; 12:27
II Corinthians, 6*14-17 / Galatians, 5-19-20 /
Ephesians, 5.5 / Philippians, 3:18-19 / Colos-
sians, 3 .5 / / Thessalomans, 1:9 / I Peter, 4 13 /
I John, 5:21 / Revelation, 2:20; 9:20; 21:8;
22-14-15— (D) Apocalypse, 2:20; 9:20; 21:8;
22:14-15
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 12d-13b; 31a-b;
BK n, 79d-80a; BK in, 95a-c; BK iv, 140c-141a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK x, 769c-771b
14 PLUTARCH • Numa Pompilius, S3b-c/Camtllus,
104d-105a / Pericles, 123c-124a / Pelopidas,
239d-240c / Alexander, 575d-576a / Demetri-
us, 729d-731a
29: GOD
601
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 4b-d / Histories, BK v,
296a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1081a-
1083b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i-x 129a-322a,c;
BK xvin, CH 5-6 474d-475c; CH 8-10 475d-
477c; CH 12-19 477d-482c; CH 21 482d-483b;
CH 24 485a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 17,
A 4, REP 3 103c-104b; Q 67, A 4, ANS 352a-
354a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 100,
A 4, ANS 253d-255a; Q 101, A 3, ANS and REP 3
268a-269a; Q 102 270b 298a passim ,
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xix [$8-117]
27d-28a; xx 28b~29d; PARADISE, iv [49-63]
lllb; vin [1-12] 116d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
265 154b-155a / Parson's Tale, par 35-38,
521a-522b; par 63-64 530a-53la
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 51d-52a; 78d-
79b; 79d-80a; 80d-82d; PART iv, 261a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 18d-20d; 238d-239b;
246a-257d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, lOOb;
lOla-b
32 MILTON- Christs Nativity la-7b esp [165-228]
5b-7a / Paradise Lost, BK i [331-621] lOOb-
107a; BK xii [101-120] 321b / Samson Ago-
mstes [433-471] 349a-350a; [871-902] 358b-
359a; [1139-1243] 364b-366b
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 543b-544a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 13b-15a / Human Under-
standing, BK i, CH n, SECT 26 112a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 94
431b-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 20a-c; 152a-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 200b-
201a; BKXXV, 208a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81d; 184b-185d;
457b,d-467d; 600d-601a; 775c-776a,c [n 173-
174]
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 154d; 195a-202a
esp 195b, 197a-199c; 207a-208c; 229c-230a;
252b-c; 329c-330b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 179a-b
44 Bosw ^ELL: Johnson, 173d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 270,
85b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 196d-
197c; PART i, 244c-245b; 246a-b; 253b-
254b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic1(, 17a-b; 36b-37a; 38b-
39b;367a-372a
602 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other treatments of polytheism, and for discussions of the gods in relation to fete and human
life, see ANGEL i ; FATE i ; MAN loa.
Man's duty and piety toward God or the gods, and for man's worship of God or the gods,
see DUTY 5, n; JUSTICE ub; RELIGION 2— 2g.
Man's love of God and desire to be with God, see DESIRE jb', LOVE 53-5^2); VIRTUE AND
VICE 8d(3).
Matters relevant to proving God's existence and to other ways of affirming God's existence,
see BEING 73, 8f; CHANGE 14; METAPHYSICS 2d; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 2a-2b;
REASONING 5^3), 5X5); THEOLOGY 4c.
The problem of God's immanence and transcendence, and for the doctrine of pantheism,
see NATURE ib; ONE AND MANY ib; WORLD 3-30.
Matters relevant to the consideration of God as a necessary being, see BEING 73; NECESSITY
AND CONTINGENCY 2a-2b.
The consideration of the unity and simplicity of God, see ONE AND MANY 6a.
The consideration of God's eternity and immutability, see CHANGE i5c; ETERNITY 3.
The consideration of God's infinity and omnipresence, see INFINITY J-jd.
The consideration of God's perfection and goodness, see GOOD AND EVIL 2-23; and for the
discussion of God in relation to Satan and to the problem of evil, see ANGEL y-yb; GOOD
AND EVIL id, 2b; OPPOSITION 2d.
The consideration of God's intellect, his knowledge and wisdom, the divine ideas and the
divine truth, see IDEA ic; INFINITY yd; KNOWLEDGE 73; MIND loe-iof; TRUTH 2d; WISDOM
id.
The consideration of God's will and love, see LOVE 5c; WILL 4-43.
The consideration of God's beauty, happiness, and glory, see BEAUTY 73; HAPPINESS 7d;
HONOR 6-6b.
The consideration of the divine independence and God's free will, see LIBERTY 5d; WILL 4b.
The consideration of divine causality in relation to nature, the origin of the universe by
creation or emanation, and the eternity of the world, see ART 2c; CAUSE 7-73; CHANGE 14;
MATTER 3d; NATURE 3c(4); TIME 2c; WORLD 4-46(3); and for the special problem of the
creation of life and of man, see EVOLUTION 43, 73; MAN 8b; SOUL 4C.
The consideration of God's foreknowledge 3nd providence in relation to man's freedom 3nd
to the course of history, see CAUSE 7c; CHANCE 2b; FATE 4; HISTORY 53; LIBERTY 53-5^
PROPHECY ib-ic; SIN 6a; WILL 7c.
The consideration of divine causality as expressed in divine Isw and in the government of the
universe, see ASTRONOMY 6; CAUSE 7c; LAW 3-3^2); MONARCHY 2b; SIN i; VIRTUE AND
VICE 8c; WORLD ic.
The consideration of divine csusality in the dispensation of grace and the performance of
miracles, see CAUSE 7d; LIBERTY 5c; NATURE 3c(4), 6b; RELIGION ib(2); SIN 7; VIRTUE
AND VICE 8b, 8e; WILL 76(2).
The consideration of God's justice and mercy, and of divine rewards and punishments,
see HAPPINESS 7c~7c(3); IMMORTALITY 5e-5f; JUSTICE n-iia; PUNISHMENT 5e; SIN
6c-6e.
Other discussions of the doctrine of the Messiah, the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the second
coming of Christ, see MAN nc; ONE AND MANY 6b-6c; PROPHECY 4c~4d; RELATION 2.
Other discussions of the doctrine of original sin 3nd irmn's redemption and sslvstion, see
HAPPINESS 73; SIN 3-36, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE 8a; WILL 70(1).
Other discussions of the Last Judgment and the end of the world, see IMMORTALITY 50;
PROPHECY 4d; WORLD 8.
CHAPTER 29: GOD 603
For: Other discussions of the church as the Mystical Body of Christ, and of the theory of the
sacraments, sec RELIGION 2c, 33-30; SIGN AND SYMBOL 5c.
The general theory of the relation of reason and faith in man's knowledge of God, see
KNOWLEDGE 6c(5); LOGIC 4f; METAPHYSICS 33; RELIGION ib--ib(3); THEOLOGY 2, 40-40;
VIRTUE AND VICE 8d(i); WISDOM ic.
The distinction between man's natural and supernatural knowledge of God, and for the
discussion of mystical experience and the beatific vision, see EXPERIENCE 7; HAPPI-
NESS 7c(i); KNOWLEDGE 6c(5); RELIGION 6f; WILL jd\ WISDOM ic.
Other discussions of God's revelation of Himself, of Sacred Scripture, and of man's inter-
pretation of the Word of God, see EDUCATION 73; LANGUAGE 12; PROPHECY 3d; SIGN AND
SYMBOL 5e.
Other discussions of the relation of creatures to God, and especially of the problem of the
resemblance between creatures and God, see MAN loa, na; RELATION 3; SAME AND
OTHER 6.
Other discussions of the names of God, and for the bearing thereon of the distinction between
the univocal, the equivocal, and the analogical, see IDEA 40(4); SAME AND OTHER 33(3)-
30, 6; SIGN AND SYMBOL }d, ${.
Sciences peculiarly concerned with God, see ASTRONOMY 6; METAPHYSICS 23, 2d, 33;
THEOLOGY.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boo^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented m this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic, par 55
*" . Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone
PLUTARCH. "Of Isis and Osiris, or the Ancient Re- HEGEL. Science of Logic, VOL i, BK n, SECT in, CH i;
hgion and Philosophy of Egypt," in Moralta VOL n, SECT in, CH 3
EPICTETUS. The Manual . On the Proofs of the Existence of God
AUGUSTINE. Answer to Sceptics J. S. MILL. "Theism," in Three Essays on Religion
. De Genesi ad Litter am, BK XH W. JAMES. The Will to Believe
. On the Trinity . Pragmatism, LECT in, vin
. On Grace and Free Will . A Pluralistic Universe
. The Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love
AQUINAS. On the Trinity ofBoethius, QQ 1-3 **•
. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK i; BK n, CH 1-28; HESIOD. Theogony
BK HI, CH 64-83, 146-162; BK iv, CH 1-49, 53-55 CLEANTHEs. Hymn to Zeus
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate, QQ 2, 5-7, CICERO. De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the
14, 23, 27-29; De Vmone Verbi Incarnatt Gods)
. On the Power of God, QQ 1-3, 5-7, 9-10 SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Physicists, BK i (Con-
. Summa Theologica, PART in, QQ 27-59 cernmg Gods, Do Gods Exist ?)
. Compendium of Theology PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (E,L)
F. BACON. "Of Atheism," in Essays "DioNvsius". On Mystical Theology
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART i, . On the Divine Names
13-25, 29-31, 40, 51, 54; PART in, 1-3 BOETHIUS. Contra Eutychen (A Treatise Against
HOBBES. Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Govern- Eutyches and Nestonus)
ment and Society, CH 15-18 . De Trinitate (On the Trinity)
HUME. Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion . The Consolation of Philosophy,
. The Natural History of Religion ERIGENA. De Divistone Naturae, BK i
604
THE GREAT IDEAS
SAAPIA GAON. The Boo\ of Beliefs and Opinions,
TREATISE I-II, IV, VII
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY. Monologium
. Proslogium
, Cur Deus Homo?
GAUNILON. In Behalf of the Fool
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, On the Love of God
HUGH OF SAINT VICTOR. De Sacramentts
f UDAH HA-LEVI. Kttab al Khazart
MAIMONIDES, The Guide for the Perplexed, PART i,
CH 46-47, 50-60, 73~76, PART II, CH I, 13-16, 22-
23, 25-30, 48; PART III, CH I3-l6, 20-21
Volsung Saga
Nibelungenhed
BONAVENTURA. On the Reduction of the Arts to
Theology
. Bretnloquium, PART i, iv-v
. Itineranum Mentis in Deum (The Itinerary of
the Mind to God)
R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART vn
ALBERTUS MAGNUS. On Union with God
DUNS SCOTUS. Tractatus de Pnmo Principio (A
Tract Concerning the First Principle), CH m-iv
ECKHART. Sermons and Collations, xv
The Cloud of Unknowing
ALBO. Boo{ of Principles (Sefer ha-Ikkarim), BK n
THOMAS A KEMPIS. The Imitation of Christ, BK in
NICOLAS OF CUSA. The Vision of God
LUTHER. Trinity Sunday
CALVIN. Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK i, CH
1-14, 16-18; BK n, CH 4, 7-17
KNOX. An Answer to the Cavillations of an Adversane
Respecting the Doctrine of Predestination
TERESA OF JESUS. The Way of Perfection
. Boo^ of the Foundations
. Interior Castle
foHN OF THE CROSS. Spiritual Canticle
. Dar\ Night of the Soul
. The Living Flame of Love
SUAREZ. Disputatwnes Metaphysicac, x (3), xi (3-
4), xn (i), xv (9), xix (3), xx-xxn, xxin (9),
xxiv, xxvm-xxx, xxxi (14), XLVII (15)
BOEHME. The Aurora
. De Electione Gratiae (On the Election of Grace)
HERBERT. The Temple
BROWNE. Religio Medici
BOSSUET. De la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme
^UDWORTH. The True Intellectual System of the Uni-
verse, VOL i, CH 4-5
UALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la verite
. Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, 11, vn-
XIV
FB'NBLON. A Demonstration of the Existence and At-
tributes of God
^EIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, i-vn, xiv,
xxxvi-xxxvn
. Philosophical Works, CH 34 (The Principles of
Nature and of Grace)
. New Essays Concerning Human Understanding,
BK IV, CH 10, l8; APPENDIX, CH IO
. Theodicy
. Monadology, par 38-55
. BUTLER. The Analogy of Religion, PA*T i, CH 2-8
VOLTAIRE. "Faith," "Final Causes," "God-Gods,1
"Grace," "Power-Omnipotence," "Providence,*
"Theism," "Theist," "Polytheism," in A Philo
sophical Dictionary
. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 26
. The Sage and the Atheist
LESSING. Nathan the Wise
HERDER. God, Some Conversations
PALEY. Natural Theology, CH 23-26
BROWN. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, VOL n, pp 134-152
SCHLEIERMACHER. The Christian Faith, par 50-56,
79-112,157-172
COMTE. System of Positive Polity, VOL iv, Theory of the
Future of Man, CH i
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK ix, CH 2, 4-5
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL i, BK x, CH 5
. On the Philosophy of Discovery, CH 31
J. H. NEWMAN. An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of
Assent
L. STEPHEN. An Agnostic's Apology
ROMANES. A Candid Examination of Theism
T. H. GREEN. Prolegomena to Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2
C. S PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL vi, par 452-547
F. THOMPSON. The Hound of Heaven
BOSANQUET. Science and Philosophy, 8
WARD. The Realm of Ends
ROYCE. The Conception of God
. The World and the Individual, SERIES n (10)
. The Problem of Christianity, VOL u
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK n, CH 26
. Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 15
COOK. Zeus
GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE. God, His Existence and Na-
ture, PART i; PART II, CH I -3
OTTO. The Idea of the Holy
BUBER. Hasidism
McTAGGART. Some Dogmas of Religion, CH 6-8
. The Nature of Existence, CH 43
FRAZER. The Golden Bough
. Man, God, and Immortality, PART HI
EDDINGTON. Science and the Unseen World
TENNANT. Philosophical Theology, VOL n, CH 5-6
WHITEHEAD. Science and the Modern World, CH 1 1
. Process and Reality, PART v, CH 2
PENIDO. Le rdle de I* analogic en thSologie dogmatique
BERGSON. Two Sources of Morality and Religion, CH 4
MARITAIN. An Introduction to Philosophy, PART n (8)
. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 4; CONCLUSION
WEYL. The Open World, LECT i
LOVEJOY. The Great Chain of Being
MANN. Joseph and His Brothers
B. RUSSELL. Religion and Science, CH 8
GILSON. Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages
. God and Philosophy
HARTSHORNE. Man's Vision of God
ASCH. The Nazarenc
. The Apostle
A. E. TAYLOR. Does God Exist?
SANTAYANA. The Genteel Tradition at Bay, CH 2-3
. The Idea of Christ in the Gospels
E. T. WHITTAKER. Space and Spirit
Chapter 30: GOOD AND EVIL
INTRODUCTION
rT"rHE theory of good and evil crosses the
JL boundaries of many sciences or subject
matters. It occupies a place in metaphysics. It
is of fundamental importance in all the moral
sciences — ethics, economics, politics, jurispru-
dence. It appears in all the descriptive sciences
of human behavior, such as psychology and so-
ciology, though there it is of less importance
and is differently treated.
The relation of good and evil to truth and
falsity, beauty and ugliness, carries the discus-
sion into logic, aesthetics, and the philosophy
of art. The true, it has been said, is the good in
the sphere of our thinking. So it may be said of
the beautiful that it is a quality which things
have when they are good as objects of contem-
plation and love, or good as productions. It is
no less possible to understand goodness and
beauty in terms of truth, or truth and goodness
in terms of beauty.
One aim of analysis, with respect to the true,
the good, and the beautiful, is to preserve their
distinctness without rendering each less univer-
sal. This has been attempted by writers who
treat these three terms as having a kind of par-
allelism in their application to everything, but
who also insist that each of the three notions
conceives things under a different aspect or in a
different relation. "As good adds to being the
notion of the desirable," Aquinas writes, "so
the true adds a relation to the intellect"; and it
is also said that the end "of the appetite, name-
ly good, is in the desirable thing," whereas the
end "of the intellect, namely the true, is in the
intellect itself."
In that part of theology which goes beyond
metaphysics and moral philosophy, we meet
with the concept of infinite goodness — the
goodness of an infinite being— and we then face
the problem of how God's goodness is to be
understood by man* The basic terms of moral
theology— righteousness and sin, salvation and
damnation — are, like virtue and vice, happi-
ness and misery, conceptions of good and evil
in the condition of man. (Their special theo-
logical significance comes from the fact that
they consider the goodness or evil of man in
terms of his relation to God.) But the theologi-
cal problem which is traditionally called "the
problem of evil" concerns the whole universe in
its relation to the divine perfection.
That problem, which is further discussed in
the chapter on WORLD, can be formulated in a
number of ways. How are we to understand the
existence of evil in a world created by a God
who is omnipotent and perfectly good? Since
God is good and since everything which hap-
pens is within God's power, how can we ac-
count for the sin of Satan or the fall of man,
with all the evil consequent thereupon, with-
out limiting God's power or absolving the err-
ing creature from responsibility ? Can it be said
that this is the best of all possible worlds, if it is
also true that this world is far from perfectly
good, and if, as certain theologians hold, "God
could make other things, or add something to
the present creation, and then there would be
another and a better universe" ?
THE CONTEMPORARY discussion of good and evil
draws its terminology from economics rather
than theology. The word "value" has almost re-
placed "good" and "evil.*1 What in other cen-
turies were the various moral sciences are now
treated as parts of the general theory of value.
The substitution of "value" for "good" or of
"value judgment" for "moral judgment" re-
flects the influence of economics.
According to Marx, Aristotle "was the first
to analyse . . . the form of value." As indicated
in the chapter on WEALTH, economics at its
origin was treated by Aristotle, along with eth-
605
606
THE GREAT IDEAS
ics and politics, as a moral discipline. But he
made it subordinate to them because it dealt
not with the whole of human welfare, but only
with wealth— one of the goods.
In the modern development of economics,
the word "goods" comes to have a special sig-
nificance. It refers to commodities or utilities,
as in the phrase "goods and services." More
generally, anything which is useful or exchange-
able has the character of an economic good. This
general sense is usually conveyed by the econo-
mist's use of the word "value." According to
Adam Smith, "the word value ... has two dif-
ferent meanings, and sometimes expresses the
utility of some particular object, and sometimes
the power of purchasing other goods which the
possessor of that object conveys." These two
meanings are distinguished as "value in use"
and "value in exchange." Marx accepts this
distinction, but thinks that there is a more
fundamental notion of value. He thinks it is
possible to abstract from both use-value and
exchange-value, and to discover the underlying
property which gives value to all exchangeable
things, namely, that they are products of labor.
With Smith and Marx, as with Aristotle, the
theory of value does not deal with every type
of good, but only with that type which earlier
moralists called "external goods" or "goods of
fortune." But more recently the concept of
value has been extended, by economists and
others, to the evaluation of everything which
men think of as desirable in any way. In con-
sequence, the age-old controversy about the
objectivity or subjectivity of good and evil is
now stated in terms of the difference between
facts and values, or between judgments of fact
and judgments of value.
The issue, as currently stated, is whether
questions of value can be answered in the same
way as questions of fact. One position mam-
tains that, unlike questions of fact which can be
answered by scientific investigation and can be
objectively solved, questions of value elicit no
more than expressions of opinion, relative to
the individual's subjective response or to the
conventions of his society at a given time. The
other side of the issue is held by those who in-
sist that the norms of value are as objective and
as scientifically determinate as the criteria of
fact or existence.
THE WORD "VALUE" does not change the prot
lem in any way; for what does evaluating any
thing mean except judging it as good or bad
better or worse ? The problem, which has a his-
tory as long as the tradition of the great books,
is the problem of how we can defend such judg-
ments and what they signify about the things
judged. Are good and evil determined by na-
ture or convention ? Are they objects of knowl-
edge or opinion ?
The title of an essay by Montaigne— "that
the taste for good and evil depends in good
part upon the opinion we have of them"— in-
dicates one set of answers to these questions.
"If evils have no admission into us," he writes,
"but by the judgment we ourselves make of
them, it should seem that it is, then, in our
power to despise the*m or to turn them to good.
... If what we call evil and torment is neither
evil nor torment of itself, but only that our
fancy gives it that quality, it is m us to change
it." Echoing Montaigne, Hamlet remarks that
"there is nothing either good or bad but think-
ing makes it so." The Greek sophists, centuries
earlier, appear to take the same view. The state-
ment of Protagoras that "man is the measure
of all things," Plato thinks, does not significant-
ly apply to all things, but only to such things
as the good or the right, the true or the beauti-
ful. In the TheaetetttS) Protagoras is made to say
that as "to the sick man his food appears to be
bitter, and to the healthy man the opposite of
bitter," so in general men estimate or judge all
things according to their own condition and
the way things affect them. This theory of goftd
and evil necessarily denies the possibility of
moral science. Socrates calls it "a high* argu-
ment in which all things are said to be
relative."
Plato and Aristotle respond to the sophists by
arguing in the opposite vein. For Plato, the
good is not a matter of opinion, but an object
of knowledge. Knowledge of good and evil is
the best fruit of the tree of knowledge. "Let
each one of us leave every other kind of knowl-
edge," Socrates says at the end of the Republic,
"and seek and follow one thing only," that is,
"to learn and discern between good and evil."
Aristotle does not think that ethics, or any
science which deals with good and evil, can have
as much precision as mathematics. "Our discus-
CHAPTER
lien will be adequate/* he writes, "if it has as
{much clearness as the subject matter admits of/
for precision is not to be sought for alike in all
Ascussions." This, however, does not exclude
the possibility of our knowing with great ex-
actitude the first principles of moral science,
such as the nature of happiness and virtue. In-
definiteness and even a certain kind of relativi-
ty occur only when these principles are applied
to particular cases. Hence, in Aristotle's view,
the moral sciences, such as ethics and politics,
can have objective and universal validity no
less than physics or mathematics, at least on the
level of principles.
In modern times, Locke and Kant also affirm
the scientific character of ethics, but without
the qualification which Aristotle insists upon
when we go from principles to practice. Locke
explains the grounds on which he is "bold to
think that morality is capable of demonstra-
tion, as well as mathematics"; for, he says, "the
precise real essence of the things moral words
stand for may be perfectly known, and so the
congruity and incongruity of the things them-
selves may be certainly discovered; in which
consists perfect knowledge." He is confident
that "from self-evident propositions, by neces-
sary consequences, as incontestible as those in
mathematics, the measures of right and wrong
might be made out, to any one that will apply
himself with the same mdifferency and atten-
tion to the one as he does to the other of these
sciences." But Locke adds, "this is not to be
expected, whilst the desire of esteem, riches, or
power makes men espouse the well-endowed
opinions in fashion." He himself seems to tend
in the opposite direction when he identifies the
good with the pleasant and makes it relative to
individual desires.
For Kant the two major parts of philosophy
— physics and ethics — are on equal footing, the
one concerned with the "laws of nature" the
other with the "laws of freedom" In each case
there is both empirical and a priori knowledge.
Kant calls the latter in each case "metaphysics"
and speaks of "a metaphysic of nature and a
metaphysic of morals" The nature of science,
he thinks, requires us to "separate the empirical
from the rational part, and prefix to physics
proper (or empirical physics) a metaphysic of
nature, and to practical anthropology a meta-
EVIL
607
physic of morals, which must be carefully
cleared of everything empirical."
This partial inventory of thinkers who stand
against skepticism or relativism in the field of
morals indicates that agreement on this point is
accompanied by some disagreement about the
reasons for holding what appears to be the same
view. The opposite view seems also to be shared
by thinkers of quite different cast, such as
Spinoza and Mill, who differ from each other as
well as from Montaigne and the ancient sophists.
The terms "good and evil," Spinoza writes,
"indicate nothing positive in things considered
in themselves, nor are they anything else than
modes of thought . . . One and the same thing
may at the same time be both good and evil or
indifferent" — according to the person who
makes the judgment of it. Spinoza therefore
defines "good" as "that which we certainly
know is useful to us." Apart from society, he
says, "there is nothing which by universal con-
sent is good or evil, since everyone in a natural
state consults only his own profit." Only when
men live together in a civil society under law
can it be "decided by universal consent what is
good and what is evil."
Holding that all men seek happiness and that
they determine what is good and evil in par-
ticular cases by reference to this end, Mill seems
to offer the standard of utility as an objective
principle of morality. But insofar as he identi-
fies happiness with a sum total of pleasures or
satisfactions, it tends to become relative to the
individual or the group. If competent judges
disagree concerning which of two pleasures is
the greater or higher, there can be no appeal,
Mill says, except to the verdict of the majority.
To this extent at least, judgments of value are
expressions of opinion, not determinations of
science. Nor does Mill hesitate to say that "the
ultimate sanction of all morality" is "a subjec-
tive feeling in our minds."
IN ORDER to clarify this basic issue it is neces-
sary to take note of other terms which are
usually involved in the discussion of good
and evil— such terms as pleasure and pain,
desire and aversion, being, nature, and reason.
In the course of doing this, we will perceive
the relevance of the chapters which deal with
those ideas.
608
THE GREAT IDEAS
It has Lccu sdiu, *ui cAduipie, that the good is
identical with the pleasant; that the good is
what men desire; that the good is a property of
being or existence; that the good is that which
conforms to the nature of a thing; that the good
is that which is approved by reason. It is pos-
sible to see some truth in each of these state-
ments. But each, taken by itself, may be too
great a simplification* Searching questions can
be asked by those who refuse to equate the good
with the pleasant or the desirable, the real, the
natural, or the reasonable. Are there no pleas-
ures in any way bad, no pains in any way good ?
Are all desires themselves good, or are all
equally good ? How does calling a thing "good"
add anything to its being or existence? Does
not evil exist or qualify existence? By what
standards can the natural and the rational be
judged good, if the good is that which con-
forms to nature and reason?
These questions call for more analysis of each
of these factors in the discussion of good and
evil and suggest that no one of these factors by
itself \s sufficient to solve the problem of defin-
ing good and evil or formulating their criteria.
Of the five things mentioned, two particularly
—pleasure and desire— seem to leave open the
question whether good and evil are objective or
subjective. They require us to decide whether
things please us because they are good or are
good because they please us; whether we desire
things because they are good or simply call
them "good" when we desire them. On this is-
sue Spinoza flatly declares that "we do not
desire a thing because we adjudge it good, but,
on the contrary, we call it good because we
desire it." In saying that "a thing is good so far
as it is desirable," Aquinas takes the opposite
position, for according to him "a thing is desir-
able only in so far as it is perfect." It can be
desirable, therefore, without being actually de-
sired by this or that individual.
The other three terms — unlike pleasure and
desire — seem to favor the objectivity of good
and evil, at least for those who regard the order
of existence, the nature of things, and the laws
of reason as independent of our desires or pref-
erences. Thus for Spinoza the nature of man
and his reason seem to provide an objective
standard for determining what is good alike for
all men. Nothing, he writes, "can be good ex-
cept in so far as it agrees with our nature, and
therefore the more an object agrees with our
nature the more profitable it will be." And in
another place he says, "By good I understand
. . . everything which we are certain is a means
by which we may approach nearer and nearer
to the model of human nature we set before
us." That model, he tells us, is the man of rea-
son, the man who always acts "according to the
dictates of reason," for "those desires which are
determined by man's power or reason are al-
ways good."
Nevertheless, if desire and pleasure cannot
be eliminated from the consideration of good
and evil — at least not the good and evil which
enter into human life — then the problem of
finding a purely objective foundation for our
moral judgments is not solved simply by an
appeal to being, nature, and reason.
Some help toward a solution may be found in
one often reiterated fact about the relation be-
tween the good and human desire. The an-
cients insist that no man desires anything but
what at the time seems good to him in some
way. "No man," Socrates observes, "volun-
tarily pursues evil, or that which he thinks to
be evil. To prefer evil to good is not in human
nature; and when a man is compelled to choose
one of two evils, no one will choose the greater
when he may have the less." This, however,
does not prevent men from desiring "what they
suppose to be goods although they are really
evils." Since they are mistaken in their judg-
ment "and suppose the evils to be goods, they
really desire goods."
The object consciously desired is always at
least apparently good. When men are mistaken
in their estimate of things as beneficial or in-
jurious to themselves, the apparent good — the
good actually desired — will be really an evil,
that is, something actually undesirable. An ob-
ject which is really good may not appear to be
so, and so it will not be desired although it is de-
sirable. The deception of appearances, Socrates
says, tricks us into taking "at one time the
things of which we repent at another, both in
our actions and in our choice of things great
and small."
THE DISTINCTION between the real and the ap-
parent good is, of course, connected with the
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
609
problem of the objective and the subjective
good. The apparent good varies from individual
to individual and from time to time. If there
were a real good, it would be free from such
relativity and variability. Unless there are
real, as distinct from merely apparent, goods,
moralists cannot distinguish between what
men should desire and what in fact they do
desire.
Since moral science deals with human be-
havior, its province can be separated from that
of other sciences which treat the same subject
matter— such as psychology and sociology-
only in terms of a different treatment of that
subject matter. Moral science must be norma-
tive or prescriptive rather than descriptive. It
must determine what men should seek, not what
they do seek. The very existence of normative
sciences, as well as their validity, would thus
seem to depend on the establishment of a real,
as opposed to a merely apparent, good.
This creates no special difficulty for moralists
who think that man knows what is really good
for him, both in general and in particular, by
intuition or rational deduction, through the
commandments of the divine law, or through
the precepts of the law of reason. But for those
who insist that the good is always somehow
relative to desire and always involves pleasure,
the distinction between the real and the ap-
parent good raises an extremely difficult prob-
lem.
To say that an apparent good is not really
good suggests, as we have seen, that what is
called "good" may not be in itself desirable.
That something which is really good may not in
fact appear to be so, seems to imply that the
word "good" can be significantly applied to
something which is not actually desired— at
least not consciously. How, then, is the good
always relative to desire? The traditional an-
swer to this question must appeal to the dis-
tinction between natural and conscious desire,
which is discussed in the chapter on DESIRE. It
is by reference to natural desire that the good
is said to be in itself always desirable — even
when the really good thing is not consciously
desired.
The relation of good and evil to pleasure and
pain can also be clarified by a basic distinction
between the pleasure which is an object of de-
sire and pleasure conceived as the satisfaction of
desire. This is discussed in the chapter on
PLEASURE AND PAIN. If obtaining a desired
good is satisfying, then there is certainly a sense
in which the good and the pleasant (or the
satisfying) are always associated; but it may
also be true that pleasure is only one kind of
good among various objects of desire and that
certain pleasures which men desire appear to be,
but are not really good.
THE FOREGOING considerations apply to the
good in the sphere of human conduct. But the
human good, the practicable good, the good for
man, does not exhaust the meaning of the term
good. The idea of the good is, for Plato, the
measure of perfection in all things; it is "not
only the author of knowledge to all things
known, but of their being and essence, and yet
the good is not essence, but far exceeds essence
in dignity and power."
The absolute good is also, as in the Divine
Comedy, the final cause or ultimate end of the
motions of the universe. It is "the Alpha and
Omega," Dante says, "of every scripture that
Love reads to me ... the Essence wherein is
such supremacy that every good which is found
outside of It is naught else than a beam of Its
own radiance . . . the Love which moves the
sun and the other stars."
So too, in Aristotle's cosmology, the circular
motions of the celestial spheres, and through
them all other cycles of natural change, are
sustained eternally by the prime mover, which
moves all things by the attraction of its perfect
being. It therefore "moves without being
moved," for it "produces motion through being
loved."
Though desire and love enter into the con-
ception of the good as a cosmic final cause, they
are not human desire or love. Though the good*
ness which inheres in things according to the
degree of their perfection may make them
desirable, it is not dependent on their being
consciously desired by men.
In Jewish and Christian theology, for ex-
ample, the goodness of God is in no way meas-
ured by human desires, purposes, or pleasures;
nor is the goodness of created things which, ac-
cording to Genesis, God surveyed and found
"very good." The order of creation, moreover*
610
THE GREAT IDEAS
involves a hierarchy of inequalities in being and
goodness. Even when each thing is perfect in
its kind, all things are not equally good, for ac-
cording to the differences in their natures,
diverse kinds are capable of greater or less
perfection.
In the metaphysical conception of goodness,
that which has more actuality cither in exist-
ence or power has more perfection. God's in-
finite goodness is therefore said to follow from
the fact that he is completely actual—infinite
in being and power. Things "which have life,"
Augustine writes, "are ranked above those
which have none . . . And among those that
have life, the sentient are higher than those
which have no sensation . . . and among the
sentient, the intelligent above those that have
no intelligence."
Augustine contrasts these gradations of per-
fection which arc "according to the order of
nature" with the "standards of value" which
arc "according to the utility each man finds in a
thing." That which is less good in a metaphys-
ical sense may be preferred on moral grounds as
being better for man. "Who," he asks, "would
not rather have bread in his house than mice,
gold than fleas?" Is it not true that "more is
often given for a horse than for a slave, for a
jewel than for a maid" ?
According to Augustine, as well as to Aquinas
later, metaphysical goodness consists in "the
value a thing has in itself in the scale of crea-
tion," while moral goodness depends upon the
relation in which a thing stands to human need
or desire, and according to the estimation
placed upon it by human reason. It is in the
moral, not the metaphysical sense that we
speak of a good man, a good will, a good life,
and a good society; or of all the things, such as
health, wealth, pleasure, virtue, or knowledge,
which it may be good for man to seek and pos-
sess. Only in the metaphysical sense can things
be thought of as good entirely apart from man;
only then can we find a hierarchy of perfections
in the world which accords with a hierarchy of
beings. Thus Spinoza declares that "the per-
fection of things is to be judged by their nature
and power alone; nor are|they more or less per-
fect because they delight or offend the human
senses, or because they are beneficial or pre-
judicial to human nature."
THE METAPHYSICAL conception of goodness
raises peculiarly difficult problems. Are there
as many meanings of "good" as there are of
"being"? When we say God is good, are we
making a moral or a metaphysical judgement ?
Are we attributing perfection of being or good-
ness of will to God ? If goodness is a property of
being, then must not all evil become a priva-
tion of being? Conceiving evil in this way,
Augustine points out that if things "be de-
prived of all good, they shall cease to be," so
that there is "nothing whatsoever evil" in it-
self; and Aquinas maintains that "no being is
said to be evil, considered as being, but only so
far as it lacks being."
If to understand what the notion of good-
ness adds to the notion of being it is necessary
to say that being has goodness in relation to
appetite, the question inevitably arises, "Whose
appetite?" Not man's certainly, for then the
moral and the metaphysical good become iden-
tical. If God's, then not appetite in the form
of desire, but in the form of love, for the divine
perfection is usually thought to preclude desire.
Problems of this sort confront those who,
conceiving the good both apart from and also
relative to man, are obligated to connect the
metaphysical and the moral meanings of good
and to say whether they have a common thread.
Some writers, however, limit their considera-
tion to the strictly moral good, and deny, as do
the Stoics, goodness or evil to anything but
man's free acts of will.
We should, says Marcus Aurehus, "judge
only those things which are in our power, to be
good or bad." In this we are entirely free, for
"things themselves have no natural power to
form our judgments ... If thou art pained by
any external thing, it is not this thing which
disturbs thee, but thy own judgment about it.
And it is in thy power to wipe out this judg-
ment now . . . Suppose that men kill thee, cut
thee in pieces, curse thee. What then can these
things do to prevent thy mind from remaining
pure, wise, sober, just?"
Though Kant develops what he calls a "meta-
physic of ethics," he does not seem to have a
metaphysical as opposed to a moral conception
of the good; unless in some analogous form it
lies in his distinction between "value" and
"dignity,1' according to which "whatever has
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
611
reference to the general inclinations and wants
of mankind has a market value" whereas "what-
ever ... is above all value, and therefore admits
of no equivalent, has a dignity "— "not a merely
relative worth, but an intrinsic worth."
But since Kant thinks that only men, or ra-
tional beings, can have intrinsic worth, he finds
goodness only in the moral order. He agrees
with the Stoics that good and evil occur only in
the realm of freedom, not at all in the realm of
existence or nature. "Good or evil," he writes,
"always implies a reference to the will, as de-
termined by the law of reason" which is the law
of freedom. According to Kant, "nothing can
possibly be conceived in the world, or even out
of it, which can be called good without quali-
fication, except a Good Will"; and in another
place he says, "If anything is to be good or evil
absolutely ... it can only be the manner of
acting, the maxim of the will." In this sense, the
free will complying with or resisting the im-
peratives of duty is either the seat or the source
of all the goodness or evil that there is. "Men
may laugh," Kant says, "at the Stoic, who in
the severest paroxysms of gout cried out: Pain,
however thou tormentest me, I will never ad-
mit that thou art an evil: he was right ... for
pain did not in the least diminish the worth of
his person, but only that of his condition."
IN THE SPHERE of moral conduct, and especially
for those who make desire or pleasure rather
than duty the principle, there seems to be a
plurality of goods which require classification
and order.
Some things, it would appear, are not de-
sired for themselves, but for the sake of some-
thing else. They are good only as means to be
used. Some things are desired for their own
sake, and are good as ends, to be possessed or
enjoyed. This division of goods into means and
ends— the useful and the enjoyable or pleasant
—permits a third type of good which is an end
in one respect, and a means in another. Analysis
of this sort leads to the concept of a summum
bonum—that good which is not a means in any
respect, but entirely an end, the supreme or
highest good for which all else is sought.
The chief question with respect to the sum'
mum bonum is whether it is a good or the good
—whether it is merely one type of good, more
desirable than any other, or the sum of all
good things which, when possessed, leaves noth-
ing to be desired. Aristotle and Mill seem to
take the latter view in their conception of hap-
piness as the summum bonum, "Human na-
ture," Mill says, "is so constituted as to desire
nothing which is not either a part of happiness
or a means of happiness." Happiness, he in-
sists, is "not an abstract idea, but a concrete
whole" including all other goods within itself.
It is the only good which is desired entirely for
its own sake. Aristotle treats virtue and knowl-
edge as intrinsic goods, but he also regards them
as means to happiness. In Mill's terms, their
goodness remains subject to the criterion of
utility, from which happiness alone is exempt
since it measures the utility of all other goods.
If the evaluation of all things by reference to
their contribution to happiness as the ultimate
good constitutes utilitarianism in ethics, then
Aristotle no less than Mill is a utilitarian, even
though Aristotle does not refer to the principle
of utility, does not identify the good with pleas-
ure, and conceives the virtues as intrinsically
good, not merely as means. Kant would regard
them as in fundamental agreement despite all
their differences — or at least he would regard
them as committing the same fundamental
error.
To Kant any discussion of human conduct
which involves the calculation of means to ends
is pragmatic or utilitarian, even when the con-
trolling end is the summum bonum or happi-
ness. Kant makes a sharp distinction between
what he calls "pragmatical rules" of conduct
which consider what should be done by one who
wishes to be happy, and what he regards as the
strictly "moral or ethical law" which "has no
other motive than the worthiness of being
happy" Morality, he says in another place, "is
not properly the doctrine of how we should
make ourselves happy, but how we should be-
come worthy of happiness" —through doing our
duty.
Kant's criticism of Aristotle's ethics of hap-
piness is therefore applicable to the utilitarian-
ism of Mill; and Mill's rejoinder to Kant serves
as a defense of Aristotle. This basic issue con-
cerning the primacy of happiness or duty — of
desire or law— is discussed in the chapters on
DUTY and HAPPINESS, where it is suggested
612
THE GREAT IDEAS
that in an ethics of duty, right and wrong sup-
plant good and evil as the fundamental terms,
and the summum bonum becomes a derivative
notion rather than the first principle of morality .
At the other extreme are those who deny
duty entirely, and with it any meaning to right
and wrong as distinct from good and evil. A
middle ground is held by those who employ
right and wrong as subordinate terms in the
analysis of good and evil, finding their special
significance in the consideration of the good of
others or the social good. To do right is to do
good to others; to do wrong is to injure them.
The question which Plato so insistently raises,
whether it is better to do injustice or to suffer
it, can also be stated in terms of good and evil,
or right and wrong. Is it better to suffer evil or
to do it? Is it better to be wronged by others
or to wrong them? As justice for Aristotle is
that one among the virtues which concerns the
good of others and the common good, and as it
is the one virtue which is thought to involve
duty or obligation, so the criteria of right and
wrong measure the goodness or evil of human
acts by reference to law and society.
THE DIVISION of goods into means and ends is
not the only distinction made by moralists who
recognize the plurality and inequality of goods.
Goods have been divided into the limited
and the unlimited with respect to quantity;
the pure and the mixed with respect to quality;
sensible and intelligible goods or particular
goods and the good in general; external goods,
goods of the body, and goods of the soul; the
pleasant, the useful, and the virtuous. More
specific enumerations of the variety of goods
list wealth, health, strength, beauty, longevity,
pleasure, honor (or fame), virtue, knowledge,
friendship.
All of the foregoing classifications can be com-
bined with one another, but there is one distinc-
tion which stands by itself, although it affects
all the others. That is the distinction between
the individual and the common good, or be-
tween private and public good, the good for
this one man and the good of all others and of
the whole community. In the language of mod-
ern utilitarianism, it is the distinction between
individual happiness and what Bentham called
"the greatest good for the greatest number."
The phrase "common good" has several
meanings in the tradition of the great books.
One sense, which some think is the least signifi-
cant, refers to that which can be shared or used
by many, as, for example, land held in common
and worked by a number of persons or families.
Thus we speak of the "commons" of a town or
village. This meaning applies particularly to
economic goods which may either belong to the
community as a whole or be divided into parcels
of private property.
Another sense of common good is that in
which the welfare of a community is a common
good participated in by its members. The wel-
fare of the family or the state is a good which
belongs to a multitude organized for some com-
mon purpose. If the individual members of the
group derive some benefit from their association
with one another, then the prosperity of the
community is not only a common good viewed
collectively, but also a common good viewed
distnbutively, for it is the good of each mem-
ber of the group as well as of the whole.
With this in mind, perhaps, Mill speaks of
"an indissoluble association between [the in-
dividual's] happiness and the practice of such
mode of conduct, negative and positive, as re-
gard for the universal happiness prescribes; so
that not only he may be unable to conceive the
possibility of happiness to himself, consistently
with conduct opposed to the general good, but
also that a direct impulse to promote the gen-
eral good may be in every individual one of the
habitual modes of action." If this statement by
Mill is used to interpret Bentham's phrase —
"the greatest good for the greatest number" —
then the greatest number cannot be taken to
mean a majority, for the good of nothing less
than the whole collectively or of all distribu-
tively can be taken as the common or general
good.
Still another conception of the common good
is possible. A good may be common in the sense
in which a specific nature is common to the
members of the species— not as organized social-
ly in any way, but simply as so many hip in-
dividuals. If all men seek happiness, for ex-
ample, then happiness is a common good, even
though each individual seeks his own happi-
ness. In a deeper sense it is a common good if
the happiness each seeks is the same for all men
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
613
because they are all of the same nature; but,
most strictly, it is a common good if the happi-
ness of each individual cannot be separated
from the happiness of all.
Aquinas seems to be using this meaning of
common good when, in defining law as a rule of
conduct "directed to the common good," he
refers not merely to the good of the community
or body politic, but beyond that to "the last
end of human life," which is "happiness or
beatitude." Law, he says, "must needs concern
itself properly with the order directed to uni-
versal happiness." Mill also seems to conceive
happiness as a common good in this sense.
"What the assailants of utilitarianism seldom
have the justice to acknowledge," he writes, is
"that the happiness which forms the utilitarian
standard of what is right in conduct, is not the
agent's own happiness, but that of all con-
cerned."
The several meanings of the common good
create a fundamental issue. Some writers use it
in one sense only, rejecting the others. Some
not only use the term in all its meanings, but
also develop a hierarchy of common goods.
They regard universal happiness, for example,
as a common good of a higher order than the
welfare of the political community. Yet in
every order they insist upon the primacy of the
common over the individual good. In the po-
litical order, for example, they think the wel-
fare of the community takes precedence over
individual happiness. They would regard Adam
Smith's statement of the way in which in-
dividuals accidentally serve the common good
while seeking their private interests, as a per-
version of the relationship. To say that an in-
dividual considering only his own gam is "led
by an invisible hand to promote an end which
was no part of his intention" (*.£., the general
prosperity of society) does not excuse the in-
dividual's failure to aim at the common good.
The several meanings of the common good
also complicate the statement of the issue be-
tween those who seem to say that the welfare
of the community always takes precedence
over individual well-being or happiness— that
the good of the whole is always greater than
the good of its parts—and those who seem to
say that the state is made for man, not man
for the state, or that the prosperity of the so-
ciety in which men live is good primarily be-
cause it enables each of them to live well. This
issue, which runs through all the great books
of political theory from Plato and Aristotle
to Hegel and Mill, is discussed m the chapters
on CITIZEN and STATE.
The opposition between collectivism and
individualism in economics and politics does
not exhaust the issue which, stated in its broad-
est moral terms, is a conflict between self-
interest and altruism. The primary problem
to consider here is whether the issue is itself
genuine, or only an opposition between false
extremes which needlessly exclude the half-
truth that each contains.
The collective aspect of the common good
may not need to be emphasized at the expense
of its distributive aspect. The good of each
man and the good of mankind may be insep-
arable. It may be the same good which, in dif-
ferent respects, is individual and common. It
may be that no good can be supreme which is
not both immanent and transcendent— at once
the highest perfection of the individual and a
good greater than his whole being and his life.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
i. The general theory of good and evil
la. The idea of the good: the notion of finality
ib. Goodness in proportion to being: the grades of perfection and the goodness of
order
ic. The good, the true, and the beautiful
id. The origin, nature, and existence of evil
616
617
614 THE GREAT IDEAS
PAGE
2. The goodness or perfection of God: the plenitude of the divine being 618
20. God's goodness as diffusive, causing the goodness of things: God's love 619
ib. The divine goodness and the problem of evil
3. The moral theory of the good: the distinction between the moral and the metaphysical
good 620
30. Human nature and the determination of the good for man: the real and the
apparent good; particular goods and the good in general 621
3& Goodness in the order of freedom and will 622
(1) The prescriptions of duty
(2) The good will: its conditions and consequences 623
y. The good and desire: goodness causing movements of desire and desire causing
estimations of goodness
3<£ Pleasure as the good, a good, or feeling good 624
y. Right and wrong: the social incidence of the good; doing or suffering good and
evil
$f. The sources of evil in human life 625
4. Divisions of the human good 626
40. Sensible and intelligible goods
4^. Useful and enjoyable goods: good for an end and good in itself
4<r. Goods of the body and goods of the soul 627
4</. Intrinsic and external goods: intrinsic worth and extrinsic value
4*. Individual and common goods 628
5. The order of human goods
50. The supreme good or summwn bonum: its existence and nature
5^. The judgment of diverse types of good: their subordination to one another 629
5^. The dialectic of means and ends: mere means and ultimate ends 630
$d. The supremacy of the individual or the common good: the relation of the good
of the individual person to the good of other persons and to the good of the
state 631
6. Knowledge and the good 632
6a. Knowledge, wisdom, and virtue: the relation of being good and knowing what
is good
6b. The need for experience of evil 633
6V. The goodness of knowledge or wisdom: the use of knowledge
6d. The possibility of moral knowledge: the subjectivity or conventionality of
judgments of good and evil 634
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL 615
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 1 19. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. Forexample,m 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283! 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT. Nehemtah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
_ . , i . ., 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 4-6
1. The general theory of good and evil 20c-30d; Q 21, A i, REP 4 124b-125b; A 3, ANS
OLD TESTAMENT. Isaiah, 45:7— (D) Isaias, 45:7 126a-c; QQ 48-49 259b-268a,c; PART i-n, Q i,
/ Lamentations, 3-38 A 4, REP i 612a-613a; A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A 5
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 33-14-15; 39:25— (D) 618d-619c; Q 18, A i, ANS 694a-d; A 2, ANS
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 33:15; 39:30 694d-695c; A 3, ANS 695d-696b
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 83b-84a / Gorgias, 282c- 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61d-62a
284b / Republic, BK n, 322d-323a; BK VH, 26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT n,
389b-c / Theaetetus, 518a-b sc in [1-30] 296b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK H, CH 12 383b-384c / 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 6 [988*8-16] 506a-b; CH PART in, PROP 9, SCHOL 399c; PROP 39, SCHOL
7 [988b6-i6] 506c-d; BK v, CH i [1013*20-24] 408b-d; PART iv, PREF-DEF 2 422b,d-424a;
533b; BK xn, CH 7 602a-603b PROP 8 426b-c; PROP 27-28 431b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH i 339a-b; CH 6-7 32 MILTON* Areopagitica, 390b-391a
341b-344a 42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 29, 134d- 256a-b / Practical Reason, 314d-321b csp 316a-
135b; BK n, CH 8 146a-147c 317d, 318c-321b; 338c-355d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d- ^r.j * • « . . /./...
270b; BK vi, SECT 40-45 277d-278c; BK vni, la' The ldea of thc «ood; the notlon of finality
SECT 19 286d-287a 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 50c-d / Symposium, 164c-
17 PLOTINCJS: First Ennead, TR vm 27b-34a / 165b / Phaedo, 240d-242b / Gorgias, 282c-
Third Ennead, TR ix, CH 3, 138a,c / Fifth 284b / Republic, BK i, 309b-310a; BK vi-vn,
Ennead, TR i-vi 208a-237d passim; TR ix, CH 384a-401d / Timaeus, 447d-448a / Theaetetus,
10, 250c / Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 10 309a-d; 535b-d / Philebus 609a-639a,c csp 609a-c,
TR vn, CH 24-26 333d-334d; CH 28 335b-d; 614a, 635b-639a,c
TR ix 353d-360d 8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK H, CH u
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 20 32d- [94b8-95a9l 129b-d / Topics, BK i, CH 15
33a / City of God, BK xii, CH 1-5 342b,d-345b [107*3-11] 15U; BK vi, CH 5 [143*9-1*1 19^J
616
THE GREAT IDEAS
la to I
(I. The general theory of good and evil. la. The
idea of the good: the notion of finality.)
CH 6 [i45ai9-27J 198d-199a; CH 8 MV
147*11] 200c-201a; CH 12 [i49b3i-39J 204b-c /
Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*2-24] 268a*c; BK n, CH
2 [i94a27-b8] 270d-271a; CH 3 [i94b33-i95*2]
271b-c; [195*22-26] 271d; CH 8 275d-277b;
BK vn, CH 3 [246aio-248a8] 329c-330d /
Heavens, BK n, CH 12 383b-384c / Generation
and Corruption, BK n, CH 6 [333a35~b2o] 434b-c
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982b4~io] 500d;
CH 3 [984b8]-cH 4 [985*28] 502d-503c; CH 6
[988*8-16] 506a-b; CH 7 [988^-16] 506c-d;
CH 9 [992*29-34] 510c; BK n, CH 2 [994b9-i6]
512d-513a; BK HI, CH 2 [996a2i-bi^] 514d-
515a; BK v, CH 2 [ioi3a32-b3] 533c; [ioi3b25~
28] 533d-534a; CH 14 [i020bi4~25] 541d-542a;
BK ix, CH 8 [iQ5oa3-bi] 575d-576b; BK xii,
CH 7 [io72*i8-b4] 602a-c; CH 10 [1075*2 5-b7J
606a-b; BK xiv, CH 4 [1091*29-1092*8] 624a-d;
CH 6 625d-626d / Soul, BK n, CH 4 [415*
22-b8] 645c-d; [4i5bi5~22] 645d-646a; BK in,
CH 9 [432b2i-26J 665b-c / Sleep, CH 2 [455b
13-28] 698b-c
9 ARISTOTLE- Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [639b
8-640*12] 161d-162b; [64ibio-642b4] 164c-
165d; CH 5 [645*23-26] 169a / Gait of Animals,
CH 2 [704^2-18] 243c / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH i [715*1-11] 255a; BK v, CH i [778*15-
bi9] 320a-321a / Ethics, BK i, CH i 339a-b; CH
6 341b-342c / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1252^0-
1253*1] 446a-b; CH 8 [i256b8-26] 450b-c
10 GALEN' Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 6, 170b-c;
CH 12 172d-173c; BK n, CH 4, 187c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1022-1037]
13c-d; BK n [1052-1063] 28b-c; BK iv [823-
857] 55a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b; SECT 16 271c-d; BK vi, SECT 40 277d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vn, CH 1-2 26a-d;
TR viii, CH 2 27c-d / Third Ennead, TR ix, CH
3, 138a,c / Fifth Ennead, TR v-vi 228b-237d /
Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH i 305c-306a; CH 10
309a-d; TR vn, CH 15-42 329c-342d; TR ix
353d-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 10 lla-b;
BK xin, par 53 124d-125a,c / City of God, BK
xi, CH 22 333d-334c; BK xn, CH i 342b,d-
343c; CH 4-5 344b-345b; BK xiv, CH 13 387c-
388c; BK xxn, CH 24, 610c-611c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A
3, ANS 12c-14a; QQ 5-6 23b-30d esp Q 5, A 4
25d-26c; Q 16, A i, ANS 94b-95c; A 3, ANS
96b-d; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A i,
ANS 108d-109c; A 4, ANS lllc-112c; Q 22, A, 2
ANS 128d-130d; Q 23, A i, ANS and REP 1-2
132c-133b; Q 36, A 3, ANS 194c-195d; Q 44,
A 4 241a-d; Q 48, A i, REP 4 259b-260c; Q 59,
A i, ANS 306c-307b; A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q
60, A 5, ANS 313b-314c; Q 63, A 4, ANS 328b-
329a; Q 65, A i, REP 3 339b-340b; A 2340b-
341b; Q 70, A 3, ANS 365b~367a; Q 78, A j, RE
3 407b-409a; Q 82, A 4, ANS and REP i 434c
435c; Q 91, A 3 486b-487d; Q 92, A i, REP
488d-489d; Q 98, A i, ANS 516d-517c; Q 10
528a-534b passim; Q 105, A 5, ANS 542a-543t
PART i-n, Q i, A 2 610b-611b; A 6, ANS 614a-c
A 8 61Sa-c; Q 2, A 4, REP i 618a-d; A 5, REP
618d-619c; Q 8, A i, ANS 655b-656a; Q 9, A i
ANS 657d-658d; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49
A 2, ANS and REP i 2b-4a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi
[125-136] 79d; xvin [19-39] 80a-b; PARA
DISK, i [94-142] 107b-d, in [82-90] IlOa-b, i
[ii5]-v [12] llld-112b; xxvi [1-69] 145d
146c; xxxn [i39]-xxxin [145] 156a-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a; P\RT iv, 271<
28 HARVEY • On Animal Generation, 355c-d
442d-443c
30 BACON • Advancement of Learning, 45a-46a
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-llla
31 DESCARTFS' Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objec
tions and Replies, 215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPLNDIX 369b-372d
PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 425-426 243b-244b; 431
245a-247b; 438 251a
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, SECT 10'
433d-434a
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECI v, DIV 44
469b-c; SECTXI, DIV in 501b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 187a-190a; 205a-209l
/ Judgement, 467d-470b; 473a-474b; 478a
550a-613a,c esp 550a-562a,c, 568c-570b
575b-578a, 587a-588a, 592a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157b-c
160b-178a esp 168d-169d
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d; 41c-42a
95d-97a esp 96b-c; 217d-218a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 646c
647b;650b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b; 671b [fn i]
Ib. Goodness in proportion to being: the grade
of perfection and the goodness of orde
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, i
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-126a / Symposium
167a-d / Gorgias, 282c-284b / Timaeus, 447a
455c / Philebus, 635b-639a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*16-24
268b-c / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 359d-360d; BI
n, CH 12 383b-384c / Generation and Corrup
tion, BK n, CH 10 [336^5-34] 438d / Meta
physics, BK ix, CH 9 [1051*4-21] 577a-b; BI
xn, CH 7 602a-603b; CH 10 [1075*11-24] 605d
606a; BK xiv, CH 4 624a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK n
CH i [73ib24-33l 272a-b / Ethics, BK i, CH •
[1096*17^7] 341b-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vn, CH 1-2 26a-d
TR vni 27b-34a / Second Ennead, TR ix, CH
67b-c / Third Ennead, TR vni, CH 8-10 132d
\cto\d
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
617
136a / Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH M 246c-247b;
CH 10, 250c / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 25
334a-c; CH 28-29 335b-336b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 16-23
48c-50c / City of God, BK vm, CH 6 268d-
269c; BK xi, CH 16 331a-c; CH 22 333d-334c;
BK XH, CH 1-5 342b,d-345b; BK xiv, CH 13
387c-388c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8 626c-
62 7a; CH32633c-d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
REP 2 lOd-lld; A 3 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, ANS 14b-
15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a; A 7, REP 2 19a-c; QQ 4-6
20c-30d passim; Q 16, A 3, ANS 96b-d; Q 18,
A 3 106b-107c; Q 19, A i, ANS 108d-109c; A 8,
ANS 116a-d; Q 22, A 4, ANS 131c-132b; Q 23,
A 5, REP 3 135d-137d; Q 25, A i, REP 2 143d-
144c; A 6 149a-150a; Q 42, A i, REP 1-2 224b-
225d; Q 44, A i, ANS 238b-239a; Q 47, \A 2-3
257b-259a; QQ 48-49 259b-268a,c passim; Q
50, A i, ANS and REP i 269b-270a; A 3, ANS
and REP 2 272a-273b; Q 57, A i, ANS 295a-d;
Q 65, A 2, ANS and REP 3 340b-341b; Q 70,
A 3, REP 2 365b-367a; Q 73, A i, ANS 370a-
371a; Q 75, A 7 384d-385c; Q 76, A 3, ANS
391a-393a; A 4, REP 3 393a-394c; Q 77, A 2
401b-d; A 4, REP i 403a-d; Q 82, A 3, ANS
433c-434c; Q 103 528a-534b passim, esp A 3
530a-c, AA 6-8 532b-534b; Q 106, A 4, ANS
548b-549a; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, RFP i 612a-
613a; A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A 5, REP 2 618d-619c; Q
18 693b,d-703a passim, csp AA 1-4 694a-696d;
Q 22, A 2, REP I 721c-722c; Q 29, A I, REP I
745a-c, A 5, ANS 747c-748b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-u, Q 52,
A i, ANS 15d-18a; Q 54, A 3, REP 2 24c-25b; Q 55,
A 4, REP 1-2 28c-29d; Q 85, A 4 181b-d; PART
ii-n, Q 2, A 3, ANS 392d-393c; Q 23, A 3, REP 3
485a-d; PART in, Q 7, A 9, ANS 751d-752c;
PART III SUPPL, Q 74, A I, REP 3 925C-926C
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d; ii [112-148] 109a-b; VH [64-75] 115d'
116a; [121-148] 116b-c; xin [52-87] 126a-b;
xxvni [i]-xxix [66] 148d-151a esp xxvin
[64-72] 149b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52d / Medi-
tations, in, 84a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 372c-d;
PART n, DEF 6 373c; PART iv, PREP 422b,d-
424a; PART v, PROP 40, DEMONST 462c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [468-490] 185b-
186a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 12 271d-272b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 187c-188c; 206d-207c /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 278b-d /
Practical Reason, 307a-d
\c. The good, the true, and the beautiful
7 PLATO: Lysis, 21b-c / Phaedrus, 124c-129d /
Symposium, 162d-163a; 167a-d / Republic,
BK v, 357d-358a; BK vi, 383d-388a / Philebus,
637c-638a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH i [1013*20-
24) 533b; BK xn, CH 7 [1072*2 3-36] 602b-c;
BK xni, CH 3 [io78*33-b6] 609d-610a / Soul,
BK in, CH 7 {43ibio-i3] 664b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 2, 141a; BK
HI, CH i 175a-177c; BK iv, CH n 240d-242d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
BK iv, SECT 20 265a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi, CH 3-9 22b-26a; TR vm, CH 2, 27c /
Fifth Ennead, TR i 208a-214c passim; TR v, CH
12 234a-d / Sixth Ennead, TR VH, CH 22 332d-
333b; CH 31-33 336d-338b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 6 90c-d;
BK xin, par 53 124d-125a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A 4,
REP i 25d-26c; Q 16, A i, ANS 94b-95c; A 3,
ANS 96b-d; A 4 97a-c; Q 17, A 4, REP 2 103c-
104b; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 79, A n,
REP 2 424d-425b; Q 82, A 3, REP i 433c-434c;
A 4, REP i 434c-435c; PART i-n, Q 3, A 5, REP
2 626b-627a; Q 9, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 657d-
658d; Q 19, A 3, REP i 704c-705a; Q 22, A 2,
ANS 721c-722c; Q 26, A i, REP 3 734a-d; Q 27,
A i, REP 3 737b-d; A 2, ANS 737d-738c; Q 29,
A 5, ANS 747c-748b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART H-II,
Q 180, A 2, REP 3 608c-609c; PART m SUPPL,
Q 94, A i, REP 2 1040d-1041b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26c-27a
42 KANT: Judgement, 478a-479d; 480a-482b;
488a-489a; 521b-523c esp 522b-c; 546d-548c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 266a-
267a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
153ad
Id. The origin, nature, and existence of evil
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 45:7— (D) Isaias, 45:7
/ Lamentations, 3:38
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 33:14-15; 39:25— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 33:15; 39:30
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 282c-284b / Republic, BK x,
434d-435a / Theaetetus, 518a-b; 530b-d /
Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws, BK x, 763b
765a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH n [i 3^6-14*6] 19c
/ Physics, BK i, CH 9 [192*2-24] 268a-c / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 4 [984b23-985b3] 502d-503c;
CH 6 [988*8-16] 506a-b; BK v, CH 5 [1015^-16]
536a; BK ix, CH 9 [1051*17-22] 577a-b; BK XH,
CH 10 [1075*25-1076*4] 606a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK 11, CH 6 [no6b28-35]
352b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 20, 126c-d;
CH 29 134d-138a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 6, 24b; TR
vm 27b-34a / Second Ennead, TR in, CH 16,
48d-49a; CH 18, 49c-d; TR iv, CH 16, 57c;
TR ix, CH 13 73d-74b / Third Ennead, TR n,
CH 5-7 85b-86c; CH 10-14 88a-89d; TR HI
618
(1. The general theory of good and evil Id. The
origin, nature, and existence of evil.)
CH 5, 95d-96a; CH 7, 96d-97a; TR vi, CH 11,
113b-c / Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16 150c-d
/ Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 10, 250c / Sixth En-
nead, TR vn, CH 28 335b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 11-12
15d-16b; BK iv, par 24 25b-c; BK v, par 20
32d-33a; BK vn, par 3-7 44a-4Sd; par 11-23
47a-50d; BK XIH, par 45 123a / City of God,
BK xi, CH 9, 327c-d; CH 22 333d-334c; BK xn,
CH 1-9 342b,d-348b; BK xix, CH 13 519a-
520a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q 5, A
3, REP 2 25a-d; A 5, REP 3-4 26c-27c; QQ 48-49
259b-268a,c; Q 65, A i, REP 2-3 339b-340b;
PART i-n, Q 18 693b,d-703a passim, csp AA
1-4 694a-696d; Q 29, A i, ANS and REP 1,3
745a-c; A 5, ANS 747c-748b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 79,
AA 1-2 156b-158a; Q 80 159d-162d; Q 81, AA 1-2
163a-165c; A 5 167a-d; PART in SUPPL, Q 69,
A 7, REP 9 891d-893c; Q 74, A i, REP i 925c-
926c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [103-142]
107b-d; vn [19-148] 115b-116c; XIH [52-87]
126a-b; xix [40-66] 135c-d; xxix [49-66]
150d-151a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART in, 191b-d; 195d-
196a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT n,
sc in [15-30] 296c
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK ix [494-1189] 258a-
273a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 116a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 153-154
443d-444b
35 HUME' Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
76-81 485a-487a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 330a-b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 316a-317d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 11, par 139
48d-49b, ADDITIONS, 90-91 130b-131d / Phi-
losophy of History, INTRO, 160a; 162a-163a;
168djPARTi, 237d-238c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict^ csp 30a-36b, 117a-
124b, 131a-145a, 171b, 317a-321a, 411a-419b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
344a-d
2. The goodness or perfection of God: the
plenitude of the divine being
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:48 / Luke, 18:18-
19 / / John, 1.5 / Revelation, 15:4— (D) Apoc-
alypse, 15-4
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 321d~323a / Timaeus,
447a-448b / Theaetetus, 530b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 602a-
603b
THE GREAT IDEAS 2
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH i [1145*15-27]
395a; CH 14 [ii54b20-3i] 406c; BK x, CH 8
[ii78b8-23] 433b-c / Politics, BK vn, CH i
[i323b22-25] 527c
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK H, CH 8 146a-
147c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1009a;
1049b-1050b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 12 4a; BK
n, par 10 lla-b; BK vn, par 1-7 43b-45d; par
16-23 48c-50c; BK x, par 38 81a; BK xi, par 6
90c-d; BK xni, par 1-5 HOd-llld; par 53
124d-125a,c / City of God, BK xi, CH 10 327d-
328d; BK xn, CH 1-3 342b,d-344b; CH 8 346d-
347b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 5-7 625d-
626c; CH 31-32 633b-d
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
REP 2 lOd-lld; A 3, ANS and REP i 12c-14a; Q
3, A i, ANS 14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a; A 7, REP
2 19a-c; Q 4 20c-23b, Q 6 28b-30d; Q 13, A 2,
ANS 63c-64d; A n, REP 2 73c-74b, Q 18, A 3
106b-107c; Q 19, A i, REP 1-3 108d-109c; Q 21,
A i, REP 4 124b-125b; Q 26 150a-152a,c; Q 51,
A i, REP 3 275b-276b; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-
286c; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 61, A 3, REP 2
316a-d; Q 62, A 8, ANS and REP 1-2 323c-324a;
Q 66, A I, CONTRARY 343d-345c, Q 84, A 2, ANS
and REP 3 442b-443c; Q 91, A i, ANS 484a-
485b; Q 100, A 2, ANS 521c-522b; Q 103 528a-
534b passim; Q 104, A 3, REP 2 537b-d; A 4,
ANS 538a-c; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-542a; A 5,
ANS 542a-543b; PART I-H, Q 2, A 4, REP i
618a d; A 5, REP 2 618d-619c; Q 9, A 6, ANS
662a-d; Q 18, A i, ANS 694a-d; Q 22, A 2, REP i
721c-722c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A 4, ANS 5a-6a; Q 61, A 5, ANS 58b-59d; Q 64,
A 4, ANS and REP 3 69b-70a; PART n-n, Q 9,
A 4, REP i 425d-426c; Q 13, A i, ANS 444 b-
445a; Q 17, A i, ANS 457a-d; Q 23, A 4, ANS
485d-486b; Q 34, A i, ANS 559a-c; Q 39, A 2,
REP 3 575b-576b; Q 184, A 2, ANS 629d-630d;
PART in, Q i, A i, ANS 701d-703a; Q 23, A i,
ANS 833a d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xxvm [91-96] 97a; PARADISE,
vii [64-148] 115d-116c esp [64-66] 115d; xni
[52-87] 126a-b; xix [40-90] 135c-136a
22 CHAUCER: Merchant's Tale [10,160-164] 336a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 300c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52a-d; 53d /
Meditations, i, 77b-c; HI, 86a-88d; iv 89a-
93a passim / Objections and Replies, 123d-
124c; DEF vm 130d; 228a-c; 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 6 355b;
PROP 8-9 356d-357d; PROP 10, SCHOL 358a-b;
PROP 14 359d-360a; PROP 16 362a; PROP 33,
SCHOL 2 367d-369a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [135-166] 138b-
139a; BK vii [170-173] 220b-221a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 425-426 243b-244b; 430
245a-247b
ato2b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK HI, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH
XXHI, SECT 34-35 213a-c; BK HI, CH vi, SECT
n-12 271b-272b passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
106-107, 499c-500a passim; DIV 113, 502a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 230a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 205a-b; 237d-239a /
Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 263a-b;
278b-d / Practical Reason, 307a-d; 325d-
326a; 342c; 345a-c; 351b-352c / Judgement,
592a-c
:a. God's goodness as diffusive, causing the
goodness of things: God's love
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, i / Exodus, 20:4-6
esp 20:6; 33:19; 34:5-10 / Deuteronomy, 4:1-
40 esp 4-6-8, 4:31, 4:37; 5:7-10 esp 5:10; 7:6-
ii / Job, 33:13-33 / Psalms passim, esp 8-10,
16-18, 20, 22-23, 25, 68, 97:10, 114:1-115:18,
118.1-119:176— (D) Psalms passim, esp 8-9, 15-
17, 19, 21-22, 24, 67, 96:10, 113:1-18, 117:1-
118 .-176 / Proverbs, 3:11-12 / Song of Solomon—
(D) Canticle of Canticles / Isaiah, 40-66 passim,
esp 42-44, 46-3-4, 49:1-26, 52:1-15, 56:1-8,
63.8-9— (D) Isaias, 40-66 passim, esp 42-44,
46:3-4, 49:1-26, 52.1-15, 56.1-8, 63 8-9 f Jere-
miah, 31-33— (D) Jeremias, 31-33 / Lamenta-
tions, 3-22-39 esp 3:25, 3:38 / Ezefyel, 16 esp
16:6-14, 16:59-63 — (D) Ezechtel, 16 esp 16:6-
14, 16:59-63 / llosea esp 2-14-23, 3:1 , 3-5,
6:1-3, 11:1-4, 13:16-14:9— (D) Oseeesp 2:14-
23» 3:I» 3:5» 6.1-3, Ii:*~4» 14^1-10 / Joel, 2
esp 2:18-32 / Zechanah, 9:17— (D) Zachanas,
9:17 / Malachi, 1:1-3— (D) Malachtas, 1:1-3
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 13:10— (D) OT, Tobias,
13:12 / Wisdom of Solomon, 11-22-26; 16 20-
29— (D) OT, Boo{ of Wisdom, 11.23-27;
16:20-29 / Ecclestasticus, 11:14-17; 16.26-
18:14 esp 16-29-30; 39:16,25-34— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 11:14-17; 16:26-18:14 esp 16-30-
31; 39:21,30-40
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:25-34; 7:7-11 /
Lufy, 11:1-13; 12:6-7,16-33 / John, 1:1-5;
3:16-21; 13:31-35; 14:21; 15:9-16; 17:21-26 /
Romans, 2:4; 8-31-39 / Galattans, 2:20 /
Ephesians, 3:14-21; 5:1-2 / I John, 3-4 esp
3:1, 3:16, 4.7-12 / Revelation, 3:19— (D)
Apocalypse, 3:19
7 PLATO: Republic, BK 11, 321d-322d; BK vi-vn,
384a-389c / Timaeus, 447a-448a
8 ARISTOTLE: Generation and Corruption, BK 11,
CH 10 (336b25-34J 438d / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 7 602a-603b; CH 10 [1075*11-24] 605d-
606a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 8 146a-147c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1049b-
1050b; 1071b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vn, CH 1-2 26a-d
/ Fifth Ennead, TR v 228b-235b / SixthEnnead,
TR ix, CH 9 358d-359c
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
619
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 7 2c-d; BK
ii, par 10 lla-b; BK vti, par 4 44b-c; par 16-
23 48c-50c; BK xi, par 6 90c-d; BK xni, par
1-5 HOd-llld / City of God, BK vn, CH 31
261d-262a; BK xi, CH 21-24 333a-336a; BKXII,
CH i 342b,d-343c; CH 9 347b-348b; BK xiv,
CH 13 387c-388c; BK xxn, CH 24 609a-612a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 31-32 633b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, ANS and REP i 12c-14a; Q 3, A i, REP i
14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a; Q 6 28b-30d;
Q 13, A 2, ANS 63c-64d; Q 19, A 2, ANS and
REP 2-4 109c-110b; A 4, ANS and REP i lllc-
112c; Q 20 119d-124a; Q 21, A 3, ANS 126a-c;
Q 25, A 6 149a-150a; Q 50, A i, ANS 269b-270a;
A 3, ANS 272a-273b; Q 51, A i, REP 3 275b-
276b; Q 59, A i, ANS 306c-307b; A 2, ANS 307o
308b; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 91, A i, ANS 484a-
485b; Q 103 528a-534b; Q 104, A 3, REP 2
537b-d; A 4, ANS 538a-c; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-
542a; Q 106, A 4, ANS 548b-549a; PART I-H, Q
i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a; Q 2, A 5, REP 3 618d-
619c; Q 9, A 6, ANS 662a-d; Q 19, A 4, ANS
705b-c; Q 28, A 3, CONTRARY 742a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 7Sd-76a; PARADISE, n [112-148] 109a-b;
vn [16-148] 115b-116c esp [64-75] 115d-116a;
xm [52-87] 126a-b; xix [40-90] 135c-136a;
xxvi [1-69] 145d-146c; xxvin 148d-150b;
xxix [13-36] 150b-c; [127-145] 151c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 185d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 229c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [135-143] 138b;
BK v [153-208] 178b-179b; BK vn [170-173]
220b-221a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
3 405 b-c; SECT 154 444a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 169d-
170a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c; BK vi, 167b-168c; BK vn, 189a-
191a,c
2b. The divine goodness and the problem of
evil
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 30:15-20 esp
30 15 / / Samuel, 16 : 14-23 —(D) I Kings,
16:14-23 / Job / Psalms, 5 esp 5:4-6; 9-10;
13; 22 esp 22:7-8; 37; 39 esp 39:8-12; 44;
73 ; 88— (D) Psalms, 5 esp 5:5-7; 9; 12; 21
esp 21:8-9; 36; 38 esp 38:9-13; 43; 72; 87
/ Proverbs, 8:13 / Ecclesiastes, 8:1-9:12 esp
8:10-14, 9:1-3 / Isaiah, 457~(£>) Isaias,
457 / Jeremiah, 12 esp 12:1-2— (D) Jeremias,
12 esp 12:1-2 / Lamentations, 3:38 / Amos,
3:6 / Micah, i:i2—(D) Micheas, 1:12
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:13-16; 2:23-
24; 11:24— (D) OT, Boo1(of Wisdom, 1:13-16;
2 ^3-25 ; 1 1 125 / Ecclesiasticus, 1 1 :i4~i6; 15:11-
20; 33:10-15; 39:25-31— (D) OT, Ecclesiasti-
cus, 11:14-16; 15:11-22; 33:10-15; 39:30-3?
620
THE GREAT IDEAS
Ibtol
(2. Tb* goodness or perfection of God: the pleni-
tude of the divine being. 2b. The divine
goodness and the problem of evil.)
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 13:24-30,36-43 esp
13:38-39 / John, 3:16-21 / Romans, 3:1-10;
5 / James, 1 112-15 / 1 John, i csp 1 15-6
5 AESCHYLUS : Eumenides Sla-91d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 321d-322d / Timaeus,
452c-453b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 9 [1051*
17-22] 577a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-120b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 140d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vni 27b-34a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par n 15d-
16a; BK iv, par 24 25b-c; BK v, par 20 32d-
33a; BK VH, par 3-7 44a-45d; par 11-23 47a-
50d; BK xin, par 45 123a / City of God, BK
vm, CH 24, 283a-b; BK x, CH 21 311c-312a;
BK xi, CH o 326d-327d; CH 13-15 329c-331a;
CH 22 333d-334c; BK xii, CH 1-9 342b,d-348b,
CH 21-22 357a-c; CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK xin,
CH 13-15 366a-d; BK xiv, CH 10-15 385b-
390a; BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a; BK XXH,
CH i 586b,d-587b / Christian Doctrine, BK n,
CH 23 648a-c; BK in, CH 37, 673d-674a
IP AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A
3, REP i 12c-14a; Q 8, A i, REP 4 34d-35c; A
3, ANS 36b-37c, Q 14, A 10 83d-84c, Q 15, A 3,
REP i 93b-94a; Q 17, A i lOOd-lOld; Q 18, A 4,
REP 4 107d-108c; Q 19, A 9 116d-117d; A 12,
ANS and REP 4 118d-119d; Q 20, A 2, REP 4
121b-122a; Q 22, A 2, REP 2 128d-130d; A 3,
REP 3 130d-131c; Q 23, A 5, REP 3 135d-137d;
A 7, REP 3 138d-140a; Q 25, A 3, REP 2 145b-
147a; Q 48, A 2, REP 3 260c-261b; Q 49, AA 2-3
266a-268a,c; Q 63, A 4 328b-329a; A 5, ANS
329a-330c; A 7, REP 2 331c-332b; Q 64, A 4
337d-338d; Q 65, A i, REP 2-3 339b-340b; Q
66, A 3, ANS 347b-348d; Q 72, A i, REP 6 368b-
369d; Q 92, A i, REP 3 488d-489d; Q 103, A 3,
REP 2 530a-c; A 7, REP i 533b-d; A 8 533d-
534b; Q 114, A i, ANS 581d-582c; PART i-n, Q
39, A 2, REP 3 790d-791b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 79
156a-159c; PART in SUPPL, Q 74, A i, REP i
925c-926c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxiv [28-36]
51c; PARADISE, i [103-142] 107b-d; VH [19-
148] 115b-116c; vni [91-148] 117d-118c; xin
[52-87] 126a-b; xix [40-90] 135c-136a; xxix
[49-66] 150d-151a
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [7056-7085] 281a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART H, 160d-161a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a;
80b-81a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv 89a-93a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 33, SCHOL 2
367d-369a; APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK i [128-
168] 96a-97a, [209-220] 98a, BK in [56-343]
136b-143a, BK iv [32-113] 153a-155a, BK vi
[262-295] 202a-b, BK vn [519-549] 228b-229a,
BK vni [316-337] 239a-b, BK ix [679-779]
262a>264a, BK x [585-640] 287a-288b, BK xi
[84-98] 301a / Samson Agonistes [1156-1177]
364b-365a / Areopagttica, 394b-395b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 116a-b / Penstes,
735-736 317b; 820 331b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 154
444a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vni, DIV
78-81 485c-487a; SECT xi, DIV 106-107, 499c-
500a passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 230b; 330a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 401a-b; 482a-d; 539d-
540a; 549c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 90
130b-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160a;
PART in, 304d-306a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE 7a-9b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 381a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
120d-121c; 122c-123b; 132a-135d; BK xi,
337a-346a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 790d /
New Introductory Lectures, 877d-878b
3. The moral theory of the good: the distinction
between the moral and the metaphysical
good
7 PLATO. Protagoras, 58b-62d / Gorgias, 262a-
263c; 280d-285a / Theaetetus, 530b-531a /
Philebus 609a-639a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i 339a-348d esp CH 6
341b-342c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6 [1362^-6]
603b; CH 9 [i366»23-i367b27] 608c-610c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses 105a-245a,c csp BK i,
CH i 105a-106c, CH 6 110c-112b, CH n 116d-
118d, CH 15 121c-d, CH 18 124a-125a, CH 22
127c-128c, CH 25 129d-131b, CH 27-29 132b-
138a, BK n, CH 5 142c-144a, CH 10-11 148c-
151b, BK HI, CH i 175a-177c, CH 3 178d-180a,
CH 10 185d-187a, CH 24 203c-210a, BK iv, CH
i 213a-223d, CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations 253a-310d esp BK 11,
SECT i 256b,d, SECT 9 257d, SECT 11-12
258a-c, BK iv, SECT 10 264c, SECT 24 265c-d,
SECT 32 266b-c, SECT 37 266d-267a, SECT 39
267a, BK v, SECT 2 269a, SECT 6 269b*d, SECT
10 270c-d, SECT 12 271a, SECT 15-16 271b-d,
BK vi, SECT 2 274a, SECT 51 279b-c, BK vn,
SECT 36 282 b, SECT 44 282b-c, SECT 55 283b-c,
BK vni, SECT i 285a~b, SECT 10 286b, SECT
19 286d-287a, SECT 32 287d-288a, SECT 39
288c, SECT 41 288d, SECT 51 289d-290a,
BK ix, SECT i 291a-c, SECT 16 293a, SECT 42
295c-296a,c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 16 331a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
1-5 609a-643d; QQ 18-21 693b,d-720a,c
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
621
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy ', PURGATORY, xvi [52-
114] 77b-78a; xvn [SiJ-xvm [75] 79b-80c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-76a;
80a-81a
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding BK n, CH
xxvni, SECT 4-17 229b-232d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 149d-150a;
169b [fn i]; 173b-174a / Fund. Prm. Metaphys-
ic of Morals 253a-287d esp 256a-261d, 263d-
264a, 282d-287d / Practical Reason 291a-361d
esp 297a-307d, 314d-321b, 325c, 337a-353a /
Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics 365a-
379d esp 366d-373d / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 387b /Judgement, 594d [fn i]; 595a-d
43 MILL. Utilitarianism 445a-476a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 11, par
129-140 45d-54a
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 304a-319a esp 304a-
305a, 310a-319a
54 FREUD. War and Death, 757b-760a esp 757d-
758c, 759d-760a
3a. Human nature and the determination of the
good for man: the real and the apparent
good; particular goods and the good in
general
NEW TESTAMENT* Romans, 7*15-25
5 SOPHOCLES* Antigone [587-631] 136b-c /
Philoctetes [895-903] 190a
7 PLATO Charmides, 2d-3b esp 3a / Protagoras,
57d-62d / Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b /
Meno, 177d-178b/ Gorgias, 261a-270c; 282b-
284b / Republic, BK i-iv 295a-356a; BK vin,
410a-c; BK ix, 421a-425b; BK x, 439b-441a,c
/ Timaeus, 474b-476b / Theaetetus, 528c-
531a / Sophist, 557b-d / Philebus, 619d-620b /
Seventh Utter, 805d-806a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VH, CH 3 [246*10-248*
6] 329c-330d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98oa
22-28] 499a; BK xn, CH 7 [1072*26-29] 602b
9 ARISTOTLE* Motion of Animals, CH 6 [700^5-
29] 235d-236a / Ethics, BK i, CH 6 341b-342c;
CH 7 [i097b22-i098fti9l 343a-c; BK i, CH 13-
BK n, CH 6 347b-352d; BK in, CH 4 359a-c;
CH 5 [i 1 14*22-11 15*3] 360b-361a; BK v, CH i
[ii29bi-io] 376d-377a; BK vi, CH 5 389a-c;
BK x, CH 6-8 430d-434a / Politics, BK i, CH 2
[1253*2-38] 446b-d; CH 5-6 447d-449b; BK
HI, CH 6 [i278bi5~29] 475d-476a; BK VH, CH
13 [i332*39-bio] 537a-b; CH 14 [1333*17-37]
538a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6-7 602d-607d;
CH 10 [i369bi9~27] 613a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK v [1113-1135] 75c-d; [1412-1435]
79b-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6 110c-112b;
CH n 116d-118d; CH 15 121c-d; CH 27 132b-
133b; BK in, CH i 175a-177c; CH 3 178d-180a;
BK iv, CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 9 257d;
SECT n 258a-b; BK iv, SECT 24 265c-d; SECT
32 266b-c; SECT 39 267a; BK v, SECT 15-16
271b-d; BK vi, SECT 13 274d; BK VH, SECT 20
281 b; SECT 55 283b-c; BK vin, SECT i 285a-b;
BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECT 42 295c-296a,c
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b
15 TACITUS : Histories, BK iv, 267c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 43-44
181b-182b / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 26 334c-d
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK x, par 29-34 ?8d-
80c / City of God, BK xn, CH 3 343d-344b;
BK xix, CH 1-9 507a-516c / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 38 635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A i, ANS 50c-51c; Q 26, A 2, ANS 150c-151a; A
4, ANS and REP i 151c-152a,c; Q 59, A i, ANS
306c-307b; A 3, ANS 308b-309a; A 4, ANS 309a-
310a; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-
318c; Q 80, A 2, REP 2 428a-d; Q 82, A 4, REP i
434c-435c; A 5, ANS 435c-436c; Q 92, A i, ANS
488d-489d; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-542a; PART
i-ii, QQ 1-5 609a-643d; Q 9, A 6, REP 3
662a-d; Q 18 693b,d-703a; Q 19, A i, REP i
703b-d; Q 22, A 3, REP 2 722d-723b; Q 34, A 4
771c-772b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 54,
A 3 24c-25b; QQ 55-56 26a-35a; Q 63, A i 63a-
64a; Q 71, A 2 106d-107c; Q 91, A 2 208d-209d;
Q 94 220d-226b; PART n-n, Q 29, A 2, REP 3
531a-d; A 3, REP i 531d-532c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
114] 77d-78a; xvn [82]-xvin [75] 79b-80c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-62c; 65a;
96a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-d
25 MoNTAicNL-£tt0y.f, 149b-d;231d-233a;489b-
490c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc i [103-134]
48a-b / Measure for Measure, ACT n, sc iv
[1-17] 184c-d / Othello, ACT n, sc in [342-368]
220c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 70d-71b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PREF, 423c-d; PROP
18-28 428d-431c; PROP 31 432a-b; PROP 35,
COROL 1-2 433c-d; APPENDIX, v 44 7c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 425-426 243b-244b; 430
245a-247b; 438 251a; 463-468 255a-256a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK i,
CH n, SECT 5-6 105a-c; SECT 13, 108b-c; BK
n, CH xxi, SECT 52-53 191d-192b; SECT 55-56
192c-193b; SECT 60-70 194a-197b passim; CH
xxviii, SECT ii 230c-231a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 257a-268a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38c-40a; 41a-43b; 53b-
54d; 82c-83b; 88b-89c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343a-346d; 351c-352a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 169b [fn i] / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254d; 263d-264a;
270c-d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 387d-
388a / Judgement, 584d-587a
43 MILL: Liberty, 295d-296d / Representative
Government, 367a-369a / Utilitarianism, 448a-
455a; 456d-457b; 458b-464d
622
THE GREAT IDEAS
Zb to Zb(l)
(3. The moral theory of the good: the distinction
between the moral and the metaphysical
good. 3*. Human nature and $e deter-
mination of the good /or mam the real and
the apparent good; particular goods and
the good in general)
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 130b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 78
128c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b;
182d-184d; PART i, 236a-c; PART n, 280b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 36a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-317d passim,
csp311d-313a;592d
50 MARX: Capital, 301d [fn 3]
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 689b
52 DOSTOEVSKY : Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 12 7b-
137c; BK vi, 164b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 198b-209b esp 198b-200a,
202a-204b, 208b-209b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 20c-d / General Introduction, 624a-
625b / Civilization and Its Discontents,
767a; 785c-802a,c csp 786d-787a, 788d-789b,
792b-c, 800c-801b
3£. Goodness in the order of freedom and will
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 7:15-25
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III,CH 1-5 355b,d-361a;
BK iv, CH 9 [ii28b2o-3o] 376a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses 105a-245a,c csp BK i,
CH i 105a-106c, CH 11 116d-118d, CH 18 124a-
125a, CH 22 127c-128c, CH 25 129d-131b,
CH 29 134d-138at BK n, CH 5 142c-144a, BK
in, CH 2 177c-178d, CH 10 185d<187a, CH 18
192a-c, CH 26 210d-213a,c, BK iv, CH i 213a-
223d
12 AURELIUS : Meditations 253a-310d esp BK iv,
SECT 37 266d-267a, SECT 39 267a, BK v, SECT
2 269a, SECT 10 270c-d, BK vi, SECT 2 274a,
BK VH, SECT 44 282 b-c, BK vm, SECT 32 287d-
288a, SECT 41 288d, SECT 51 289d-290a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 19-24
58b-60a / City of God, BK xn, CH 1-9 342b,d-
348b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 48,
A 6, ANS 264a-d; Q 49, A i, REP i 264d-265d;
Q 82, AA 1-2 431d-433c; Q 83, A i 436d-438a;
Q 87, A 4, REP 2 468b-d; Q 105, A 4, ANS 541c-
542a; PART i-n, Q 10, AA 2-4 663d-666a,C
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 79,
AA 1-2 156b-158a; Q 80, AA 1-3 159d-162b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi
[58-129] 77c-78a; xvm [19-75] 80a-c; xxi [40-
72] 85b-d; PARADISE, iv [64-114] lllb-d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 87c; 93c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Paniagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-81c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART HI, 50b / Objec-
tions and Replies, AXIOM vn 132a; 228a-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-134] 137a-
138a; BK v [224-245] 180a-b; [506-543] 186a-
187a; BK ix [342-375] 254b-255b / Arcop-
agitica, 390b-391a; 394b-395b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d~338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164a-171a; 236d-237a /
Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254d;
256a-261d; 265b; 271d-287d / Practical Rea-
son, 298a-300a; 304a-d; 310b-311d; 315b-c;
318c-d; 331c-337a,c / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 378a-b / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 391a-c; 393d/ Science of Right, 397b-
398a; 400b,d-402a; 403b-404a / Judgement,
571c-572a; 605d-606b [fn 2]
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 112a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 8 14c;
PART n, par 114 42a-b; PART HI, par 142-157
55a-57d; ADDITIONS, 68 126d-127a; 82-86
129a-c; 92-100 131d-133a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311a-d
52 DOSTOE'VSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 794a-808a esp 797b-798a,
799a-b, 807a-808a; 816a-819a esp 817a-818a;
825a-827a esp 827a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 164d-168d;
386c-387a
£(1) The prescriptions of duty
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [373-430] 228b d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 10 185d-
187a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 2 274a;
BK vn, SECT 44 282b-c; BK vm, SECT 32 287d-
288a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 14-16
520a-522a; CH 19 523b-d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 71a-76a esp
74b-76a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART HI, 48b-49d;
PART vi, 62d-63a
38 ROUSSEAU. Political Economy, 372b-373b /
Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 149d-150a;
190c-d; 236d-237a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of
Morals, 253d-254d; 256a-b; 260a-261d; 265c-
266d; 268c-270c; 272a-b; 273d-287d esp277d-
279d, 281c-282d / Practical Reason, 297a-
314d esp 307d-314d; 321b-329a esp 32 5c;
330d-331a; 338c-355d / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 366d-367a; 368b-369a;
373d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-
390a,c esp 383a-384d, 388b-c, 389a-390a,c;
391a-c; 392b-393a / Science of Right, 397c-
398a; 416b-417b / Judgement, 571c-572a;
593a-d; 595a-d; 599b-d; 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Liberty, 296b-c/ Utilitarianism, 446a-d;
453c-d; 458b-459b; 468b-469b; 469d-470b;
475a-476a,c
40 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 36
21b-c; par 79 33a-c; PART n, par 129-135 45d-
47d esp par 133 47a; PART in, par 148-149
b(l) to $c
56a-b; ADDITIONS, 84 129b; 86 129c / Philoso-
phy of History, PART iv, 362c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 304a; 310d; 313d-
314a; 592b-c
b(2) The good will: its conditions and conse-
quences
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 262a<263c / Timaeus, 474b-d
/ Laws, BK v, 688d-689a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK iv, CH 5 [126*30-37]
175c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, cni-5 355b,d-361a;
BK iv, CH 9 [ii28b2o-3o] 376a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH ii 116d-118d; CH 18 124a-125a; CH 22
127c-128c; CH 25 129d-131b; CH 29 134d-
138a; BK n, CH 5 142c-144a; CH 13 152c-153d;
CH 16 156b-158d; CH 23 170a-172d; BK in,
CH 10 185d-187a; BK iv, CH 10 238d-240d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 35, 177d-
178a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XH, CH 3-9 343d
348b; BK xiv, CH n 385d-387a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP 3 25d-26c; o 48, AA 5-6 263a-264d;
Q 49, A i, REP i 264d-265d; PART I-H, Q 3, A 4,
REP 5 625a-626b; Q 4, A 4 631d-632c; Q 9, A 6,
REP 3 662a-d; QQ 18-21 693b,d-720a,c esp Q
19 703a-711d
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xv [1-12]
128b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 13d-14c; 115b-119d;
124c-125a; 146b-d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 72a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [342-375] 254b-
255b / Samson Agonistes [1334-1379] 368b-
369b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 372a-373b /
Social Contract, BK n, 396b-d; 400a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 169b [fn i] / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254d; 256a-257d
esp 256a-b, 257c-d; 260a-261d; 265c; 268c-
270c; 272a-b; 279b,d-287d esp 281c-282d /
Practical Reason, 297a-319b esp 307d-314d,
316a-317d; 321b-329a; 330c-331a / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-387a,c; 388b-c;
392b-393a / Judgement, 595a-d; 605d-606b
[fn 2}
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 453c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 112a-b; 145c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 105
40a; par 114 42a-b; ADDITIONS, 90 130b-d
F, The good and desire: goodness causing
movements of desire and desire causing
estimations of goodness
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 7:15-25
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 105c-d
7 PLATO: Lysis, 21b-25a / Phaedrus, 120b-c;
128a-d / Symposium, 164c-16Sc / Meno, 177d-
178b / Phikbus, 614a / Laws, BK v, 689b
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
623
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [1072*
26-29] 602b / Soul, BK in, CH io- n 665d-667a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 6 235d-
236b / Ethics, BK i, CH i [io94»i-3] 339a;
CH 2 [1094*17-22] 339b; BK HI, CH 4 359a-c;
BK v, CH i [ii29bi-io] 376d-377a; BK vi, CH
2 387d-388b; BK ix, CH 9 [1170*13-25] 423d-
424a; BK x, CH 2 426c-427b esp [ii72b35-
»73a4] 427a; CH 6 [ii76*30-b8] 430d-431a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6-7 602d-607d; CH io
[1369*3-4] 612b; [I369b7-i2] 612d; [i369bi^-
27] 613a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-170a
14 PLUTARCH: Pertcles, 121a-122b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH 3 102a-c;
CH io 105d-106b / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH
19 332a-b; TR vin, CH 7, 345d; CH 13, 349b-c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A i,
ANS 23c-24a; A 2, REP 4 24b-25a; A 4, ANS 25d-
26c; A 6, ANS 27c-28b; Q 6, A i, REP 2 28b-d;
Q 20, A 2, ANS 121b-122a; PART I-II, Q 5, A 8
642d-643d; Q 8 655a-657c; Q n, A 3 667d-
668d; Q 12, AA 2-4 670b-672a; Q 22, A 3,
REP 2 722d-723b; Q 23 723c-727a; Q 27, A i
737b-d; Q 41, A 3 799c-800b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 58,
A 4 esp REP 3 44a-d
21 DANTE* Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvi [85-114] 77d-78a; xvn [82]-
xvni [75] 79b-80c esp xvm [19-39] 80a-b;
PARADISE, i [103-142] 107b-d; iv [ii5)-v [12]
llld-112b; vii [139-144] 116c; xxvi [1-69]
145d-146c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61d-62a; 96a-b;
PART iv, 272c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 149b-d; 297d-300c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 67a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 50b / Objec-
tions and Replies, AXIOM vn 132a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d:
PART in, PROP 6-9 398d-399c esp PROP 9,
SCHOL 399c; PROP 12-13 400b-d; PROP 39,
SCHOL 408b-d; PROP 54 413a-b; PART iv,
PREF-DEF 2 422b,d-424a; PROP 8-13 426b-
428a; PROP 19 429d; PROP 27-28 431b-c; PROP
63 443d-444a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 6 177a-b; CH xxi, SECT 29-54 184d-192c
passim; SECT 61-62 194b-d; SECT 70 197a-b
38 RoussEAu:/«^«a%,338c-339a
42 KANT: Fund, Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
259a-c; 264d-265b / Practical Reason, 293c-d
[fn 3]; 298a-300a; 301a; 304a-d; 330c-331a;
341c-342a / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
385a-c /Judgement, 60Sd-606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 123
44a-b; ADDITIONS, 78 128c-d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 166b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 810b-811a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 792b-c;
801d
624
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The moral theory of the good: the distinction
between the moral and the metaphysical
good.)
$d. Pleasure as the good, a good, or feeling
good
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 59a-62d / Gorgias, 275b-
280d / Republic, BK vi, 384b-d; BK ix, 421a-
425b / Philebus 609a-639a,c / Laws, BK 11,
656d-658b; 660a-d; BK v, 689c-690c
8 ARISTOTLE. Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 40 68b /
Topics, BK in, CH 2 [ii7a23-25J 163d ; CH 3
[n8b27-36] 165d-166a; CH 6 [ii9ar7-bi] 166d,
BK iv, CH 4 [124*15-20] 172d; [124^7-14] 173b;
BK vi, CH 8 (i46bi3-i9] 200c; BK VIH, CH 9
[i6obi6-23] 218a-b / Physics, BK VH, CH 3
[246b2o-247ai9] 330a-b / Metaphysics, BK xn,
CH 7 [io72bi3-29] 602d-603a / Soul, BK in,
CH 7 (43ia8-b9J 663c-664a
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 6 (70ob23-
29] 236a / Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [i095bi4~22] 340d;
CH 8 [1099*7-30] 344c-d; BK n, CH 3 350a-c;
BK in, CH 4 359a-c; BK vn, CH 4 398a-399a
esp [i i48*22-b4] 398c-d, CH 1 1-14 403c-406a,c;
BK x, CH 1-5 426a-430d / Politics, BK vm, CH
5 [M39bll~38] 545a-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6
[1362^5-9] 603b; CH 7 [1364^3-27] 606c;
[I365bii-i3]607d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [14-21]
15a-b; BK v [1412-1436] 79b~d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH n 150a-
151b; BK in, CH 24 203c-210a
12AuRELius: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK vi, SECT 51 279b-c; BK vn, SECT 27
281d; SECT 64 284a-b; BK vm, SECT 10 286b;
SECT 19 286d-287a, SECT 39 288c; SECT 47
289b-c; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; BK x, SECT 34-
35 301a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 12 17d /
Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 15, 74d-75a / Sixth
Ennead, TR vn, CH 26 334c-d; CH 29-30 335d-
336d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 20 225b-
226a; BK x, CH 18 310b-d; BK xix, CH 1-3
507a-511a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 5, A 6,
ANS and REP 2 27c-28b; PART i-n, Q i, A 6,
REP i 614a-c; A 7, ANS 614c-615a; Q 2, A 6
619d-620d; Q 3, A 4 625a-626b; Q 4, AA 1-2
629d-631a; Q 11 666b,d-669b; Q 27, A 3, ANS
738c-739c; Q 30, A 4, REP 3 751c-752b; QQ 31-
34752b-772b;Q39790a-792d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART H-II, QQ
28-29 527b-533a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVH
[127-139] 79d; xvin [19-39] 80a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61d-62c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 70d-72a; 235d-
237d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-74a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 39, SCHOL
408b-d; PART iv, PROP 8 426b-c; PROP 41-43
437a-c
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK iv [877-945)171^
173a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 1-2 176b-c; CH xxi, SECT 43 188d; SECT
55-56 192c-193b; SECT 63 194d-195a; CH
xxvin, SECT 5 229c-d
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 173b-174a / Fund. Pnn.
Metaphysic of Morals, 259a-b; 265b / Practical
Reason, 298a-300a; 304a-307d; 314d-319b
esp 315c; 330c-331a, 338c-355d esp 341c-
342a / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 387b-388a
/ Judgement, 478a-479d; 584d-587a; 588b
[fn 2); 591b-592a; 594c-596c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism 445a-476a,c passim, esp
447b-457b, 461c-464d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 216c; 378a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
88d;BKxi,343d-344a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 94a-b; 808b-814b esp
810a, 812b-814b
54 FREUD Instincts, 418d-420b / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 772a-c, 792b-c
e. Right and wrong: the social incidence of
the good; doing or suffering good and
evil
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 18 '17-33 / Exodus,
20*12-17; 22:21-28; 23:1-9 / Leviticus, 19 9-
18,33-367 Numbers, 15:157 Deuteronomy, 5 :i6-
21 ; 10:17-19/7 Samuel, 24; 26— (D) I Kings,
24,26 / Proverbs, 3:27-35; 12:21; 15:1; 17:137
Isaiah, 3:13-15; 10:1-3— (D) tsatast 3:13-15;
10-1-3 / Ezefyel, 18:5-22— (D) Ezechiel, 18:5-
22 / Hosea, 4 1-3; 7:1-7— (D) Osee, 4:1-3;
7:1-7 / Amos, 2 6-8; 4:1-2; 8:4-7 / Micah,
6.8— (D) Micheas, 6.8 7 Zechariah, 7.9-10—
(D) Zachanas, 7-9-10
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, i '1-2.9; 4.1-20 — (D) OT,
Tobias, i : 1-2 '9; 4:1-20 / Ecclesiasticus, 7-8;
12-14 esp 12:3, 14*5-7; 2^5 34-'21-22— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7-8; 12-1 4 esp 12:3, 14 5-7;
28; 34:25-27 / Susanna — (D) OT, Daniel, 13
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5-7 passim, esp 7 12
/ Luty, 6:27-38 / Romans, 12:17-21 / / Corin-
thians, 6:1-11 / / Peter, 2:13-21; 3:8-18
5 AESCHYLUS : Prometheus Bound 40a-51d esp
[941-1093] 50b-51d / Agamemnon 52a-69d esp
[1331-1673] 66b-69d / Choephoroe 70a-80d
esp [235-651] 72c-76b / Eumenides 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Oedipus at Colonus [255-291] 116c-d; [1152-
1207] 124d-125b / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax
143a-155a-c esp [1045-1421] 152a-155a,c /
Electra 156a-169a,c / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis 237a-247a,c / Suppliants
[195-250] 260a-c 7 Electra 327a-339a,c esp
[880-1359] 335a-339a,c / Phoenician Maidens
378a-393d esp [260-645] 380b-383d, [1628-
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
625
1684] 392b-d / Orestes [491-715] 399a-401a /
Iphigenia at Aulis 425a-439d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 93c-d; BK vi,
201d-202c; BK VH, 2l7d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK v, 505b-c
7 PLATO: Apology, 203c-204c; 206d / Onto,
213d-214a; 215d-216c / Gorgias, 262a-267c /
Republic 295a-441a,c esp BK i-n, 300b-315a,
BK x, 436c-437c / Laws, BK n, 656d-658b;
BK v, 687c-689a; BK ix, 747b-d / Seventh Let-
ter, 805d-806a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v 376a-387a,c / Poetics,
CH 25 [1461*4-9] 697b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 28 133b-
134d; BK n, CH 10 148c-150a; BK in, CH 3
178d-180a; CH 18 192a-c; CH 24 203c-210a;
BK iv, CH i 213a-223d; CH 5 228a-230b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
SECT 16 259a; BK iv, SECT 10 264c; BK v, SECT
6 269b-d; BK vn, SECT 36 282b; BK vin, SECT
55 290b, BK ix, SECT 4 292a; SECT 16 293a;
SECT 38 295a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 19 5d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 36 634d-635b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A i 124b-125b; PART i-ii, Q 21, AA 3-4 718d-
720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 59,
A A 4-5 48c-49d; Q 60, A 2 50d-51b; Q 97, A i,
REP 3 236a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi 15a-16b;
PURGATORY, xvi [58-129] 77c-78a; xvn [91-
i39]79b-d
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMehbeus, par 30-31, 413b-
414a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; 86b; PART
n, 149b-c; PART iv, 272c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT n, sc v 12d-
14a / 2nd Henry VI, ACT in, sc i [223-281] 49c-
50a / Richard II, ACT n, sc in [140-147] 334b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n [163-188] 115b-c; ACT v, sc in [16-24]
13 7 b / King Lear, ACT iv, sc n [2-68] 270b-
27 Ib / Henry VIII, ACT in, sc n [428-450]
573c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 68b-73a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c; 81d-
82a; 93c-94a
32 MILTON : Comus 33&~$6b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 5-6 105a-c; BK n, CH xxvin, SECT 9-13
230b-231c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK HI, llc-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 351b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 149d-150a / Practical
Reason, 306b-c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
391d-392a / Science of Right, 397a-399c;
400b,d-401b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 41, 132b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-323a,c passim / Utilitari-
anism, 448a; 452b-455a; 455c-456a; 465c-
471b passim
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 315b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 81
34c-d; par 89 35c-d; par 92 35d-36a; PART n,
par 112 41c-d; par 129-132 45d-47a; par 138
48c-d; par 140 49b-54a; PART in, par 218
72c-d; par 223 73c-d; par 233 75d; ADDITIONS,
59 125c-d; 71 127b-c; 89 129d-130a; 92-100
131d-133a; 138 139a-b / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 165c-166b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 292a-297a; 375a-
376b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-316a; 3l7c-d;
319d; 322c; 592d-593a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194a-195a;
214c-216d; BK vin, 304b-305a; BK xiv, 611a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 33c-
34b; BK in, 73a-b; BK v, 123b-127b; BK vi,
153d-157b; 165c; 168c-169c; BK xn, 398a-d
54 FREUD; Civilization and Its Discontents, 792a-
793a
3/. The sources of evil in human life
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / Exodus, 23:8 /
Deuteronomy, 16:19; 30:15-20 esp 30:15 / Job
/ Ecdesiastes, 9:3 / Isaiah, ^:j—(D) Isaias,
45 :7 /^Lamentations, 3 138 / Amos, 3 :6
APOCRYPHA. Wisdom of Solomon, 1:12-16; 2 esp
2:23-24; 14:27— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom,
ri2-i6; 2 esp 2:23-25; 14:27 / Ecclestasticus,
8:2; 10:9; 11:16; 14:1-10; 15:10-20; 20:29;
27 :i-2 ; 3 1 15-1 1 — (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8 .-2-3 ;
10:9-10; 11:16; 14:1-10; 15:10-21; 20:31;
27:1-2; 31:5-11
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:13,19-24; 13:24-
30,36-43,47-51; 15:10-20; 16:26; 19:16-30 /
Marf(, 1:13; 4:1-20; 7.14-23; 8:36; 10:21-30 /
Luke, 4:1-13; 8:1-15, 9:25, 12:13-21; 16:1-13;
18.22-30 / Romans, 5:12-19, 7:15-25 / / Co-
rinthians, 6:10 / Ephesians, 5:5/77 Thessaloni-
ans, 2:1-12— (D) II Thessalonians, 2:1-11 /
/ Timothy, 6:9-10 /James, 1:12-15 / / Peter,
5.8-9 / I John, 2:7-23 esp 2:15-17 / Revelation,
12— (D) Apocalypse, 12
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [284-308] 133c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [77-185] 630a-631a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Republic, BK n,
318c-319a; BK iv, 354d-355c; BK vi, 377a-
379c; BK vn, 389d-390b; BK x, 431b-434a /
Timaeus, 466a-b / Theactctus, 530b-531a /
Laws, BK in, 669a-670c; BK vin, 733a-734a;
BK ix, 751b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [31-93]
30b-31b; BK v [1412-1435] 79b-d; BK vi [1-42]
80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 25 129d-
131b; BK n, CH 22 167d-170a; CH 26 174c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
BK VII, SECT 22 281b| BK IX, SECT 42 295c-
296a,c; BK xn, SECT 12 308b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, Sib
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vin, CH 5, 29a-c/
Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 13 73d-74b / Third
626
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The moral theory of the good: the distinction
between the moral and the metaphysical
good. 3/. The sources of evil in human life.)
Ennead, TR 11, CH 4-10 84c-88b; CH 14-18
89b-93a / Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 16 150c-d;
TR iv, CH 18, 167b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9-18 lOd-
13a; BK vn, par 4 44b-c; BK vm, par 22-24
59a-60a / City of God, BK vm, CH 24, 283a-b;
BK x, CH 21 311c-312a; BK xn, CH 21-22
357a-c; BK xin, CH 13-15 366a-d; BK xiv,
CH 10-15 385b-390a; BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 17,
A i, ANS lOOd-lOld; Q 48, A 6, ANS 264a-d; Q
49, A i, REP 3 264d-265d; Q 63, A 9, REP i
333 b-d; Q 114, A 3 583 b-d; PART i-n, Q 20,
A i 712a-d; Q 21, A 2 718a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
75-84 137c-178a
21 DAN IE: Dwme Comedy, HELL, vm [65]-ix
[103] llc-13b; xxin [139-144] 34c; xxvn [55-
136] 40a-41b; xxxiv [28-36] 51c; PURGATORY,
v [85-129] 59d-60c; vm [1-108] 64a-65b; xvi
[58-129] 77c-78a; xvn [82]-xvni [75] 79b-80c;
xxvm [91-96] 97a; PARADISE, vn 115a-116c;
vm [91-148] 117d-118c; ix [127-142] 120a;
xin [52-87] 126a-b; xvm [115-136] 134d-
135a; xxix [49-66] I50d-151a
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2453-2469] 200a-b
/ Prologue of Pardoner's Tale [12,263-268]
372a / Pardoner's Tale [12,778-828] 380b-381b
/ Talc of Mehbeus, par 18, 408a; par 76-77,
430b-431a / Parson's Tale, par 20 508b-509a;
par 57-59 528b-529a; par 62-64 530a-531a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 153b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 218c-219a; 231d-238d;
326b-327b; 381b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT n,
sc in [15-30] 296c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, ACT iv,
sc in [1-44] 410c-411a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a;
80b-81a
31 SPINOZA : Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d;
PART IV, APPENDIX, VI 447c-d
32 MILTON: Comus 33a-56b esp [331-489] 40b-
44a / Paradise Lost, BK i [157-168] 97a; [209-
220] 98a; BK n [496-505] 122a; [629-870]
125a-130a; [890-1009] 130b-133a; BK in [56-
134] 136b-138a; BK iv [505-535] 163b-164a;
BK vii [519-549] 228b-229a; BK vm [316-337]
239a-b; BK ix [679-784] 262a-264b; BK xi [84-
98]301a; BK xi [334J-BK xn [649] 306b-333a
/ Samson Agonistes [38-59] 340b; [521-540]
351a-b / Areopagitica, 394b-395b; 409b-410a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 116a-b; 140a; 162a
/ Penstes, 850 340a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 58-70 193d-197b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
76-81 485a-487a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338b-c; 347d-348a;
350c; 351c-352a; 360c 361c; 363a-366d
40 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 81b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 451b-452b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 18
16c-d; PART n, par 139-140 48d-54a; ADDI-
TIONS, 14 118c-d, 90 130b-d / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 237d-238c; PART iv, 346a-c;
354a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 3b-4a; 204a-205a;
209b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-215a esp
215a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
53b-54b; BK v, 122c-123b; 130b-135d; BK vi,
164b-166a; BK xi, 307c-310c; 344a-d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 531d-532a /
Civilization and Its Discontents 767a-802a,c
esp 787a-788b
4. Divisions of the human good
4a. Sensible and intelligible goods
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Phaedrus, 120a-
122a / Symposium, 162d-167d / Phaedo,
224a-c; 230c; 242c-243a / Republic, BK vi,
386b-d; BK vn, 397c-398b, BK ix, 423b-
424d / Laws, BK v, 689c-690c; BK vm, 735c-
736c
17 PLOHNUS: First Ennead, TR vi, CH 6-9 24a-
26a passim; TR vm, CH 2 27c-d / Second En-
nead, TR ix, CH 15-18 74d-77d / Third Ennead,
TR v, CH 7 104a-105a / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH
12-13 234a-235b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 20 24b-c;
par 24 25b-c; BK vi, par 26 42d-43a; BK vn,
par 23 50b-c; BK x, par 43-66 82a-88b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
A 4, ANS 328b-329a; Q 80, A 2, REP 2 428a-d;
Q 82, A 5, ANS 435c-436c; PART i-n, Q 2, A
6, ANS 619d-620d; Q 3, A 4, ANS 625a-626b,
Q 4, A 2, REP 2 630b-631a; Q n, A 2, ANS
667b-d;, Q] 13, A 2, ANS 673c-674c; Q 30,
A i, ANS 749a-d; Q 31, A 5 755c-756c; A 6,
ANS 756d-757c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 362b-c
4b. Useful and enjoyable goods: good for an
end and good in itself
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [153-171] 16d-17a
7 PLATO- Lysis, 22c-24a / Protagoras, 60d-62d /
Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Meno, 183d-
184b / Gorgias, 262a-264b; 266d-267a / Re-
public, BK i, 298a-299a; BK n, 310c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 15 [106*1-9] 149d;
BK in, CH i [ii6*2$-bj] 162d-163a; [n6b37-
117*4] I63c»* CH 2 ["8ft6-i6] 164d-165a; CH 3
[n8b27~36] 165d-166a; BK iv, CH 4 [124*15-20]
172d; BK vi, CH 9 [i47*33-bi] 201b-c; CH 12
[M9b3i-39l 204b-c; BK vn, CH 3 [
' 2} 209b / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 2 [i
533c; [ioi3b25-28] 533d-534a
: GOOD AND EVIL
627
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; CH
5 [1096*5-10] 341a-b; CH 6 [io96b8~26] 341d-
342a; CH 7 [i 097*15^22] 342c-343a; CH 9
[io99b25~32] 345b; BK vin, CH 2 [1155^6-22]
407a-b; BK x, CH 6 [ii76a3o-b8] 430d-431a /
Politics, BK vii, CH i [i323*23-bi3] 527a-c;
CH 13 [1332*10-25] 536d; CH 15 [i334*i2-b7J
539a-b; BK vin, CH 2-3 542b-543d passim /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [i355a39-b8] 594d; CH 5
[1361*12-24] 601c-d; CH 6-7 602d-607d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 14, 189c-d;
CH 24 203c-210a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 3-4 7c-8c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9-18 lOd-
13a / City of God, BK vm, CH 4 266d-267c;
CH 8-9 270a-27la; BK xix, CH 1-5 507a-514b;
CH 17-20 522b-524a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 35 634c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 5, A 6
27c-28b; Q 62, A 9, REP 2 324a-325b; PART i-n,
Q 2, A i 615d-616c, Q 3, A i, ANS 622c-623a;
Q 7, A 2, REP i 652d-653c; Q 8, A A 2-3 656a-
657c
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 62a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27c-d;
71a-b
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, v 44 7c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT63l94d-195a-
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 538a-539a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236d-237a / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 257c-d; 266a-
267d; 268b; 271c-279d esp 273d-277b /
Practical Reason, 314d-315c; 327d-329a /
Pref Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 367c /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 387b-388a /
Judgement, 477b-c; 478a-479d; 586a-b; 591b-
592d; 595a<d
43 MILL. Utilitarianism, M6d-W8a;461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 183
64a / Philosophy of History, PART n, 267a-268b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 725b-726a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 779d-
780b
4c. Goods of the body and goods of the soul
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 40b-41a / Symposium,
162d-167d / Meno, 178c-d / Apology, 205d-
206d; 209b-212a,c / Cnto, 215a-d / Phaedo,
224a-c / Gorgias, 260a-270c / Republic, BK i,
295d-296c; 309b-310b; BK in, 334b-339a; BK
ix, 421a-425b / Timaeus, 474b-476b / Sophist,
556d-558d / Laws, BK i, 643c-d; BK 11, 656d-
658b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vii, CH 3 [246*10-
248*6] 329c-330d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [io97b23~io98*
17] 343a-c / Politics, BK vii, CH i [i323*22-b2i]
527a-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [i36obi 9-136 1*12]
601a-c; [i36ib3~27] 602a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK u [1-61]
15a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 20 126c-127b;
BK iv, CH i 213a-223d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b csp
CH 2-7 12d-16a, CH 14-16 18a-19b; TR vn, CH
3 26d-27a
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK x, par 43-66 82a-
88b / City of God, BK i, CH 11-19 136d-142a;
BK vm, CH 8 270a-d; BK xv, CH 22 416a-c; BK
xix, CH 1-3 507a-511a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 2,
AA 5-7 618d-621c; Q 3, A 3 624b*625a; Q 31,
A 5 755c-756c
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
114] 77d-78a; xxx [55J~xxxi [90] 100a-101d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 62c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
234a-235a
25 MONTAIGNE : Essays, S3Ba-d
31 DESCARTES' Discourse, PART i, 41d*42a
37 FIELDING* Tom Jones, 263c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-450a; 471a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 378a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV,130b-
132b; BK vi, 164b-165a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 198b-199b
4. Intrinsic and external goods: intrinsic
worth and extrinsic value
7 PLATO: Apology, 206a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 8 [1098^2-19]
344a; BK vii, CH 13 [115^13-24] 405a; BK ix,
BK x, CH 8 432d-434a esp [ii78b33-ii79Bi6]
433c-d / Politics, BK iv, CH n [i295b2~34J
495c-496a; BK vii, CH i 527a-d; CH 13 [1332*
18-27] 536d-537a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 600d-
602d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK v [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 16 156b-
158d; BK in, CH 20 192d-193d; CH 24 203c-
210a; BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a, CH 10 238d-240d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 51 279b-c;
BK vii, SECT 3 279d-280a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74c-75c / Pericles, 121a-
122b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 10 lla-b /
City of God, BK i, CH 10 135b-136c; BK vin,
CH 8 270a-d; BK xv, CH 22 416a-c; BK xix, CH
3,510c;cn2o523d-524a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 103,
A 2, REP 1-2 529a-530a; PART i-n, Q 2, AA 1-4
615d-618d esp A 4, ANS 618a-d; Q 4, AA 5-7
632c-636a esp A 7, ANS 635b-636a
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, HELL, vn [1-66] 9c-
lOb
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i» 73b-c; 93b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 107a-112d esp 108c-109c;
126b-128c;300c-306a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c; 81d-
82a
628
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Divisions of the human $M>d. 44. Intrinsic and
external goods: intrinsic worth and ex-
trinsic value,)
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 462 255a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v, SECT 37 33a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 538a-539a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 263c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of 'Morals, 256b;
274d-275b / Intro. Metaphy sic of Morals ,3V! ^
388a / Judgement, 591b-592a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 349a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 45
23c-d; par 49 24c-25a; par 63-65 28b-29a; par
67-69 29c-31a; ADDITIONS, 29 121c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194d
53 J AMES '.Psychology, 826a
4e. Individual and common goods
7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c / Republic, BK iv,
342a-d; BK v, 364c-365d / Critias, 480a /
Statesman, 588a<b
8 ARISTOTLE- Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 10 [1075*
11-24] 605d-606a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 8 [ii4ib28-ii42a
n] 390d-391a / Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*1-6]
445a; BK n, CH i-5455b,d-460a; BK in, cn6~7
475d-477a; BK iv, CH n [i295ft25~bi] 495b-c
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-126c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK VH, SECT 5 280a~b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60,
A 5, ANS 313b-314c; Q 65, A 2, ANS 340b-341b;
Q 92, A i, REP 1,3 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 512d-
513c; PART i-n, Q i, A 5, ANS 613a-614a;
AA 7-8 614c-615c; Q 19, A 10, ANS 710b-711d;
Q 21, AA 3-4 718d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 2 206b-207a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 207a-c;
A 4, ANS 207d-208b; Q 91, A 5, ANS 211c-212c;
A 6, REP 3 212c-213c; Q 93, A i, REP i 215b,d-
216c; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a; A 3, REP i
223a-c; Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, A 3,
ANS and REP 3 232b-233a; A 4, ANS 233a-d; Q
97, A 4 238b-239b; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a;
A 8, ANS and REP 3 259d-261a; Q in, A 5, REP
i 355d-356c; PART II-H, Q 39, A 2, REP 3 575b-
576b; Q 187, A 3, REP 1,3 666a-669b; PART in
SUPPL, Q 96, A 6, REP ii 1058a-1061b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 87c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 36 434a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d / Civil Government,
CH v 30b-36a passim
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 112a-113a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114a-d / Pref. Metaphysi-
cal Elements of Ethics, 369c-373b / Science of
Right, 438d-439a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 64, 197d
43 MILL: Liberty, 297a / Utilitarianism, 461d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 393a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 46
23d-24a; PART in, par 170 60d; par 199 67c;
par 249 78c; par 287 97a; ADDITIONS, 27 121b;
127 137b; 145 140b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,559-572] 281b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316c*317a; 592d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
158b-159a
5. The order of human goods
5a. The supreme good or summum bonttmi its
existence and nature
7|PLATo: Symposium, 164c-167d/C?07gf<«,254d-
255c / Republic, BK VI-VH, 383d-401d csp BK
vi, 383d-386c / Philebus, 635b-639a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH 16 543a-b;
BK xn, CH 7 [io72bi3~29] 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-12 339a-347b
csp CH 7 342c-344a; BK vn, CH 11-13 403c-
405b passim, esp CH 13 404d-405b; BK x, CH
1-8 426a-434a esp CH 6-8 430d-434a / Politics,
BK i, CH i [1252*1-6] 445a; BK in, CH 12 [i282b
15-18] 480c; BK vii, CH 1-3 527a-530a passim
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c; BK
n, CH n 150a-151b; CH 19 162c-164b; BK in,
CH 2 177c-178d; CH 10 185d-187a; CH 24 203c-
210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 34 273c;
BK vi, SECT 14 274d-275a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 4, 8a-b; TR
vni, CH 2 27c-d / Sixth Ennead, TR ix 353d-
360d csp CH 6-1 1 357a-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 24 25b-c;
BK vn, par 7 45a-d; BK x, par 29-34 78d-80c
/ City of God, BK vni, CH 8-10 270a-271d; BK
x, CH 1-3 298b,d-301a; CH 18 310b-d; BK xn,
CH i 342b,d-343c; BK xix 507a-530a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12, A
i, ANS 50c-51c; Q 26 150a-152a,c; Q 62, A i,
ANS 317d-318c; PART i-n, QQ 1-5 609a-643d;
Q 34, A 3 770c-771c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[127-139] 79d; PARADISE, i [103-142] 107b-d;
in [82-90] HOa-b; xxvi [1-69] 145d-146c;
xxxn [i39|-xxxin [145] I56a-157d
22 CHAUCER- Troilusand Cressida, BK in, STANZA
1-7 54b-55b; STANZA 250-253 87a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART r, 76c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 149b-d; 279c-
281a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 70b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 28 43 Ic;
PROP 36 434a-b; APPENDIX, iv 447b-c; xxxn
450c-d; PART v, PROP 42 463b-d
33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 73 185a-b; 462 255a
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
629
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 55-56 192c~193b; SECT 62 194c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-240b esp 237d-
238a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals 253a-
287d csp 256a-257d, 258d-259a, 263a-b,
266a>c, 267b-d, 273d-277b, 282b-283d,
286a-c / Practical Reason, 297a 314d csp
298a-300a, 304d-307d; 338c-355d csp 344c-
348b / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
365b-366d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
387b-388a / Judgement, 584d-588a; 591b-
592c; 594c-597d esp 595a-c; 604d-605c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism 445a-476a,c esp 448a,
450b-c, 461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 238c-d;
PART in, 307b-308a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771d-
772c
5b. The judgment of diverse types of good:
their subordination to one another
OLD TESTAMENT. / Kmgs, 3 .5-14— (D) HI Kings,
3-5-14 / II Chronicles, i 7-12— (D) // Parah-
pomenon, 17-12 / Psalms, 49; 52; 11972—
(D) Psalms, 48; 51; 11872 / Proverbs, 10:2;
11:4,23-31; 22:1-5 / Ecclesiastes, 5:10-19; 6:2-
7— (D) Ecclesiastes, 5-9-18; 6 2-7 / Jeiemiah,
9:23-24; 17.11— (D) Jeremias, 9 23-24, 17 n
APOCRYPHA Ecclesiasticus, 13 24-26— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 1 3 '30-32
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8-21-22; 10:34-39;
13 22,44-46; 16:24-28 / Mar^} 8.34-38; 10:17-
31 / Lufe, 9:23-27,59-62; 12-51-53; 18:18-30
/John, 6:63— (D)John, 6.64 / Romans, 8 1-27
/ Galatians, 5 16-26 / Phihppians, 3.7-21 /
/ Timothy, 6-9-12 / James, 4 i-io / I John,
2-15-17 / Jude
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-8a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a / Symposium,
165b-167d/ Meno, 183b-184c / Gorgtas, 254d-
255c; 262a-264b / Republic, BK n, 310c-311a;
BK vn, 401b, BK ix, 421a-427b / Philebus,
635b-639a,c / Laws, BK i, 643b-644a; BK n,
656d-658d; 660b-662a; BK in, 674b; BK v,
686d-688c; 689c-690c; 694d-695a; BK ix,
751b-d
8 ARISTOTLE : Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 22 [68tt
25-b8] 89d-90a / Topics, BK i, CH 5 [io2bi4~2i]
145c, BK in, CH 1-4 162a-166b; BK vin, CH 2
[i57bi7-24J 214a / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7
[io72bi3-29] 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; CH
4 [i095fti4-29] 340b-c; CH 5 340d-341b; CH 6
[1096^-26] 341d-342a; CH 7 342c-344a; BK v,
CH i [ii29bi-io] 376d-377a; BK x, CH 6-7
430d-432c / Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*1-6]
445a; CH 9 [1258*2-18] 452a-b; BK n, CH 9
[i27ibi~9] 467d; BK in, CH 12 480c-481b; BK
vn, CH i [i323822-b2i] S27a-c; CH 13 [1332*8-
27] 536d-537a; CH 14 [1333*17-37] 538a-b; CH
15 [i334bi4-28] 539c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 3
[1359*17-25] 599b; CH 7 604c-607d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1058-
1078] 57d-58b; BK v [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 9 147c-148c;
CH 19 162c-164b; BK in, CH 14 I89c-190a; BK
iv, CH 5 228a-230b
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a b;
BK v, SECT 16 271c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74c-75c / Pericles, 121a-
122b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b esp
CH 2-7 12d-16a, CH 14-16 18a<19b / Second
Ennead, TR ix, CH 15 74d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9-18 lOd-
13a; BK x, par 43-66 82a-88b / City of God,
BK i, CH 8-10 133a-136c; BK iv, CH 33-34
206c-207a,c; BK xi, CH 16 331a-c; BK xn, CH
8 346d-347b; BK xv, CH 22 416a-c; BK xix,
CH 1-3 507a-511a; CH 13-17 519a-523a; CH 20
523d-524a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-4
625b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A 6,
REP 3 27c-28b; PART i-n, Q i, A 5, REP i 613a-
614a; A 6, REP 1-2 614a-c; A 7, ANS 614c-615a;
QQ 2-4 615c-636c; Q 20, AA 1-4 712a-715b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn [82]
-xvin [75] 79b-80c; xxx (55]-xxxi [90] lOOa-
lOld; PARADISE, vi [112-126] 114d-115a; xi
[1-12] 122a
22 CHAUCER- Troilus and Cressida, BK in, STANZA
197-199 80a-b
23 M\CHIAVELLI: Prince, en xvn, 24b-c; CH xix,
26a-b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 62a; PART n,
155b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
234a-235a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a d; 69d-75a esp 70d-
72a; 107a-112d passim; 125a-c; 126b-131a pas-
sim; 216c-219a; 231d-238d; 279c-281a; 300c-
306a esp 300c-d; 368d; 489b-490c; 538a-
543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT m, sc iv [96-
103] 128a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n [51-96] 114a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 70b-76a;
86b-c; 91d-92b
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART iv, PROP 65-66 444b-d
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 94a-97a / Pensees,
233 213b-216a; 793 326b-327a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 55-56 192c-193b; SECT 62 194c-d; SECT
72 198a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373c-374a /
Social Contract, BK n, 396b-d; 400a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 32a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals f
256a-b; 257c-d; 266a-b; 271c-272b; 273d-
277b esp 274d-275b / Practical Reason, 316a-
317d; 337a-355d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics, 377d / Judgement, 478a-b; 584d-
587a; 588b [fn 2]; 591b-592a; 594c-596c
630
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The order of human goods. 56. The judgment
of diverse types of good: their subordination
to one another.)
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-450c; 455c-456a;
461c-464d; 471a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 378a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 307b-
308a; PART iv, 365b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164b-165a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 198b-204b csp 199b-203a
5c. The dialectic of means and ends: mere
means and ultimate ends
5 SOPHOCLES : Phtloctetes 182a 195a,c csp [50-
127] 182d-183c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponncstan War, BK v, 504c-
507c
7 PLATO: Lysis, 22c-24a / Laches, 29c / Euthy-
demus, 69a-71a / Cnto 213a-219a,c / Gorgias,
262a-264b; 280b-d / Republic, BK I-H, 300d-
315d csp BK ii, 310c-d / Phikbus, 632a-d /
Laws, BK v, 694d-695a; BK ix, 751c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK HI, CH i [n6b22-36]
163b-c / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 [292ai4~b26]
383d 384b / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2 [994b8~
16] 512d-513a; BK v, CH 2 [ioi3a32-b3] 533c;
[ioi3b25-28] 533d-534a / Soul, BK HI, CH 10
[433-12-17] 665d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; CH 5
340d-341b esp [1096*5-10] 341a-b; CH 6 [io96b
8-26] 341d-342a; CH 7 [i 097*1 5^22] 342c-
343a; CH 9 [io99b25~32] 345b, BK in, CH 3
[iii2bi2-ni3a2]358c-359a; BK vi, CH2 [1139*
I7~b5] 387d-388a; CH 5 389a-c passim; CH 9
[ii42bi7-35] 391d-392b / Politics, BK vn, CH
i [i323a22~b2i] 527a-c; CH 13 [i33ib26-i332a
27] 536b-S37a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6-7 602d-
607d; CH 8 [1366*3-16] 608b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 10 185d-
187a; CH 13-14 188b-190a; CH 24 203c-210a;
BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK v, SECT 16 271c-d;
BK vi, SECT 40-45 277d-278c; BK vn, SECT 44
282 b-c; BK vm, SECT 19-20 286d-287a
14 PLUTARCH: Akibtades, 160b-161b / Lysander,
357a-b / CrassuS'Nicias, 456d-457c / Agesilaus,
491a-b / Cleomenes, 660b-661a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 3-4 7c-8c;
TR iv, CH 6 15a-b / Second Ennead, TR ix, CH
15 74d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 4 266d-
267c; CH 8-9 270a-271a; BK xix, CH 1-3 507a-
511a; CH 11-17 516d-523a; CH 20 523d-524a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-4 625 b-c; CH
22 629b-630a; CH 31-33 633 b 634 b; CH 35
634c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 18, A3,
ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 2, REP 2 109c-110b; A
5, ANS and REP 1,3 112d-113c; Q 22, A i, REP 3
127d-128d; Q 23, A 7, ANS 138d-140a; Q 65,
A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 340b-341b; Q 82, AA 1-4
431d-435c; Q 83, A 4, ANS 439c-440b; PART
i-n, Q i 609a-615c; Q 4 629c-636c; Q 5, A 6,
REP i 641a-642a; Q 8, A A 2-3 656a-657c; Q 11,
A 3 667d-668d; Q 12, AA 2-4 670b-672a; Q 13,
A 3 674c-675a; Q 14, A 2 678b-c; Q 15, A 3
682c-683b; Q 16, A 3 685b-686a; Q 20, AA 1-4
712a-715b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART MI, Q 54,
A 2, REP 3 23d-24c; Q 107, A i, ANS 325c-327b;
Q 114, A 4, REP i 373a-d; PART II-H, Q 27, A 6,
ANS 524c-52Sc
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMelibeus 401a-432a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvm, 25d-26a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53a-b; 76c-d;
90a; PART in, 237d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 52c-53c; 330b-
332a; 368d; 381a-388c passim, esp 381c-d,
388a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT n, sc in [140-
i47]334b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 75d-76a;
91d-92a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371b-c;
PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a passim; DBF 7
424b; PROP 65-66 444b-d; APPENDIX, v 447c
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 94a-97a / Pensees,
98 190 b; 505 261a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH xxi,
SECT 52-53 191d-192b; SECT 62 194c-d
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 538a-539a
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 245a
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 234c-240b esp 235a-b,
236c-d, 238c-239a / Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of
Morals, 256a-b; 257c-d; 260a-c; 265c-267d;
268b; 271c-279d esp 273d-277b; 282b-283d /
Practical Reason, 307a-d; 315b-317b; 318c-
321b esp 320c-321b; 327d-329a; 337a-355d;
357c-360d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of
Ethics, 36 7c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
387d-388a / Science of Right, 397b-398a /
Judgement, 477b-c; 478a-b; 557d [fn 2];
586a-b; 588b [fn2]; 591b-592d; 594b-595d,
605d-606b [fn 2]
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 23 85a-87a passim, esp
85b-c; NUMBER 31, 103c-d; 104b-c; NUMBER
40, 129a-b; NUMBER 41, 132b-c
43 MILL: c////;/arwn/JW,445c-d;446d-447a;461c-
464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 45
23c-d, par 61 27b-c; PART n, par 119-128 43b-
45d csp par 122 44a; par 140 49b-54a; PART in,
par 182 64a; par 191 66b; par 223 73c-d; par
328 108 b-c; par 340 110 b-c; par 348 Hid;
ADDITIONS, 38-39 122c-d; 76-81 128a-129a;
116 135c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
162a*164c; 166b-168d; PART n, 267a-268b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 586d-
587d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazw, BK v,
127b-137c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-6b passim; 14b-15a;
199b-201b; 203a; 381b-382a; 788a-789a
5d
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
631
5</. The supremacy of the individual or the
common good: the relation of the good
of the individual person to the good of
other persons and to the good of the
state
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 11:10-11
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
csp [1048-1084] 38d-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[1-76] 99a-d / Antigone 131a-142d csp [158-
210] 132c-d / Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [1045-1421]
152a-155a,c / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [834-1018]
385c-387b; [1582-1684] 391d-392d / Iphigenia
at Auhs 425a-439d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians 455a-469a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 99a; BK vn,
253b-257c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 397d-
398c; 402b-c; BK vi, Sllc-d; 520c-d
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 75c-76b / Apology 200a-
212a,c csp 207a-208a / Cnto 213a-219a,c esp
216d-219a,c / Gorgias, 262a-270c / Republic,
BK i, 302c-306a; BK iv, 342a-d; BK v, 364c-
365d; BK vi, 379d-380b; BK vn, 390b-391b;
401a-b / Laws, BK v, 692d-693a; BK vi, 707c-
708a; BK vn, 72Id; BK ix, 754a-b; 754d-
755c, BK xi, 775d-778a / Seventh Letter, 814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [io94by-9]
339c-d; BK v, CH i [ii29bi 1-1130*13] 377a-c;
BK vi, CH 8 [ii4ib28-ii42*ii] 390d-391a; BK
ix, CH 6 [n67b5-i5]420d-421a; CH 8 [n68b28-
ii69aii]422b-d; cH9423a-424b; CHII 425a-d
/ Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*1-6] 445a; CH 2
[1253*18-38] 446c-d; BK n, CH 1-5 455b,d-
460a; BK in, CH 4 473c-475a; CH 7 476c-477a;
CH 12 [i282bi5-i8] 480c; CH 13 481b-483a; CH
17 [1288*15-32] 486d-487a; BK vn, CH 1-3
527a-530a csp CH 2 [1324*5-24] 528a-b; CH
13 [1332*32-38] 537a; CH 14 [i333b29~37]
538c-d; BK vni, CH i [1337*28-30] 542b
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK i, CH 19, 125d; BK
n, CH 5, 143d-144a; CH 10, 148c-149a; BK in,
CH 7 182b-184a; CH 22 198c-199d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK iv, SECT 4 264a; BK v, SECT 6 269b-d;
SECT 16 271c-d; SECT 22 272b; BK vi, SECT 14
274d-275a; SECT 45 278c; SECT 54 279c; BK
vni, SECT 12 286b-c; SECT 23 287b; BK ix,
SECT i 291a-c; SECT 23 293c; SECT 42 295c-
296a,c; BK x, SECT 6 297a-b; BK xi, SECT 21
305d306a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 44d-45c /
Solon, 71b; 71d / Cato the Younger, 626d-627b;
632b-c; 646b / Demosthenes, 699c-700a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK n, 226d-228a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 5 513d-
514b; CH 8 515c-516a; CH 12-14 517b-520d;
CH 16-17 521d-523a; CH 19 523b-d; CH 26
528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60,
A 5 313b-314c; Q 65, A 2 340b-341b; Q 92, A i,
REP 3 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c; PART
i-n, Q 4, A 8 636a-c; Q 19, A 10, ANS 7lOb-
711d; Q 21, A3 718d-719c; A 4, ANS and REP 3
719d-720a,c; Q 32, AA 5-6 762a-763c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 90,
A 2 206b-207a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 207a-c; Q
91, A 5, ANS 211c-212c; A 6, REP 3 212c-213c;
Q 92, A i, ANS and REP 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 93,
A i, REP i 215b,d-216c; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-
223a; Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, A 3, ANS
and REP 3 232b-233a; A 4, ANS 233a-d; A 6,
ANS 235a-d; Q 97, A i, ANS and REP 3 236a-d;
A 2, ANS and REP 2 236d-237b; A 4 238b-239b;
Q 98, A i, ANS 239b-240c; Q 99, A 3, ANS 247a-
248a; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a; A 8, ANS and
REP 3 259d-261a; A n, REP 3 263c-264d; Q
105, A 2, ANS and REP 1,4 309d-316a; A 3, ANS
and REP 5 316a-318b; Q in, A 5, REP i 355d-
356c; PART H-II, Q 17, A 3 458c-459a; Q 26
510b-520d passim; Q 39, A 2, REP 3 575b-576b;
Q 187, A 3, REP 1,3 666a-669b; PART in SUPPL,
Q 71 900d-917b; Q 94 1040d-1042c; Q 96, A 6,
REP n 1058a-1061b; A 7, REP 3 1061b-1062a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 91b-92b; 93d-94a;
PART n, 105c-d; 157b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 381a-388c csp 381c-d,
388a-c; 480b-482b; 487b-488b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT HI, sc i
[223-281] 49c-50a / Henry V, ACT i, sc n [183-
2i3]535d-S36a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida 103a-
141a,c esp ACT i, sc in [78-134] 109a-c / Corio-
lanus, ACT i, sc i [67-167] 352a-353a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-75a csp
74b-d; 81d-82a; 94b-95b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 35, COROL 1-2
433c-d; PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [843-902] 358a-
359aesp[843~«7o]358a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensfes, 456 254a; 474-481 256b-
257b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a; 16d-17b / Civil
Government, CH vn, SECT 87-89 44a-d; CH
vni, SECT 95-99 46c-47c; CH ix 53c-54d; CH
xi 55b-58b passim; CH xiv 62b-64c; CH xv,
SECT 171 65a-b / Human Understanding, BK i,
CH n, SECT 2 104a-b; SECT 6 105b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b; PART in, It2a-
115b esp 112a-113a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 291d-292a; 330b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 21a; BK
xin, 96a-b; BK xxiv, 203a; BK xxvi, 221c-
222a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c esp 323b-
325b; 343d-345c; 363a-366d esp 363b 364a /
Political Economy, 368d-377b / Social Contract,
BK i-n, 391b-400c; BK n, 405a-c; BK in, 417c-
418a; BK iv, 425a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 109d-110d;
BK n, 140b; BK iv, 193a-194b esp 194a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 193c-194a
632
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 6a
(5. The order of human goods. 5d. The supremacy
of the individual or the common good: the
relation of the good of the individual person
to the good of other persons and to the good
of the state.)
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Fund. Prin. Mcta-
phy sic of Morals, 272d-273a / Practical Reason,
304b-305c / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of
Ethics, 369c-373b; 373d; 375d-376b / Science
of Right, 438d-439b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
i-x 17a-18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 45, 147c-148a; NUMBER
64, 197d; NUMBFR 85, 256d-257a
43 MILL- Liberty, 267b,d-274a; 293b-323a,c esp
322d-323a,c / Representative Government, 392 b-
396d / Utilitarianism, 450b-455a; 455c-456a;
460a-461c; 463a-b; 469b-470c; 473c-476a,c
passim
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 221d-224a; 261c-d; 304c;
393a-c
46HFGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 46
23d- 24a; PART n, par 125-126 44d-45b; par
134 47b; PART in, par 155 57c, par 170 60d;
par 183 64a; par 192 66b-c; par 199 67c; par
240 76d; par 249 78c, par 254 79c, par 261
83a-d; par 277 92b-c; par 294 98b-d; par
308 102c-103a; par 323 107a; ADDITIONS, 27
121b; 47 124a-b; 117 135d-136a; 127 137b;
141 139c, 145 140b, 148 140c-d; 151 141b-c;
158 142d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b;
192d-193a; PART i, 236a-c; PART n, 271c-d;
276a; PARF in, 298c-299a; PART iv, 320c-321a;
363c-d; 365b-c; 367d-368a
47 GOETHL: Faust, PART n [11.559-572] 281b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-319a esp 312a-
313a, 314b-315d, 316c-317c; 321b-322d esp
322c-d; 592d
50 MARX: Capital, 237a
50 MARX-ENGELS* Communist Manifesto, 429b-c
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK n, 67d-68c; 72d-
74a; BK v, 214c-216d; BK vi, 260a-262a; BK
xi, 475b-476c; 505a-511b passim, esp 509d-
510a; 514b-515a; BK xn, 537b-538a; BK xm,
577b-c; BK xv, 634a-635a; EPILOGUE i, 670d-
671c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
158b-159a; 164a-167b; BK xn, 370b-d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 452c-d; 573b-c /
War and Death, 757b-759d esp 759c-d / Civil-
ization and Its Discontents, 780 b- 781 d; 799a-
800a / New Introductory Lectures, 853a-b
6. Knowledge and the good
6a. Knowledge, wisdom, and virtue: the rela-
tion of being good and knowing what
is good
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / Proverbs, 1-2; 7-8;
9:9; 10:8,31; 11:12; 14:16-18,22,29; 15:21;
28:7; 29:8
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1-7 esp 1:4;
6; 8-io-(D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 1:1-7 «P
1:4; 6; 8-10 / Ecclesiasticus, 19:22-24; 39.1-
n ; 43:33; 50:28-29— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
19:19-21; 39:1-15; 43*37; 50:30-31
NEW TESTAMENT 'John, 3:17-21 / Romans, 7.15-
25 / James, 4-17
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [375-430] 228b-d
7 PLATO Charmtdes, 7b-c; 12a-13c / Laches 26a-
37d / Protagoras 38a-64d / Euthydemus, 69a-
7la / Cratylus, 86c-d / Meno 174a-190a,c esp
183b-190a,c / Phaedo, 225d-226c; 230d-234c
/ Republic, BK i, 306c-308a; BK n, 314d-315a;
BK in, 333b-334b; 337b-d; BK iv, 354d-355a;
BK vi-vn, 383d-401d esp BK VH, 389d-
398c; BK x, 439b-441a,c / Cntias, 485b-c /
Laws, BK i, 643c-d; BK in, 669a-670c; BK ix,
754a-b; BK xn, 788d-789a / Seventh Letter,
806a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH 6 [120*26-31]
168a, BK iv, CH 2 [i2ib24-i22a2] 169d-170a;
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 339d-340b; BK
n, CH 4 350d-351b; BK vi, CH 8 390d-391c,
CH 12-13 393b-394d; BK vn, CH 2-3 395c-
398a; CH 10 [1152*7-24] 403a-b; BK x, CH 5
[1176*15-29] 430c-d, CH 8 [1178*16-18] 432d,
CH 9 [ii79b4-i 180*13] 434b-d / Politics, BK vn,
CH i [i323b2i-36]527c-d
12 EPICTETUS Discourses, BK i, CH 5 llOb c; CH
17 122d-124a, CH 26 131b-132b; CH 28 133b-
134d; BK n, en 22 167d-170a, CH 26 174c-d,
BK iv, CH i 213a-223d
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
SECI 17 259b-d; BK vn, SECT 22 281b, SECT
26 281c; SLCT 62-63 283d-284a; BK vin, SECT
14 286c; BK ix, SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK xn,
SECT 12 308b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b / Anstides,
265c-d / Agesilaus, 490d-491b / Demetrius,
726a-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 6-7 9a-10a;
TR in, CH 6 lld-12b
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK VH, par 27 51d-
52c; BK vin, par 10-11 55c-56b / City of God,
BK vni, CH 3 266a-d; CH 8 270a-d; BK ix, CH
20 296a-b, BK xi, CH 28 338a-d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 6,
REP 3 6b-7a; PART i-n, Q 2, A i, REP i 615d-
616c; A 2, REP 3 616d-617b
20 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 4, ANS 38a-39a; A 5, ANS 39a-40a; Q 58, A 2
42a-43a; AA 4-5 44a-45d; Q 65, A i, REP 3-4
70b-72a; PART n-n, Q 18, A 4, ANS 464c-465a;
Q 24, A n, ANS 498b-499c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xix [40-
66] 135c-d; xxvi [1-69] 14Sd-146c; xxvm
[106-114] 150a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 59c-60a; 69d-75a esp
70d-72a; 208a; 478c-480c; 514a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT i,
so H [13-23] 408b-c
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
633
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, A-CT
i, sc i I33-41! *74d; ACT n, sc iv [2-17]
184d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning 26c-27a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43c; PART m,
49d-50b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 14-17 428a-d;
PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 23-24 430c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [519-549] 228b-
229a; BK vm [316-337] 239a-b; BK ix [679-
779] 262a-264a; BK xi [84-98] 30la / Samson
Agonistes (38-59] 340b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 16, 117a; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 35 186b-d;
SECT 64 195a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 100
432b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28b-29a; PART iv,
159b-160a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 182a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343b-345c esp 345a-c /
Social Contract, BK iv, 434c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 149d / Fund. Prin. Meta-
physic of Morals, 265b; 282b-283d / Practical
Reason, 326b-327a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458b-459b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 139-
140 48d-54a / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
168b-d; PART n, 280b-c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 82a-b, 806a-808a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 560c-d; 625a-b
6b. The need for experience of evil
7 PLATO: Republic, BK m, 337b-d / Laws, BK
vn, 727c-d
14 PLUTARCH. Demetrius, 726a-d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR vm, CH 7,
204b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 54-57 85a-
86a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 22, A
3,REP3l30d-131c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL la-52d csp i
[112-136] 2b-c, xxvin [43-51] 41d; PURGA-
TORY, i 53a-54c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 167a-169a passim; 200d-
203b;235c-236a;509b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 75b-c
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK iv [505-535] 163b-
164a; BK vn [519-549] 228b-229a; BK vm
[316-337] 239a-b; BK ix [679-779] 262a-264a;
BK xi [84-98] 301a / Areopagitica, 389a-396a
esp 390b-391a, 394b-395a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 237d-
238c; PART iv, 354a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [340-343] 9a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 4b-5a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 481a-
482a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
53b-54b; BK v, 122c-125a; 132a-135a; BK xi,
344a-d
6c. The goodness of knowledge or wisdoito: the
use of knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: / Kings, 3:5-15; to— (D) HI
Kings, 3:5-15; 10 / // Chronicles, 1:7-12; 9:1-
7— (D) II Parahpomenon, 1:7-12; 9:1-7 / Job,
28:12-20 / Proverbs, 1-4; 8; 9-10-12; ro:i;
12:8; 14:24; 15:24; 16:16; 17:16; 19:2,8;
20:15; 23:15-16,23-25; 24:1-14; 27:11; 28:2
/ Ecclesiastes, 1:17-18; 2:12-26; 6:8; 7:11-
12,16-19; 9:11,13-18— (D) Ecclesiastes, 1:17-
18; 2:12-26; 6:8; 7:12-13,17-20; 9:11, 13-18
/ Ezetyel, 28:2-7— (D) Ezechiel, 28:2-7
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6-10— (D) OT,
Boo^of Wisdom, 6-10 / Ecclesiasttcus, 1:16-19;
4:11-19; 6-18-37; 11:1; 14:20-15:8; 21:12-
13,21; 24:1-22; 25:10; 34:8; 37:24,26; 40:25;
41:14-15; 51:13-28— (/>) OT, Ecclesiasttcus,
1:20-24; 4:12-22; 6:18-37; II:I» 14:22-15:8;
21:14-16,24; 24:1-30; 25:13; 34-8; 37:27,29;
40:25; 41:17-18; 51:18-36
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 1:17-31
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [300-462] 102a-
103c / Antigone [632-765] 136c-137d; [1348-
i353]142d
7 PLATO: Charmides, 8b / Lysis, 16c-18b /
Laches, 28a-b / Protagoras, 40a-41a; 61d-62b
/ Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Meno,
183d-184c / Phaedo, 226a-b / Gorgias, 272b-
273b; 291c-292b / Republic, BK vn 388a-
401d csp 389d-398c; BK ix, 421a-425b /
Timaeus, 476a-b / Theaetetus, 525c-526a;
528c-531a / Philebus 609a-639a,c esp 635c-
639a,c / Laws, BK i, 643c; BK m, 669d-670c;
BK xii, 792c-d; 794c-799a,c / Seventh Letter,
80 Ib
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH i [116*13-23]
162 b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-28]
499a; CH 2 SOOb-SOlc csp [982b4-^83*ii] SOOd-
SOlb; BK xii, CH 7 [io72bi3-29] 602d-603a /
Soul, BK i, CH i [402*1-7] 631a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 12 [i 143^7-
1144*6] 393b-c; BK x, CH 2 [ii72b28-32] 426d-
427a; CH 7-8 431d-434a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6
[i362bio-26] 603b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-79] Id-
2a; BK n [48-61] 15c-d; BK v [1-54] 61a-d; BK
vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 20, 192d-
193a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 9 270b-c;
BK x, SECT 12 298c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 54-57 85a-
86a / City of God, BK vm, CH 8 270a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A
4, REP 3 25d-26c; PART I-H, Q i, A 6, REP 1-2
614a-c; Q 2, A i, REP 2 615d-616c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q 45,
A 3, REP 3 600c-601a; PART HI SUPPL, Q 96,
A 7 1061b-1062a; A n, ANS and REP 5 1063d-
1064d; A 12 1064d-1065b
634
THE GREAT IDEAS
6d
(6. Knowledge and the good. 6c. The goodness of
knowledge or wisdom; the use of knowl-
edge.)
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, HELL, iv 5c-7a; PUR-
GATORY, in [16-45] 56a-b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a; 69d-75a csp
70d-72a; 231d-242d; 502c-504c; 509a-512a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc 11
[83-117] 58c-59a; sc vn [26-81] 61c-62a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 6c-d; 16d-
17a;26a-27d;30b-c
31 DESCARTES- Discourse, PART i, 41d-42a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv
447b-c; PART v, PROP 25-27 458d-459b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [505-535] 163 b-
164a; BK vn [519-549] 228b-229a; BK vin
[3 1 6-337] 239a-b; BK ix [679-779] 262a-264a;
BK xi [84-98] 301a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
5-6 94b-95a; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 44 188d-
189b; BK iv, CH xi, SECT 8 356b-d passim
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
2-3 405b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i 451a-
455b passim
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 236b-238a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 284a-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 591b-592a
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b-293b passim / Utilitarian-
ism, 455c-456a
44 Bos WELL -Johnson, 118a; 256c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART 11, 280b-
281b; PART in, 304d-305b
47 GOETHE: Faust csp PART i [354-373] lla-b,
[1022-1067] 26a-b, [1224-1237] 30b, [1851-
2046] 44a-48a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 78a-b; 255a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 777a-
779a esp 777a-b
64. The possibility of moral knowledge: the
subjectivity or conventionality of judg-
ments of good and evil
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [798-805] 359d / Phoeni-
cian Maidens [499-522] 382b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES- Clouds [882-1114] 499b-502b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 97d-98a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 58a-62d / Meno, 183b-
184c; 187d-190a,c / Euthyphro, 193d-194b /
Gorgias, 271b-277c passim / Republic, BK v,
357d-358a; BK vi, 383d-386c / Theaetetus,
525c-526a; 527b-532a / Statesman, 594a-595a
/ Laws, BK x, 759d-760c / Seventh Letter, 809c-
810d esp 810c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 339d-340b;
CH 7 [io98a25-b8] 343d-344a; BK n, CH 2
[1104*1-9] 349b-c; BK in, CH 4 359a-c; BK v,
CH 7 ["34bi8-i 135*4] 382c-d; BK vi, CH 8
390d-39lc; CH 9 [ii42bi7-35] 391d-392b;
CH ii 392c-393b; BK x, CH 5 [1176*3-29]
430cd
12 EPICTBTUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 7 145b-146a;
CH ii 150a-151b; BK in, CH 3 178d-180a; BK
iv, CH 5 228a-230b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a;
SECT 18 264d
14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 99b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 58b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 43-44
181b-182b
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK in, par 13 16c-d
/ Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 39-40 654c-
656a; BK HI, CH 10, 661d-662a; CH 14 663c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59, A
3, ANS 308b-309a; PART i-n, Q i, A 7, ANS
614c-615a; Q 2, A i, REP i 615d-6l6c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 4 223d-224d; PART n-n, Q 24, A u, ANS
498b-499c
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 57d-58a; 61d-62a,
65a; 75a-b; 78b-c; 91a-b; 96a-b; PART ii,
140b; 149b-c; PART iv, 272c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-47c; 93b-c; 102a-
103a, 115b-d; 122a; 124c-d, 146b-c, 149b-d;
279c-284c; 307b; 424d-426b
27 SHAKESPEARE' Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [248-272]
43a-b / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n [51-
96] 114a-c
28 GILBERT Loadstone, BK v, 105c
31 DESCARTES- Discourse, PART n, 46b-c; PART
in, 48b-50b
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 371b-c,
PART III, THE AFFECTS, DEF 27 419a-b; PART
iv, PREF, 423c-d, PROP 8 426b-c; PROP 64
444b
32 MILTON- Areopagitica, 390b-391a
33 PASCAL- Provincial Letters, 29b-44a / Pensees,
309 228b; 312 229a; 325 230b-231a; 385 238b-
239a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK i,
CH n, SECT 8-12 105d-107d; SECT 20-27 110c"
112c passim, esp SECT 22-23 Ula-c; BK ii, CH
xxvnr, SECT 10-13 230b-231c; BK in, CH xi,
SECT 15-18 303b-304b esp SECT 16 303c-d;
BK iv, CH in, SECT 18-20 317d-319c; CH iv,
SECT 7-9 325b-326b; CH XH, SECT 8 360c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 100
432b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
131-132 508d-509d passim, esp DIV 132, 509c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165a-166a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 257a-266b esp
261a b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 362a-d / Social Con-
tract, BK iv, 434c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 41a; BK v,
346c-347a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 149d-150a; 236d-237a;
239a-b / Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals,
253d-254b; 260d-261d; 263a; 264b-d; 265c-
266d; 270d-271a; 271c-272b; 278a-279d;
282d-283d / Practical Reason, 301a; 304d-
305a; 307d-310d; 317a-b; 319c-d; 330d-331a
/ Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d;
CHAPTER 30: GOOD AND EVIL
635
377c-d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals* 387a-
388a / Science of Right, 397b-398a
43 MILL: Liberty, 269b-271c / Utilitarianism,
445a-447b; 448a-450a; 456d-462a; 463c-d;
471b-476a,c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 197a-b; 198b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREP, 2b-c;
INTRO, par 18 16c-d; PART n, par 131-132
46a-47a; par 138 48c-d; par 140 49b-54a;
PART in, par 150-152 56c-57b; par 339 HOb;
ADDITIONS, i 115a-d; 86 129c; 89 129d-130a;
91 131a-d; 96-97 132c-133a / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 166a-b; PART n, 280b 281b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 305a; 313b-d;<314c-
315d; 317a d; 592 d- 593 b passim
50 MARX-ENGBLS: Communist Manifesto, 427&-b;
428b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15d 16a; BK
v, 194a-195a; 214c-d; BK vm, 304b-305a; BK
xi, 514c-d; BK xn, 542d; BK xiv, 611a-c;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-646c; EPILOGUE n, 689b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK u, 33c-
34b; BK xi, 314b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a-191a; 886b-888a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 758a-c; 759a / Civi-
lization and Its Discontents, 792b-c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other statements of the metaphysical theory of good and evil, see BEING 3-3!); CAUSE 6;
CHANGE 14; DESIRE i ; GOD ^b; WORLD 6b, 6d; for the relation of the good to the true and
the beautiful, see BEAUTY la; TRUTH ic; and for the theological consideration of the
divine goodness and of the problem of evil, see GOD 4f, 5h; JUSTICE na; LOVE 53, 50;
PUNISHMENT 56-56(2); SIN 3-36, 6-6e; WILL yd; WORLD 6d. •
The consideration of the factors which enter into the moral theory of good and evil, see
DESIRE 2b-2d; DUTY i ; MIND ^c; NATURE 53; PLEASURE AND PAIN 6-6e; WILL 8b-8b(2).
Other discussions of right and wrong, see DUTY 3; JUSTICE 1-2, 4.
The theory of the summum bonum or of happiness, see DUTY 2; HAPPINESS i, 3.
Particular human goods in themselves and in relation to the summum bonum or happiness,
tee HAPPINESS 2b-2b(7); HONOR 2b; KNOWLEDGE 8b(4); LOVE 33; PLEASURE AND PAIN
6a-6b, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE id; WEALTH i, loa; WISDOM 2c.
The discussion of evil and its sources in human life, see LABOR la; SIN 3-36; WEALTH ioe(3).
The general problem of the individual and the common good, or the good of the person and
the good of the state, see CITIZEN i ; HAPPINESS 5-5b; STATE 2f.
General discussions of means and ends, see CAUSE 4; RELATION 53(2).
The controversy over the objectivity or subjectivity of judgments of good and evil, see CUS-
TOM AND CONVENTION 53; OPINION 6a-6b; RELATION 6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 70.
The consideration of our knowledge of good and evil, and of the nature and method of the
moral sciences, see KNOWLEDGE 8b(i); PHILOSOPHY 2c; SCIENCE 33; WISDOM 2b.
A fuller treatment of the goodness and use of knowledge, see ART 6c; KNOWLEDGE 8a-8c;
PHILOSOPHY 4b~4c; SCIENCE ib(i).
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK in, CH 1-16
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate, Q 21 ; De
EPICTETUS. The Manual Malo, Q i
AUGUSTINE. Divine Providence and the Problem of F. BACON. "Of Goodness, and Goodness of Na-
Etfil ture," in Essays
. Concerning the Nature of Good HOBBES. The Whole Art of Rhetoric, BK i, CH 7
636
THE GREAT IDEAS
HUME. An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART
VII
KANT. Lectures on Ethics
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, vi
, Science of Logic, VOL 11, SECT n, CH 3; SECT in,
CH 2(u)
. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT n, SUB-SECT B
MELVILLE. Pierre
DOSTOEVSKY. Crime and Punishment
TOLSTOY. Resurrection
II.
EPICURUS. Letter to Menoeceus
CICERO. De Finibus (On the Supreme Good)
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Ethicists
- . Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK in, CH 21-32
BOETHIUS. Quomodo Substantiae (How Substances
Can Be Good in Virtue of Their Existence Without
Being Absolute Goods)
. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK m-iv
MAIMONIDES. Eight Chapters on Ethics
, The Guide for the Perplexed, PART HI, CH 10-12
BONAVENTURA, Brcviloqumm, PART HI (i)
DUNS SCOTUS. Tractatus de Pnmo Prmcipio (A
Tract Concerning the First Principle)
f^L*o.The Bool(of Principles (Sefer ha-Ifyanm), VOL
iv, CH 12-15
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, in, x-xi,
XXIII-XXIV
MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la vSritS, BK iv,
CH 1-4
LEIBNITZ. Theodicy
HUTCHESON. An Inquiry into the Original of Our
Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, n
VOLTAIRE. Candide
. "Good— The Sovereign Good— A Chimera,"
"Good," in A Philosophical Dictionary
. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 31, 38
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, in, PART IH, CH 1-4; v
BBNTHAM. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation
}. G. FICHTE. The Vocation of Man
T. CARLYLE. Sartor Resartus
DICKENS. Oliver Twist
WHEW ELL. The Elements of Morality, BK i
BAUDELAIRE. Flowers of Evil
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK i, CH 9
CLIFFORD. "On the Scientific Basis of Morals,"
"Right and Wrong: The Scientific Ground of
Their Distinction," in VOL n, Lectures and Es-
says
T. H. GREEN. Prolegomena to Ethics, BK IH-IV
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil
. The Genealogy of Morals, i
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOLI, par 573-677;
VOLV, par 120-150
BRENTANO. The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and
Wrong) par 14-36
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART vi ; PART vn, CH
4-7
WILDE. The Picture of Dorian Gray
BRADLEY. Ethical Studies
. Appearance and Reality, BK n, CH 17, 25
H. JAMES. The Turn of the Screw
ROYCE. Studies of Good and Evil
. The World and the Individual, SERIES n (8-9)
SANTAYANA. Reason in Science, CH 8-10
CROCE. The Philosophy of the Practical
SCHELER. Der Formahsmus in der Ethtt( und die
materiale Wertethi^
WASSERMANN. The World's Illusion
McTAGGART. The Nature of Existence, CH 64-67
MOORE. Principia Ethica, CH 4, 6
. Ethics, CH 3-4, 7
-. Philosophical Studies, CH 8, 10
GIDE. The Counterfeiters
N. HARFMANN. Ethics
DEWEY. "The Good," "The Ethical World," "The
Formation and Growth of Ideals," "The Moral
Struggle," in Outlines of a Critical Theory of
Ethics
. "Nature and Its Good, A Conversation," in
The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy
. Reconstruction in Philosophy, CH 5, 7
. Human Nature and Conduct, PART ni-iv
. Experience and Nature, CH 3-4, 10
. The Quest for Certainty, CH 10
J. S. HALDANE. The Sciences and Philosophy, LECT xv
Ross. The Right and the Good, m-vii
BERCSON. Two Sources of Morality and Religion
WESTERMARCK. Ethical Relativity
MALRAUX. Man's Pate
A. E. TAYLOR. The Faith of a Moralist, SERIES i
('. 4-5)
. Philo,
losophical Studies, CH 1 1
LAIRD. An Enquiry into Moral Notions
B. RUSSELL. Philosophical Essays, CH i
. The Scientific Outloof^, CH 17
. Religion and Science, CH 8
ADLER. A Dialectic of Morals
A. HUXLEY. The Perennial Philosophy
C. I. LEWIS. An Analysis of Knowledge and Valu*
ation
EWING. The Definition of Good
MARITAIN. Saint Thomas and the Problem of Evil
. The Person and the Common Good
Chapter 31: GOVERNMENT
INTRODUCTION
THE usual connotation of * 'government" is
political. The word is often used inter-
changeably with "state." But there is govern-
ment in a university, in an economic corpora-
tion, in the church, in any organization of men
associated for a common purpose. The theo-
logian speaks of the divine government of the
universe, and the moralist speaks of reason as
the ruling power in the soul which governs the
appetites or passions.
In all these contexts, the notion of govern-
ment involves the fundamental relations of
ruling and being ruled, of command and obe-
dience. Though the character of these relation-
ships varies somewhat with the terms related,
there is enough common meaning throughout
to permit a general consideration of the nature
of government. But that is not the way in
which government is discussed in the great
books. For the most part, government is con-
sidered in one or another of its special settings
—as it functions in the family or the state, in
the soul or the universe. The common thread
of meaning is noted only indirectly, by the way
in which comparisons are made or analogies
are drawn between the various modes of gov-
ernment.
In view of this, we have found it convenient
to restrict this chapter to government in the
political sense, treating domestic and ecclesias-
tical government under FAMILY and RELIGION,
economic government under WEALTH, divine
government in the chapters on GOD and
WORLD, and government in the soul in the
several chapters which consider the relation of
reason to the passions, such as DESIRE and
EMOTION.
Government and state are often used as if they
were interchangeable terms. Some writers dif-
ferentiate their meanings by using "state** to
signify the political community itself, and
"government" to refer to the way in which it is
politically organized. Yet the two concepts
tend to fuse in traditional political theory. The
kinds of states, for example, are usually named
according to their forms of government. The
great books speak of monarchical and repub-
lican states, as we today speak of the fascist or
the democratic state.
Nevertheless, we recognize the distinction
between a state and its government when we
observe that the state can maintain its his-
toric identity while it undergoes fundamental
changes in its form of government. The state
is not dissolved by a revolution which replaces
a monarchy by a republic, or conversely.
There is a sense in which Rome is the same
state under the Tarqums, under the Republic,
and under the Caesars. In contrast, some rebel-
lions, such as the War of Secession in American
history, threaten to dissolve the state itself.
Despite the fact that government involves a
relation between rulers and ruled, the word is
often used to designate one term in that rela-
tionship, namely, the rulers. When the citizens
of a republic speak of "the government," they
usually refer to the officialdom — not the body
of citizens as a whole, but only those who for a
time hold public office. But government can-
not consist of governors alone, any more than
education can consist of teachers alone. The
different forms of government can be distin-
guished as readily by looking to the condition
of the ruled as to the powers of the rulers. Fur-
thermore, the same individuals may both "rule
and be ruled by turns," as Aristotle observes
of constitutional government.
Though the notion of government includes
both rulers and ruled, the word usually appears
in political literature with the more restricted
meaning. When writers refer to the branches or
departments of government, or when they
637
638
THE GREAT IDEAS
speak of the sovereignty of a government, they
direct attention to the ruling power, and to the
division of that power into related parts.
THE GREAT BOOKS OF political theory ask a
number of basic questions about government.
What is the origin of government, its nature
and necessity? What ends does government
serve and how do these ends define its scope
and limits? What is the distinction between
good and bad government, between legitimate
and illegitimate, or just and unjust, govern-
ment? What are the forms of government, of
good government, of bad government ? What
are the various departments or branches of
government, and how should they function
with respect to one another?
These questions are related. The origin, na-
ture, and necessity of government have a bear-
ing on its ends and limits. These same consider-
ations enter into the discussion of the legiti-
macy and justice of governments. They also
have a bearing on the classification of the forms
of government, and on the evaluation of di-
verse forms, The way in which the several
branches of government should be related is
affected by the way in which the various forms
of government differ.
These questions are not always approached
in the same order. Some of the great political
theorists— for example, Hobbes, Locke, and
Rousseau — find their fundamental principles in
the consideration of the origin of government.
They start with such questions as, What makes
it legitimate for one man to govern another? Is
the exercise of political power both justified
and limited by the end it serves ? In answering
these questions, they imply or make a distinc-
tion between good and bad government and
indicate the abuses or corruptions to which
government is subject. Though they enumerate
the various forms of government in a manner
which reflects the traditional classifications,
they do not seem to regard that problem as of
central importance.
Other eminent political thinkers make the
classification and comparison of diverse forms
the central problem in the theory of govern-
ment. Plato and Aristotle, Montesquieu and
Mill, arc primarily concerned with the criteria
by which the justice or goodness of a govern-
ment shall be judged. They compare various
forms of government as more or less desirable,
nearer to the ideal or nearer to the opposite
extreme of corruption. In the course of these
considerations they answer questions about
the necessity, the legitimacy, and the ends of
government in general.
THERE SEEMS TO BE considerable agreement on
one point, namely, that government is necessary
for the life of the state. It is generally held by the
authors of the great books that no community
can dispense with government, for without
government men cannot live together in peace.
None is an anarchist, like Thoreau or Kropot-
kin, although Kropotkin claims that War and
Peace and even Mill's Essay on Liberty contain
"anarchist ideas." Marx and Engels may be the
other possible exception to the rule.
If Marx and Engels take the opposite view,
they do so simply on the ground that with the
advent of a classless society after the com-
munist revolution, the class war will come to
an end and there will no longer be any need
for government. The state can quietly wither
away. But, according to Aquinas, even if
society were free from all injustice and iniquity,
even if men lived together in a state of inno-
cence and with the moral perfection they would
possess if Adam had not sinned, even then gov-
ernment would be necessary. "A social life," he
thinks, "cannot exist among a number of
people unless government is set up to look after
the common good."
The great books do not agree about the
naturalness of the state. They do not agree
about the way in which government originates
historically or about the functions it should
and should not perform. They do not all reflect
in the same way on the good and evil in govern-
ment. Nor do they all give the same reasons for
the necessity of government. In consequence
they set different limits to the scope of govern-
ment and assign it different functions, which
range from the merely negative function of
preventing violence to the duty to provide pos-
itively for human welfare in a variety of ways.
On all these things they differ, but with the
exceptions noted they do concur in thinking
that anarchy— the total absence of government
—is unsuitable to the nature of man. Man be-
CHAPTER 31: GOVERNMENT
639
ing what he is, "any form of government,"
in Darwin's opinion, "is better than none."
Some, like Hobbes and Kant, identify anarchy
with the state of nature which is for them a
state of war. Some, like Locke, think that the
state of nature is not a state of war, yet find
great advantages to living in civil society pre-
cisely because government remedies the incon-
veniences and ills which anarchy breeds. But
though they often write as if men could choose
between living in a state of nature or in a civil
society, they do not think man has any option
with respect to government if he wishes the
benefits of the civilized life. They cannot con-
ceive civil society as existing for a moment
without government.
THE GENERAL AGREEMENT about the necessity
of government tends to include an agreement
about the two basic elements of government-
authority and power. No government at all is
possible, not even the most attenuated, unless
men obey its directions or regulations. But one
man may obey another either voluntarily or
involuntarily — either because he recognizes the
right vested in that other to give him commands
or because he fears the consequences which he
may suffer if he disobeys.
These two modes of obedience correspond to
the .authority and power of government.
Authority elicits voluntary compliance. Power
either actually coerces or, by threatening coer-
cion, compels involuntary obedience. Author-
ity and power are the right and might of gov-
ernment. Either can exist and may operate
apart from the other; but, as Rousseau points
out, when right is lacking, government is ille-
gitimate; and as Hamilton points out, when
might is lacking, it is ineffective.
In a famous passage, the Federalists explain
that rule by authority alone might work in a
society of angels. But since men are men, not
angels, their obedience must be assured by the
threat of force. In any society in which some
men are good, some bad, and all may be either
at one time or another, force is the only expe-
dient to get the unwilling to do what they
should do for the common good. Even when
the institutions of government have their
authority from the consent of the governed,
they cannot function effectively without the
use of power or force. For this reason Hamilton
dismisses "the idea of governing at all times
by the simple force of law" as having "no place
but in the reveries of those political doctors
whose sagacity disdains the admonitions of
experimental instruction."
If authority without force is ineffective for
the purposes of government, might without
right is tyrannical. "Wherever law ends,
tyranny begins," Locke writes, "and whoso-
ever in authority exceeds the power given him
by the law, and makes use of the force he has
under his command to compass that upon the
subject which the law allows not, ceases in that
to be a magistrate." The use of unauthorized
force may take the form of either usurpation
or tyranny. If it is "the exercise of power
which another hath a right to," Locke declares
it is usurpation; if it is "the exercise of power
beyond right, which nobody can have a right
to," it is tyranny.
The distinction between legitimate rule and
all dominations by force rests not on the use of
power, but on whether the power which must
be employed is or is not legally authorized.
THE NOTION OF sovereignty involves consider-
ations of authority and power. The word itself
is mediaeval and feudal in origin. It signifies the
supremacy of an overlord who owes allegiance
to no one and to whom fealty is due from all
who hold fiefdoms under him. Since the su-
premacy of the sovereign lord is clothed with
legal rights, according to the customs of feudal
tenure, sovereignty seems to imply the union
of power with authority, not the use of naked
force.
The political philosophers of antiquity do
not use the term sovereignty. But their discus-
sion of the distribution of political power is
certainly concerned with the possession of
authority as well as the control of force. Aris-
totle's question, for example, about "whaMs to
be the supreme power in the state—the multi-
tude ? or the wealthy ? or the good ? or the one
best man ?" deals with the same problem which
modern writers express by asking where sover-
eignty resides. As Aristotle sees the conflict
between the oligarchical and the democratic
constitutions, the issue concerns the legal defi-
nition of the ruling class: whether the constitu-
640
THE GREAT IDEAS
tion puts all the political power in the hands
of the rich or in the hands of the freeborn, rich
and poor alike. It does not seem to be too
violent an interpretation for modern transla-
tors to use the word "sovereignty" here, for
sovereignty can be said to belong to whatever
person or class holds the supreme power by law.
Within this meaning of sovereignty the
basic difference between absolute and limited
government, or between the despotic and the
constitutional regime, leads to a distinction
between the sovereign man and the sovereign
office.
The ruler who holds sovereignty in his per-
son is an absolute sovereign if his power and
authority are in no way limited by positive law.
According to some political philosophers, sov-
ereignty must be absolute. In the opinion of
Hobbes, for example, the notion of a limited
sovereignty seems to be as self-contradictory as
that of a supremacy which is not supreme.
After discussing the absolute rights which
constitute sovereignty, Hobbes goes on to say
that "this great authority being indivisible . . .
there is little ground for the opinion of them
that say of sovereign kings, though they be
stngulis majores, of greater power than every
one of their subjects, yet they be umversis
mtnores, of less power than them all together.
For if by all together they mean not the collec-
tive body as one person, then all together and
every one signify the same, and the speech is
absurd. But if by all together they understand
them as one person (which person the sovereign
bears), then the power of all together is the
same as the sovereign's power, and so again the
speech is absurd/'
It makes no difference, Hobbes argues,
whether the sovereignty is held by one man or
by an assembly. In either case "the sovereign
of a commonwealth ... is not subject to the
civil laws. For having the power to make and
repeal laws, he may when he pleases, free him-
self from that subjection by repealing those
laws that trouble him." The sovereign there-
fore has absolute power, which consists in the
absolute right or liberty to do as he pleases, for
"he that is bound to himself only is not bound"
at all.
Aquinas seems to be taking the same view
when he admits that "the sovereign is ...
exempt from the law as to its coercive power,
since, properly speaking, no man is coerced by
himself, and law has no coercive power save
from the authority of the sovereign." But
Aquinas differs from Hobbes in thinking that
the authority, if not the power, of the prince
is limited by the constitutional character of the
kingly office. In the mediaeval conception of
monarchy, the king is bound not to himself
alone, as Hobbes insists, but to his subjects.
Their oath of allegiance to him is reciprocated
by his coronation oath, in which he assumes
the obligation to uphold the customs of the
realm.
WHERE AQUINAS CONCEIVES the sovereign
prince as one element— the other being estab-
lished law— in a government which is therefore
both absolute and constitutional, Hobbes con-
ceives the sovereign as identical with a govern-
ment which is wholly absolute. The distinction
here implied— between a mixed regime and one
that is purely absolute— is more fully discussed
in the chapters on CONSTITUTION and MON-
ARCHY. In contrast to both, a republic, or
purely constitutional government, substitutes
the sovereign office for the sovereign man. It
denies the possession of sovereignty to men
except in their capacity as office-holders.
According to the republican notions of Rous-
seau, not even government itself has sover-
eignty except as representing the political
community as a whole, which is the sovereign.
Sovereignty, he writes, is vested in the govern-
ment "simply and solely as a commission, an
employment in which the rulers, mere officials
of the Sovereign, exercise in their own name the
power of which it makes them depositaries."
Since this power is not theirs except by delega-
tion, it can be limited, modified, or recovered
at pleasure, "for the alienation of such a right
is incompatible with the nature of the social
body, and contrary to the end of association."
The unity of sovereignty is not impaired by
the fact that a number of men may share in the
exercise of sovereign power, any more than the
unity of government is destroyed by its divi-
sion into separate departments or branches,
such as the legislative, executive, and judicial.
Since in a republic the government (in all its
branches or offices) derives its power and
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT
641
authority from the constitution (or what
Rousseau calls "the fundamental law"), and
since it is the people as a whole, not the officials
of government, who have the constitutive
power, the people are in a sense supreme or
sovereign.
Popular sovereignty may mean that the peo-
ple as a whole govern themselves without the
services of magistrates of any sort; but this
would be possible only in a very small commu-
nity. It is questionable whether a people has
ever exercised sovereignty in this way in any
state of historic importance. Popular sovereign-
ty more usually means what is implied by
Aquinas when he conceives the magistrate or
ruler as merely the vicegerent of the people.
"To order anything to the common good,"
he writes, "belongs either to the whole people,
or to someone who is the vicegerent of the
whole people. Hence the making of a law be-
longs either to the whole people or to a public
personage who has the care of the whole peo-
ple." Similarly, the exercise of coercive force
"is vested in the whole people or in some public
personage, to whom it belongs to inflict penal-
ties."
The notion of a public personage, as Aquinas
uses it in these passages, is clearly that of a sur-
rogate for or representative of the whole people.
The people as a whole have, in the first in-
stance, the authority and power to perform all
the functions of government. Only if for con-
venience or some other reason they constitute
one or more public personages to act in their
stead, do individual men exercise sovereignty,
and then only as representatives.
Locke's fundamental principle — that "men
being ... by nature all free, equal, and independ-
ent, no one can be put out of this estate and
subjected to the political power of another with-
out his own consent" — is another expression of
the idea of popular sovereignty. It reappears in
the Declaration of Independence in the state-
ment that since governments are instituted by
men to secure their fundamental rights, they
must derive "their just powers from the con-
sent of the governed."
Hegel objects to the sense "in which men
have recently begun to speak of the 'sovereign-
ty of the people' " as "something opposed to
the sovereignty existent in the monarch. So op-
posed to the sovereignty of the monarch," he
writes, "the sovereignty of the people is one of
the confused notions based on the wild idea of
the 'people.' " If the sovereignty of the people
means nothing more than the sovereignty of
the whole state, then, he says, the sovereignty
which "is there as the personality of the whole
... is there, in the real existence adequate to its
concept, as the person of the monarch."
But republican writers would reply that the
sense in which they speak of the sovereignty of
the people cannot be opposed to the sovereign-
ty of government, so long as that government
is constitutional, not absolute. When the sover-
eignty of the people is conceived as the source
or basis, not as the actual exercise, of the legiti-
mate powers of government, there is no conflict
between these two locations of sovereignty in
the state. Yet the supremacy of the government
always remains limited by the fact that all its
powers are delegated and can be withdrawn or
changed at the people's will,
THE QUESTION OF absolute or limited sover-
eignty and the connected question of unified or
divided sovereignty have a different meaning
in the case of the relation of governments to
one another.
The theory of federal government, discussed
in The Federalist and in Mill's Representative
Government, contemplates a division of sover-
eignty, not as between the people and their
government, but as between two distinct gov-
ernments, to each of which the people grant
certain powers. Distinguishing between the
government of a national state and the
government of a federal union, Madison writes:
"Among a people consolidated into one nation
. . . supremacy is completely vested in the na-
tional legislature. Among communities united
for particular purposes, it is vested partly in the
general and partly in the municipal legislatures.
In the former case, all local authorities are sub-
ordinate to the supreme; and may be con-
trolled, directed, or abolished by it at pleasure.
In the latter, the local or municipal authorities
form distinct and independent portions of the
supremacy, no more subject, within their re-
spective spheres, to the general authority than
the general authority is subject to them within
its own sphere." The federal or general and the
642
THE GREAT IDEAS
state or local governments draw on the same
reservoir of popular sovereignty, but the sov-
ereignty which each derives from that source is
limited by the definition of matters reserved to
the jurisdiction of the other.
The fundamental difference between the con-
dition of states in a federation and the condition
of colonial dependencies or subject peoples is
that imperial government, unlike federal gov-
ernment, claims an unlimited sovereignty. The
issues of imperialism which arise from the exer-
cfee of such power are discussed in the chapters
on TYRANNY and SLAVERY.
The one remaining situation is that of inde-
pendent governments, the governments of sep-
arate states associated with one another only by
treaties or alliances, or at most in the kind of
loose hegemony or league represented by the
Greek confederacies or the American Articles
of Confederation. In this situation, the word
"sovereignty" applied to independent govern-
ments signifies supremacy, not in the sense of
their having the authority and power to com-
mand, but in the opposite sense of not being
subject to any political superior.
This radical difference in meaning is explic-
itly formulated in Hegel's distinction between
internal and external sovereignty.
After stating the conditions of the sovereign-
ty of the state in relation to its own people,
Hegel says, "This is the sovereignty of the state
at home. Sovereignty has another side, i.c., sov-
ereignty vis-a-vis foreign states." The state's in-
dividuality resides in its awareness of its own
existence "as a unit in sharp distinction from
others"; and in this individuality Hegel finds
the state's autonomy, which he thinks is "the
most fundamental freedom which a people pos-
sesses as well as its highest dignity."
But from the fact that "every state is sover-
eign and autonomous against its neighbors," it
also follows, according to Hegel, that such sov-
ereigns "are in a state of nature in relation to
each other." It is this state of nature which
Hobbes had earlier described as a state of war.
Precisely because independent states 'have ab-
solute sovereignty in relation to one another,
"they live in the condition of perpetual war,
and upon the confines of battle, with their
frontiers armed, and cannons planted against
their neighbors round about/'
In their relation to one another they are,
wntes Kant, like "lawless savages." Following
Rousseau, he thinks it is fitting that the state
"viewed in relation to other peoples" should be
called "a power." Unlike sovereign govern-
ments which unite authority with power in
their domestic jurisdiction, sovereign states in
their external relations can exert force alone up-
on each other. When their interests conflict,
each yields only to superior force or to the
threat of it. A fuller discussion of these matters
will be found in the chapters on LAW, STATE,
and WAR AND PEACE.
As ALREADY INDICATED in several places, the
materials covered in this chapter necessarily de-
mand a study of many related chapters dealing
with political topics. This is peculiarly true of
the problems concerning the forms of govern-
ment. Separate chapters are devoted to each of
the traditionally recognized forms, *>/#., ARISTOC-
RACY, DEMOCRACY, MONARCHY, OLIGARCHY,
TYRANNY. Each of these chapters defines a par-
ticular form, distinguishes it from others, and
compares their merits. In addition, the chapter
on CONSTITUTION deals with what is perhaps
the most fundamental of all distinctions in
forms of government, that between a republic
and a despotism, or between government by
laws and government by men.
Here, then, it is necessary only to treat gen-
erally of the issues raised by the classification
and comparison ol diverse forms of government.
They can be summarized in the following ques-
tions.
What are the criteria or marks of good gov-
ernment ? Is the goodness of government deter-
mined by the end it serves, by the way in which
it is instituted, by its efficiency in promoting
whatever end it serves? Are such criteria of
good government as justice, legitimacy, and
efficiency, independent or interchangeable?
What is the nature of bad government?
Can a distinction be made between the abuses
or weakness to which good government is sub-
ject in actual operation, and government which
is essentially bad because perverse or corrupt in
principle as well as practice?
Are there several forms of good government ?
Of 'bad government? How are they differenti-
ated from one another? Are all good forms
CHARTER 31: GOVERNMENT
643
equally good, all bad forms equally bad? If not,
what is the principle in terms of which some
order of desirability or undesirability is estab-
lished ? For example, is one good form of gov-
ernment better than another, one bad form
worse than another, in terms of degrees of jus-
tice and injustice, or in terms of efficiency and
inefficiency? To put this question in another
way, is one form of good government better
than another because it achieves a better result
or merely because it achieves the same result
more completely ?
If there are several distinct forms of good
government, are there one or more ways in
which these can be combined to effect a com-
posite or mixed form ? If a mixed form is com-
parable with the pure forms it unites, is it su-
perior to all, to some, to none of them? On
what grounds? In what circumstances?
While proposing what they consider to be
the ideal form of government, some political
philosophers admit that the ideal may not be
realizable under existing circumstances or with
men as they are. Plato, for example, recognizes
that the state he outlines in the Republic may
not be practicable; and in the Laws he proposes
institutions of government which represent for
him something less than the ideal but which
may be more achievable. The^Atheman Stran-
ger says of the state described in the Republic
that, "whether it is possible or not, no man,
acting upon any other principle, will ever con-
stitute a state which will be truer or better or
more exalted in virtue." The state which he is
discussing in the Laws "takes the second place."
He refers to "a third best" which, far from be-
ing even the practicable ideal, may be merely
the best form of government which now actu-
ally exists.
Aristotle also sets down the various ways in
which forms of government can be judged and
compared. We may consider, he writes, "of
what sort a government must be to be most in
accordance with our aspirations, if there were
no external impediment," but we must also
consider "what kind of government is adapted
to particular states," In addition, Aristotle
thinks it is necessary "to know the form of gov-
ernment which is best suited to states in gen-
eral" as well as "to say how a state may be con-
stituted under any given conditions."
Most important of all, it is necessary to know
"not only what form of government is best, but
also what is possible." Though "political writers
have excellent ideas," Aristotle thinks they "are
often impractical." Since "the best is often un-
attainable," the true legislator "ought to be ac-
quainted not only with what is best in the ab-
stract, but also with what is best relative to
circumstances."
Both Montesquieu and Mill later apply this
basic distinction between the best form of gov-
ernment considered absolutely or in the ab-
stract, and the best form relative to particular
historic circumstances. Among these are a peo-
ple's economic condition, level of culture, po-
litical experience, geography, climate, and ra-
cial characteristics. Montesquieu, for example,
thinks that government by law, absolutely con-
sidered, is better than despotic government, yet
he also holds that despotic government is bet-
ter for certain peoples. Mill thinks that the in-
stitutions of a representative democracy repre-
sent the ideal form of government, but he ac-
knowledges that absolute monarchy may be
better for a rude or uncivilized people who have
not yet advanced far from barbarism.
The great question here is whether the cir-
cumstances themselves can be improved so that
a people may become fit or ready for a better
form of government, and ultimately for the
best that is attainable, that is, the form relative
to the best possible conditions. Since Montes-
quieu emphasizes what he considers to be fixed
racial characteristics, such as the servility of the
Asiatics, whereas Mill stresses conditions which
are remediable by education, economic prog-
ress, and social reforms, these two writers tend
to give opposite answers. The issue is more fully
discussed in the chapters on DEMOCRACY,
MONARCHY, and PROGRESS.
Still other questions remain and should be
mentioned here. Arc the ideal state and the
ideal form of government inseparable, or can
one be conceived apart from the other? How
shall the ideal government be conceived — in
terms of the best that is practicably attainable,
given man as he is or can be; or in terms of a
perfection which exceeds human attainment
and which men can imitate only remotely or
imperfectly, if at all? Does divine government,
for example, set a model which human govern-
644
THE GREAT IDEAS
ment should aim to approximate ? Is that hu-
man government ideal which is most like the
divine; or, on the contrary, is the perfection of
human government measured by standards
drawn from the nature of man and the diffi-
culties involved in the rule of men over men?
THE TRADITIONAL enumeration of the functions
of government is threefold: the legislative, the
judicial, and the executive. Locke adds what he
calls "the federative power," the power of
making treaties or alliances, and in general of
conducting foreign affairs. It may be questioned
whether this function is strictly coordinate
with the other three, since foreign, like domes-
tic, affairs may fall within the province of the
executive or the legislature, or both, as in the
case of the Constitution of the United States.
In our own day, the multiplication of admin-
istrative agencies and the development of plan-
ning boards have been thought to add a new
dimension to the activities of government, but
again it may be questioned whether these are
not merely supplemental to the functions of
making law, applying law to particular cases,
and regulating by administrative decree those
matters which fall outside the domain of en-
forceable law. The executive branch of gov-
ernment seems the most difficult to define, be-
cause it involves both law enforcement and the
administration of matters not covered by legis-
lative enactment or judicial decision.
If the threefold division of the functions of
government is exhaustive, the question re-
mains how these distinct activities shall be re-
lated to one another, and by whom they shall
be performed. In an absolute monarchy, in
which the king // the government, all powers
are in the hands of one man. Though he may
delegate his powers to others, they act only as
his deputies or agents, not as independent offi-
cials. This docs not obliterate the theoretical
distinction between legislation, adjudication,
and execution, but in this situation there can
be no practical separation of the three powers,
certainly no legal system of checks and balances.
It is the separation of powers, according to
Montesquieu, that is the basis of political lib-
erty. "Power should be a check to power," he
writes. In a system of separated powers, "the
legislative body being composed of two parts,
they check one another by the mutual privilege
of rejecting. They are both restrained by the
executive power, as the executive is by the
legislative."
Whether or not Montesquieu is right in at-
tributing this aspect of constitutionalism to the
limited monarchy of England in his own day,
his argument can be examined apart from his-
tory, for it raises the general question whether
government by law can be preserved from de-
generating into despotic government except by
the separation of powers.
For the American Federalists, the system of
checks and balances, written into the Constitu-
tion, so contrives "the interior structure of the
government that its several constituent parts
may, by their mutual relations, be the means
of keeping each other in their proper places."
This they consider the prime advantage to be
gained from Montesquieu's principle of the
separation of powers. The principle itself they
hold to be "the sacred maxim of free govern-
ment."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
i . The general theory of government
i a. The origin and necessity of government: the issue concerning anarchy
ib. Comparison of political or civil government with ecclesiastical government and
with paternal or despotic rule
ic. The ends and limits of government: the criteria of legitimacy and justice
id. The elements of government: authority and power, or coercive force; the dis-
tinction between dejure and dc facto government
i*. The attributes of good government
i/. The abuses and corruptions to which government is subject
PAGE
646
648
649
650
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT 645
PAGE
ig. The sovereignty of government : the unity and disposition of sovereignty 650
(1) The sovereign person: sovereignty vested in the individual ruler
(2) The sovereign office: the partition of sovereignty among the offices created
by a constitution 651
(3) The sovereign people: the community as the source of governmental
sovereignty
i A. Self-government: expressions of the popular will; elections; voting 652
2. The forms of government: their evaluation and order
2a. The distinction and comparison of good and bad forms of government
2b. The combination of different forms of government: the mixed constitution, the
mixed regime 653
2C. The absolute and relative evaluation of forms of government: by reference to
the nature of man or to historic circumstances
2d. The influence of different forms of government on the formation of human
character 654
2e. The ideal form of government: the distinction between practicable and Utopian
ideals
3. The powers, branches, or departments of government: enumerations, definitions, and
ordenngs of these several powers
30. The separation and coordination of the several powers: usurpations and infringe-
ments by one branch of government upon another 655
3^. The relation of the civil to the military power
y. The legislative department of government: the making of law 656
(1) The powers and duties of the legislature
(2) Legislative institutions and procedures
3</. The judicial department of government: the application of law 657
(1) The powers and duties of the judiciary
(2) Judicial institutions and procedures
3*. The executive department of government: the enforcement of law; administra-
tive decrees 658
(1) The powers and duties of the executive
(2) Administrative institutions and procedures
4. The support and the expenditures of government: taxation and budget 659
5. The relation of governments to one another: sovereign princes or states as in a condition
of anarchy
50. Foreign policy: the making of treaties; the conduct of war and peace 660
5^. The government of dependencies: colonial government; the government of
conquered peoples
5C. The relation of local to national government: the centralization and decentraliza-
tion of governmental functions 661
5*/. Confederation and federal union: the division of jurisdiction between state and
federal governments
6. Historical developments in government: revolution and progress 662
646
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n (265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of trie left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g,, Iliad, BK 11 [265-283! 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TEST\-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, sec the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
_
1. The general theory of government
7 PLATO- Republic 295a-441a,c esp BK ii-vm
310c-416a / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws,
BK in 663d-677a; BK iv, 679a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 8 [ii4ib24-ii42a
12] 390d-391a / Politics 445a-548a,c esp BK i,
CH 5 447d-448c, BK in, CH i 471b,d-472c,
CH 6-13 475d-483a, BK iv, CH 14-16 498b-
502a,c
12 LUCRETIUS' Nature of Things, BK v [1136-
1160] 76a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK n, CH 21 161 b-
162d; BK iv, CH 4 190d; BK xix, CH 13-17
519a-523a; CH 21 524a-525a; CH 23-24,
528a-c; CH 26 528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96,
A 4 512d-513c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 84c-104d
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 94b-95a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 291-338 225a-233a passim
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Cwtl Government
25a-81d esp CH vn, SECT 87-89 44a-d, CH
VHI-IX 46c-54d, CH xi, SECT 136 56c-d, CH
xv, SECT 171 65a-b, CH xxx, SECT 211 73d- 74a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART 11, 78a-b; PART in, 112a-
115b; PART IV> i57a.i58a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i la-3d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy 367a-385a,c /
Social Contract, BK in, 406b,d-410a; 423a-
424d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-311c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-437c; 450a-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-25] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE
lla,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 104b; NUMBER 45,
147d-148a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-341d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 364d-
365a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-
781a
L
*• The o"*111 and necessity of government:
*« issue concerning anarchy
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 13:1-6 / / Peter \
2:13-15
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumcnides [681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-372] 134a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 23b-d
6 THVCVDID&S: Peloponnesian War, BKin,436d-
438b
la to \b
CHAPTER 31: GOVERNMENT
647
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44c-d / Onto, 216b-217d /
Gorgias, 271b-272b / Republic, BK 11, 316c-
319a / Laws, BK in, 663d-667b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487b32-488*i5] 8d-9a / Ethics, BK vin, CH 12
[1162*16-25] 414c; BK ix, CH 9 [n69bi8-22]
423b / Politics, BK i, CH 2 445b-446d csp
[1253*29-39] 446d; BK in, CH 6 [i278bi5~29]
475d-476a
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
1027] 74b-c; [1136-1160] 76a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 23 128c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the younger, 638b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51b-c / Histories,
BK i, 211c-212d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK iv, CH 4 190d,
BK xn, CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK xix, CH 14-17
520a-523a; CH 21 524a-525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96,
A 4 512d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A i 226c-227c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, vi [76-
151] 61c-62c; xvi [85-105] 77d; PARADISE, vin
[115-117] 118a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 58c-d; 77a; 77c;
84c 87b; 91a-b; 96a-b; PART n, 99a-102a;
104b-d, 109b, 112b-d; 113c; 124c-125a;
131a-c; 159d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 462c-465c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc n [183-220]
535d-536b
27 SHAKESPEARE* Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc§m [78-134] 109a-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 454a
30 BACON, Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vi [169-188] 200a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 304 227b-228a; 306 228a;
330 231b-232a
35 LOCKE Toleration, 4c-d, 16a-c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH i, SECT i 25a-c; CH n, SECT I3-CH
HI, SECT 20 28a-29d; CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b;
SECT 74-76 41b-42a; CH VH, SECT 87-cn x,
SECT 132 44a-55b; CH xi, SECT 136 56c-d; CH
xv, SECT 171 65a-b; CH xvi, SECT 175 65d;
CH xix, SECT 212 74a-b; SECT 219 75b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv 135a-184a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy,214b-2l7b csp 216b;
261b-262a; 410a-411a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i la*3d;
BK vin, 52a
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 333 b-d / Political Econ-
omy, 370b / Social Contract, BK i, 391b-393c;
BK in, 406b,d-407a; 419b; 423a-424a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-311c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right,
433c 434d; 43Sc-436b; 437c-d; 450d-451c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-25] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31a-b; NUMBER 4,
36a; NUMBER 15, 63a-d; 65b-c; NUMBER 16
66c-68d passim; NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b pas-
sim; NUMBER 38, 121b-122a; NUMBER 51,
163b-c; 164c-d; NUMBER 85, 258d-259a,c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268a; 269c; 302d-303a /
Utilitarianism, 472b-c
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 172d-173a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 47
124a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-
175c; PART ii, 262a-c; PART iv, 342c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-c; 321b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE 11, 680b~
684a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780 b-d
Ib. Comparison of political or civil govern-
ment with ecclesiastical government and
with paternal or despotic rule
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [631-680] 136c-137a
5 EURIPIDES: Andromache [464-492] 319b-c
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK in, 107c-108d; BK v,
178a-180a
7 PLATO: Crito, 217a-c / Statesman, 581a-c /
Laws, BK in 663d-677a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin, CH 10 [n6ob
23-1161*9] 413a-b / Politics, BK i, CH 1-2
445a-446d; CH 3 [i253bi5-22] 447a; CH 5
447d-448c; CH 7 [i255bi6-22] 449b-c; CH
12-13 453d-455a,c; BK in, CH 4 [1277*33-
b24] 474c-d, CH 6 [1278^0-1279*22] 476a-c;
BK vn, CH 2 [i324b2}~4i] 528d-529a; CH 3
[I325»i8-bi3] 529b-d; CH 14 537b-538d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a; 3a-b; BK in,
51b-c; 61c-62a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 13-17
519a-523a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92, A
i, REP 2 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART n, 109c-lllb; 121a;
155b; PART in, 198a-199a; PART iv, 249a;
266a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34a; lOla
32 MILTON: New Forcers of Conscience 68a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a-5d; 14b-15a/ Civil Gov-
ernment, CH I, SECT 2 25CJ CH II, SECT 13
28a-b; CH iv 29d-30b; CH vi-vn 36a-46c; CH
xiv-xvm 62b-73c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 214b-217b; 410a-
411a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b; BK
n, 4a; 7c-9a,c; BK HI, 12a-13c; BK iv, 15a-c;
BK v, 25d-31b; BK vi, 33a-35a; 36a-37a; BK
vn, 50d; BK vin, 54a-b; BK xix, 137c-d; BK
xxiv, 202b-c; BK xxvi, 214b,d-215a; 218a-b;
218d-219a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357a-c / Political Econ-
omy, 367a-368c; 370a-379b / Social Contract,
BK i, 387d-388a; 391a; BK in, 415d; 418a-
419c; BK iv, 436d [fn i]
648
THE GREAT IDEAS
\cto\d
(1. The general theory of government, Ib. Com-
parison o/ political or civil government with
ecclesiastical government and with paternal
or despotic rule.)
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 348a-351a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 194a-197a passim;
299b-304d passim; 412c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c; 271c-272a / Rep-
resentative Government, 339a-341a; 341d-355b;
436b-437a
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 349
!Hd-112a; par 355 112d-113a; ADDITIONS, m
134d-135a / Philosophy of History, PART i,
211b-213a; PART HI, 310a-c; PART iv, 330b-
331 d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKv,127b-
137c passim
Ic. The ends and limits of government: the cri-
teria of legitimacy and justice
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 13:1-2— (D) OT,
Esther, 13:1-2
NEW TESTAMENT; Matthew, 22:15-22
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44c-d / Republic, BK r,
300b-310c; BK vin 401d-416a / Statesman,
598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 670c-672c; 673d-
674c; BK iv, 681d-682c; BK vi, 707d-708a;
710d-711a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*29-39]
446d; BK HI, CH 3 [1276*7-16] 473a; CH 6-7
475d-477a; CH 9-10 477c-479a; BK iv, CH 4
[1292*30-34] 491d; BK vii, CH 3 [i325*i8-bi3]
529b-d; CH 14 [i332bi7~4i] 537b-d / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 8 [1366*3-16] 608b-c
12 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c;
BK vi, SECT 30 276d-277a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [851-853] 234a
14 PLUTARCH: Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d
18 AUGUSTINE' City of God, BK n, CH 21 161 b-
162d; BK xix, CH 13-17 519a-523a; CH 21
524a-525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c; CH 26 528d-
529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A i, REP 2 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i, REP 3 205b-206b; Q 105, A i 307d-309d;
PART n~n, Q 10, A 10 434c-435c; Q 12, A 2
443b-444b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87d; 90a-b;
91a-96b; PART H, 99a; 100c-104d; lllb-117b;
125b-c; 131a-c; 137c-138b; 140a; 142b-c;
[I49d-150b; 153a-159c; 163b-d; PART in,
167b-c; 171a-172a; 177c-180a; 187b-188a;
191b; 198a-246a,c esp 198a*199a; PART iv,
248a-249b; 273c-d, 274c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Trotlus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [78-134] 109a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 193a-b;
PART H, 352d-353a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [769-799] 192a-b
33 PASCAL. Provincial Letters, 109a / Penstes, 332
232a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a-4b; 8c-10d; lla-21c
passim / Civil Government, CH i, SECT 3 25d;
CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b; CH vn, SECT 87-94
44a-46c, CH vin, SECT 99 47c; SECT 107-112
49b-51b; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi, SECT 136-139
56c-58a; CH xm, SECT 149 59b-d; SECT 158
61d-62b, CH xiv, SECT 163 63a-b; CH xv,
SECT 171 65a-b; CH xvn-xvin 70c-73c; CH
xix, SECT 221-222 75d-76c; SECT 229 78a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 72b-80b; PART iv,
149b-159b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 16a-17a;
BK xi, 69c-d; BK xix, 138c; BK xxm, 199b-d;
BK xxvi, 214b,d-215a; 218a-b; 218d-219a;
221c-222a, 223c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-370b;
374a-375b / Social Contract, BK i, 388d-389a;
391b-393c; BK n, 396d-398b; 400a; 405a-c;
BK HI, 406b,d-409a; 419b-c, 423c-424a; 424d
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK n, 149d-150a;
BK v, 348c-d
42 KANI- Science of Right, 435a-439a; 445a-c;
450d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE* la 3b
43 ARFICLLS OF CONFEDERATION, ii-in 5a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE i, SECT 8 [i92]-SECT io [303] 13a-14a;
ARIICLE III, SECT 3 [507-511] 16a; ARTICLE IV,
SECT 4 16b-c; AMENDMENTS, i-x 17a-18a;
xm, SECT i 18c; xiv, SECT i 18d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30a-b; NUMBER 3,
33b-c; NUMBER 6, 40a-b; NUMBER 8, 45a-b;
NUMBER 23, 85a-c; NUMBER 25, 91b-d; NUM-
BER 30, 102c-d; NUMBER 31, 104b-105c; NUM-
BER 33, 107b-109a; NUMBER 34, HOa-b, NUM-
BER 41, 132b-c; 133a; NUMBER 43, 143b-c;
NUMBER 44, 144a-145c; NUMBER 45, 147d-
148a; NUMBER 51, 164a-165a passim; NUMBER
53, 167d-l68b; NUMBER 54, 171b-c; NUMBER
57, 176d-177a
43 MILL: Liberty 267a-323a,c passim, esp 271c-
273d / Representative Government, 332d-350a;
362c-363a; 380c-382c; 422b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 220b; 221d-224a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780c-d
!</. The elements of government: authority and
power, or coercive force; the distinction
between dejure and de facto government
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [631-680] 136c-137a /
Ajax [666-676] 148d; [1052-1090] 152a-b
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK m,
432b-c
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 285a-287b / Laws, BK HI,
670c-671c; BK iv, 679c-681a
Id to
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT
649
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*29*39]
446d; CH 6 [1255*7-25] 448c-d; BK in, CH 3
[i276«7-i6] 473a; CH 15 11286*28-40} 485b;
BK v, CH zi [I3i4*35-i3i5bii] 517a-518c; BK
vi, CH 8 [I32ib40-i322a28) 525d-526a; BK vn,
CH 2 [1324^24-39) 528d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [851-853] 234a
14 PLUTARCH: Ckomenes, 659d-660a
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK n, CH 21 161b-
162d; BK iv, CH 4 190d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-
525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i, REP 3 205b-206b; A 3 207a-c; Q 95, A 5
233d-234d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 71d-73a; 89b;
91a-b; PART I-H, 96c-105c esp PART n, 99a-b;
109b-c; 112b-d; 117d; 122b-124b; 131d-132a;
145a-b; 148d-149b; 159d; PART in, 191b;
225c-d; PART rv, 273a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc n [183-220]
535d-536b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Crcssida, ACT i,
sc in [78-134] 109a-c / Measure for Measure^
ACT i, sc n [120-127] 176b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; PROP 51, SCHOL 439d
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 294-308 225b<228b; 311
228b; 878 345a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a-4a; 16a-c / Civil Gov-
ernment, CH i, SECT 2-3 25c-d; CH n 25d-28c
passim; CH iv, SECT 21 29d; CH vi, SECT 69-71
40a-c; CH vn, SECT 87-89 44a-d; CH vm, SECT
95-99 46c-47c; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xn, SECT
143-cH xin, SECT 149 58c-59d; CH xiv 62b-
64c passim; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b; CH xvi-
xix 65d-81d passim, esp CH xix, SECT 219
75b-c / Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvin, SECT 4-17 229b-232d passim, esp SECT
6 229d, SECT 9 230b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 261b-262a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xn, 84b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 367b; 370b-
372b / Social Contract, BK i, 389a-393b; BK
ii, 396d-397a; BK in, 406b,d-409a; 418a-419c;
BK iv, 433a-434b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309c-311c;
349a-c
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 389a-b;
392b; 393c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31a-b; NUMBER 15,
64b-65d; NUMBER 16 66c-68d passim, esp 67d-
68c; NUMBER 20-21, 78a-d; NUMBER 23, 85d-
87a passim; NUMBER 27-28, 94d-96c; NUMBER
29, 98c-99b; NUMBER 31, 104b; NUMBER 33,
108d-109a; NUMBER 37, 118d-119a; NUMBER
39, 127a-d; NUMBER 41, 132b-c; NUMBER 43,
141a-142d; NUMBER 44, 145c-147a; NUMBER
59, 182a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c / "Representative
Government, 327b,d-332d; 333c-334a; 350b-
355b; 362c-363a; 429a-c / Utilitarianism,
472b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 209-
213 69d-71a; par 230-237 75c-70c; par 278
92c-93a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
688a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKv,127b-
137c passim
le. The attributes of good government
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-456] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 342a-350a / States-
man, 598b-604b / Laws, BK iv, 681b-682c;
BK vm, 733b-734a esp 733d- 734a
9 ARISTOTLE : Ethics, BK n, CH i [no3b2-6]349a;
BK vm, CH 10-11 412c-413d / Politics, BK n,
CH 2 [i26i*23-b6] 456a-b; CH 9 [1269*29-33]
465b-c; BK in, CH 6 [i279*i7]-CH 7 [i279bio]
476c-477a; BK vi, CH 4 [i3i8b2i-i3i9*3J
522b-c; BK vn, CH 2 [1324*24-25] 528b;
CH 14 [i332bi2~4i] 537b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK n, CH 21 161b-
162d, BK iv, CH 3-4 190a-d; BK xix, CH 24
528b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xn, 18a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 101a-104d;
112b-d; 153a-159c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 193a; PART
n, 331a-336a; 352d-353a
35 LOCKE: Ctvtl Government, CH ix, SECT 131
54d; CH xi, SECT 134 -CH xn, SECT 143 55b-
58d; CH xin, SECT i58-cn xiv, SECT 168 61d-
64c; CH xvni, SECT 205 72a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 74a-76b; 78a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b-d; BK
vi, 39b; BK xi, 69a-75a; BK xn, 84b,d-85c;
BK xin, 96a-b; BK xix, 135d-136a; 138a-c;
BK xxin, 199b-c; BK xxvi, 214b,d; BK xxix,
262a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c; 360b-c /
Political Economy, 368c-372b; 375b-c / Social
Contract, BK in, 411c-412c; 417c-418a; 424a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 50a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
408c-409c; 438d-439a; 450b-452a / Judge-
ment, 586a-587a
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: [7-23] la-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30a-b; NUMBER 22,
84c-d; NUMBER 23 85a-87a; NUMBER 30,
lOlb-c; NUMBER 31, 104b; NUMBER 37,
118d-119b; NUMBER 39, 125a-126b; NUMBER
41, 132b-c; NUMBER 45, 147d-148a; NUMBER
47 153c-156d; NUMBER 57, 176d-177a; 177d-
178a; NUMBER 62, 190c; NUMBER 68, 206b-c;
NUMBER 70, 210c-d; NUMBER 71, 215b| NUM-
BER 78, 232d 233c; NUMBER 83, 250d 251a
650
THE GREAT IDEAS
\fto \g(\}
(l.Tbe general theory of government, le. The
attributes of good government.)
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-273d; 322a-323a,c /
Representative Government, 332d-350a; 356d-
357a; 362c-370a; 380c-382c; 387c-d; 436b-
437a; 439b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 182c-d; 204b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 165
145a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 174a-
175c; PART i, 208b-c; PART 11, 275a-b; 276a;
PART iv, 342a-343a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,252-259] 249b-
250a
I/. The abuses and corruptions to which gov-
ernment is subject
OLD TESTAMENT: I Samuel, 8:3-20— (D) I Kings,
8:3-20
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK HI,
436d-437d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIH-IX 401d-427b /
Laws, BK iv, 681d-682c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 7 [i266b36-
I267bio] 462c-463b, BK HI, CH 15 [1286*31-
b8] 484c-d, CH 16 [i287ai-b8] 485b-486a; BK
v, CH 2-3 503b-505b; CH 8 [i3o8b3i-i309*32]
511a-c passim; CH 12 [i3i6ai-b27] 518d-519d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4 [1360*17-29] 600c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK n, 224d-225a
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK xix, CH 6 S14b-
515a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vi [58-75] 9a;
xxvn [19-54] 39d-40a, PURGATORY, vi [76-
151] 61c-62c; xvi [58-126] 77c-78a; PARADISE,
xvi 130a 132a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-d, PART n,
lOOa-c; 104b-d; 116c-d; 148c-153a; 164a,c;
PART iv, 273a b; CONCLUSION, 279a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 381 b-d; 384b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure 174a-
204d
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Samson
Agomstes [237-276] 344b-345b / Areopagitica,
412b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 138
57b-c; CH XHI, SECT 149 59b-d; CH xvm,
SECT 199-201 71a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, lib; 15b-16b; 28b-
29a; PART n, 74a-76b; PART HI, 120a; PART
iv, 152b-154a; 157a-158a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, lOOd-lOla; 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 39c; BK
VIH, 51a-55c; BK xi, 69a-c; BK xxvm, 259b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360b-361c / Political
Economy, 372b 373a / Social Contract, BK in,
433a-434b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 148b-c; 149d-
150a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 521d; 622d-
623a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 307a-c; 586c-587b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-441d csp 435c
436b, 437c-d, 438d~441d; 450a c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10 49c-53a passim,
NUMBER 15, 65c-66a; NUMBER 16, 68c-d; NUM-
BER 22, 82c-83d; NUMBER 28 96c-98b passim;
NUMBER 37, 120d-121a; NUMBER 41, 132b c;
NUMBER 51 162d-165a passim; NUMBER 62,
190a-b; NUMBER 66, 201d-202a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c / Representative
Government, 328d-330c; 350d-351a; 362c-
370a; 376a-c; 387c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 120a-c; 178b-c; 195c-d;
261c-d; 374b-c
47 GOETHE Faust, PART n [4772-4811] 118b-
119b; [10,242-284] 249b-250b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV,127b-
13 7c passim
1^. The sovereignty of government: the unity
and disposition of sovereignty
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 6 [i278b9~i4]
475d; CH 7 476c-477a; CH 10 478d-479a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i 365^7-1 366*2] 608a-b
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3 207a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 97c-98a,c; PART
n, 100c-105c, 112b-c; 114b-c; 116c-d; 117b-d;
122b-124b; 130d; 131d-132a; 148b; 150b;
151a-152a; 153b; 159c; PART in, 228b
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK v [769-799] 192a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ix, 58b,d-
60a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d / Political Econ-
omy, 368c-369a / Social Contract, BK i, 392a-
393 b; BK 11, 395a-398b; BK in, 406b,d-409a;
420d; BK iv, 423a-424b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-28b passim,
esp 28a b; 521b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-b; 437c-d;
438b-c; 439a-441d; 450d-451b; 452a-d
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: n 5a-b
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 9, 48b-49c esp 49b;
NUMBER 15, 63d-66b; NUMBER 16-20 66c-78b
esp NUMBER 20, 78a-b; NUMBER 32 105c-107b
passim, esp 105d; NUMBER 33, 108d-109a;
NUMBER 39, 126b-128b; NUMBER 42, 138c;
NUMBER 44, 146d-147a; NUMBER 62, 189c-d;
NUMBER 81, 240d-241a; NUMBER 82, 242b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 331c-332d;
355b-356b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 276
92b; par 279 93a-94d; par 285 96b; par 321-
322 106c-107a; ADDITIONS, 168 145c-d; 178
147d-148a; 187 149b / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 355c-d; 365a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
684a
1^(1) The sovereign person: sovereignty vested
in the individual ruler
OLD TESTAMENT: / Samuel, 8:4-20— (D) I Kings,
8:4-20
\g(2) to lg(3)
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [188-206] 12a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [631-765] 136c-137d
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [429-456] 262a-b /
Andromache [464-492] 319b-c
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK i, 23b-24b; BK in,
107c-108c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 679c-681a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 10 [1281*29-38]
479a; CH 14 [i285b29]-CH 17 [i288a34] 484a-
487a, BK iv, CH 10 495a-b
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK i, la-2a; 3a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96,
A 4 512d-513c; Q 103, A 3 530a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-u, Q 90,
A i, REP 3 20Sb-206b; A 3 207a-c; Q 96, A 5,
ANS and REP 3 233d-234d; Q 105, A i 307d-
309d
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART i, 71d-73a; 74b-c;
97c-d; PART ii, 100c-106d; 113d-114b; 130b-d;
131d-132a; 149d-150a; 153a-158a
30 BACON. New Atlantis, 208a-c
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK i [587-612] 106a-b;
BK n [1-42] llla-112a; BK vi [169-188] 200a
35 LOCKE. Toleration, 14b-d / Civil Government,
CH i, SECT i 25a-c; CH n 25d-28c; CH vi, SECT
53 36b-c, CH vn, SECT 90-94 44d-46c; CH xix,
SECT 232-239 78c-81b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b; BK
n, 4a; 7c-d; 8d-9a,c; BK in, 12b-13c; BK v,
26d-27b; 30a-c; BK vi, 36a-b; BK xn, 94c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 323d / Social Contract,
BK in, 406b,d-407a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-28b passim,
esp 26b-27d; 51a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 74c-d, 320d-321a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 437c-d; 439a-441d;
445a-c; 450a-b; 450d-452a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268a / Representative
Government, 341d-344a
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 120a-c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 275
92a-b; par 279 93a-94d; par 320 106c; ADDI-
TIONS, 167 145c / Philosophy of History, PART
in, 300a-301c; PART iv, 325a-b; 342a-343a;
355c-d; 365c-366b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
684a
lg(2) The sovereign office: the partition of
sovereignty among the offices created by
a constitution
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 697a-705c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 2 [i26ia23~b6]
456a-b; BK in, CH r [i275a22-b2i] 472a-c; CH
n [i282*25-bi4] 480a-c; CH 16 [i 287*1 i-b7]
485c-486a; BK iv, CH 3 [1290*3-13] 489a; CH 4
[1292*30-37] 491d; CH 15 499c-501c; BK vi, CH
8 525b-526d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35d / Tiberius
Gracchus, 678b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 153a-159c
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT
651
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ix, SECT 127-131
54a-d; CH xi, SECT 134 55b-d; CH xin 59b-
62b passim; CH xiv, SECT 163-166 63a-64a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 7la-76b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69d-
75a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 395a~d; BK
in, 419b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, la-b; 25a-28a pas-
sim, esp 28a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 564a-b
42 KANT- Science of Right, 436b-c; 444c-445a
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S. - ARTICLE i-ni
lla-16a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 22, 84c-d; NUMBER 39,
125c-d; NUMBER 47-51 153c-165a; NUMBER
53, 167d-168b; NUMBER 64, 197a-b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-356b;
362c-363a; 401d-402b
46 HFGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 269
84d; par 271 89c; ADDITIONS, 161 143a-b /
Philosophy of History, PART iv, 342 b-d; 368c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d
The sovereign people: the community as
the source of governmental sovereignty
OLD TESTAMENT: Judges, 8:22-23 / ^ Samuel, 8—
(D) I Kings, 8 / // Samuel, 2^-(D) II Kings,
2-4 / I Kings, 12:1-20— (D) /// Kings, 12 1-20
APOCRYPHA: / Maccabees, 14:25-47 — (D) OT,
/ Machabees, 14:25-47
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [429-456] 262a-b
5 ARISTOPHANES. Knights 47Qa-4&7sL,c esp [1316-
1408] 486a-487a,c
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK in, 107c-108c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK 11, CH 9 [i27ob2o-22]
466d; BK in, CH i [1275*22 b2i] 472a-c; CH 3
[i276a40-bi] 473b; CH 7 476c-477a; CH n
479b-480c; CH 17 486c-487a; BK iv, CH 4
[i29ib30-i292a37] 491a-d; CH 9 [1294^4-39]
494d; CH 12 496d-497b; CH 14 498b-499c
14 PLUTARCH: Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3 207a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 100c-102c; PART
in, 200a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vn, SECT 87-94 44a-46c; CH vin 46c-53c
passim; CH ix, SECT 127-011 x, SECT 132 54a-
55b; CH xi, SECT 141 58a-b; CH xin, SECT 149
59b-d; CH xiv, SECT 163-168 63a-64c; CH xv,
SECT 171 65a-b; CH xvi, SECT 179-184 66d-
68d; SECT 190-192 69b-d; CH xvn, SECT 198
70d-71a; CH xix 73d-81d passim, esp SECT
240-243 81b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b;
BK xv, 109c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d / Social Contract,
BK i, 391b-393b; BK n, 395b-c; 396d-398a;
400a; 401a-c; BK in, 406b,d-410a; 420a-421c;
423a-424b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, lOOd; 241b
652
THE GREAT IDEAS
\h to la
( l£. The sovereignty of government: the unity ami
disposition of sovereignty. lg(3) The sov-
ereign people: the community as the source
of governmental sovereignty.)
42 KANT- Science of Right, 436c; 437c-d; 439a-
441d; 450a-b; 450d 452a esp 451c-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' [1-25] la-b;
[43-47] 2«
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
AMENDMENTS, IX-X 17d<18d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 22, 84d-85a; NUMBER
33, 108b-c; NUMBER 39 125a-128b; NUMBER
46, 150b-c; NUMBER 49, 159c; NUMBER 53,
167d-168b; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c / Representative Gov-
ernment, 341d-350a passim, esp 344d; 355b-
356b; 380c-382c; 386d-393a esp 387c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 279
93a-94d; par 308 102c-103a / Philosophy of
History, PART ii, 272b-273a; PART in, 300a-
3Qlc; PART iv, 365c-366b
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680b-
684a
\b. Self-government: expressions of the popu-
lar will; elections; voting
OLD TESTAMENT: Judges, 21 .-24
9 ARISTOTLE: Pontics, BK n, CH 6 [1266*5-30]
461c-d; CH 9 [i^7ob7-34l 466d-467a; [1271*9-
17] 467b; CH 12 [1273^36-1274*22] 470c-d; BK
HI, CH n 479b-480c; BK iv, CH 14 498b-499c;
BK vi, CH 2-3 520d-522a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH
8 [I365b32-33l 608a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35c / Conolanus,
180b-d / Tiberius Gracchus, 676b-681a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3, ANS 207a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus 351a-392a,c esp
ACT n, sc ii-m 364a-369a
32 MILTON: Sonnets, XH 65a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vm, SECT 95-99
46c-47c, CH xni, SECT 154 60c-d; CH xix,
SECT 216 74d; SECT 222 75d-76c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73b-74b
38 MONTESQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b;
BK xi, 71a-c, BK xix, 142a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c-325b / Social
Contract, BK i, 393a-b; BK n, 396 b-d; BK iv,
425a-432b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 241b-c; 521a-523a,c
passim
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 73b, 562c<564b;
587a
42 KANT- Science of Right, 436d-437c; 451c-
452a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE
lla,c; ARTICLE i, SECT 2 [5-10] lib; SECT 2
[I7J--SECT 3 [66] lib 12a; SECT 4 [96-102],
SECT 5 [107-109] 12b; ARTICLE II, SECT I
[321-374] 14b-d; AMENDMENTS, xii 18a-c;
xvii 19b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125a-b; NUMBER
49-50 159b-162c; NUMBER 51, 164d-165a;
NUMBER 52-61 165a-188d passim; NUMBER 68
205b-207a; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 268d-269a / Representative
Government, 370a-406a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 308-
311 102c~104a / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
172d-173a
2. The forms of government: their evaluation
and order
2a. The distinction and comparison of good
and bad forms of government
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-456] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396c-d;
BK in, 432b-c; BK vi, 520b-c; BK vm,
587a-b
7 PLATO. Republic, BK i, 301c-d; BK vin-ix,
401d-421a / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK
in 663d-677a esp 669d-672a, 672c; BK iv,
679c-682c; BK v, 692c-693a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH 10-11 412c-
413d / Politics, BK in, CH i [i275a35-b2] 472b,
CH 6-7 475d-477a; CH n [1282^8-14] 480c; CH
15 [I286b5~7] 484d; BK iv, CH i-io 487a-495b
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 608a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c /
Dion, 800c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, Sib; BK iv, 72a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-
309d
23 MACHIAVELLI Prince, CH i 3a-b
23HoBBES. leviathan, PART n, 104b-109a esp
104d-105a; 114b-115a; 129b-130a; 150c-151a;
154b-c, 158b-c; PART in, 228b, PART iv,
273a-b
35 LOCKE Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 90-91
44d-45c; CH x, SECT 132 55a-b
36 SWIPT: Gulliver ; PART n, 78a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK II-IH 4a-
13d; BK iv, 15a-c; BK v, 25d-31b; BK vi, 33a-
35a; 37d-38b; BK vm, 54a-b; BK xi, 69a-c;
BK xv, 109a-b; BK xix, 145d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK HI, 410b-415b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a / Science of
Right, 439c-440a; 441b-c; 450a-452a / Judge-
ment, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 51c-52d; NUMBER
14, 60b-61a; NUMBER 22, 83b-d; NUMBER 39,
125a-126b; NUMBER 48, 157c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 332d-355b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 195c-d; 260b; 390a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 273
90c-92a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 203b-
206a,c
Ib to 2c
CHAPTER 31: GOVERNMENT
653
2b. The combination of different form* of gov-
ernment: the mixed constitution, the
mixed regime
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [359-422] 5b-
6b; [600-624] 8d-9a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [339-358] 261b-c
0 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 152d 153b
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK vm,
590a-b
7 PLATO. Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK HI,
667a-676b; BKiv,680d>681a; BKVi,699d-700b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 6 [i265b26-
I266tt4] 461b-c; CH 11 [i272b23]-cn 12 [1274*
13) 469b-470d; BK HI, CH 15-16 484b-486c
esp CH 15 [i286b3i]-cH 16 [i28788] 485b-c; BK
iv, CH 8-9 493c-494d, CH 11-12 495b-497b;
BK v, CH 7 [1307*5-28] 509a-b; CH 8 [i3o8bio-
1309*32] 510d-511c; CH n [1313*18-33] 515d-
516a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 8 [i365b39-i366a2]
608b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34b-35d / Dion, 800c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 59d; BK iv, 72a; BK
vi, 97b
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A i, ANS 307d-309d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH iv 7a-8a; CH xix,
27a-b; 29c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103d-104b; 106d-
107c, 151c-152a; PART in, 228a-b
35 LOCKE Civil Government, CH VH, SECT 94
46a-c, CH x, SECT 132 55a-b; CH xi 55b-58b;
CH xm-xiv 59b-64c passim; CH xvm, SECT
199-206 71a-72c; CH xix 73d-81d passim, esp
SECT 213 74b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 266d
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK n, 7c-8c;
BK in, llc-12b; 13c; BK vi, 36a-b; BK ix,
58b,d-60a; BK xi 68b,d-84d; BK xix, 142a-
146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357b-c / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 410c; 414d-415b; BK iv, 427a-
428a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 24b; 26d-28b;
622d-623a; 630b,d-631a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d; 81c-d; 218c-
219a; 403b-d esp 403c, 404c-d, 428a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439c-440a; 441b-c;
450a-452a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 39, 125c; NUMBER 43,
141a-d; NUMBER 47, 154a-c; NUMBER 69 207a-
210c passim; NUMBER 70, 213b-c; NUMBER 71,
216a-b; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268c / Representative
Government, 343c-344a; 351a-c; 353d-354b,
355b-356b; 401d-402b
44 Bos WELL '.Johnson, 178a-b; 255a-d; 390a-b
4(5 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 273
90c-92a; par 275-286 92a-97a; ADDITIONS,
170-172 145d-146d / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 368c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d
2c. The absolute and relative evaluation of
forms of government: by reference to
the nature of man or to historic circum-
stances
Oi D TESTAMENT: / Samuel, 8— (/>) / Kings, 8
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107c-108d;
120b-c; BK v, 178a-180a; BK VH, 233a-c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK vm,
587a-b; 590a-b
7 PL\TO: Republic, BK IH-IV, 339b-356a; BK
vm-ix 401d-427b / Laws, BK HI 663d-677a;
BK ix, 754a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 12 453d-454a;
BK in, CH 15 [i286b8-22] 484d-485a; CH 17
486c-487a; BK iv, CH i 487a-488b; CH 2 [1289**
13-20] 488c-d; CH 12 496d-497b
14 PLUTARCH: Phocion, 605a-d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 193c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 104b-d; 105c-
106b; 129b 130a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46d
26 SHAKESPEARE. Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc i-n
568b,d-572c
27 SHAKESPEARE. Conolanus, ACT HI, sc i [131-
161] 370d-371a
32 MILTON- Samson Agonistes [241-276] 344 b-
345b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 13
28a-b; CH VH, SECT 90-94 44d-46c; CH vm,
SECT 105-112 48c-51b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, pARTiii,112a-113a; 118a-l2lb
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3b-c; BK
iv, 15c; BK v, 29a-b; BK xiv, 107a-d; BK xvi,
118b-c; BK XVH, 122a-124d; BK xvm, 125a-c;
126b-c; BK xix, 135a-b; 135d; 140d-141a
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 359a-b / Political Econ-
omy, 371c / Social Contract, BK n, 405c-d; BK
in, 407c, 409a; 410c; 415b-417c
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 32b-34a,c esp 33c;
68b,d-69a; 90d-91d; 513b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 222d-224a; 320d-
321b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
438d-439a; 450b-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [7-23] la-b
43 FlDERALIST NUMBER 6, 40a-41a, NUMBER 10,
51c-52d; NUMBER 15, 65b-66b; NUMBER 55,
I74c-d; NUMBER 85, 257a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 272a / Representative Govern-
ment, 327b,d-355b passim; 366a-369b; 436b-
437a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 195c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273-
274 90c-92a; ADDITIONS, 165-166 145a-c /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173c-175c; 203b-
206a,c; PART i, 207d-209a; 243b-c; PART n,
271c-d; 273d-274a; PART HI, 285b-d; 300a-
301c; PART iv, 344a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^ 107a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV,127b-
137c passim
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 883d-884c
654
THE GREAT IDEAS
2d to 3
(2. Tb< forms of government: their evaluation and
order,)
2d. The influence of different forms of govern-
ment on the formation of human charac-
ter
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 175b; BK vn,
232d-233d
6THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c d; BK vin, 564a~c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin 401d-416a / Laws,
BK vin, 733b-734a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH IO-H 412c-
413d; BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c / Politics, BK
HI, en 4-5 473c-475d; BK iv, CH 7 [i293b5-6]
493a-b; BK v, CH 9 [1310*12-35] 512b-c; BK
vii, CH 2 fn24B5-b23l 528a-d; CH 14 [1333*11-
15] 537d-538a
10 HIPPOCRATES. Airs, Waters, Places, par 16
15d-16a; par 23 18a-c
14 PLUTARCH : Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 34b-37c /
Numa Pompilius, 59c-60b / Lycurgus-Numa
61b,d-64a,c / Cleomenes, 659d-660a
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 60c-61d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK 11 [246-257] 116b /
Samson Agomstes [241 -276] 344b-345b / Are-
opagitica, 384b-385b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n-v, 8d-
19d; BK v, 26c-27a; BK xix, 138c-140d, 142a-
146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 372a-b/ Social
Contract, BK ii, 400d-401a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23c-24a,c; 79c-d,
91c-92b; 523d-524a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 161c-162b; 202b-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 586b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 298d / Representative Govern-
ment, 341d-350a passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PARI in, par 273
90c-92a / Philosophy of History, INJRO, 174a-
175c; PART in, 285b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 668a-
669d
2e. The ideal form of government: the distinc-
tion between practicable and Utopian
ideals
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds 54 2a- 563d / Ecclesiazu-
sae 615a-628d csp [553-729] 621b-623c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
7 PLATO: Republic 295a-441a,c csp BK II-VH
310c-401d / Timaeus, 442b-443b / Statesman,
598b-604b / Laws, BK iv, 681b-d; BK v, 692c-
693a; 696a-b; BK vn, 722d-723c; BK ix,
754a-b / Seventh Letter, 806b-807b
0 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [1135*2-4] 382d
/ Politics, BK ii, CH i [i26ob28]-CH 9 [u69a}7]
'455b,d-465c; BK iv, CH i 487a-488b; CH 2
[1289*30-35] 488b; CH 7 fi293bi-2jj ^93a-b;
CH ii 495b-496d; BK v, CH 12 [131^1-20]
518d-519a; BK vn, CH 4-15 530a-539d
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK ix, SECT 29 294a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 21 524a-
525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xv, 22b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 112b-d; 164a,c
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 318c-319b; 462c-465c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACT ii, sc i [143-168]
532d-533a
30 BACON Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a /
New Atlantis 199a-214d
32 MILTON- AreopagUica, 393a-b
36 SWIFF: Gulliver, PART i, 28a-31a; PART n, 76b-
80b; PART in, 112a-115b; PART iv 135a-184a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 68b,d-
75a
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 323a-328a,c / Social
Contract, BK ii, 400c-403a; 405a-c; BK in,
410d-411c; 417c-418a; BK iv, 427d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 68b,d-69a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
438d-439a; 450b-452a /Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 40a-41a; NUMBER 16,
68d, NUMBER 38, 122b-124a; NUMBER 41,
132b-c; NUMBER 43, 141d-142d, NUMBER 49,
159d-160a; NUMBER 65, 200b-c; NUMBER 68,
206b-c, NUMBER 85, 257a-c; 258d-259a
43 MILL. Representative Government, 327b,d-355b
esp 341c-d; 368c-370a; 380c-381a; 387c-d
46 HEGfcL. Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6c-d; PART
HI, par 185 64b-d; par 273 90c-92a / Philoso-
phy of History, INTRO, 173c-175c, PART i,
243b-c; 251b; PART n, 279c-d; PART in,
300c-d; PART iv, 365c-d
50 MARX-RNCELS. Communist Manifesto, 428d-
429c; 432d-433c
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK vi, 245a-c
52 DOS»IOLVSK\: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
131c-d
54 FREUD- New Introductory Lectures, 883d 884c
3. The powers, branches, or departments of
government: enumerations, definitions,
and orderings of these several powers
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 665d-666c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14-16 498b-
502a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [i354*i3-i355a3l
593b-594a
23 HOBRES: Leviathan, PARI n, 122b-124b
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 88-89
44c-d; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi-xiv 55b-64c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69d-
75a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 301a-357c
passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436b-439a
43 CONSTITUTION ot THE U.S. ARTICLE i-m
lla-16a passim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-d; NUMBER
47-82 153c-244a csp NUMBER 48, 157c-d,
NUMBER 64, 197a-b; NUMBER 78, 230b-d
latolb
CHAPTER 31: GOVERNMENT
655
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b*424c
passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right \ PART HI, par
272-273 89d-92a; ADDITIONS, 164 144c-14Sa /
Philosophy of History, PART iv, 364d-365a;
365c-d
3*. The separation and coordination of the
several powers: usurpations and infringe-
ments by one branch of government
upon another
7 PLATO: Laws, BK HI, 671a-672a; BK ix, 754c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14-16 498b-
502a,c / Athenian Constitution, CH 45, par i
573d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 70d-71c / Poplicola-Solon,
86d-87a / Agesilaus, 482a-c / Agts, 650b-656d
/ Clcomenes, 660b-661a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a, 3a-b; BK iv,
65a-c; BK xi, lOlc; BK xm, 126c-d
20 AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologtca, PART I-H, Q 95,
A i, REP 2-3 226c-227c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103d-104a; 150b;
151c-152a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ii-in 25d-29d
passim; CH VH, SECT 90-94 44d-46c; CH vin,
SECT 107 49b-d; CH xn-xiv 58c-64c; CH xvn -
xvin 70c-73c; CH xix, SECT 212-219 74a-
75c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b-8c,
BK v, 29a; BK vi, 36a-37b; BK xi 68b,d-84d
esp 69d-75a; BK xix, 142b-143a; BK xxvm,
259b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 397b-c; BK
in, 406d-407a; 410d-411a; 415a-b, 422b-c,
423a; 423d; BK iv, 432b-433a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 311c-315a,c
esp 314d-315a,c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 24b,d-28b esp 25a-
26a, 27a-b; 154a-b; 343c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 74b-75a; 75d-78b
esp 76a; 586c-587a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436b; 437d-439a;
440a-441b; 450d-452a esp 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-79] la-
2b passim
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ix [192-197]
7b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
2 [45-47] lid; SECT 3 [81-95] 12a-b; SECT 7
[156-191] 12d-13a; ARTICLE n, SECT i [335-
374] 14b-d; [383-393] 14d-15a; SECT 2 [421]-
SECT 4 [458] 15b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 68b-c; NUMBER 22,
83d-84b; NUMBER 27, 96a-b; NUMBER 47-49
153c-161b; NUMBER 51 162d-165a; NUMBER
52, 165c-167b; NUMBER 62, 189d~191c passim;
NUMBER 64-67 195b-205b esp NUMBER 65-66
198a-203a; NUMBER 71, 215a-216b; NUMBER
73 218d-221c; NUMBER 75-77 222d-229d;
NUMBER 78, 230a-232a; NUMBER 81, 237d-
239c; NUMBER 82, 242d-243a
43 MILL: Liberty, 322a-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 350d-351a; 353 b>d; 355b-363a; 365b-
366a; 401d-402b
44 EOSWELL: Johnson, 178b-c; 255d; 411a-b
4<J HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 272-
273 89d-92a; par 297 99b; par 300 lOOb; par
302 lOla-c; par 312-313 104a-b; ADDITIONS,
163-164 144c-14Sa; 174 146d-147b; 178-179
147d-148a / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
365c-d
£. The relation of the civil to the military
power
6 HERODOTUS' History, BK n, 79a-c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK vn,
551b-d; BK VHI, 582a-583c; 585d-586b; 587a-
589a; 590a-c passim
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in-v, 340b-368d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 7 [i279B37-b3]
476d; BK iv, CH 13 [1297^0-28] 497d-498a;
BK vi, CH 8 [i}22a29-b6] 526a-b; BK VH, CH 9
Ji329»2-i7] 533b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 6b-15a; BK iv, 64a-b
/ Histories, BK i, 190b-c; 194a-c; 195c-197desp
197c-d; 210d-212d; BK n, 239c-240a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xn, 18a; CH xiv
21b-22a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103b; 159a c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XH, SECT 145-
148 58d-59b; CH xvi 65d-70c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 80a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spmt of Laws, BK v, 30b;
31c-32b; BK xi, 74b-d; BK xix, 143c
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 361a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 424b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 301a-309a,c
esp 307d-308c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 25d-26d; 30a-b;
42b,d-43b; 50b-51a; 63a-64d; 68c, 76b-77b;
245d-246d esp 246c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [60-61] 2a;
[65-67] 2b; [80-94] 2b-3a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: vi [107-123]
6b-c; vn 6d; ix [290-298] 8a; [318-365] 8b-d
passim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
8 [226-242] 13b-C; ARTICLE II, SECT 2 [409-
413] 15a; AMENDMENTS, in 17b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45b-c; 46a-47a, NUM-
BER 24-29 87b-101a passim, NUMBER 46,
152b-153a; NUMBER 74, 221c d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 409d; 425c-d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 281d-282a
46 HECJEL Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 326
107d-108a; par 329 108c; ADDITIONS, 163 144c
/ Philosophy of History, PART iv, 325a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK HI, 138d; 144c;
146d; 153d-155a; BK v, 209a-c; BK ix, 346a-
365c passim, esp 353a, 355b, 361 b-d; BK x,
404c-405a; BK XH, 533a-537b esp 535d-537b;
BK xm, 565c-566d; BK xiv, 610d-611a; BK xv,
627d-630a
656
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The powers, branch**, or departments of gov-
ernment: enumerations, definitions, and
orderings of these several powers?)
3f . The legislative department of government:
the making of law
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344a-346a / Theaete-
tus, 531 a- b / Statesman, 599c-600d / Laws,
BK in, 666b-c; BK iv, 679c-680d; 684b-686c;
BK vi, 705d-706c; BK ix, 745c-746a; 754a-d;
BK xi, 782a-b / Seventh Letter, 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c /
Politics, BK iv, CH 14 498b-499c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51 b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90
205a-208b; Q 91, A 3 209d-210c; Q 92 213c-
215a,c; QQ 95-97 226b-239b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103a; 130d-131a;
131d-132a; 133d-134a; 151c-152a; PART iv,
273d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 363d-364a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
33 PASCAL: Pcnsfrs, 294 225b-226b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, lib; 16a-c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH vii, SECT 88-89 44c-d; CH ix, SECT
I27-CH x, SECT 132 54a-55b; CH xi, SECT 134-
CH XH, SECT 143 55b-58d, CH xui, SECT 150
59d; CH xix, SECT 212-217 74a-75a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73a-74b; 78b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b; BK
xi, 69d; 71a-72b passim; BK xxix 262a-269a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c-d / Political Econ-
omy, 368c-369a; 372a-b / Social Contract, BK
n, 399b-402a; BK in, 419d-420a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 151b-156a; 616d-
61 7b; 624b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 79d-80b; 96a-d;
108a-c
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 393c /
Science of Right, 397a-b; 436b-c; 438b-c;
450d-452a csp 451c-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [29-47] *b-
2a; (62-^4) [72-79] 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
1-9 lla-14a
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 10, 50d-51b; NUMBER
15, 64b; NUMBER 33, 107d-109b; NUMBER 44,
145c-146d; NUMBER 51, 163c-d; NUMBER 52-
66 165a-203a csp NUMBER 53, 167d-168b,
NUMBER 64, 197a-b; NUMBER 70, 212b; NUM-
BER 75, 223a-c; NUMBER 81, 239a-b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-409c
passim
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 255d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 211
70a-c; par 298-314 99c-104b / Philosophy of
History, PART 11, 271d-272a; PART iv, 364d-
365a; 365c-d
3c(l) The powers and duties of the legislature
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344a-346a / Theaete-
tus, 531a-b
3cto3c(2)
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14 [ii98s4-bi i J
498b-499a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government,
CH iv, SECT 21 29d; CH xi, SECT i34-cn XH,
SECT 143 55b-58d; CH xm SECT 150-153 59d-
60c; CH xix, SECT 212-217 74a-75a; SECT 221-
222 75d-76c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 167a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK 11, 6b; BK
v, 21d-22c; BK xi, 69d-75a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 25d; 27d-28a;
130c-131a
42 KANT- Science of Right, 451c-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [29-47] Ib-
2a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ix 7a-9a pas-
sim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.' ARTICLE i, SECT
1-9 lla-14a; ARTICLE n, SECT 2 [421-435] 15b;
ARTICLE III, SECT 3 [5<)7]-ARTICLE IV, SJ-CT I
[518] 16a; ARTICLE IV, SECT 3-ARTICLE V
16b-c; ARTICLE vi [591-599] 16d; AMEND-
MENTS, i 17a; xn-xx 18a-20a,c passim
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 23-36 85a-117d passim;
NUMBER 41-46 132a 153b passim; NUMBER 52-
66 165a 203a passim, csp NUMBER 53, 167d-
168b; NUMBFR 75, 223a-224a, NUMBER 77,
227b-229b; NUMBER 78, 230d-231c; NUMBER
81, 237d-240b; NUMBER 82 242b-244a passim;
NUMBER 83, 244c-245c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-363a;
365c-366a; 401a-409c passim; 417c-424c;
431a-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 255d; 364c-365a; 370a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 298
99c; par 309-311 103b-104a
3r(2) Legislative institutions and procedures
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 14 [i298bi2-
1299*2] 499a-c / Athenian Constitution, CH 43-
44 572d-573d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35c; 45c-46a /
Solon, 71b-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 267d-268c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 138
57b-c; CH xii, SECT 147 59a-b; CH xm, SECT
153-158 60b-62b, CH xiv, SECT 167-168 64a-c;
CH xix, SFCT 215 74d
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART n, 73a-74b; PART iv,
167a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 435b-436a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 4a-6b;
BK v, 22a-c; BK xi, 71a-d; 72b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 423d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 27d-28a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-74b passim,
csp 71d-72a, 73a-b; 587a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [29-47] ^"
2a; [62-64] [72-79) 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
1-9 lla-14a; ARTICLE iv, SECT 1 16a; ARTICLE
V 16c; ARTICLE VI [591-599] 16dj AMEND-
CHAPTEK 31 : GOVERNMENT
657
MBNTS, xiv, SECT 2 18d-19a; xvn 19b-c; xx,
SECT 1-2 19d-20a
43 FEDERALIST* NUMBER 15, 66a; NUMBER 22,
82a-83a; 84c-d; NUMBER 37, 120d-121a; NUM-
BER 51, 163c-d; NUMBER 52-66 165a-203a pas-
sim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 355b-362c;
370a-409c passim; 417c-424c; 431c-d
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 176a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 312-
314 104a~b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
260a-262a
3</. The judicial department of government:
the application of law
S ARISTOPHANES : Wasps 507a-525d
7 PLATO: Statesman, 605b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 16 485b-486c;
BK iv, CH 16 501c-502a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH
15 619d-622d
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 2, REP 7 309d-316a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART H, 103a-b; 123b-d;
132a-136b; 148a
27 SHAKESPEARE- Measure for Measure 174a-
204d
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 332d-
333b; 340d-343a; 353b-356d; 361a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
35 LOCKE . Civil Government, CH n, SECT 1 3 28a~b;
CH in, SECT 19-20 29b-d; CH vn, SECT 87-94
44a-46c; CH ix, SECT 125 54a; CH xi, SECT 136
56c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART H, 73b-75a; PART iv,
152b-154a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 266a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK H, 8b-c;
BK vi, 33a-35c; BK xi, 69d-70a; 80c-83c; BK
xx, 151d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-315a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 27d-28a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 438c-d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. : ARTICLE in 15c-
16a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 17, 69d-70a; NUMBER
22, 83d-84b; NUMBER 78-83 229d-251a csp
NUMBER 82, 243b, NUMBER 83, 244c-245d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 474d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 209-
228 69d-75b; ADDITIONS, 141-142 139c-d /
Philosophy of History, PART i, 250d-251a
3</(l) The powers and duties of the judiciary
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18:13-26 / Deuteron-
omy, 1:16-17; 16:18-20 / Ezra, 7:25-26— (D)
I Esdras, 7:25-26
7 PLATO: Apology, 200a-c; 208c-209b / States-
man, 605b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*13-1355*
3] 593b-594a; CH 15 619d-622d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 70d-7ib
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 6 514b-
515a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H,
Q 105, A 2, REP 7 309d-316a; PART in SUPPL,
Q 89, A 2 esp REP 3 1006b-1007c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ix, SECT 125
54a; CH xi, SECT 136 56c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73b-75a; PART iv,
152b-154a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 65c-66a; 13Sc-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 8b-c; BK
xi, 73b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91d; 243b; 343a-c
41 GIBBON; Decline and Fall, 94c-95c; 403c-d
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ix [192-197!
7b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. : ARTICLE in, SECT
2 15c-d; ARTICLE vi [583-590] 16d; AMEND-
MENTS, IV-VIH 17b-d; xi 18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 17, 69d-70a; NUMBER
22, 83d 84b; NUMBER 51, 162d-163a; NUMBER
65, 199a-d; NUMBER 73, 221b-c; NUMBER 78-
83 229d-251a esp NUMBER 78, 231b, NUMBER
83, 245b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 413d-414d;
421d-422c; 430a-431a / Utilitarianism, 466d-
467a
44 BOSWELL -.Johnson, 251d-252b
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 219
72d-73a; par 221 73b; par 225-226 73d-74b;
ADDITIONS, 139 139b; 141-142 139c-d
3</(2) Judicial institutions and procedures
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18:13-26; 23:1-3,6-9
/ Numbers, 35*9-34 / Deuteronomy, 1:12-17;
17:2-13; 19; 25.1-3 / / Samuel, 8:5-6,19-22;
9-15-17— (D) I Kings, 8.5-6,19-22; 9:15-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 26:46-27:26 / Acts,
5*16-40; 21:26-23-24
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumemdes 81a-91d
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK in, 95d-96b
7 PLATO: Apology, 209b-210b / Laws, BK vi,
704c-705c; BK xn, 786b-788c; 792a-793a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, cn8 [i 267*36- 1268*
6] 463d; [1268^-23] 464c; CH 12 [i273b36-
1274*21] 470c-d; BK iv, CH 16 501c-502a,c /
Athenian Constitution, CH 45 573d-574a; CH
48 574d-575b; CH 52-53 576b-577b; CH 57-59
579b-580c; CH 63-69 581d-584a,c / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 15 619d-622d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 30b-c; BK xn, 123b-c;
BK xin, 132c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 2, REP 7 309d-316a
22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [12,055-146] 368a-
369b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 123b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
204c-215c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i 425c-430b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
658
THE GREAT IDEAS
($d. The judicial department of government: the
application of law. 3d(2) Judicial institu-
tions and procedures.)
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 37a-b; PART 11, 73b-
75a; PART iv, 152b-154a
36 STERNE- Tnstram Shandy, 266a-b
37 FIELDING:/^ /<?««, 8c-10c;65c-66a; 135c-d;
176d-177d; 217a-c; 267d-268b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of l^aws, BK n, 8b-c;
BK vi, 33a-37d; BK xi, 70c-71a; 73b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 311c-315a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 243a-245d passim,
tip 244d-245b; 251b-d; 617a 618d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d-74b; 94c-95c;
403c-404d; 458c-d; 586c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [52-55] 2a;
[70-71] 2b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ix [198-274]
7b-8a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE HI,
SECT I 15c; SECT 2 [485-499] 15dj ARTICLE III,
SECT 3 (507J-ARTICLE IV, SECT I [518] 16aj
ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [522-528] 16a~b; AMEND-
MENTS, w-viii 17b-d
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 22, 83d-84b; NUMBER
51, 162d-163a; NUMBER 65, 199a-c; NUMBER
78-83 229d-251a passim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 336c-d;
337b-c; 413d-414d; 421d-422c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 255a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 223
73c-d / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 326b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 547b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK ix
235b,d-271d passim; BK xn 348b,d-401d
3e. The executive department of government:
the enforcement of law; administrative
decrees
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 15 499c-501c
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a/ Civil Government, CH n,
SECT 7-13 26c-28b; CH vn, SECT 88-89 44c-d;
CH ix, SECT 126-131 54a-d; CH xn, SECT
I44-CH xiv, SECT 168 58d-64c; CH XVHI, SECT
203-210 72a-73c; CH xix, SECT 218-219 75a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 157b-158a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69d-
70a, 72b; 80a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK in, 414d-415a;
423a; 424a-b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 438a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE n 14b-
15c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 64b-66b; NUMBER
16 66c-68d passim; NUMBER 21, 78b-d; NUM-
BER 27-29, 94d-99b; NUMBER 48, 157c; NUM-
BER 67-77 203b-229d passim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 350d-351a;
356b-359a; 409d-417c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 178b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 287-
297 97a-99b; ADDITIONS, 174 146d-147b /
Philosophy of History, PART iv, 325c-d; 364d-
365a
The powers and duties of the executive
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PARTII, 101a-104d; 122b-
124b; 130d; I53a-159c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 193a; PART
n, 331a-336a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 10-11
27b-d; CH xn, SECT 144-148 58d-59b, CH xm,
SECT 154-cn xiv, SECT 168 60c-64c; CH xix,
SECT 218-219 75a-c; SFCT 221-222 75d-76c
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART iv, 157b-158a
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit ofL aws, BK vi, 36a-37a;
43c d; BK xi, 72b-73b; 73d-74c
38 ROUSSEAU Social Contract, BK iv, 433a-434b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 319b-320a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 25d-26a; 26d-27c;
243b
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 586d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 448a-b
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [28-61] Ib-
2a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: ix [299-310]
8b; x 9a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
7 [156-191] 12d-13a; ARTICLE n 14b-15c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45b-c; NUMBER 48,
157c; NUMBER 51, 163d; NUMBER 66, 201a-
203a, NUMBER 67-77 203b-229d passim
43 MILL: Liberty, 319d-323a,c / Representative
Government, 356b-359a; 409d-417c; 421c-422c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 290-
296 97d-99b / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
365c-d
3e(2) Administrative institutions and proce-
dures
OLD TFSIAMENT Daniel, 6.1-2
7 PLATO- Laws, BK vi, 700d-704c
9 ARISTOTLE' Politics, BK iv, CH 15 [1299*31-
I3oob4) 500a-501b; BK vi, CH 8 525b-526d /
Athenian Constitution, CH 43-52 572d-576d;
CH 54-61 577c-581b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 22b; BK vi, 88d-89a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxn-xxin 33a-34b
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 122b-123a; 123d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 31b-
33a,c; BK xxvi, 224d-225a
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK n, 403a-404a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 25d-27c passim;
240b-246d; 248d-251a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 317d-318b; 563d-
564b, 586c-587a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [37-44] 5d;
ix [299-310] 8b; ix [368 ]-x [395] 8d-9a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE n 14b-
15c; AMENDMENTS, xn 18a-c; xx 19d-20a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 13, 59b-c; NUMBER 66,
201a-203a; NUMBER 67-77 203b-229d passim;
NUMBER 84, 255a-b
4/o 5
CHAPTER 31: GOVERNMENT
659
43 MILL: Liberty, 319d 323a,c / Representative
Government, 337d-338a; 356b-359a; 364b-
366a; 409d-424c passim; 439b-442d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 290
97d; ADDITIONS, 174 146d-147b / Philosophy
of History, PART i, 213b-214d
4. The support and the expenditures of govern-
ment: taxation and budget
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:33-36
APOCRYPHA: / Maccabees, 10:25-31— (D) OT,
/ Machabees, i o 125-3 !
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [790-835] 479c-480b
/ Wasps [655-724] 515c-516d / Birds [27-48]
542c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 43c; BK in, 109d-
lllb
6 THUCYDIDES • Peloponnesian War, BK i, 373 b-c;
BK in, 420d-421b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK xn, 791 d
9 ARISTOTLE Politics, BK i, CH u [1259*32-36]
453d; BK n, CH 9 [127^10-17] 467d; BK vi, CH
5 [I320ai7-bi6]523d-524b; BK vn, CH 8 [i328b
11-12] 532d / Athenian Constitution, CH 47-48
574b-575b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4 [i359b23~33]
600a
14 PLUTARCH. Anstides, 274c-d / Marcus Cato,
285c-d / Lucullus, 409b-d / Cato the Younger,
625b-626d
15 TACITUS Annals, BK iv, 82d 83a; BK xm,
139a-c / Histories, BK i, 194d-195a; BK n,
236d-237a; BK iv, 268c-d
23 MACHIAVELLI Prince, CH xvi, 22d-23b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78c-d; PART 11,
152a-b; 156c-157a
27 SHAKESPEARE- Cymbelme, ACT in, sc i 463c-
464c / Henry VIII, ACT i, sc n [18-101] 552d-
553d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 129 134d-
135d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 140 58a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, llb-12a; PART n,
75a-b; PART in, 113b-114a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 485a-487a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 23c-24b;
BK xni 96a-102a,c; BK xix, 143b c; BK xxn,
183b-184b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 365c-366a / Political
Economy, 368d; 377b-385a,c / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 403a-b; BK in, 415b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v 301a-421d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 41 b-c; 65a-68a;
86a; 155d-156a; 162b-c; 249d-250c; 251d-
255c; 368a-b; 413a; 577d-578c; 658c-660c
41 GIKVOK: Decline and Fall, 177a-b;315b-317a;
417b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-444c; 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [62-69] ^b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: vm 6d-7a; ix
[280-2901 8a; [311-318] 8b; [350-367] 8c-d
passim; xn 9b
43 CONSTITUTION OF TH& U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
2 [17-29] lib; SECT 6 [132-135] 12c; [143-148]
12c-d; SECT 7 [152-155] 12d; SECT 8 [192-212]
13a-b; [226-229] 13b-c; SECT 9 [260-266] [273-
277] 13d; [283-288] 13d-14a; SECT 10 [304-
315] 14a-b; ARTICLE n, SECT i [394-400] 15a;
ARTICLE III, SECT I [463-468] 15c; ARTICLE VI
[578-582] 16d; AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 4 190J
xvi 19b
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 7, 43c-44a; NUMBER 12-
13, 56d-60a; NUMBER 21, 79b-80c; NUMBER
30-36 101a-117d; NUMBER 41, 135b-c; NUM-
BER 43, 142d-143a; NUMBER 44, 145b-c; NUM-
BER 45, 149b-150b; NUMBER 73, 218d-219b;
NUMBER 79, 233c-234a; NUMBER 83, 246b-c;
NUMBER 84, 253b [fn i]; 254c-256a
43 MILL: Liberty, 315c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 335a-b; 356c-d; 366d-367a; 383b-d /
Utilitarianism, 473a-c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 281d-282a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 299
99c-100b; ADDITIONS, 177 147d / Philosophy
of History, PART i, 226d-227b; 243b; PART in,
299a-c; 310c; PART iv, 324b; 325b-c; 335a-
336c; 364d; 365c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 65c-66a; 375a-b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 429a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK ix, 384c-388a,c
5. The relation of governments to one another:
sovereign princes or states as in a con-
dition of anarchy
7 PLATO: Laws, BK xn, 788d-790d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 9 [i28o*35-bi2]
478a-b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 86a; PART n,
114b-c; 159c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Cymbeline, ACT in, sc v [1-27]
468d-469b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH 11, sEcf^4 28b-c;
CH xn, SECT 145 58d-59a / Human Under-
standing, BK I, CH II, SECT 10 106d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 23a-25b; PART iv,
149b-150b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK x, 61b,d-
62b; BK xxvi, 223c-d
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 355b-c / Political Econ-
omy, 369a-b
40 GIBBON- Decline and Pall, 433d-435a,c; 520c-
521c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 427b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-b, 449c-458a,c
esp 452a-455a, 455c-456a, 457a-458a,c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-6] la;
[109-119] 3a-b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 5a-9d passim
43 FEDERALIST: 29a-259a,c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 417c-442d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 279,
93d; par 321-360 106c-114a,c; ADDITIONS,
191 150b-c; 194 150c-d / Philosophy of
History, PART u, 282d-283b; PART iv, 357a-
358b
660
THE GREAT IDEAS
5ato5b
(5* The relation of governments to one another:
sovereign princes or states as in a condition
of anarchy.)
5<z. Foreign policy: the making of treaties; the
conduct of war and peace
OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 31 / Deuteronomy,
2:26-37; 9:1-4; 20 / Joshua, 9— (D) Josue, 9
/ // Samuel, 3:12-21— (D) // Kings, 3:12-21 /
I Kings, 5:i-i2-(D) /// Kings, 5:1-12
APOCRYPHA: / Maccabees, 8; 10; 12:1-2$;
13:34-41; 14:16-24; i5:i-9,i5-27~(D) OT,
/ Machabees, 8; 10; 12:1-23; 13:34-41;
14:16-24; 15.1-9,15-27 / // Maccabees,
n:i6-38-(D) OT, // Machabees, 11:16-38
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [399-
598] 261d-263c
5 ARISTOPHANES- Acharnians [61-173] 455d-
457b; [497-556] 460d-461c / Peace [601-692]
532d-534a / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c esp [486-
613] 589a-591a, [1072-1321] 596d-599a,c /
Ecclesiazusae [193-203] 6175
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6a-b; 15d-16a;
BK iv, 144b-d; BK v, 175b-c, BK vi, 193b;
206b-d, BK vii, 239a-247c passim; BK vm,
286b-287d; BK ix, 289a-290b, 310d-311a
6 THUCYDID*S: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 353d;
360c-d; 368c-d; 371b-372d; 378a-380d;
BK HI, 418d-420c; 425a-428d; 430c; 432b-c;
BK iv, 450d-452d; 457c-d; 461b-463a; 468a-
469b; 476a-477a; BK v, 486c-500c; 502d-
508a,c esp 504c-508a,c; BK vi, 529b-533a;
BK vm, 568a-c; 572c-573a; 578b-579a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 318c~319a / Critias,
485a-b / Laws, BK HI, 667c-668d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK H, CH 6 [1265*18-27]
460c; CH 7 [1267*18-21] 462d-463a; BK m, CH
9 [i28o*35-bi2] 478a-b; CH 13 [i284a38-b3]
482c; BK vn, CH 2 [1324*35 -132 5*1 5] 528b-
529a; CH 6 531b-d; CH 14 [i333bio-i 334*10]
538c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4 [i359b33-J36o*
i8j 600a-c
13 VIRGIL Aeneid, BK xn [172-211] 358b-359b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 21a-27c / Numa Pom-
pihus, 55c-56a / Pericles 121a-141a,c / Nicias,
427a-428c / Aratus, 834d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK n, 34d-35c / Histories,
BK iv, 286c-287c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q
105, A 3 316a-318b
23 MACHIAVELLI : Prmce, CH xxi, 32a-d
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PARI n, 121b-c; 159c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
36d-38a; BK iv, 276a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT v, sc iv [94-
175] 30c-31b / 2nd Henry VI, ACT i, sc i [1-74]
33b,d-34c / King John, ACT n, sc i [416-560]
384a-385c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT iv, sc n 489d-
491b / Henry V, ACT v, sc n 563b-567a,c
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 204d-205a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v, SECT 45 34d-
35a; CH xnf SECT 145-148 58d-59b; CH xvi
65d-70c passim; CH xtx, SECT 211 73d-74a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 21b-25b; PART n,
75a-b; 77b-78b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 354a-355a; 449b-
453a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2d 3b,
BK ix-x, 58b,d-62b; BK x, 63d-64a; BK xxvi,
223c-224a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325c-d; 355c / Political
Economy, 380a-b / Social Contract, BK i,
390a-c; BK n, 403c-404a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 319b-c
40 GIBBON: Dechne and Fall, 4a-b; 83 b -85 a esp
84d-85a;95b-96a; 103c d; 119a c; 150d-152c;
174d-175b; 378b-d; 402b-404b; 431d-432d;
433d-435a,c; 491d-492b; 495d-496b; 503d-
507c esp 504d-506a; 535d-537a,c; 543a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 48d-49c; 283d-
284a; 428a-d; 503a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 452c-d; 454a-455b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 5a-9d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
8 [201-203] [223-225] 13b, SECT 10 [296-298]
14a; [314-320] 14b; ARTICLE n, SECT 2 [421-
4351 15b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4-8 35a-47a; NUMBER
9, 47c-49c; NUMBER n 53b-56b; NUMBER 15,
64c-65a; NUMBER 16, 66c-68a; NUMBER 22,
80d-81c; 83b-d; NUMBER 24, 88d-89b, NUM-
BER 25, 89c-91b; NUMBER 34, HOa-lllb; NUM-
BER 41, 132d-133b; NUMBER 42, 136b-138c;
NUMBER 43, 142d; 143b-d; NUMBER 44, 144a-
145c; NUMBER 62, 190d-191a; NUMBER 63,
191d-192a, NUMBER 64 195b-198a; NUMBER
75 222d*225a passim; NUMBER So, 235b-236c;
NUMBER 81, 240b-c; NUMBER 83, 248b-c;
NUMBER 84, 254b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 428b-433b
passim; 434a-436b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 321-
329 106c-108c; par 332-337 109a-110a; ADDI-
TIONS, 153 141d; 188 149b-c / Philosophy of
History, PART 11, 278c-279b; PART HI, 297a-d;
299a-c; PART iv, 343b-c; 357c-358b; 359c-
360a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 292a-295a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK u, 83d-86a; BK
v, 204a-206c; 208d-209a; 232a-234a,c; BK
vm, 307d-309c; BK ix, 344b-355c; BK xin,
565a-b; 572b; 573d-574a; 582a; BK xv, 629b-
630a; EPILOGUE i, 645a-646c; 649c-650b
b. The government of dependencies: colonial
government; the government of con-
quered peoples
OLD TESTAMENT: Joshua, 9 esp 9:18-27— (D)
Jo sue, 9 esp 9:18-27 / / Kings, 9:20-23—
(Z>) /// Kings, 9:20-23 / // Kings, 23:30-35;
24:12-16; 25:5-30— (D) IV Kings, 23:30-35;
24:12-16; 25.5-30 / // Chronicles, 8:7-8—
(D) 11 Paralipomcnon, 8:7-8
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT
661-
APOCRYPHA: / Maccabees, 8:i-i3-(D) OT,
/ Machabees, S:i-i$ / H Maccabees, 5:11-7:42
— (D) OT, // Machabees, 5:11-7:42
NEW TESTAMENT Acts, 16:19-40; 21-28 passim
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [852-908] 24b d
5 ARISTOPHANES. Lysistrata [565-586] 590b-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31d-32a; 35c-36a;
BK in, 109d-lllb
6 THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK i, 353d;
368b-369a; BK n, 403c-404a; BK in, 425a-
428d; BK v, 504c-507c; BK vm, 579d-580b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 698c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 13 [i284*36-b3]
482c; BK v, CH 7 [i307bi9~24] 509d, BK vn,
CH 2 [1324*35-1325*15] 528b-529a; CH 14
[i333bio-i334aio] 538c-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [254-296] HOa-llla; BK
vi [845-853] 233b-234a; BK vm [714-731]
278a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47d-48c / Lucullus,
409b-410d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 39d-40c; BK xi,
104a-c; 106a-d; BK XH, 122a-c; BK xin,
139c-140d, BK xv, 162c-163a / Histories, BK i,
191d-192a; BK iv, 290a-d
18 AUGUSTINE City of God, BK i, PREF 129a-d;
BK iv, CH 14-15 196b-197a; BK v, CH 12 216d-
219b; CH 17 221b-222a; BK xix, CH 21, 524c-d
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH iii-vni 3c-14c; CH
xx 30a-31c
23 HOBBES. leviathan, PART n, 106d-107c, 108d-
109c; HOb-llla; 119a-c; 126d-127a; 131c;
CONCLUSION, 280b-281a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK m,
131b,d-133b
29 CERVANTES* Don Quixote, PART i, 40d
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [241-276] 344b-
345b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 13c-d; 14c-15a / Civil Gov-
ernment, CH iv, SECT 22-23 30a-b; CH vn,
SECT 85 43c-d, en xv, SECT 172 65b-c, CH xvi
65d-70c passim; CH xix, SECT 211 73d- 74a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 24b-25a; PART iv,
182bl83a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK x 61b,d-
68d; BK xi, 83c-84c; BK xv, 109b-c; llOa-d;
BK xxi, 170c-171d
38 ROUSSEAU Political Economy, 380a~b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 239a-279b
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 14d-15c, 18a;
26a-c; 134a-b; 245d-246d; 420b-d; 518b-
519a; 522c-523a,c; 550b-551b; 608b,d;
624b-c; 632d-633a; 638a-639a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 65a-c; 216c-d;
285a-c, 505b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 413d; 454a-4S5a; 456c-
457a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE iv, SECT
3 [544-55°] 16b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 140d-141a
43 MILL- Liberty, 272a; 281d-282b [fn 3] / Rep-
resentative Government, 339a-341a; 353c; 411b-
412a; 427a-428a passim; 433b-442d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 179c; 364c-365a; 370a;
511c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 242d-
243d; PART in, 299a-c
5c. The relation of local to national govern-
ment: the centralization and decentral-
ization of governmental functions
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 391c-
392a
9 ARISTOTLE- Politics, BK iv, CH 15 [1299^5-18]
SOOb
14 PLUTARCH Theseus, 9a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 120d-121a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 30a-c
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK n, 403a-c; BK
in, 412a-b; 420d-421a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 318d-319a;
420b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14c; 578b-c
43 (CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT
4 12b; ARTICLE iv, SECT 1-2 16a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30d-31a; NUMBER 3,
33d-35a; NUMBER 14, 61b-d; NUMBER 17 69a-
70d; NUMBER 28 96c-98b passim; NUMBER 31,
105b-c; NUMBER 32 105c-107b passim; NUM-
BER 34 109b-llld passim; NUMBER 36 114c-
117d passim; NUMBER 39, 126b-128b; NUMBER
43, 141a-d; NUMBER 44, 144a-145c passim;
NUMBER 45, 148b-150b; NUMBER 46 150b-
153b passim; NUMBER 84, 253d-254b
43 MILL: Liberty, 322a-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 417c-424c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 290
97d; ADDITIONS, 174 146d-147b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421c-d
5d. Confederation and federal union: the di-
vision of jurisdiction between state and
federal governments
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK i, 365a-
371b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 667c-670a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 9 [i28o*34~b32]
478a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Philopoemen, 296a-b / Aratus,
834c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK ix, 58b,d-
60a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 420b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 103c-d
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 218c-219a; 577b-c
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 5a-9d
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: 118*208,0 esp
ARTICLE vi [583-599] 16d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 1-30 29a-103c passim,
esp NUMBER 10, 52b-c, NUMBER 14, 61b-c,
NUMBER 15, 65c-d; NUMBER 31-34, 104c-llld;
NUMBER 36, 115a-117b; NUMBER 37, 119b-
662
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. T&e relation of governments to one another;
sovereign prince* or states as in a condition
of anarchy. *>d. Confederation and federal
union: the division of jurisdiction between
state and federal governments.)
120d; NUMBER 39, 126b-128b; NUMBER 41-46
132a-153b csp NUMBER 46, 150b-c; NUMBER
51, 164a-165a passim; NUMBER 52, 167a-b;
NUMBER 59-61 182a-188d passim; NUMBER 62,
189b-d; NUMBER 80, 235a; NUMBER 81, 239c-
241a; NUMBER 82 242b-244a; NUMBER 84,
253d-254b; NUMBER 85, 258d-259a,c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 427d-433b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART 11, 278c-
279b
6. Historical developments in government: rev-
olution and progress
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18:13-26 / / Samuel,
8~(D) / Kings, 8 / / Kings, u:i-2^-(D)
III Kings, 12:1-25 / // Chronicles, io-(D)
// Parahpomenon, 10
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 12b-14c; 23b-24b;
BK in, 107c-108d; BK v, 164d-165a
6 THUCYDJDES : Peloponnestan War, BK i, 352c-d;
353c-d; 366d-367a; BK n, 391b-392a; BK in,
434c-438b passim; BK iv, 458d-459c; 463a-
465c; BK vi, 523b-525d; BK vm, 568d-569a;
575c-576c; 577b-d; 579c-583c; 585d-586b;
587a-589a; 590b-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in 663d-677a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [n8ibi2-24]
436C / Politics, BK II, CH 8 [l268b23]-CH 12
[I274b28] 464d-471d; BK in, CH i4483a-484a;
CH 15 [i286b8~22] 484d-485a; BK v 502a-519d
passim; BK vn, CH 10 [i329a40-b36] 533d-534b
/ Athenian Constitution, CH 1-41 553a-572a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [851-853] 234a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-10a; 13a-14c / Lycur-
gus 32a-48d / Lycurgus-Numa, 63d-64a,c /
Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Poplicola, 80d-82a /
Pophcola-Solon, 86d-87b / Aps, 650b-656d
/ Cleomencs, 659b-660d / Ttbcrms Gracchus
671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus 681b,d-
689a,c / Caius and Tiberius Gracchus- Agts and
Cleomcncs 689b,d-691a,c / Dion 781b,d-
802a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-2a; 3a-b; BK in,
51b-c; BK iv, 72a-b; BK XH, 123b-c; BK xni,
126c-d; 132c-133a / Histories, BK i, 190b-c;
BK n, 224d-225a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK n, CH 21 161b-
162d; BK v, CH 12 216d-219b; CH 21-26 226a-
230a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i-nt
Q 104, A 3 305d-306d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vi [28-111]
113d-114d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 275a-278d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Conolanus 351a-392a,c /
Henry VIII 549a-585a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
32 MILTON : New Forcers of Conscience 68a-b /
Lord Gen. Cromwell 69a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vm, SECT 100-
ii247c-51b
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5,
453a-b
36 SWIPT: Gulliver, PART in, 117b-121b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK HI, 9b-d;
BK iv, 15c; BK xi 68b,d-84d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-362a passim /
Social Contract, BK n, 402b-403a; BK in,
418c-d [fn 2]
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 165b-181a,c;
BK v, 348a-352a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b,d-34a,c esp
24b,d-28b; 50b-51d esp 51c-d; 153c-156a;
240b-255d; 521a-523a,c; 622d-623c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 71d-79d;199c-202d
esp 202a-c; 2150-2203,0 esp 217a-b, 218c-219a;
403b-404d; 427b-428a esp 428a; 452d-453a,c;
562b-566c; 574b-582b; 586c-589a
42 KANF Science of Right, 450d-451a; 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: lla-20a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29a<b; NUMBER
9 47a-49c passim; NUMBER 14, 62a-d;
NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b; NUMBER 25, 91b-d;
NUMBER 37, 120d-121b; NUMBER 41, 133a-d;
NUMBER 52, 165d-167b; NUMBER 70, 211b-d,
NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-272a / Representative
Government, 367b-c; 434a-436b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 176
147c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 174a-
175c; 198b-199c; 203b-206a,c; PART i, 207d-
208c; PART 11, 263a-d; 275b-276a; PART in,
295d-296c; PART iv, 316c-d; 328b-331d; 342a-
343a; 355d-357a
50 MARX: Capital, 355d-364a esp 356a-357a,
359a-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420b-d
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK i, lOa-b; BK vi,
238c-243d
CHAPTER 31 : GOVERNMENT 663
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The basic context of the problems discussed in this chapter, fee STATE; for the discussion of
domestic government, see FAMILY 2b, 53; for the discussion of ecclesiastical government,
see RELIGION 3c(2); for the discussion of divine government, see GOD yc; WORLD ic; and
for the discussion of government in relation to economic affairs, see WEALTH gd.
Other considerations of the issues concerning anarchy, see LIBERTY ib; TYRANNY 3;
WAR AND PEACE i.
Other discussions of the notion of sovereignty in its various forms or meanings, see DEMOC-
RACY 4b; LAW 6b; LIBERTY ib, 6c; STATE ac, 9d; TYRANNY 5c; and for the problems of
foreign policy as between sovereign states, see JUSTICE 9f; STATE 9e(i)~9e(2); WAR AND
PEACE nc.
Sovereignty in relation to federal government, and for the idea of world government, see
STATE loe-iof; WAR AND PEACE nd.
Justice, liberty, and property in relation to government, see JUSTICE la, 6-6e, 9-96, 10-ioe;
LIBERTY id, if, in; WEALTH ya.
The relation of the ideal form of government to the ideal state, see STATE 2e, 6-6b.
The abuses or corruption of government, see LAW yd; MONARCHY 4e(3)~4e(4); TYRANNY
i-ic.
The issues of imperialism in the government of colonies or subject peoples, see DEMOCRACY
yb; LIBERTY 6c; MONARCHY 5~5b; REVOLUTION y; Si AVERY 6d; STATE lob; TYRANNY 6.
The analysis of particular forms of government, see ARISTOCRACY i-2e; CONSTITUTION i-}b,
5~5b; DEMOCRACY i~4c; MONARCHY 1-13(2), 4-46(1), 4e(3)~4e(4); OLIGARCHY 1-2, 4-5;
TYRANNY i-5d; and for the discussion of mixed forms of government, see CONSTITU-
TION 3a~3b; MONARCHY ib-ib(2).
The condition of the ruled under diverse forms of government, see CITIZEN 2b; LIBERTY if;
SLAVERY 6a-6b.
The institutions of self-government, such as representation, elections, voting, see ARISTOC-
RACY 6; CONSTITUTION 9-9^ DEMOCRACY 53-5^4).
The problem of the relativity of the forms of government to the character and circumstances
of particular peoples, see DEMOCRACY 4d; MONARCHY 46(2); TYRANNY 4b.
The general discussion of political revolution and progress, see LIBERTY 6b; PROGRESS
4a~4c; REVOLUTION 2a-2c, 33, 3c~3c(3); and for the consideration of revolution with
respect to particular forms of government, see ARISTOCRACY 3; CONSTITUTION 8-8b;
DEMOCRACY ya; OLIGARCHY 3^b; TYRANNY 8.
Matters relevant to the legislative branch of government, see LAW 5d.
Matters relevant to the judicial branch of government, see JUSTICE tod; LAW 5g; PRUDENCE
6b.
Matters relevant to the executive branch of government, especially problems of law enforce-
ment and administration, see LAW 53, 6a, ye; MONARCHY ib(3).
Other discussions of the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances, see
CONSTITUTION yb; DEMOCRACY 5c; LIBERTY ig.
Other discussions of the relation between the civil and military powers, see STATE 8d(i),
9ed); WAR AND PEACE 10-ioa.
The problem of the economic support of government, see WEALTH 96-96(2).
The consideration of the art and science of government, see EDUCATION 8d; KNOWLEDGE 8c;
PRUDENCE 6a; RHETORIC ic; STATE 8c-8d(3); and for the relation of politics to ethics and
economics, see PHILOSOPHY ic; SCIENCE 33; STATE 8d; WEALTH 9.
664
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Political Precepts," "Of the Three
Sorts of Government — Monarchy, Democracy
and Oligarchy," in Moralta
AQUINAS. On the Governance of Rulers
DANTE. Convwio (The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE,
CH 4-5
, On World-Government or De Monarchia
MACHIAVELLI. The Discourses
. Florentine History
F. BACON. "Of Faction," in Essays
MILTON. Defence of the People of England
HOBBES. Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Govern-
ment and Society, CH 6-7, 10-1 1
. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, PART
I, CH 19; PART II, CH I
. A Dialogue Between a Philosopher and a Stu-
dent of the Common Laws of England
SPINOZA. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus(Theological'
Political Treatise), CH 16-19
. Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise), CH 3-5
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK in, P\RT n,
SECT vn-x
A. SMITH, lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and
Arms
MARX. A Criticism of the Hegelian Philosophy of
Right
DOSTOEVSKY. The Possessed
II.
POLYBIUS. Histories, VOL i, BK vi
CICERO. De Repubhca (The Republic)
JOHN OF SALISBURY. The Statesman's Boo\
MARSILIUS OF PADUA. Dcfensor Pacis
FORTESCUE. Governance of England
ERASMUS. The Education of a Christian Prince
T. MORE. Utopia
CALVIN. Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK iv,
CH 20
BODIN. The Six Bootes of a Commonweale
BELLARMINE. The Treatise on Civil Government (De
Laicis)
HOOKER. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
A. SIDNEY. Discourses Concerning Government
BURLAMAQUI. Principles of Natural and Politic Law
VATTBL. The Law of Nations, BK i, CH 1-13
VOLTAIRE. Letters on the English, vm-ix
. "Government," in A Philosophical Dictionary
J. WILSON. Worlds, PART i, CH 11, v, x
BENTHAM. A Fragment on Government, CH 2, 4-5
J. ADAMS. A Defense of the Constitutions of Govern-
ment of the United States of America
JEFFERSON. The Commonplace Boo^
. Notes on the State of Virginia
BURKE. An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs
W. HUMBOLDT. The Sphere and Duties of Government
PAINE. Rights of Man
. The Age of Reason
. Dissertation on First Principles of Government
J. MILL. An Essay on Government
GOGOL. The Government Inspector
. The Nose
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK iv, CH 6,
BK V, CH 7-9
CALHOUN. A Disquisition on Government
. A Discourse on the Constitution and Govern-
ment of the United States
DICKLNS. Little Dorntt
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK vm, CH 5
J. H. NEWM\N. A Letter to the Duty: of Norfoll(
TURGENEV. Fathers and Sons
. Virgin Soil
T. H HUXLEY. Methods and Results, ix
T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obligation,
(A,F,G) ^
SPENCER. The Man Versus the State
MAINE. Popular Government
MAIFL\ND. justice and Police
W. WILSON. Congressional Government
KROPOTKIN. Anarchism
BOSANQUET. The Philosophical Theory of the State
BRYCE. "The Nature of Sovereignty," in Studies in
History and Jurisprudence
SANTAYANA Reason in Society, CH 3
CHESTERTON. The Napoleon ofNotting Hill
. The Man Who Was Thursday
FRANCE. Penguin Island
MORLEY. Notes on Politics and History
PARETO. The Mind and Society, VOL iv, CH 12
LASKI. Authority in the Modern State
STEFFENS Autobiography
STURZO. The Inner Laws of Society
F. G. WILSON. The Elements of Modern Politics
B. RUSSELL. Proposed Roads to Freedom, CH 5
. Power
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH in-iv
SIMON. Nature and Functions of Authority
A. J. CARLYLE. Political Liberty
BARKER. Reflections on Government
FERRERO. The Principles of Power
MAC!VER. The Web of Government
INTRODUCTION
THE familiar word "habit" hasa tremendous
range of meaning. Some of its meanings m
technical discourse are so divergent from one
another— as well as from the popular under-
standing of the term — that it is difficult to find
a common thread of derivation whereby to
pass from one meaning to another.
We can eliminate at once the use of the word
to designate apparel, as when we speak of a
"riding habit." Yet even this sense contains a
root of meaning which cannot be dismissed.
Augustine points out that "the term 'habit' is
derived from the verb 'to have' " and Aris-
totle, considering the meanings of 'to have,' in-
cludes the sense in which a man may be said "to
have a coat or tunic" along with the sense in
which a man may be said to have a habit — "a
piece of knowledge or a virtue." Just as clothes
are something a person has or possesses in a man-
ner more or less fitting to the body, so habits in
the psychological sense are qualities which a
person has or possesses, and they too can be
judged for their fitness.
This understanding of habit is conveyed in
the ancient remark which has become a com-
mon expression— that "habit is second nature."
Habit is not original nature, but something
added thereto as clothes are added to the body.
But unlike clothes, which are added externally
and merely by contact, habits as second nature
are nature ,itself transformed or developed. In
the words of an ancient poet, whom Aristotle
quotes with approval, "habit's but long prac-
tice, and this becomes men's nature in the end."
Not all, as we shall see, would grant that prac-
tice is essential to habit. Nevertheless the word
"practice" suggests one notion that is common
to all theories of acquired habit, namely, that
habit is a retained effect— the result of something
done or experienced. Within this common un-
derstanding, there are opposite views. Accord-
ing to one view, the acquisition of habits de-
pends on activity. According to another, habits
are modifications, passively, not actively, ac-
quired.
The word "habit" is also used in a sense dia-
metrically opposite to the meanings so far con^
sidered. It is the sense in which Aristotle, in the
History of Animals, discusses the habits of ani-
mals, and differentiates species according to the
differences in theirhabits. Here the word "habit"
is used to signify not an acquired pattern of
behavior, but an innate predisposition to act or
react in a certain way. The difference between
acquired habits and "the habits to which there
is an innate tendency," James tells us, is marked
by the fact that the latter generally "are called
instincts."
The opposition between these two meanings
of "habit" is clear. On the one hand, habits rep^
resent what, in the case of living things at least,
is added by nurture to nature — the results of
experience, training, or activity. On the other
hand, habits which are identical with instincts
belong to original nature itself— part of the na-
tive endowment of the animal. Is there any com-
mon thread of meaning in the notions of ac-
quired and innate habit which may explain the
use of the word in such opposite senses ?
The familiar statement that a person does
what he is in the habit of doing indicates that a
habit is a tendency to a particular sort of be-
havior. Knowledge of a person's habits enables
us to predict what he is likely to do in any situa-
tion which elicits habitual conduct on his part.
So, too, an ammaFs behavior in a particular sit-
uation may be predicted from a knowledge of
its instincts. Instinct and habit — or innate and
acquired habits — seem to have this common
character, that they arc tendencies to behavior
of a specific or determinate sort. They are defi-
nitely not random behavior. In the one case, the
665
666
THE GREAT IDEAS
tendency is preformed, a part of the inherited
nature of the organism. In the other, the tend-
ency is somehow a product of experience and
learning. In neither case does "habit" refer to
mere capacity for action, unformed and inde-
terminate, nor does it refer to the action, but
rather to the tendency to act.
THE MODIFIABILITY OF instincts by experience
indicates another and more dynamic connection
between innate and acquired habits. William
James conceives innately determined behavior
as if it were a plastic material out of which new
patterns of conduct can be formed. The process
of animal learning he thinks can be generally de-
scribed as the replacement of instincts by hab-
its. "Most instincts," he writes, "are implanted
for the sake of giving rise to habits, and this
purpose once accomplished, the instincts them-
selves, as such, have no ratson d'etre in the psy-
chical economy, and consequently fade away."
Some years before the Russian physiologists
Bechterev and Pavlov experimentally studied
the conditioning of reflexes, James described ani-
mal learning in terms of the substitution of new
forold responses tostimuh which had previously
called forth an instinctive reaction, or in terms
of the attachment of instinctive responses to
new stimuli. "The actions we call instinctive,"
James writes, "all conform to the general reflex
type" and "are called forth by determinate sen-
sory stimuli." For example, a predatory animal,
instinctively responsive to various perceptible
signs of the whereabouts of its prey, may learn
to hunt for its food in a particular locality, at a
particular time, and in a particular way. Or, to
take the example James gives, "if a child, m his
first attempts to pat a dog, gets snapped at or
bitten, so that the impulse of fear is strongly
aroused, it may be that for years to come no dog
will excite in him the impulse to fondle again."
Similarly, an animal which has no instinctive
fear of man may acquire an habitual tendency
to flee at man's approach, as the result of expe-
riences m which the appearance of man is asso-
ciated with instinctively recognized signs of
danger.
In the classification of animals, from Aristotle
on, the instincts peculiar to each species have
been Used in their differentiation. In addition,
the degree to which the instincts of an animal
are either relatively inflexible at one extreme or
easily modifiable at the other has been thought
to indicate that animal's rank in the scale of in-
telligence. The higher animals seem to have a
greater capacity to form habits and to be capa-
ble, therefore, of modifying their instinctive
patterns of behavior as the result of experience.
In consequence, their behavior is both more
adaptive and more variable than that of animals
which always follow the lines of action laid
down by instinct.
Species whose instincts are largely unmodifi-
able are at a disadvantage m a changing environ-
ment or m one to which they are not innately
adapted. In the struggle for existence, Darwin
observes, it is the organism that "vanes ever so
little, either in habits or structure" which "gains
an advantage over some other inhabitant of the
same country." Though for the most part in-
stincts seem to be directed toward the animal's
survival, intelligence, or the power of modify-
ing instincts by learning, may sometimes be
needed to save the animal from his own instincts.
If the lower animals are most dependent on
their instincts and least able to modify them,
that would seem to indicate a kind of opposi-
tion between instinct and intelligence. Darwin
quotes Cuvier to the effect that "instinct and
intelligence stand m an inverse ratio to each
other," but he himself does not wholly accept
this view. He thinks that the behavior of bea-
vers, for example, or of certain classes of insects,
shows that "a high degree of intelligence is cer-
tainly compatible with complex instincts." Yet
he admits that "it is not improbable that there
is a certain amount of interference between the
development of free intelligence and of in-
stinct."
On this subject of instinct in relation to in-
telligence or reason, James seems to take a less
equivocal position. According to him, "man pos-
sesses all the impulses that [animals] have, and a
great many more besides." After enumerating
what he considers to be the instinctive tenden-
cies of the human species, he concludes by say-
ing that "no other mammal, not even the mon-
key, shows so large an array." But since James
also thinks that man has the keenest intelligence
and may even be the only reasoning animal, he
cannot believe that there is any "material an-
tagonism between instinct and reason." On the
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
667
contrary, a high development of the faculties of
memory, of associating ideas, and of making in-
ferences implies not the absence of instinct, but
the modifiability of instinct by experience and
learning. "Though the animal richest in reason
might be also the animal richest in instinctive
impulses too," fames writes, "he would never
seem the fatal automaton which a merely in-
stinctive animal would be."
The opposite position is taken by those who,
like Cuvier, hold that the more adequate an ani-
mal's instinctive equipment is for its survival,
the less it needs free intelligence for adaptive
purposes, and the less important is the role of
learning and habit formation. Some writers, like
Aquinas, go further than this and maintain that
m the case of man, the power of reason as an in-
strument of learning and of solving life's prob-
lems supplants instinct almost entirely, or needs
to be supplemented by instinctive impulses of
an extremely rudimentary sort— hardly more
complex than simple reflexes.
What other animals do by instinct man does
by reason. "Brute animals," Aquinas writes, "do
not act at the command of reason," but "if they
are left to themselves, such animals act from
natural instinct." Since in his opinion habits
can be formed only by acts which involve reason
as a factor, he does not think that, strictly speak-
ing, habits are to be found in brutes. But, he
adds, to the extent that man's reason may influ-
ence brutes "by a sort of conditioning to do
things in this or that way, so in this sense to a
certain extent we can admit the existence of
habits in brute animals."
THE MODIFICATION of instincts in the course of
individual life raises a question about theirmodi-
fiabihty from generation to generation. The
question has obvious significance for the theory
of evolution.
It is thought by some that an animal's in-
stincts represent the past experience of the race.
In a passage quoted by James, Herbert Spencer,
for example, maintains that "reflex actions and
instincts .... result from the registration of ex-
perience continued for numberless generations."
Freud appears to hold much the same opinion.
"All organic instincts are conservative," he
writes. They arc "historically acquired, and are
directed towards regressions, towards reinstate-
ment of something earlier." Indeed, he claims
that the instincts of living things revert back
beyond ancestral history to the inorganic. They
go back to "an ancient starting point, which the
living being left long ago." They are an "im-
print" left upon the development of the organ-
ism by "the evolution of our earth and its
relation to the sun."
James, on the other hand, claims that there is
"perhaps not one single unequivocal item of
positive proof" in favor of the view that "adap-
tive changes are inherited." He thinks the vari-
ability of instincts from generation to genera-
tion must be accounted for by some other means
than the inheritance of acquired characteristics,
according to which the habits acquired by earlier
generations gradually become, through heredi-
tary transmission, the innate habits of later gen-
erations.
The question of their origin aside, what is the
structure of instincts? In the chapter on EMO-
TION, where this matter is considered, instinc-
tive behavior is described as having three com-
ponents. It involves, first, an innate ability to
recognize certain objects; second, an emotional
reaction to them which includes an impulse to
act in a certain way; and, third, the ability to
execute that impulse without benefit of learning.
James covers two of these three points when
he defines an instinct as "the faculty of acting
in such a way as to produce certain ends, with-
out foresight of the ends, and without previous
education in the performance"; and he touches
on the remaining one when he declares that "in-
stinctive reactions and emotional expressions
shade imperceptibly into each other. Every ob-
ject that excites an instinct," he goes on to say,
"excites an emotion as well," but emotions "fall
short of instincts in that the emotional reaction
usually terminates in the subject's own body,
whilst the instinctive reaction is apt to go fur-
ther and enter into practical relations with the
exciting object."
In the discussion of instincts from Aristotle to
Freud, the emphasis on one or another of these
components has varied from time to time. Me-
diaeval psychologists, if we take Aquinas as an
example, seem to stress the cognitive aspect. He
speaks of the sheep running away "when it sees
the wolf, not because of its color or shape, but
as a natural enemy." The point which he thinks
668
THE GREAT IDEAS
notable here is not the fact that the sheep runs
away, but rather the fact that without any pre-
vious experience of wolves, the sheep recognizes
the wolf as dangerous. 'The sheep, seeing the
wolf, judges it a thing to be shunned . . . not
from deliberation, but from natural instinct."
This instinctive power of recognizing what is to
the animal's advantage or peril Aquinas calls
"the estimative power" and assigns it, along
with memory and imagination, to the sensitive
faculty.
Later writers stress the emotional and cona-
tive aspects of instinct— feeling and impulse.
James, for example, indicates this emphasis when
he says that "every instinct is an impulse"; and
Freud makes desire central rather than percep-
tion or action. An instinct, he says, may be de-
scribed as a stimulus, but it would be more exact
to speak of "a stimulus of instinctual origin" as
a "need." The instincts arc the basic cravings
or needs, and these instinctual needs are the pri-
mary unconscious determinants of behavior and
thought.
What Freud calls "instinctual needs" seem to
be the counterpart of what, in an earlier phase
of the tradition, are called "natural desires."
These two notions are far from being strictly in-
terchangeable, but they do have a certain simi-
larity in their reference to desires which are not
conscious or acquired through experience. This
matter is further discussed in the chapter on
DESIRE.
IF WE TURN NOW to the consideration of habit
as something acquired by the individual, we find
two major issues. The first of these has already
been mentioned in connection with the concep-
tion of habit as a retained effect.
According to William James, the capacity for
habit formation is a general property of nature,
found in inanimate matter as well as in living
things. "The moment one tries to define what
habit is," he writes, "one is led to the funda-
mental properties of matter." He regards the
laws of nature, for example, as "nothing but the
immutable habits which the different elemen-
tary sorts of matter follow in their actions and
reactions upon each other. In the organic world,
however, the habits are more variable than this."
James attributes tins universal capacity for
habit formation to what he calls the "plasticity"
of matter, which consists in "the possession of a
structure weak enough to yield to an influence,
but strong enough not to yield all at once. Each
relatively stable phase of equilibrium in such a
structure is marked by what we may call a new
set of habits." He cites as examples of habit for-
mation in inorganic matter such things as the
magnetizing of an iron bar, the setting of plaster,
scratches on a polished surface or creases in a
piece of cloth. The matter in each of these cases
is not only plastic and yielding, but retentive
through its inertia. "When the structure has
yielded," he writes, "the same inertia becomes
the condition of its comparative permanence in
the new form, and of the new habits the body
then manifests."
The habits of living things or of the human
mind arc to be regarded only as special cases of
nature's general plasticity and retentiveness.
James does not fail to observe the difference be-
tween the magnetized bar, the scratched surface,
or the creased cloth, and the habits of a trained
animal or a skilled workman. The latter are ac-
quired by activity — by practicing the same act
repeatedly. Furthermore, they are not merely
passive relics of a past impression, but are them-
selves tendencies to action. They erupt into ac-
tion almost spontaneously when the occasion for
performance arises.
It may be questioned whether the word "hab-
it" should be used so broadly. Unlike James, most
writers restrict its application to living things,
and even there they limit habit formation to the
sphere of learning. If the capacity to learn from
experience is not a property of plant life, then
plants cannot form habits. The same may be said
of certain species of animals whose activity is en-
tirely and inflexibly instinctive. Habits are pos-
sessed only by those organisms — animals or men
— whose future conduct can be determined by
their own past behavior. Aquinas, as we have
seen, goes further than this, and limits habit for-
mation in a strict sense to man alone.
This leads at once to the second issue. For
those who believe that man is not specifi-
cally different from all other animals, man's
habits and his habit formation require no spe-
cial distinction or analysis. They hold that hu-
man intelligence differs from animal intelli-
gence only in degree, not in kind. No other
factors, they thjnk, are present in human learn-
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
669
ing than those which operate when animals
somehow profit from experience or acquire new
modes of behavior. In the great books there is
to be found, however, a very special theory of
habit which is part of the doctrine that man is
specifically different from all other animals in
that he alone is rational and has free will.
The issue about man's nature is discussed in
other chapters (ANIMAL, EVOLUTION, MAN,
MIND). Here we must examine the consequen-
ces for the theory of habit of these opposing
views. Do animals and men form habits m the
same sense of that term ? The use of the word is
not at stake, for "habit" may be used in a dif-
ferent sense for the acquired dispositions of ani-
mals. Those who hold that brute animals and
men do not have habits in the same sense ac-
knowledge that men may have, in addition to
their specifically human habits, the sort of mod-
ified instincts or conditioned reflexes which are
typical of animal habit formation. Further-
more, it is recognized that human and animal
habits are alike in certain respects. Both are ac-
quired by activity and both are tendencies to
activity of a determinate sort.
The question, therefore, is simply this: Does
one conception of habit apply to men and ani-
mals, or does human nature require a special
conception applicable to man alone? To clarify
this issue, it is necessary to summarize the
analysis of human habits which Aristotle and
Aquinas develop more fully than other writers,
even than those who share their view of the
rationality and freedom of man.
THAT ARISTOTLE and Aquinas should be the
authors of an elaborate theory of human habits
becomes intelligible in terms of two facts.
In the first place, they consider habit in the
context of moral theory. For them the virtues,
moral or intellectual, are habits, and so neces-
sarily are the opposite vices. Virtues are good
habits, vices bad habits; hence, good or bad,
human habits must be so formed and consti-
tuted that they can have the moral quality
connoted by virtue or vice. Since virtue is
praiseworthy and vice blameworthy only if
their possessor is responsible, human habit
is conceived as arising from freely chosen acts.
In the second place, their understanding of
habit is affected by their psychological doctrine
of faculties, and especially by their analysis of
the powers and activities which they think be-
long peculiarly to man. This in turn gives a
metaphysical meaning to habit, for they treat
human powers and human acts as special cases
of potentiality and actualization.
Aquinas bases much of his discussion of habit
on Aristotle's definition of it as "a disposition
whereby that which is disposed is disposed well
or ill, and this, either in regard to itself or in
regard to another." In calling a habit a disposi-
tion, Aristotle goes on to say that all "disposi-
tions are not necessarily habits," for while dis-
positions are unstable or ephemeral, habits "are
permanent" or at least "difficult to alter."
For a disposition to be a habit, certain other
conditions must be present, according to Aqui-
nas. "That which is disposed should be distinct
from that to which it is disposed," he writes,
and hence "should be related to it as poten-
tiality is to act." If there is a being which lacks
all potentiality, he points out, "we can find no
room in such a thing for habit ... as is clearly
the case in God."
It is also necessary that "that which is in a
state of potentiality in regard to something else
be capable of determination in several ways and
to various things." If there were a potentiality
which could be actualized in one way and one
way only, then such a power of operation could
not be determined by habits. Some of man's
powers seem to be of this sort. His faculty of
sensation, for example, functions perfectly
when the sense organs have normally matured.
A man does not learn to see colors or to hear
tones, and so the simple use of his senses— apart
from aesthetic perceptions and trained dis-
criminations—does not lead to sensory habits.
"The exterior apprehensive powers, as sight,
hearing, and the like," Aquinas maintains, "are
not susceptive of habits but are ordained to
their fixed acts, according to the disposition
of their nature."
In contrast, man's faculty of thinking and
knowing can be improved or perfected by
activity and exercise. The words "improved"
and "perfected" are misleading if they arc
thought to exclude bad habits, for a bad habit
is no less a habit than a good one. The defini-
tion of habit, Aquinas points out, includes dis-
positions which "dispose the subject well or
670
THE GREAT IDEAS
ill to its form or to its operation." Hence when
we say that a power of operation is "improved"
or "perfected" by being exercised, we must
mean only that after a number of particular
acts, the individual has a more determinate ca-
pacity for definite operation than he had before.
A man may have at birth the mere capacity
for knowing grammar or geometry, but after
he has learned these subjects he has the habit
«£ sucH knowledge. This, according to Aristotle
and Aquinas, means that his original capacity
has been rendered more determinate in its
activity. It would be so even if he had learned
errors, that is, even if the intellectual habits he
had formed disposed his mind in a manner
which would be called MiU" rather than "well."
The difference between a man who has
learned grammar and one who has not is a dif-
ference in their capacity for a certain intellec-
tual performance, a difference resulting from
the intellectual work which has been done by
the man who has learned grammar. That differ-
ence is an intellectual habit. The man who has
not learned grammar has the same undeveloped
capacity for knowing grammar with which he
was born. The man who has learned grammar
has had his native capacity for grammatical
knowledge developed. That developed capacity
is a habit of knowledge or skill which manifests
itself in the way in which he writes and speaks.
But even when he is not actually exercising his
grammatical skill, the fact that he has formed
this particular habit means that he will be able,
whenever the occasion arises, to do correctly
with speed and facility what the man who does
not have the habit cannot do readily or easily
if he can do it at all.
It may be helpful to illustrate the same points
by reference to a bodily habit, such as a gym-
nastic or athletic skill which, being an art, is
a habit not of body alone, but of mind as well.
If two men are born with normal bodies equally
capable of certain muscular coordinations, they
stand in the same relation to performing on the
tennis court. Both are equally able to learn the
game. But when one of them has learned to
play, his acquired skill consists in the trained
capacity for the required acts or motions. The
other man may be able to perform ail these acts
or go through all these motions, but not with
the same facility and grace, or as pleasantly, as
the man whose mastery of the game lies in a
habit formed by much practice in doing what
is required. As the habit gradually grows, awk-
wardness is overcome, speed increases, and
pleasure in performance replaces pain or diffi-
culty.
Clearly, then, the habit exists even when it is
not in operation. It may even develop during
periods of inactivity. As William James re-
marks, there is a sense in which "we learn to
swim during the winter and to skate during the
summer" when we are not actually engaging in
these sports. This would seem to be inconsistent
with the general insight, common to all ob-
servers, that habits are strengthened by exercise
and weakened or broken by disuse or by the
performance of contrary acts. But fames ex-
plains that his point, stated less paradoxically,
means only that during periods of rest the
effects of prior activity seem to consolidate and
build up a habit.
The dynamism of habit formation and ha-
bitual activity is summarized, in the language
of Aristotle and Aquinas, by the statement that
"habit is a kind of medium between mere power
and mere act." On the one hand, a habit is like
a power or capacity, for though it is an im-
provement on native ability, it is still only an
ability to perform certain acts; it is not the ac-
tual performance of them. On the other hand,
habit is like operation or activity, for it repre-
sents an actualization or development of capac-
ity, even as a particular operation is an actual-
ization of the power to act. That is why habit
is sometimes called a second grade of poten-
tiality (compared to natural capacity as first po-
tentiality) and also "a first grade of actuality"
(compared to operation as complete act).
ACCORDING TO THE theory of specifically hu-
man habits, habits are situated only in man's
powers of reason and will. Habits are formed
in the other powers only to the extent that they
are subject to direction by his reason and will,
Specifically human habits can be formed only
in that area of activity in which men are free
to act or not to act; and, when they act, free to
act this way or that. Habit, the product of
freedom, is not thought of as abolishing free-
dom.'However difficult it may be to exert a free
choice' against a strong habit, even the strongest
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
671
habit is not conceived as unbreakable; and if it
is breakable, it must permit action contrary to
itself. Habitual behavior only seems to lack
freedom because a man docs habitually, without
conscious attention to details, what he would be
forced to do by conscious choice at every step
if he lacked the habit.
In the theory under consideration habits are
classified according to the faculty which they
determine or perfect, on the ground that "every
power which may be variously directed to act
needs a habit whereby it is well disposed to its
act." Consequently there are intellectual hab-
its, or habits of thinking and knowing; and ap-
petitive habits, or habits of desire which involve
the emotions and the will, and usually entail
specific types of conduct. Within a single fac-
ulty, such as the intellect, habits are further
differentiated by reference to their objects or
to the end to which their characteristic oper-
ation is directed. For example, the habit of
knowing which consists in a science like geom-
etry and the habit of artistic performance such
as skill in grammar both belong to the intellect,
but they are distinct habits according to their
objects or ends.
All of these distinctions have moral as well as
psychological significance. They are used in
formulating the criteria of good and bad habits
which are more appropriately discussed in the
chapter on VIRTUE AND VICE. But here one
further psychological distinction deserves com-
ment. Some of man's acquired habits are re-
garded as natural in a special sense—not in the
sense in which instincts are called "natural" or
"innate" habits. The distinction is drawn from
the supposition that certain ha bits develop in all
men because, since human nature is the same
for all, men will inevitably form these habits if
they act at all. This word "natural" here ap-
plied to a habit simply means that it is common
to all having the same nature.
For example, the understanding of the law
of contradiction— that the same thing cannot be
affirmed and denied at the same time — and other
simple axioms of theoretic knowledge are said
to be possessed by the human mind as a matter
of natural habit. If a man thinks at all he will
come to know these truths. "It is owing to the
very nature of the intellectual soul," Aquinas
writes, "that man, having once grasped what is
a whole and what is a' part, should at once per-
ceive that every whole is larger than its part"
The sense in which Aquinas says that "the
understanding of first principles is called a natural
habit" applies to the first principles of the
practical reason as well as to the axioms of
theoretic knowledge. Just as no man who
makes theoretic judgments about the true and
the false can be, in his opinion, without habit-
ual knowledge of the principle of contradic-
tion, so he thinks no man who makes practical
judgments about good and evil can be without
habitual knowledge of the natural moral law,
the first principle of which is that the good is to
be sought and evtl avoided. "Since the precepts
of the natural law are sometimes considered by
reason actually," Aquinas writes, "while some-
times they are in the reason only habitually,
in this way the natural law may be called a hab-
it."
In a different phase of the tradition Hume
regards it as an inevitable tendency of the hu-
man mind to interpret any repeated sequence
of events in terms of cause and effect. If one
thing has preceded another a certain number of
times m our experience, we are likely to infer
that if the first occurs, the second will follow.
The principle which determines us "to form
such a conclusion" is, Hume says, "Custom or
Habit." All our inferences from experience are
"effects of custom, not of reasoning"; and since
the habit of inferring a future connection be-
tween things which have been customarily con-
joined in the past is, in his opinion, universally
present in human nature, Hume refers to it as
"a species of natural instinct which no reason-
ing or process of thought and understanding is
able either to produce or prevent."
Even Kant's synthetic judgments a priori
have a certain similarity to the thing called
"natural habit." They comprise judgments the
mind will make because of its own nature or,
in Kant's terms, its transcendental structure.
Though a priori, the judgment itself is not in-
nate, for it arises only when actual experience
provides its subject matter. So, too, the natural
habit of first principles, of which Aquinas
speaks, is not innate, but a result of experience.
THERE is STILL ONE other traditional meaning
of the phrase "natural habit." It occurs in
672
THE GREAT IDEAS
Christian theology. Habits are there distin-
, guished according as they are acquired by man's
own efforts or are a gift of God's grace, which
adds to or elevates human nature. The former
are natural, the latter supernatural.
In the sphere of supernatural habits the theo-
logian makes a distinction between grace it-
self and the special habits which accompany
grace. Aquinas, for example, writes that "just
as the natural light of reason is something dif-
ferent from the acquired virtues, which are
ordained to this natural light, so also the light
of grace, which is a participation of the divine
nature, is something different from the infused
virtues which are derived from and are ordained
to this light." These * 'infused virtues," like the
natural virtues, are good habits— principles of
operation, determining acts of thought or de-
sire. They are either the specifically theological
virtues of faith, hope, and charity, or the super-
natural counterparts of the acquired intellec-
tual and moral virtues— the habits which are
called "the infused virtues" and "the moral
and intellectual gifts."
Grace, taken in itself rather than in its con-
sequences, is not an operative habit, that is, it
is not a habit of performing certain acts. Never-
theless, regarded as something added to and
perfecting nature, it is considered under the
aspect of habit. But rather than "a habit where-
by power is inclined to an act," Aquinas in-
cludes it among those habits by which "the
nature is well or ill disposed to something, and
chiefly when such a disposition has become a
sort of nature." Through the habit of grace,
man's nature is elevated by becoming "a par-
taker ... of the divine nature."
To distinguish this kind of habit from those
in the operative order, it is sometimes called an
"entitative habit"— a habit of the very being
of man's personality. On the purely natural
plane, health may be thought of in the same
way as a habit which is entitative rather than
operative. It is a habit not of thought, desire,
or conduct, but of man's physical being.
THE WORD "CUSTOM" is sometimes a synonym
for "habit" and sometimes a variant with spe-
cial connotations. What a man does habitually
is customary for him to do. So far as the single
individual is concerned, there seems to be no
difference between habit and custom. But we
usually think of customs in terms of the group
or community rather than the individual. As
indicated in the chapter on CUSTOM AND CON-
VENTION, the prevailing modes of behavior in
a society and its widely shared beliefs repre-
sent common habits of thought and action
on the part of its members. Apart from the
habits of individuals social customs have no ex-
istence whatsoever. But social customs and in-
dividual habits cannot be equated because, with
respect to any customary practice or opinion,
there may be non-conforming individuals
—men of divergent habit. The prevalent or
predominant customs are the habits of the
majority.
No society endures for long or functions
peacefully unless common habits generate the
ties of custom. To perpetuate itself, the state
necessarily attempts to mould the habits of
each growing generation — by every means of
education, by tradition, by law. So important
is the stability of custom in the life of society,
according to Montaigne, that it is "very un-
just ... to subject public and established cus-
toms and institutions to the weakness and in-
stability of a private and particular fancy."
He doubts "whether any so manifest benefit
can accrue from the alteration of a law re-
ceived, let it be what it will, as there is danger
and inconvenience in altering it." His extreme
caution with regard to changing the law comes
from a preference for the stability of settled
customs and from the recognition that "govern-
ment is a structure composed of diverse parts
and members joined and united together, with
so strict connection, that it is impossible to stir
so much as one brick or stone, but the whole
body will be sensible of it."
Without habits of action, at least, neither
the individual nor society can avoid chaos.
Habits bind day to day in a continuity which
would be lost if the recurring problems of con-
duct or thought had to be solved anew each
time they arose. Without habits life would
become unbearably burdensome; it would bog
down under the weight of making decisions.
Without habits men could not live with them-
selves, much less with one another. Habits are,
as William James remarks, "the fly-wheel of
society."
CHAPTER 32: HABIT 673
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. Diverse conceptions of habit: as second nature, perfection of power, retained modifica-
tion of matter 674
i a. Habit in relation to potency and act
ib. Habit in relation to the plasticity of matter 675
2. The kinds of habit: the distinction of habit from disposition and other qualities
2a. Differentiation of habits according to origin and function: innate and acquired,
entitative and operative habits
a£. Differentiation of habits according to the capacity habituated or to the object
of the habit's activity
3. The instincts or innate habits of animals and men
30. Instinctual needs or drives
3^. The innate sense of the beneficial and harmful: the estimative power 676
y. Instinct in relation to reason
$d. The instinctive basis of habit-formation: the modification of instincts and re-
flexes through experience or learning 677
3<?. The genesis, transmission, and modification of instincts in the course of genera-
tions
4. Habit formation
40. The causes of habit: practice, repetition, teaching, and the law
4#. The growth and decay of habits: ways of strengthening and breaking habits
5. The analysis of specifically human habits 678
50. Habits of body: manual arts and the skills of play
5^. Habits of appetite and will: the moral virtues as good habits
y. The natural habits of reason: innate predispositions of the mind
5<£ The acquired habits of mind: the intellectual virtues 679
y. Supernatural habits
(1) Grace as an entitative habit of the person
(2) The infused virtues and the supernatural gifts
(3) The theological virtues 680
6. The force of habit in human life
6a. The automatic or unconscious functioning of habits
6b. The contribution of habit to the perfection of character and mind
6c. Habit and freedom 68 1
7. The social significance of habit: habit in relation to law
674 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES. Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed m two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand iide of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS' One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows, e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7 45— (D) // Esdras, 7*46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work 01 passage cited.
For additional information concerning the stvle of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 36,
1. Diverse conceptions of habit: as second oa-
ture, perfection of power, retained modi- 43 MlLL j^ny, 269c-d
fication of matter 46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 151
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 330a 57a
SAkisioiLh Categories, CH 8 [8b26~9*i3] 49 DARWIN' Origin ofSpe cies, 119b-d
13d-14a / Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-248* 53 JAMES: Psychology, 68a-83b esp 68a-69b, 73b-
6] 329c-330d / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 20 74a, 78b-79a
544a / Soul, BK n, CH 5 [417*21-418*6] 647d-
5434 la. Habit in relation to potency and act
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK n, CH i [no}*i4-b2] 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-
348b,d-349a; BK vn, CH 10 [1152*28-33] 248*8] 329c-330d; BK vm, CH 4 [255*30-
403b / Politics, BK vn, CH 13 [i332ft39-bio] b23J 340a-c / Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 1-2
537a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 11 [1370*5-8] 570b,d-572a; CH 5 573a-c / Soul, BK n, CH i
613b [412*22-28] 642b; CH 5 [417*21-418*6] 647d-
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 10 55c-d 648d; BK in, CH 4 [429b5~23] 661d-662a /
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 24, 630d-631a Sense and the Sensible, CH 4 [44ibi6-24] 679b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18, 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i [no3*i4-b2]
A 2, REP 2 105c-106b; Q 87, A 2 466c-467b 348b,d-349a
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-u, Q 49 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14, A
la-6a; Q 94, A i 221a-d i, REP i 75d-76c; Q 18, A 2, REP 2 105c-106b;
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays* 489c-d Q 79, AA 6-7 419b-421c; A 10, ANS 423d-424d;
27 SHAKESPEARE Hamlet, ACT in, sc iv [160- A 12 425c-426b; Q 87, A 2, ANS 466c-467b;
170] 56b Q 89, A 6, REP 3 478b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensfes, 93 190a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, QQ
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding* BK H, CH 4 9-56 la-35a passim; Q 71, A 4, ANS and REP 3
xxxiii, SECT 6 249a b 108b 109a; Q 94, A i, REP i 221a-d
\b to 3a
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
675
\b. Habit in relation to the plasticity of matter
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i-n, Q 50,
A i, ANS 6a-7b; A 6, ANS and REP i lla-12a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 68a 71a; 423a-424a passim;
429a-430a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
652c
2. The kinds of habit: the distinction of habit
from disposition and other qualities
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [8b26~9*i3] 13d-
14a; CH 15 21c-d / Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*
10-248*6] 329c-330d / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH i [98^2-5] 499d; BK v, CH 19-20 543d-
544a; BK ix, CH 1-2 570b,d-572a; CH 5 573a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i [ii03*i4-b2]
348b,d-349a
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
AA 1-3 lb-5a; Q 54 22d-25d, Q 71, A 4, ANS and
REP 3 108b I09a; Q 74, A 4, REP 3 131a-d;
PARI III, Q 7, A 13, REP 2 755c-756C| Q 9, A 3,
REP 2 765b-766b
2a. Differentiation of habits according to ori-
gin and function: innate and acquired,
entitative and operative habits
8 ARISTOTI c- Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 [i(>47b3i-
34] 573a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i -n, Q 49,
A 2, ANS 2b-4a, A 3, ANS and RLP 2 4b-5a, Q
50, AA 1-2 6a-8a; A 6 lla-12a; Q 51 12a-15d;
Q 54, A i, ANS 22d-23d, A 2, ANS 23d-24c, A 3
24c-25b; Q 55, A 2 27a-d; Q 82, A i 168a-d;
Q no, AA 3-4 350a-351d
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 54a; 66c-d; 68b
28 HARVLY: On Animal Generation, 428a-c
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT ix, DIV
83-85 487c-488c
42 KANT Practical Reason, 303d-304a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 459b-461c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 68b-69c csp
69a; 119a-d / Descent of Man, 304b,d [fn 5];
310b
53 JAMES Psychology, 68a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 591d-592b;
594d-595b / War and Death, 758a-759c
2b. Differentiation of habits according to the
capacity habituated or to the object of the
habit's activity
7 PLATO- Theaetetus, 518a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-
248*6] 329c-330d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [1102*26-
1103*10] 347d-348d, BK vi, CH 12 [1144*1-11]
393c-d / Politics, BK vn, CH 14 [1333*16-36]
538a-b; CH 15 [i334b8-28] 539b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50
6a-12a; Q 54, AA 1-2 22d-24c; A 3, REP 1,3
24c-25b; A 4, ANS 25b-d; PART II-H, Q 24,
A 5, ANS 492b-493d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333a-b
3. The instincts or innate habits of animals and
men
7 PLATO. Republic, BK u, 320b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [0*13-28] 14b /
Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 [1047^31-34] 573a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487*1 i-488b29] 7d 9d; BK vm, CH i 114b,d-
115b esp [588b23-589*io] 115b; CH 12 [596^0-
28] 122d / Politics, BK vn, CH 13 [i332*39~bio]
537a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173a-c
12 LUCKETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [741-747]
39c-d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a;
Q 83, A i, ANS 436d-438a; PART r-ii, Q 46, A 3
794c-795a; Q 46, A 4, REP 2 815b d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 56,
A 3 8b-9a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc n [187-204]
535d-536a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix, DIV
85 488c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2b-d
38 ROUSSEAU Inequality, 334d-336a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 409d-410a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 119a-135a,c csp
119a-121a, 134d-135a,c / Descent of Man,
287d-291c esp 287d-288d, 308a-312d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 278a-287a
passim; BK xi, 499c-500c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a-17b esp 12b; 47b-
52a esp 49b-SOa; 68a; 700a-737a esp 700a-
703a
54 FREUD- Instincts 412a-421a,c esp 412b-415b /
Unconscious, 439d / General Introduction,
615b-616c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle
639a-663d esp 651d-653a / Ego and Id,
708d-709b / Civilization and Its Discontents,
789b-791d esp 790a-d, 791b-d / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 846a-853b esp 846a-847b,
851ad
3^. Instinctual needs or drives
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 62d-63a; 67b-c,
BK in, llld-112c
7 PLATO Symposium, 157b-159b; 165c-166b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-
28] 499a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 8
[542*i7-bi] 68d-69a; BK vi, CH 18 [57ib6-
573*30] 97b-99a; BK vn, CH i [581*21^22]
107a-b; BK vin, CH 12 [596b2o-28] 122d /
Generation of Animals, BK in, CH i (749bi-
750*11] 290d-291b; CH 2 [753*7-17] 294a-b /
Ethics, BK in, CH n [ni8b8-i8] 365a-b; BK
vn, CH 6 [ii49b24-n5O*8] 400b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173a-c
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
10^7] 57d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 23 128c-d
676
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The instincts or innate habits of animals and
men. 5a. Instinctual needs or drives.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ix, Q 12,
A 5, ANS and REP 3 672a-c; Q 13, A 2, REP 2-3
673c-674c; Q 16, A 2, REP 2 684d-685b; Q 17,
A 2, REP 3 687d-688b; Q 41, A i, REP 3 798b-d
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy \ PURGATORY, xvm
[19-75! 80a-c
22 CHAUCER: M 'anciple'sTale[ij, 104-1 44] 490a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-d; 84c-86b;
PART n, 141a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 184a-b; 424d-425c;
512a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 339b; 346a-
347d; 349a-350a; 361c-362a; 402a-d; 460d-
461a; 476b-477b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 72c-73a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99d-103a
31 SPINOZA . Ethics, PART in, PROP 4-9 398d-399c
35 LOCKR: Civil Government, CH VH, SECT 78-80
42b-43a / Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 3 104b-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 38,
466b; DIV 45 469c; SECT ix, DIV 85 488c; SECT
xu, DIV 118 504c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 342c-346d passim
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469b-470c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{t 286b-288a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 122d-131b / De-
scent of Man, 298a-c; 304a-314b csp 304b-
305a, 308a-310a, 311a-312d; 371c-372c;
456b-457c; 583a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 665a-d
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 198b-199a; 700a-704a;
712b-737a esp 736b-737a [fn ij
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 400c-402c esp 401a-c /
General Introduction, 569c-593b esp 574a-d,
590a-593b; 615b-616c; 618d-619a / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle 639a-663d esp 651d-663c
/ Group Psychology, 669a-b; 673b-c; 684d-
686c csp 685a-b / Ego and Id, 708c-712c csp
708d-709b, 711c-712a, 714c-717a,c esp 717c /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 787a-788d esp
787a-c; 789b-791d / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 837b-d, 846b-852c esp 851a-d; 883 be
3^. The innate sense of the beneficial and
harmful: the estimative power
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 63b-c
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK VHI, CH 12
(596b2o-28J 122d; BK ix, CH 5-6 136d-138b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 20 167d-
168b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19, A
10, ANS 117d-118b; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a;
Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-396a; Q 78, A 4, ANS and
REP 4-5 411d-413d; Q 81, A 2, REP 2 429c-
430c; A 3, ANS and REP 2 430c-431d; Q 83, A
x, ANS 436d-438a; Q 96, A i, ANS and REP 4
510b-511b
22 CHAUCER: Nun's Priest's Tale (15,279-287]
457b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 286d-287b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 456d-457a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, lOOa
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VH, SECT 79-80
42c-43a / Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 3 104b-d; BK n, CH x, SECT 3 141c-d; CH
xi, SECT 5 144d-145a; SECT n 145d-146a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 144a-b; 146b-148a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 121a; 122c / De-
scent of Man, 287d-288a; 290c-291a; 292b-c
51 TOLSTOY: WarandPeace, BK in, llla-c; 129a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 8a; 13a; 708a-709a; 720b-
725a passim; 729b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 607d-609c;612c-
614a csp 613d-614a; 623b-c / Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, 640d-641a / Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety, 720a-721c esp 721a;
737b-738a, 751a-752b / New Introductory
Lectures, 845a-846a
3c. Instinct in relation to reason
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK n, CH 8 [199*20-33]
276c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK ix, CH 7
[6i2bi 8-613*1 6] 138b-d / Politics, BK VH, CH
n [i332a39-b'°] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334^-28]
539b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK m, SECT 16 262d-
263a,c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 20-21
167d-168c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18, A
3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a;
Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-396a; Q 78, A 4, ANS and
REP 4-5 411d-413d; Q 83, A i, ANS 436d>438a;
Q 96, A i, REP 4 510b-511b; PART i-n, Q 12, A
5, ANS and REP 3 672a-c; Q 17, A 2, REP 3 687d-
688b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3 8b-9a
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 216b-219b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 428a-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 108 128d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59d-60b /
Objections and Replies, 156a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, PROP 9, SCHOL 399c
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 339-344 233a-b / Vacuum,
357a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 38,
466b; DIV 45 469c; SECT ix» DIV 85 488c; SECT
xu, DIV 118-119 504c-505b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 393 b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 409d-410a
42 KANT: Fund.Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 256d-
257a / Practical Reason, 316c-317a / Judge-
ment, 602b,d [fn i]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465a b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164 b-c;
171b*c; PART iv, 361c-d
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
677
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 287d-289a esp
288c-d; 292c-d; 317b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 676b-677a; 691a-b; 704a-
706b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 377c 380b /
Unconscious, 433b-d / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 651a / Ego and Id, 702c-d; 715a-716b
esp 715d / Civilization and Its Discontents,
800d-801a / New Introductory Lectures, 837b-
839b esp 838a-c; 843d-845b
^. The instinctive basis of habit-formation:
tbe modification of instincts and reflexes
through experience or learning
9 ARISTOTLE : History of Animals, BK iv, CH 9
[536bi4-2o] 63b; BK ix, CH 49 156d-157a /
Politics, BK vn, CH 13 [i332a39-bio] 537a-b
12 LUCRFTIUS Nature of Things, BK in [307-322]
34a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3, REP 2 8b-9a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 38,
466b; DIV 45 469c; SECT ix, DIV 83-85 487c-
488c esp DIV 85 488c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 97
132c-133a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 288b; 290c-291c;
293d-295c; 298a-c; 317c-319a; 569c-571b pas-
sim, esp 570a; 592d-593b
53 JAMFS Psychology, 8b-9a, 13a-17b esp 17a;
44a-52b esp 49b-50a; 705a-712b; 718a;
720a-b; 725a; 732b-735b; 827a-835a esp
834a-835a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 15d-18a / Narcissism, 407c-408a /
Instincts, 415b-421a,c esp 415d-418a / Repres-
sion, 422a-423b / General Introduction, 574d-
575d; 587d-588b; 590c-593b esp 592b-c /
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 640c / Group
Psychology, 693b-695c esp 693d-694b / War
and Death, 757d-759d / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 781a-d / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 847a-b; 870a-b
e. The genesis, transmission, and modifica-
tion of instincts in the course of genera-
tions
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [661-668]
23b-c; BK in [741-753] 39c-d
42 KANT: Judgement, 580a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 82d-85c; Ilia;
119a-135a,c esp 121b-122d, 131c-134d; 236d-
237a / Descent of Man, 288b-c; 292c; 304b,d
[fn 5]; 318a-319a passim; 504c-507a esp 506c-
507a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 691a*b; 717a-725a passim,
esp 718b, 724a, 724b-725a; 851b; 853a-858a;
890b-897a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 413b-c / General Introduc-
tion, 591d-592b; 594d-595b; 613a / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654c; 660c / Ego
and Id, 707c-708b / War and Death, 758d
4. Habit formation
4a. The causes of habit: practice, repetition,
teaching, and the law
7 PLATO: Republic, BK HI, 330a; 333b-d /
Theaetetus, 518a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-
248*6] 329c-330d / Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5
[i047b3i~34] 573a; CH 8 [io49b29~-io50*3]
575c-d / Soul, BK n, CH 5 [417*21-418*6]
647d-648d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vn, CH i
[58ibn-22] 107b; BK VIH, CH 29 [607*9-13]
132c / Ethics, BK n, CH 1-4 348b,d-351b
passim; BK HI, CH 5 [1114*3-10] 360a; CH 12
[1119*22-34] 365d-366a / Politics, BK n, CH 8
[1269*14-23] 465b; BK vn, CH 15 [i334b8-28]
539b-d; BK vm, CH i [1337*19-27] 542b;
CH 5 [I3^9*2I~25] 544c-d / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 10 [i369b6-8] 612d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 18 161a-
162b; BK HI, CH 3, 179d; CH 8 184b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 16 271c-d
14 PLUTARCH- Pericles, 121a-122b
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK vm, par 10 55c<d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 86, A
2, ANS 462a-463a; Q 89, A 6, REP 3 478b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51
12a-15d; Q 54, A 4, REP 1,3 25b-d; Q 92, A i
213c-214c; A 2, REP 4 214J>215a,c; Q 95, A 3
228c-229b; Q 96, AA 2-3 231c-233a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
n4]77d-78a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 154d 155a
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 16c-d; 42b-44c; 64a-b;
534a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc iv [160-
170] 56b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 78d-79c
31 SPINOZA : Ethics, PART v, PROP 10, SCHOL 455a-
456a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 71 197b-198a; CH xxxiu, SECT 5-18
248d-251c passim
35 HUME' Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 35-
36, 464c-d; DIV 38, 466b
42 KANT- Practical Reason, 357c-360d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 329d-330a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 97
132c-133a / Philosophy of History, PART i,
251b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 70a-73b; 332a; 571a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 573d
46. The growth and decay of habits: ways of
strengthening and breaking habits
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 518a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [iob26-n*4] 15d-
16a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 1-4 348b,d-351b
passim; BK vn, CH 10 [1152*28-33] 403b
678
THE GREAT IDEAS
5to5c
(4. Habit formation. 4b. The growth and decay
of habits: ways of strengthening and break-
ing habits.)
12 EWCTBTUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 27 132b-
133b; BK ii, CH 18 161a-162b; BK ni, CH 12
187b-188b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 16 271c-d
17 PLOTINUS' Sixth Ennead, TR in, CH 20, 293a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, QQ
52-53 15d-22d; Q 54, A 4, REP 1,3 25b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 64a-b; 390b-c; 391c-
393b; 395b-396d; 525d-S27a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69a; 69d-
70a; 79b-c; 80a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 48b-49d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 6 173a
35 LOCKS: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 71 197b-198a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 464a-d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 259a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 309c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 79b*83b; 332a
5. The analysis of specifically human habits
9 ARISTOTLE. Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-248*
6] 329c-330d
9 ARISTOTLE : Ethics, BK n, CH 1-6 348b,d-352d
passim
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, QQ
49-54 la-25d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 73b-83b
la. Habits of body: manual arts and the skills
of play
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 46c / Republic, BK in,
334d-335b; BK vn, 391d / Theaetetus, 518a-b
/ Laws, BK vn, 717b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-^19]
329c-330a / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 J292ai4~bi8]
383d-384b / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 20 [io22b
10-13] 544a
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK n, CH i (1103*33-35]
348d; [no3b6-i3] 349a / Politics, BK iv, CH i
[i288bio-2o] 487a-b; BK vn, CH 15 [i334b7~
28] 539b-d; CH 17 [1336*3-22] 541a-b; BK
vm, CH 4 544a-c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 52 109b-
llOa; par 55, lllc; par 58 112b-113a / Apho-
nms, SECT n, par 49-50 133d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 15, 190a-c
13 VIRGIL: Acncid, BK ix [590-620] 295a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 40d-42a / Conolanus,
175b / Philopoemen, 293d-294a / Demos-
thenes, 693c; 695b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead; TR n, CH 8, 87a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART x-xi, Q 49,
A 2, REP 1,3 2b-4a; A 3, REP 3 4b-5a; A 4, ANS
5a-6a; Q 50, A i 6a-7b; A 3, REP 2 8b~9a; Q 52,
' A i, ANS 15d-18a; A 2, ANS 18a-19a; Q 54, A i,
ANS 22d-23d
24 RABELAIS: Gdrgantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
28a-29b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 43d; 66c-67a; 73c;
316b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 53d- 54a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 166b-167a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335a-b
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 53a; BK v,
337d-338a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 5a-b
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 52,
25c / Philosophy of History, PART n, 267b-
268b
49 DARWIN Descent of Man, 269b-271a; 278c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 164b-167a; 170c-171a; 237d-
240c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 73b-78b esp 75a; 332a;
774a
5b. Habits of appetite and will: the moral vir-
tues as good habits
8 ARISTOTLE. Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246^0-
247*19] 330a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vn, CH i
[58ibn-22] 107b / Ethtcs, BK n, CH 1-6
348b,d-352d; BK vn, CH 5 [ii48bi5-i 149*4]
399a-c; CH 10 [1152*28-33] 403b / Politics,
BK vn, CH 15 [i334b8-28] 539b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 3 178d-
180a; CH 8 184b-c; BK iv, CH i 2I3a-223d
14 PLUTARCH Cato the Younger, 637b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vm, par 10 55c-d;
par 20-21 58c-59a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 49,
A i, REP 3 lb-2b; A 2, REP 3 2b-4a, Q 50, A 3
8b-9a; A 5 lOb-d; Q 56, A 4 32b-33c, A 6 34b-
35a; QQ 58-61 41a-59d; Q 94, A r, REP r 221a-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc iv [160-
170] 56b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a;
78d-81c esp 79a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 71 197b-198a
42 KANT- Practical Reason, 357c-360d / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethtcs, 368d; 378a-b
/Judgement, 521b-523c; 604d-606d esp 606a-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445d-446a; 463d-465b
44 BOSWELL* Johnson, 386a
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 304a-305c esp
304b,d [£05]; 310c-319a esp 311c-d, 318a-
31 9a; 321b-322d; 593a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 80a-83b; 798b-808a pas-
sim, esp 799a-b
54 FREUD: War and Death, 757c-759d
5c. The natural habits of reason: innate pre-
dispositions of the mind
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-
28] 499a; BK iv, OH 3 [ioo5b 15-34] 524d-525a;
BK xi, CH 5 [io6ib34-io62*5J 590a-b
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
679
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH n
392d-393a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1355*14-17]
594b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 22 127c-128c;
BK ii, CH ii 150a-151b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
17 PLOTINUS: Ftrst Ennead, TR in, CH 1-3 10a-
lla; TR vui, CH 9, 31c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 16, A
6, REP 1 98b-d; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 79,
AA 12-13 425c-427a; PART I-H, Q i, A 4, REP 2
612a-613a; A 5, ANS 613a-614a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A i, ANS and REP 1-2 12b-13c; Q 53, A i, ANS
19d-21a; Q 94, A i 221a d; PART in, Q 9, A i,
ANS 763b-764c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [73-
81] 77c-d; xvm [19-21] 80a; [49-66] 80b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54a; 60a-b; 86b d
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 59c-d, 60c-
61c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-llla
31 DESCARTES- Rules, i, la-b; iv, 5c-d; vui,
13c-d / Discourse, PART i, 41 b; PART v, 54c /
Objections and Replies, 224b,d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 19 429d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, i, 171a; 81 186b / Geometrical
Demonstration, 440b
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH n, SECT 5-8 26a-
27a / Human Understanding, BK r 95b,d-121a,c
passim
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 38,
466b; DIV 45 469c; SECT xn, DIV 118 504c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 20a; 48a-c; 58c-59b; 66d-
72c csp 67c-69c; 109b-c, 157d; 229b-c; 234c /
Judgement, 562a-564c; 604d-606d esp 606a-d
43 FEDERALIST NUMBER 31, 103c-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445d-446a; 465a-b;
469b-470c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 851a-890a csp 85la-852a,
879b-882a, 889a-b
</. The acquired habits of mind: the intellec-
tual virtues
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 518b; 542a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [247bi-248*
9] 330b-d; BK vui, CH 4 [255*30-b23] 340a-c /
Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 [io47b3i-^4] 573a;
CH 8 [io49b32-io5oa3] 575c-d / Soul, BK n,
CH 5 [417*21-418*6] 647d-648d / Memory and
Reminiscence, CH 2 [45ibio~452b6] 693a-694b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi 387a-394d / Politics,
BK vn, CH 15 [i334b8-28] 539b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 3 178d-
180a; CH 8 184b-c; BK iv, CH i, 216c-223d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 16 271c d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A i, REP 1-2 75d-76c; Q 79, AA 6-7 419b-421c;
A 10, ANS 423d-424d; Q 86, A 2, ANS 462a-
463a; Q 87, A 2, REP 2-3 466c-467b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 49,
A i, REP 3 lb-2b; A 2, REP 3 2b-4a; Q 50, A 3,
REP 3 8b-9a; A 4 9a-10b; Q 51, A 3 14b-15a;
Q 52, A I, ANS 15d-18a; A 2, ANS 18a-19a;
Q 53, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 19d 21a; A 3,
ANS and REP 3 21d 22d; Q 54, A 4, REP 3
2Sb-d; QQ 57-58 35a-45c; Q 64, A 3 68b-
69b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 54a; 60a-b; 66c-
68c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26a-27a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a / Discourse, PART
i, 41b,d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 25-28 430d-
431c; PART v, PROP 10, SCHOL 455a-456a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 8-10 139b-140b; CH xxxm, SECT 5-18
248d-251c passim; BK iv, CH i, SECT 8-93080-
309b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 35-
38 464c-466c; DIV 40, 467c; DIV 44 468d-469c;
SECT vn, DIV 59-61 476b-478a passim; SECT
ix, DIV 83-84 487c-488b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 347a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 223a-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 135c-136a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 97
132c-133a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 320b-321a passim;
593a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 83b; 295b-298a csp 296b;
331b-336a; 361a-380a passim; 427b 430a;
433a-434a csp 434a, 502a-507a esp 504a;
520a-526b esp 520b, 524a-S25a; 55Sa-557b
passim; 852b-853a; 860b-862a
5e. Supernatural habits
5*(1) Grace as an eotitative habit of the person
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 2, ANS 7c-8a; Q 51, A 4 15a-d; Q 82, A i
168a-d; Q no347d-351d
5e(2) The infused virtues and the supernatural
gifts
OLD TESTAMENT: / Kings, 3:5-15; 4'29-34—(D)
/// Kings, 3 15-15 ; 4 ^9-34 / / Chronicles, 22 .-12
— (D) I Paralipomcnon, 22 12 / 77 Chronicles,
1:7-12— (D) II Parahpomenon, 1.7-12 / Job,
32.8 / Psalms, 119:34-40,73,125,130,144,169—
(D) Psalms, 118:34-40,73,125,130,144,169 /
Proverbs, 2 csp 2 :6 / Ecclesiastes, 2 '.26 / Isaiah,
n :2~5— (D) Isaias, n 12-5 / Daniel, i csp 1 117;
2 120-23
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:9; 7:7,22;
8:7,21; 9— (D) OT, Boof( of Wisdom, 3:9;
7.7,22; 8.7,21; 9 / Ecclesiasticus, 1:1,5,10;
11:15; 15:5; 24:24-28; 43:33; 50:29; 51:17-
(D) OT, Ecclcstasttcus, 1:1,5,10; 11:15; 15 5;
24:34-38; 43:37; 50:31; 51:22-23
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6-33 / Acts, 2.1-21
/ / Corinthians, 1:30; 2; 12:4-11 / Ephesians,
1:16-18; 4:17-5:21 / Phihppians, 3:9 /James,
1:5-7,17; 3:13-18 / 77 Peter, 1:1-10
680
THE GREAT IDEAS
5r(3) to 6b
(5*. Supernaturarjbabfa. 5e(2) The infused vir-
tue* and the supernatural gifts.)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 4 15a-d; Q 55, A 4, ANS and REP 6 28c-29d;
Q 63, A A 3-4 65a-66c; Q 68 87c-96c esp A 3 90d-
91b; Q 100, A 12, ANS and REP 3 264d-265d; Q
no, A 3, ANS and REP 3 350a-d; A 4, REP i
350d-351d; PART n-n, QQ 8-9 416d-426c; Q
19 465a-474d; Q 45 598c-603c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 57c; PART in,
176d-177b; PART iv, 270c-d
5*(3) The theological virtues
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 22; 25; 71— (D) Psalms,
21 ; 24; 70 / Proverbs, 3.1-26 / Isaiah, 40:31 —
(D) Isaias, 40:31 /Jeremiah, 39:18— (D) Jere-
mias, 39:18
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:9— (D) OT,
Booi( of Wisdom, 3*9 / Ecclestasttcus, 2:6-9;
13:14— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 2.6-10; 13.18
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 9:20-22,27-30;
15:22-28; 17:14-21 csp 17:19-21; 19:16-23 csp
19*21— (D) Matthew, 9:20-22,27-30; 15:22-
28; 17:14-20 csp 17:18-20; 19:16-23 esp 19-21
/ Marf(, 9 17-27 csp 9-23-24— (D) MarJ(,
9:16-26 csp 9:22-23 / Luke, 17:5-6 / John,
1 4:21; 20 26-29 / Romans, 1.5,16-17,3.20-5.9,
8 224-25 ; 10 // Corinthians, 137 Galatians, 5:5-6
/ Ephesians, 2:1-10 / Colossians, i :i-8 / / Thes-
salonians, 5 :8 / Hebrews, 6; 1 1 / James, 2-14-26
/ // Peter, 1 15-8 / / John / II John / /// John
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 3 300b-
301a; BK xxi, CH 16 573b-574a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, 051,
A 4 15a-d; Q 58, A 3, REP 3 43b-44a; Q 62 59d-
63a; Q 63, A 3 65a-d; Q 64, A 4 69b-70a; Q 67,
AA 3-6 83b~87c; Q no, A 3, REP i 350a-d; A 4,
ANS 350d-351d, PART n-n, Q 23 482c-489c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxiv [i]-
xxvi [81] 142d-146c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 149c-d; PART HI,
241c242a
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK XH [576-605] 331b-
332a
6. The force of habit in human life
OLD TESTAMENT :Job, 20:11-13 / Proverbs, 22:6 /
Jeremiah, 13:23— (D) Jeremias, 13:23
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d; BK HI, 97d-
98a; BK iv, 137a-138c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vn, 716a-b; 717d-718d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK H, CH 3 (994b3i-
995*6] S13c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 1-6 348b,d 352d
passim, esp CH i [no3b22-25) 349b; BK vn,
CH 5 [ii48bi5-i 149*4] 399a-c; CH 10 [1152*28-
33] 403b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [i368b28-
I369b27] 612a-613a csp [1369*1-7] 612a-b,
[i369b6-8] 612d, [i369bio-i9] 612d-613a
12 LUCKETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [307-322]
34ab
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VH, par 23 50b-c;
BK vin, par 18 57d-58a; par 25-26 60a-b /
Christian Doctrme, BK i, CH 24 630c-631a
20 AQUINAS . Summa Theohgica, PART I-H, Q 49,
AA 3-4 4b-6a
23 MACHIAVELLI : Prince, CH xxv, 35d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 16c-d; 42b-43d; 63d-
64b; 307c-308a; 316b-c; 390b-c; 391c-393b;
395b-396d, 489b-490c; 524b-527a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 285b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 48b-49d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 6 173a
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 35-
36 464c-465c; DIV 44-45, 469b-c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 347a-b
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 464d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 125a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 370c-d /
Utilitarianism, 464a-d
44 BOSWELL:/O^O«, 259a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308b, 317b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 150c; BK vi,
244a-b; BK vin, 303a-305b; BK xi, 486a; BK
xn, 556d-557a; BK xiv, 609d; BK xv, 639c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 73b-83b
54 FREUD. Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 643d-
646a esp 645b-646a
6a. The automatic or unconscious functioning
of habits
8 ARISTOTLE- Categories, CH 8 [8b26~9ai3] 13d-
14a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 10 [1152*28-
33] 403b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 11 [1370*5-8]
613b
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 49,
A 2 2b-4a; Q 109, A 8, ANS 344d-346a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 307c-308a, 316b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 8-10 139b-140b passim
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 464a-b
49 DARWIN Origin of Species, 119b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 3b; 73b-78b; 93a; 295b-
298a esp 296b; 774a; 788a-789a esp 788b-
789a; 790b-791a; 810a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 455b
6b. The contribution of habit to the perfection
of character and mind
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 22:6 /Jeremiah, 13 .-23
— (D) Jeremias, 13:23
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 30.8— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 30*8
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396d-
397a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 330a-331c; 333b-d;
BK vii, 389d-390b; 391c-d / Timaeus, 474d-
475d / Theaetetus, 518b / Laws, BK 11, 653a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 10 [13*16-31] 18d
/ Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*10-248*6] 329c-
330d
6cto7
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
681
9 ARISTOTLE* History of Animals, BK vii, CH i
[58ibn-22] 107b / Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [iO95b4~
I3]340c-d; CH 934Sa-c; BK 11, CH 1-6 348b,d-
352d passim, esp CH i [no3b22-25] 349b; BK
in, CH 5 [ni4B3-io]360a; BK x, en 9 [1179*33-
1180*32] 434a-435a / Politics, BK iv, CH n
[i295bi4-i8]495d; BK VH, CH 13 [i332*39-bio]
537a-b; CH 15 [i334b8-28] 539b-d; CH 17
[i336*4o-b38] 541c-542a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 4 108d-110a;
BK ii, CH 18 161a-162b; BK in, CH 3 178d-
180a; CH 12 187b-188b; BK iv, CH i 213a-
223d; CH 9 237d-238d
12 AURELIUS. Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d, BK xi, SECT 26
306b
18 AUGUSTINE' Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 9-10
627a-b, CH 24, 630d-631a
20 AQUINAS* Sutnma Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
AA 4-5 9a-10d; Q 63, A 2 64b-65a; Q 92, A i,
REP i 213c-214c, A 2, REP 4 214d-215a,c
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 42b-43d, 63d-64b; 176c-
177a; 202d-203a; 390b-c; 391c 393b; 525d-
527a
30 BACON Advancement of Learning, 69a-70a;
78d-81c
31 DFSCARTES' Discourse, PART i, 41b; PART n,
45b-46c, PART in, 48b-49d
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 71 197b-198a; CH XXMII, SECT 8 249c-d
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SKCT v, mv 44-
45, 469b-c, SECT ix, DIV 83-84 487c-488b
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 347a-b
39 SMIIH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 7d 8b
42 KANT Pure Reason, 223a-d / Pref Metaphysi-
cal Elements of Ethics, 368d
43 MILL. Utilitarianism, 464a-d
44 HOSWCLL. Johnson, 259a
46 HHGEL Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 96-97
132c-133a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 305a, 310d-314a
passim, esp313d-314a; 322a; 322d; 592b-593b
esp 593a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d; BK
ix, 369c-d; BK xiv, 605b-d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 78b-83b esp 81b-83b;
331b-332b; 433a-434a, 711b-712a, 751b-752a,
760a-b
54 FREUD- War and Death, 757d-759d / New
Introductory Lectures, 844b-c; 870a-b
6c, Habit and freedom
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vin, par 10 55c-d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 83,
A i, REP 5 436d-438a; A 2, ANS 438a-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xix, 142a
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
378a-b
43 MILL Utilitarianism, 464a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 97
132c-133a/ Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-
172b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 288b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War ami Peace, BK v, 221b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164b-d
53 J\MES: Psychology, 74a-78b; 80a
7. The social significance of habit: habit in re-
lation to law
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK i, 35c-d; BK in, 97d-
98a, BK iv, 137a-138c
6 TIIUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396d-
397a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK iv, 344b-345d; BK vn,
401c-d / Laws, BK vn, 713c-714c; 716a-b;
717d-718d
8 ARISTOTLE- Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3 [994b3i-
995^14] 513c
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK u, CH i [no3b3-6]349a;
BK v, CH i [ii29bi9~24] 377a; BK x, CH 9
[1179*33-1 1 80*32] 434a-435a / Politics, BK n,
CH 8 [1269*14-23] 465b, BK v, CH 9 [1310*15-
18] 512b-c; BK vn, CH 13 [i332*27-bio] 537a-b,
HK vin, CH i [1337*19-27] 542b, CH 5 [1339*
2i-25]544c-d
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 38c; 48a-c / Lycurgus-
Numa, 63d 64a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 57d-58b
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92,
A i 213c-214c; A 2, RFP 4 214d-215a,c, Q 94,
A i 221a-d; Q 95, A 3 228c-229b; Q 96, AA 2-3
231c-233a; Q 97, A 2 236d-237b; Q 100, A 12
264d-265d, Q 106, A 2 322b-323a
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
ii4]77d-78a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 42b-51a; 131b-132a;
463b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 41-43
109c-110a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 45b-46c; PART
in, 48b-49d
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 380a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 39a;
BK x, 65c; BK xiv, 106b; BK xix, 135a-142a;
BK xxin, 197c-198a
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 324d; 347a-b / Social
Contract, BK n, 402b-c; 406c-d; BK iv, 434b-
435a
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 7d-8b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 464d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 125a; 227b
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-b
43 FEDERALIST-. NUMBER 27, 95c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 305b-312a passim / Repre-
sentative Government, 329d-330a; 330d-331a /
Utilitarianism, 464c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 151-
152 57a-b; ADDITIONS, 97 132c-133a / Philoso-
phy of History, PART n, 271d-272d; PART iv,
365b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 303a; 317b-d
50 MARX: Capital, 235a-236c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vin, 303a-305b;
BK xi, 499c-500c
53 JAMES : Psychology, 79b-80a
682 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For. Terms of fundamental relevance to the conception of habit, see BEING 7c~7c(3); MATTER 2a;
MIND 2b; NATURE 2c.
The psychological analysis of the faculties or powers in which habits are situated, see ANIMAL
13-13(3); LIFE 3; MAN 4~4d; SOUL 2c-2c(3); VIRTUE AND VICE 2a.
Other discussions of instinct, see ANIMAL id; DESIRE 33; EMOTION ic; EVOLUTION 3b;
SENSE 3d(3).
Consideration of the factors involved in the formation or breaking of habits, see EDUCATION
3-6; LAW 6d; VIRTUE AND VICE 4-^(4).
The role of habit in the theory of virtue, see VIRTUE AND VICE ic; for other discussions of the
intellectual virtues, see ART i ; MIND 4c, 4e~4f ; PRUDENCE i-2c; SCIENCE ia(i); VIRTUE AND
VICE 2a, 23(2); WISDOM 2a; for other discussions of the moral virtues, see COURAGE i, 4;
JUSTICE ic-id; TEMPERANCE i-ib; VIRTUE AND VICE 23-23(1), 3b; for other discussions
of the theological virtues, see KNOWLEDGE 6c(5); LOVE 50-5^2); MIND 5c; RELIGION la;
VIRTUE AND VICE 2b, 8d-8d(3); and for other discussions of the infused virtues and the
supernatural gifts, see MIND 4f, 5c; VIRTUE AND VICE 8e.
Matters relevant to grace as an entitative habit, see GOD yd; MAN 9^2); NATURE 6b; SIN
3c, 4d, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE 8b; WILL 76(2).
Other considerations of the natural habits of the mind, see JUDGMENT 8a; KNOWLEDGE 6c(2)-
6c(4); LAW 43; MIND 4d(2)~4d(3); PRINCIPLE 2b(2), 33(1], 4; VIRTUE AND VICE 43.
The relation of habit to freedom, see WILL 33(2).
The relation of habit to custom and law, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 2, 6b; LAW 5f, 6d.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boo{s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
HARTLEY. Observations on Man, His Frame, His
*• Duty and His Expectations, VOL i, PROPOSITION 2 1
AQUINAS. Quaesttones Disputatae, De Veritate, Q 16 CONDILLAC. Traite des animaux, PART n, CH 5
DLSCARTES. The Passions of the Soul, xvi, XLIV, L VOLTAIRE. "Instinct," in A Philosophical Dictionary
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART in, T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
SECT vm-ix, xw; BK n, PART in, SECT v Mind, in, PART i, CH 2-3
C. R. DARWIN. A Posthumous Essay on Instinct BENTHAM. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
. The Expression of Emotions in Man and and Legislation, CH 1 1
Animals MAINE DE BIRAN. The Influence of Habit on the
Faculty of Thinking
"• D. STEWART. Outlines of Moral Philosophy, PART i,
SENECA. "On the Diseases of the Soul," in Moral CH 10
Letters . Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind,
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xxxix, XLII PART n, CH 5
(2-5), XLIII-XLIV, XLVI (3), LIII SCHOPENHAUER. The Worldas Will and Idea, VOL in,
MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la vfrite', BK n (i), SUP, CH 27
CH 5 J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under- Mind, CH in
standing, BK n, CH 22 (10) RAVAISSON-MOLLIEN. De r habitude
CHAPTER 32: HABIT
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of the Unconscious, (A)
m; (B) i
HERING. Memory
S. BUTLER. Life and Habit
RADESTOCK. Habit and Its Importance in Education
ROMANES. Mental Evolution in Animals, CH 11-18
C. S PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL HI, par 154-164,
359~4°35 VOL VI» par 259-263
H. R. MARSHALL Instinct and Reason
BERG SON. Creative Evolution, CH 2
WOODWORTH. Psychological Issues, CH 9
C. L, MORGAN. Habit and Instinct
. Instinct and Experience
JUNG. Instinct and the Unconscious
RIVERS. Instinct and the Unconscious
B. RUSSELL. The Analysis of Mind, LECT 2
DEWEY. Human Nature and Conduct, PART i-n
PAVLOV. Conditioned Reflexes
VANN. Morals Ma{yth Man
THORNDIKE. Man on His Wor^s
683
Chapter 33: HAPPINESS
INTRODUCTION
THE great questions about happiness are
concerned with its definition and its attain-
ability. In what does happiness consist ? Is it the
same for all men, or do different men seek dif-
ferent things in the name of happiness? Can
happiness be achieved on earth, or only here-
after? And if the pursuit of happiness is not a
futile quest, by what means or steps should it
be undertaken ?
On all these questions, the great books set
forth the fundamental inquiries and specula-
tions, as well as the controversies to which they
have given rise, in the tradition of western
thought. There seems to be no question that
men want happiness. "Man wishes to be happy,"
Pascal writes, "and only wishes to be happy,
and cannot wish not to be so," To the ques-
tion, what moves desire? Locke thinks only
one answer is possible: "happiness, and that
alone.*1
But this fact, even if it goes undisputed, does
not settle the issue whether men are right in
governing their lives with a view to being or
becoming happy. There is therefore one further
question. Should men make happiness their
goal and direct their acts accordingly ?
According to Kant, "the principle ot private
happiness" is "the direct opposite of the prin-
ciple of morality." He understands happiness
to consist in "the satisfaction of all our desires:
extensive, in regard to their multiplicity; inten-
sive^ in regard to their degree; protenstve, in
regard to their duration." What Kant calls the
"pragmatic" rule of life, which aims at happi-
ness, "tells us what we have to do, if we wish to
become possessed of happiness."
Unlike the moral law, it is a hypothetical,
not a categorical, imperative. Furthermore,
Kant points out that such a pragmatic or utili-
tarian ethics (which is for him the same as an
"ethics of happiness") cannot help being em-
pirical, "for it is only by experience," he says,
"that I can learn either what inclinations exist
which desire satisfaction, or what are the natu-
ral means of satisfying them." Such empirical
knowledge "is available for each individual in
his own way." Hence there can be no universal
solution in terms of desire of the problem of
how to be happy. To reduce moral philosophy
to "a theory of happiness" must result, there-
fore, in giving up the search for ethical prin-
ciples which are both universal and a priori.
In sharp opposition to the pragmatic rule,
Kant sets the "moral or ethical law," the mo-
tive of which is not simply to be happy, but
rather to be worthy of happiness. In addition to
being a categorical imperative which imposes
an absolute obligation upon us, this law, he says,
"takes no account of our desires or the means of
satisfying them." Rather it "dictates how we
ought to act in order to deserve happiness." It
is drawn from pure reason, not from experience,
and therefore has the universality of an a priori
principle, without which, in Kant's opinion, a
genuine science of ethics— or metaphysic of
morals — is impossible.
With the idea of moral worth —that which
alone deserves happiness— taken away, "happi-
ness alone is," according to Kant, "far from
being the complete good. Reason does not ap-
prove of it (however much inclination may
desire it) except as united with flesert. On the
other hand," Kant admits, "morality alone,
and, with it, mere desert, is likewise far from
being the complete good." These two things
must be united to constitute the true summum
bonum which, according to Kant, means both
the supreme and the complete good. The man
"who conducts himself in a manner not un-
worthy of happiness, must be able to hope for
the possession of happiness."
But even if happiness combined with moral
684
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
685
worth does constitute the supreme good, Kant
still refuses to admit that happiness, as a prac-
tical objective, can function as a moral prin-
ciple. Though a man can hope to be happy only
if under the moral law he does his duty, he
should not do his duty with the hope of thereby
becoming happy. "A disposition," he writes,
"which should require the prospect of happi-
ness as its necessary condition, would not be
moral, and hence also would not be worthy of
complete happiness." The moral law commands
the performance of duty unconditionally. Hap-
piness should be a consequence, but it cannot
be a condition, of moral action.
In other words, happiness fails for Kant to
impose any moral obligation or to provide a
standard of right and wrong in human conduct.
No more than pleasure can happiness be used
as a first principle in ethics, if morality must
avoid all calculations of utility or expediency
whereby things are done or left undone for the
sake of happiness, or any other end to be
enjoyed.
THIS ISSUE BETWEEN an ethics of duty and an
ethics of happiness, as well as the conflict it
involves between law and desire as sources of
morality, are considered, from other points of
view, in the chapters on DFSIRE and DUTY, and
again in GOOD AND EVIL where the problem of
the swnmum bonum is raised. In this chapter,
we shall be concerned with happiness as an
ethical principle, and therefore with the prob-
lems to be faced by those who, in one way or
another, accept happiness as the supreme good
and the end of ttfe. They n^iy see no reason to
reject moral principles which work through
desire rather than duty. They may find nothing
repugnant in appealing to happiness as the ul-
timate end which justifies the means and de-
termines the order of all other goods. But they
cannot make happiness the first principle of
ethics without having to face many questions
concerning the nature of happiness and its
relation to virtue.
Discussion begins rather than ends with the
fact that happiness is what all men desire. Once
they have asserted that fact, once they have
made happiness the most fundamental of all
ethical terms, writers like Aristotle or Locke,
Aquinas or Mill, cannot escape the question
whether all who seek happiness look for it 01
find it in the same things.
Holding that a definite conception of happi-
ness cannot be formulated, Kant thinks that
happiness fails even as a pragmatic principle oi
conduct. "The notion of happiness is so in-
definite," he writes, "that although every mar
wishes to attain it, yet he never can say defi-
nitely and consistently what it is that he really
wishes." He cannot "determine with certainty
what would make him truly happy; because tc
do so he would need to be omniscient." If thi«
is true of the individual, how various must be
the notions of happiness which prevail among
men in general.
Locke plainly asserts what is here implied,
namely, the fact that "everyone does not place
his happiness in the same thing, or choose the
same way to it." But admitting this fact doe;
not prevent Locke from inquiring how "ir
matters of happiness and misery . . . men come
often to prefer the worse to the better; and tc
choose that which, by their own confession, ha«
made them miserable." Even though he de
clares that "the same thing is not good to ever)
man alike," Locke thinks it is possible to ac
count "for the misery that men often bring or
themselves" by explaining how the mdividua
may make errors in judgment— -"how thing:
come to be represented to our desires undej
deceitful appearances ... by the judgment pro
nouncmg wrongly concerning them."
But this applies to the individual only. Lock<
does not think it is possible to show that wher
two men differ in their notions of happiness
one is right and the other wrong. "Though al
men's desires tend to happiness, yet they an
not moved by the same object. Men may choose
different things, and yet all choose right." H<
does not quarrel with the theologians who, or
the basis of divine revelation, describe the eter
nal happiness in the life hereafter which is to b(
enjoyed alike by all who are saved. But revela
tion is one thing, and reason another.
With respect to temporal happiness on earth
reason cannot achieve a definition of the enc
that has the certainty of faith concerning sal
vation. Hence Locke quarrels with "the philos
ophers of old" who, in his opinion, vainly soughi
to define the summum bonum or happiness ir
such a way that all men would agree on whal
686
THE GREAT IDEAS
happiness is; or, if they failed tot some would be
in error and misled in their pursuit of happiness.
It may be wondered, therefore, what Locke
means by saying that there is a science of what
man ought to do "as a rational and voluntary
agent for the attainment of ... happiness." He
describes ethics as the science of the "rules and
measures of human actions, which lead to hap-
piness" and he places "morality amongst the
sciences capable of demonstration, wherein . . .
from self-evident propositions, by necessary
consequences, as incontestable as those in mathe-
matics, the measures of right and wrong might
be made out, to any one that will apply him-
self with the same indifferency and attention
to the one, as he does to the other of these
sciences."
THE ANCIENT philosophers with whom Locke
disagrees insist that a science of ethics depends
on a first principle which is self-evident in the
same way to all men. Happiness is not that
principle if the content of happiness is what
each man thinks it to be; for if no universally
applicable definition of happiness can be given
—if when men differ in their conception of
what constitutes happiness, one man may be as
right as another— then the fact that all men
agree upon giving the name "happiness" to
what they ultimately want amounts to no
more than a nominal agreement. Such nominal
agreement, in the opinion of Aristotle and
Aquinas, does not suffice to establish a science
of ethics, with rules for the pursuit of happiness
which shall apply universally to all men.
On their view, what is truly human happi-
ness must be the same for all men. The reason,
in the words of Aquinas, is that "all men agree
in their specific nature." It is in terms of their
specific or common nature that happiness can
be objectively defined. Happiness so conceived
is a common end for all, "since nature tends to
one thing only,"
It may be granted that there are in fact many
different opinions about what constitutes hap-
piness, but it cannot be admitted that all are
equally sound without admitting a complete
relativism in moral matters. That men do in fact
seek different things under the name of happi-
ness docs not, according to Aristotle and Aqui-
nas, alter the truth that the happiness they
should seek must be something appropriate to
the humanity which is common to them all,
rather than something determined by their
individually differing needs or temperaments.
If it were the latter, then Aristotle and Aquinas
would admit that questions about what men
should do to achieve happiness would be an-
swerable only by individual opinion or personal
preference, not by scientific analysis or demon-
stration.
With the exception of Locke and perhaps to
a less extent Mill, those who think that a science
of ethics can be founded on happiness as the
first principle tend to maintain that there can
be only one right conception of human happi-
ness. They regard other notions as misconcep-
tions which may appear to be, but are not really
the summum bonum. The various definitions of
happiness which men have given thus present
the problem of the real and the apparent good,
the significance of which is considered in the
chapter on GOOD AND EVIL.
IN THE EVERYDAY discourse of men there seems
to be a core of agreement about the meaning of
the words "happy" and "happiness." This com-
mon understanding has been used by philoso-
phers like Aristotle and Mill to test the ade-
quacy of any definition of happiness.
When a man says "I feel happy" he is saying
that he feels pleased or satisfied —that he has
what he wants. When men contrast tragedy
and happiness, they have in mind the quality a
life takes from its end. A tragedy on the stage,
in fiction, or in life is popularly characterized
as "a story without a happy ending." This ex-
presses the general sense that happiness is the
quality of a life which comes out well on the
whole despite difficulties and vicissitudes along
the way. Only ultimate defeat or frustration
is tragic.
There appears to be some conflict here be-
tween fcelmg happy at a given moment and
being happy for a lifetime, that is, living hap-
pily. It may be necessary to choose between
having a good time and leading a good life.
Nevertheless, in both uses of the word "happy"
there is the connotation of satisfaction. When
men say that what they want is happiness, they
imply that, having it, they would ask for noth-
ing more. If they arc asked why they want to be
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
happy, they find it difficult to give any reason
except "for its own sake." They can think of
nothing beyond happiness for which happiness
serves as a means or a preparation. This aspect
of ultimacy or finality appears without quali-
fication in the sense of happiness as belonging
to a whole life. There is quiescence, too, in the
momentary feeling of happiness, but precisely
because it does not last, it leaves another and
another such moment to be desired.
Observing these facts, Aristotle takes the
word "happiness'* from popular discourse and
gives it the technical significance of ultimate
good, last end, or summum bonum. "The chief
good," he writes, "is evidently something fi-
nal. . . . Now we call that which is in itself
worthy of pursuit more final than that which is
worthy of pursuit for the sake of something
else, and that which is never desirable for the
sake of something else more final than the things
that are desirable both in themselves and for
the sake of that other thing. Therefore, we call
final without qualification that which is always
desirable in itself and never for the sake of
something else. Such a thing happiness, above
all else, is held to be; for this we choose always
for itself and never for the sake of something
else."
The ultimacy of happiness can also be ex-
pressed in terms of its completeness or suffi-
ciency. It would not be true that happiness is
desired for its own sake and everything else for
the sake of happiness, if the happy man wanted
something more. The most obvious mark of the
happy man, according to Aristotle, is that he
wants for nothing. The happy life leaves noth-
ing to be desired. It is this insight which Boe-
thius later expresses in an oft-repeated char-
acterization of happiness as "a life made perfect
by the possession in aggregate of all good things."
So conceived, happiness is not a particular good
itself, but the sum of goods. "If happiness were
to be counted as one good among others,"
Aristotle argues, "it would clearly be made
more desirable by the addition of even the
least of goods." But then there would be some-
thing left for the happy man to desire, and
happiness would not be "something final and
self-sufficient and the end of action."
Like Aristotle, Mill appeals to the common
sense of mankind for the ultimacy of happiness.
"The utilitarian doctrine," he writes, "is that
happiness is desirable, and the only thing de-
sirable as an end; all other things being only
desirable as means." No reason can or need be
given why this is so, "except that each person,
so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires
his own happiness." This is enough to prove
that happiness is a good. To show that it is the
good, it is "necessary to show, not only that
people desire happiness, but that they never
desire anything else."
Here Mill's answer, like Aristotle's, pre-
supposes the nghtness of the prevailing sense
that when a man is happy, he has everything
he desires. Many things, Mill admits, may be
desired for their own sake, but if the possession
of any one of these leaves something else to be
desired, then it is desired only as a part of hap-
piness. Happiness is "a concrete whole, and
these are some of its parts. . . . Whatever is
desired otherwise than as a means to some end
beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is
desired as itself a part of happiness, and is not
desired for itself until it has become so."
THERE ARE OTHER conceptions of happiness.
It is not always approached in terms of means
and ends, utility and enjoyment or satisfaction.
Plato, for example, identifies happiness with
spiritual well-being — a harmony in the soul,
an inner peace which results from the proper
order of all the soul's parts.
Early in the Republic, Socrates is challenged
to show that the just man will be happier than
the unjust man, even if in all externals he seems
to be at a disadvantage. He cannot answer this
question until he prepares Glaucon for the in-
sight that justice is "concerned not with the
outward man, but with the inward." He can
then explain that "the just man does not permit
the several elements within him to interfere
with one another. ... He sets in order his own
inner life, and is his own master and his own
law, and is at peace with himself."
In the same spirit Plotmus asks us to think
of "two wise men, one of them possessing all
that is supposed to be naturally welcome, while
the other meets only with the very reverse."
He wants to know whether we would "assert
that they have an equal happiness." His own
answer is that we should, "if they are equally
688
THE GREAT IDEAS
wise . . . [even] though the one be favored in
body and in all else that does not help towards
wisdom." We are likely to misconceive happi*
ness, Plotmus thinks, if we consider the happy
man in terms of our own feebleness. "We count
alarming and grave what his felicity takes
lightly; he would be neither wise nor in the
state of happiness if he had not quitted all
trifling with such things."
According to Plotmus, "Plato rightly taught
that he who is to be wise and to possess happi-
ness draws his good from the Supreme, fixing
his gaze on That, becoming like to That, living
by That ... All else he will attend to only as
he might change his residence, not in expecta-
tion of any increase in his settled felicity, but
simply in a reasonable attention to the differing
conditions surrounding him as he lives here or
there." If he "meets some turn of fortune that
he would not have chosen, there is not the
slightest lessening of his happiness for that."
Like Plato, Plotmus holds that nothing ex-
ternal can separate a virtuous man from happi-
ness— that no one can injure a man except
himself.
The opposite view is more frequently held.
In his argument with Callicles in the Gorgias,
Socrates meets with the proposition that it is
better to injure others than to be injured by
them. This can be refuted, he thinks, only if
Callicles can be made to understand that the
unjust or vicious man is miserable in himself,
regardless of his external gains. The funda-
mental principle, he says, is that "the happy
are made happy by the possession of justice and
temperance and the miserable miserable by the
possession of vice." Happiness is one with
justice because justice or virtue in general is
"the health and beauty and well-being of the
soul."
This association of happiness with health —
the one a harmony in the soul as the other is a
harmony in the body— appears also in Freud's
consideration of human well-being. For Freud,
the ideal of health, not merely bodily health
but the health of the whole man, seems to iden-
tify happiness with peace of mind. "Anyone
who is born with a specially unfavorable in-
stinctual constitution," he writes, "and whose
libido-components do not go through the trans-
formation and modification necessary for suc-
cessful achievement in later life, will find it
hard to obtain happiness." The opposite of
happiness is not tragedy but neurosis. In con-
trast to the neurotic, the happy man has found
a way to master his inner conflicts and to be-
come well-adjusted to his environment.
The theory of happiness as mental health or
spiritual peace may be another way of seeing
the self-sufficiency of happiness, in which all
striving comes to rest because all desires are
fulfilled or quieted. The suggestion of this point
is found in the fact that the theologians con-
ceive beatitude, or supernatural happiness, in
both ways. For them it is both an ultimate end
which satisfies all desires and also a state of
peace or heavenly rest.
"The ultimate good," Augustine writes, "is
that for the sake of which other things are to
be desired, while it is to be desired for its own
sake"; and, he adds, it is that by which the good
"is finished, so that it becomes complete"— all-
satisfying. But what is this "final blessedness,
the ultimate consummation, the unending
end"? It is peace. "Indeed," Augustine says,
"we are said to be blessed when we have such
peace as can be enjoyed in this life; but such
blessedness is mere misery compared to that
final felicity," which can be described as "either
peace in eternal life or eternal life in peace."
THERE MAY BE differences of another kind
among those who regard happiness as their ul-
timate end. Some men identify happiness with
the possession of one particular type of good —
wealth or health, pleasure or power, knowledge
or virtue, honor or friendship — or, if they do
not make one or another of these things the
only component of happiness, they make it
supreme. The question of which is chief among
the various goods that constitute the happy life
is the problem of the order of goods, to which
we shall return presently. But the identification
of happiness with some one good, to the exclu-
sion or neglect of the others, seems to violate
the meaning of happiness on which there is such
general agreement. Happiness cannot be that
which leaves nothing to be desired if any good
—anything which is in any way desirable — is
overlooked.
But it may be said that the miser desires
nothing but gold, and considers himself happy
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
689
when he possesses a hoard. That he may con-
sider himself happy cannot be denied. Yet this
does not prevent the moralist from considering
him deluded and in reality among the unhappi-
est of men. The difference between such illusory
happiness and the reality seems to depend on
the distinction between conscious and natural
desire. According to that distinction, considered
in the chapter on DESIRE, the miser may have
all that he consciously desires, but lack many
of the things toward which his nature tends and
which are therefore objects of natural desire.
He may be the unhappiest of men if, with all
the wealth in the world, yet self-deprived of
friends or knowledge, virtue or even health,
his exclusive interest in one type of good leads
to the frustration of many other desires. He
may not consciously recognize these, but they
nevertheless represent needs of his nature
demanding fulfillment.
As suggested in the chapter on DESIRE, the
relation of natural law to natural desire may
provide the beginning, at least, of an answer to
Kant's objection to the ethics of happiness on
the ground that its principles lack universality
or the element of obligation. The natural moral
law may command obedience at the same time
that it directs men to happiness as the satisfac-
tion of all desires which repiesent the innate
tendencies of man's nature. The theory of natu-
ral desire thus also has a bearing on the issue
whether the content of happiness must really
be the same for all men, regardless of how it
may appear to them.
Even if men do not identify happiness with
one type of good, but see it as the possession of
every sort of good, can there be a reasonable
difference of opinion cpncernmg the types of
good which must be included or the order in
which these several goods should be sought?
A negative answer seems to be required by the
view that real as opposed to apparent goods
are the objects of natural desire.
Aquinas, for example, admits that "happy is
the man who has all he desires, or whose every
wish is fulfilled, is a good and adequate defi-
nition" only "if it be understood in a certain
way." It is "an inadequate definition if under-
stood in another. For if we understand it simply
of all that man desires by his natural appetite,
then it is true that he who has all that he desires
is happy; since nothing satisfies man's natural
desire, except the perfect good which is Happi-
ness. But if we understand it of those things
that man desires according to the apprehension
of reason," Aquinas continues, then "it does
not belong to Happiness to have certain things
that man desires; rather does it belong to un-
happmess, in so far as the possession of such
things hinders a man from having all that he
desires naturally." For this reason, Aquinas
points out, when Augustine approved the state-
ment that "happy is he who has all he desires"
he added the words "provided he desires nothing
amiss"
As men have the same complex nature, so
they have the same set of natural desires. As
they have the same natural desires, so the real
goods which can fulfill their needs comprise the
same variety for all. As different natural de-
sires represent different parts of human nature
— lower and higher — so the several kinds of
good are not equally good. And, according to
Aquinas, if the natural object of the human
will "is the universal good," it follows that
"naught can satisfy man's will save the univer-
sal good." This, he holds, "is to be found, not
in any created thing, but in God alone."
We shall return later to the theologian's con-
ception of perfect happiness as consisting in the
vision of God in the life hereafter. The happi-
ness of this earthly life (which the philosopher
considers) may be imperfect by comparison,
but such temporal felicity as men can attain is
no less determined by natural desire. If a man's
undue craving for one type of good can inter-
fere with his possession of another sort of good,
then the various goods must be ordered accord-
ing to their worth; and this order, since it re-
flects natural desire, must be the same for all
men. In such terms Aristotle seems to think it
possible to argue that the reality of happiness
can be defined by reference to human nature
and that the rules for achieving happiness can
have a certain universality—despite the fact
that the rules must be applied by individuals
differently to the circumstances of their own
lives. No particular good should be sought ex-
cessively or out of proportion to others, for the
penalty of having too much of one good thing
is deprivation or disorder with respect to other
goods.
690
THE GREAT IDEAS
THE RELATION OF happiness to particular goods
raises a whole series of questions, each peculiar
to the type of good under consideration. Of
these, the most insistent problems concern pleas-
ure, knowledge, virtue, and the goods of
fortune.
With regard to pleasure, the difficulty seems
to arise from two meanings of the term which
are more fully discussed in the chapter on
PLEASURE AND PAIN. In one of these meanings
pleasure is an object of desire, and in the other
it is the feeling of satisfaction which accom-
panies the possession of objects desired. It is in
the latter meaning that pleasure can be identi-
fied with happiness or, at least, be regarded as
its correlate, for if happiness consists in the pos-
session of all good things it is also the sum total
of attainable satisfactions or pleasures. Where
pleasure means satisfaction, pain means frus-
tration, not the sensed pain of injured flesh.
Happiness, Locke can therefore say, "is the
utmost pleasure we are capable of; and Mill
can define it as "an existence exempt as far
as possible from pain, and as rich as possible
in enjoyments." Nor does Aristotle object
to saying that the happy life "is also in itself
pleasant."
But unlike Locke and Mill, Aristotle raises
the question whether all pleasures are good, and
all pains evil. Sensuous pleasure as an object
often conflicts with other objects of desire. And
if "pleasure" means satisfaction, there can be
conflict among pleasures, for the satisfaction of
one desire may lead to the frustration of another.
At this point Aristotle finds it necessary to in-
troduce the principle of virtue. The virtuous
man is one who finds pleasure "in the things
that arc by nature pleasant." The virtuous man
takes pleasure only in the right things, and is
willing to suffer pain for the right end. If pleas-
ures, or desires and their satisfaction, can be
better or worse, there must be a choice among
them for the sake of happiness. Mill makes this
choice depend on a discrimination between
lower and higher pleasures, not on virtue. He
regards virtue merely as one of the parts of
happiness, in no way different from the others.
But Aristotle seems to think that virtue is the
principal means to happiness because it regu-
lates the choices which must be rightly made in
order to obtain all good things; hence his defi-
nition of happiness as "activity in accordance
with virtue."
This definition raises difficulties of still an-
other order. As the chapter on VIRTUE AND
VICE indicates, there are for Aristotle two kinds
of virtue, moral and intellectual, the one con-
cerned with desire and social conduct, the other
with thought and knowledge. There are also
two modes of life, sometimes called the active
and the contemplative, differing as a life de-
voted to political activity or practical tasks
differs from a life occupied largely with theo-
retic problems in the pursuit of truth or in the
consideration of what is known. Are there two
kinds of happiness then, belonging respectively
to the political and the speculative life ? Is one
a better kind of happiness than another? Does
the practical sort of happiness require intellec-
tual as well as moral virtue? Does the specu-
lative sort require both also?
In trying to answer these questions, and gen-
erally in shaping his definition of happiness,
Aristotle considers the role of the goods of for-
tune, such things as health, wealth, auspicious
birth, native endowments of body or mind, and
length of life. These gifts condition virtuous
activity or may present problems which virtue
is needed to solve. But to the extent that hav-
ing or not having them is a matter of fortune,
they are not within a man's control— to get,
keep, or give up. If they are indispensable,
happiness is precarious, or even unattainable
by those who are unfortunate. In addition, if
the goods of fortune are indispensable, the defi-
nition of happiness must itself be qualified.
More is required for happiness than activity in
accordance with virtue.
"Should we not say," Aristotle asks, "that he
is happy who is active in accordance with com-
plete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with
external goods, not for some chance period but
throughout a complete life? Or must we add
'and who is destined to live thus and die as
befits his life* ? . . . If so, we shall call happy
those among living men in whom these condi-
tions are, and are to be, fulfilled—but happy
men."
THE CONSIDERATION of the goods of fortune has
led to diverse views about the attainability of
happiness in this life. For one thing, they may
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
691
act as an obstacle to happiness. Pierre Bezukhov
in War and Peace learned, during his period of
captivity, that "man is created for happiness;
that happiness lies in himself, in the satisfaction
of his natural human cravings; that all unhappi-
ness arises not from privation but from super-
fluity."
The vicissitudes of fortune seem to be what
Solon has in mind when, as reported by Herod-
otus, he tells Croesus, the king of Lydia, that
he will not call him happy "until I hear that
thou has closed thy life happily ... for often-
times God gives men a gleam of happiness, and
then plunges them into rum." For this reason,
in judging of happiness, as "in every matter,
it behoves us to mark well the end."
Even if it is possible to call a man happy while
he is alive — on the ground that virtue, which
is within his power, may be able to withstand
anything but the most outrageous fortune— it
is still necessary to define happiness by refer-
ence to a complete life. Children cannot be
called happy, Aristotle holds, because their
characters have not yet matured and their lives
are still too far from completion. To call them
happy, or to call happy men of any age who
still may suffer great misfortune, is merely to
voice the hopes we have for them. "The most
prosperous," Aristotle writes, "may fall into
great misfortunes in old age, as is told of Priam
in the Trojan cycle; and one who has experi-
enced such chances and has ended wretchedly
no one calls happy."
Among the goods of fortune which seem to
have a bearing on the attainment of happiness,
those which constitute the individual nature of
a human being at birth— physical traits, tem-
perament, degree of intelligence — may be un-
alterable in the course of life. If certain in-
herited conditions either limit the capacity for
happiness or make it completely unattainable,
then happiness, which is defined as the end of
man, is not the summum bonum for all, or not
for all in the same way.
In the Aristotelian view, for example, women
cannot be happy to the same degree or in the
same manner as men; and natural slaves, like
beasts, have no capacity for happiness at all,
though they may participate in the happiness
of the masters they serve. The theory is that
through serving him, the slave gives the master
the leisure necessary for the political or specu-
lative life open to those of auspicious birth.
Even as the man who is a slave belongs wholly
to another man, so the highest good of his life
lies in his contribution to the happiness of that
other.
The question whether happiness can be
achieved by all normal human beings or only by
those gifted with very special talents, depends
for its answer in part on the conception of
happiness itself. Like Aristotle, Spinoza places
happiness in intellectual activity of so high an
order that the happy man is almost godlike;
and, at the very end of his Ethics, he finds it
necessary to say that the way to happiness
"must indeed be difficult since it is so seldom
discovered." Nevertheless, "true peace of soul"
can be found by the rare individual. "All noble
things are as difficult as they are rare." In con-
trast, a statement like Tawney's— that "if a
man has important work to do, and enough
leisure and income to enable him to do it prop-
erly, he is in possession of as much happiness as
is good for any of the children of Adam" —
seems to make happiness available to more than
the gifted few.
Whether happiness is attainable by all men,
even on Tawney's definition, may also depend
on the economic system and the political con-
stitution, to the extent that they determine
whether all men will be granted the opportunity
and the leisure to use whatever talents they
have for leading a decent human life. There
seems to be a profound connection between
conceiving happiness in such a way that all
normal men are capable of it and insisting that
all normal men deserve political status and eco-
nomic liberty. Mill, for example, differs from
Aristotle on both scores.
DIFFERING FROM the position of both Aristotle
and Mill is the view that happiness is an illusory
goal — that the besetting ills of human life as
well as the frailty of men lead inevitably to
tragedy. The great tragic poems and the great
tragedies of history may, of course, be read as if
they dealt with the exceptional case, but an-
other interpretation is possible. Here writ large
in the life of the hero, the great or famous man,
is the tragic pattern of human life which is the
lot of all men.
692
THE GREAT IDEAS
Sophocles seems to be saying this, when he
writes in Oedipus at Colonus: "Not to be born
is, past ail prizing, best; but, when a man hath
seen the light, this is next best by far, that with
all speed he should go thither, whence he hath
come. For when he hath seen youth go by, with
its light follies, what troublous affliction is
strange to his lot, what suffering is not therein ?
—envy, factions, strife, battles, and slaughters;
and, last of all, age claims him for her own-
age, dispraised, infirm, unsociable, unfriended,
with whom all woe of woe abides."
Death is sometimes regarded as the symbol
of tragic frustration. Sometimes it is not death,
but the fear of death which overshadows life,
so that for Montaigne, learning how to face
death well seems indispensable to living well.
"The very felicity of life itself," he writes,
"which depends upon the tranquihty and con-
tentment of a well-descended spirit, and the
resolution and assurance of a well-ordered soul,
ought never to be attributed to any man till he
has first been seen to play the last, and, doubt-
less, the hardest act of his part. There may be
disguise and dissimulation in all the rest . . .
but, in this scene of death, there is no more
counterfeiting: we must speak out plain and
discover what there is of good and clean in the
bottom of the pot."
So, too, for Lucretius, what happiness men
can have depends on their being nd of the fear
of death through knowing the causes of things.
But neither death nor the fear of death may be
the crucial flaw. It may be the temporal char-
acter of life itself.
It is said that happiness consists in the pos-
session of all good things. It is said that happi-
ness is the quality of a whole life, not the feeling
of satisfaction for a moment. If this is so, then
Solon's remark to Croesus can be given another
meaning, namely, that happiness is not some-
thing actually enjoyed by a man at any mo-
ment of his life. Man can come to possess all
good things only in the succession of his days,
not simultaneously; and so happiness is never
actually achieved but is always in the process
of being achieved. When that process is com-
pleted, the man is dead, his life is done.
It may still be true that to live well or vir-
tuously—with the help of fortune— is to live
happily, but so long as life goes on, happiness is
pursued rather than enjoyed. On earth and in
time, man does not seem able to come to rest in
any final satisfaction, with all his desires quieted
at once and forever by that vision of perfection
which would deserve Faust's "Stay, thou art so
fcir!"
As ALREADY INTIMATED, the problem of human
happiness takes on another dimension when it
is treated by the Christian theologians. Any
happiness which men can have on earth and in
time is, according to Augustine, "rather the
solace of our misery than the positive enjoy-
ment of felicity.
"Our very righteousness," he goes on to say,
"though true in so far as it has respect to the
true good, is yet in this life of such a kind that
it consists rather in the remission of sins than
in the perfecting of virtues. . . . For as reason,
though subjected to God, is yet 'pressed down
by the corruptible body,' so long as it is in this
mortal condition, it has not perfect authority
over vice. . . .For though it exercises authority,
the vices do not submit without a struggle. For
however well one maintains the conflict, and
however thoroughly he has subdued these ene-
mies, there steals in some evil thing, which, if
it do not find ready expression in act, slips out
by the lips, or insinuates itself into the thought;
and therefore his peace is not full so long as he
is at war with his vices."
Accepting the definition of happiness as the
possession of all good things and the satisfaction
of all desires, the theologians compare the suc-
cessive accumulation of finite goods with the
unchanging enjoyment of an infinite good. An
endless prolongation of the days of our mortal
life would not increase the chances of becoming
perfectly happy, because time and change per-
mit no rest, no finality. Earthly happiness is
therefore intrinsically imperfect.
Perfect happiness belongs to the eternal life
of the immortal soul, completely at rest in the
beatific vision, for in the vision of God the soul
is united to the infinite good by knowledge and
love. In the divine presence and glory all the
natural desires of the human spirit are simul-
taneously satisfied— the intellect's search for
truth and the will's yearning for the good.
"That final peace to which all our righteousness
has reference, and for the sake of which it is
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
693
maintained," Augustine describes as "the feli-
city of a life which is done with bondage" — to
vice or conflict, to time and change. In contrast,
the best human life on earth is miserable with
frustrations and an ennui that human nature
cannot escape.
The doctrine of immortality is obviously pre-
supposed in the theological consideration of
happiness. For Kant immortality is a necessary
condition of the soul's infinite progress toward
the moral perfection, the holiness, which alone
deserves perfect happiness. But for theologians
like Augustine and Aquinas, neither change nor
progress play any part in immortal life. On the
contrary, the immortal soul finds its salvation
in eternal rest. The difference between motion
and rest, between time and eternity, belongs to
the very essence of the theologian's distinction
between imperfect happiness on earth and
perfect happiness hereafter.
These matters, of relevance to the theory of
happiness, are discussed in the chapters on
ETERNITY and IMMORTALITY; and in the chap-
ter on SIN we find another religious dogma, that
of original sin, which has an obvious bearing on
earthly happiness as well as on eternal salvation.
Fallen human nature, according to Christian
teaching, is incompetent to achieve even the
natural end of imperfect temporal happiness
without God's help. Milton expounds this doc-
trine of indispensable grace in Paradise Lost, in
words which God the Father addresses to His
Son:
Man shall not quite be lost, but sav'd who will,
Yet not of will in him, but grace in me
Freely voutsaft; once more I will renew
His lapsed powers, though forfeit and enthrall'd
By sin to foul exorbitant desires;
Upheld by me, yet once more he shall stand
On even ground against his mortal foe,
By me upheld, that he may know how frail
His fall'n condition is, and to me owe
All his deliv' ranee, and to none but me.
God's grace is needed for men to lead a good
life on earth as well as for eternal blessedness.
On earth, man's efforts to be virtuous require
the reinforcement of supernatural gifts — faith,
hope, and chanty, and the infused moral vir-
tues. The beatific vision in Heaven totally ex-
ceeds the natural powers of the soul and comes
with the gift of added supernatural light. It
seems, in short, that there is no purely natural
happiness according to the strict tenets of
Christian doctrine.
Aquinas employs the conception of eternal
beatitude not only to measure the imperfection
of earthly life, but also to insist that temporal
happiness is happiness at all only to the extent
that it is a remote participation of true and
perfect happiness. It cannot be said of temporal
happiness that it "excludes every evil and ful-
fills every desire. In this life every evil cannot
be excluded. For this present life is subject to
many unavoidable evils: to ignorance on the
part of the intellect; to inordinate affection on
the part of the appetite; and to many penalties
on the part of the body. . . . Likewise," Aquinas
continues, "neither can the desire for good be
satiated in this life. For man naturally desires
the good which he has to be abiding. Now the
goods of the present life pass away, since life
itself passes away. . . . Wherefore it is impos-
sible to have true happiness in this life."
If perfect happiness consists in "the vision of
the Divine Essence, which men cannot obtain
in this life," then, according to Aquinas, only
the earthly life which somehow partakes of God
has a measure of happiness in it. Earthly happi-
ness, imperfect because of its temporal and
bodily conditions, consists in a life devoted to
God— a kind of inchoate participation here and
now of the beatific vision hereafter. On earth
there can be only a beginning "in respect of
that operation whereby man is united to God.
... In the present life, in as far as we fall short
of the unity and continuity of that operation,
so do we fall short of perfect happiness. Never-
theless it is a participation of happiness; and so
much the greater, as the operation can be more
continuous and more one. Consequently the
active life which is busy with many things, has
less of happiness than the contemplative life,
which is busied with one thing, i.e., the con-
templation of truth."
When the theologians consider the modes of
life on earth in terms of the fundamental dis-
tinction between the secular and the religious,
or the active and the contemplative, they seem
to admit the possibility of imperfect happiness
in either mode. In either, a devout Christian
dedicates every act to the glory of God, and
through such dedication embraces the divine in
the passing moments of his earthly pilgrimage.
IHt UKtAl
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
The desire for happiness: its naturalness and universality 695
The understanding of happiness: definitions and myths 696
2a . The marks of a happy man, the quality of a happy life
•2b. The content of a happy life: the parts or constituents of happiness 697
(1) The contribution of the goods of fortune to happiness: wealth, health,
longevity
(2) Pleasure and happiness 698
(3) Virtue in relation to happiness 699
(4) The role of honor in happiness
(5) The importance of friendship and love for happiness 700
(6) The effect of political power or status on happiness 701
(7) The function of knowledge and wisdom in the happy life: the place of
speculative activity and contemplation
The argument concerning happiness as a first principle of morality: the conflicting
claims of duty and happiness 702
The pursuit of happiness
40. Man's capacity for happiness: differences in human nature with respect to
happiness 703
4#. The attainability of happiness: the fear of death and the tragic view of human life
The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine of the common good 704
50. The happiness of the individual in relation to the happiness or good of other men 705
5^. The happiness of the individual in relation to the welfare of the state: happiness
in relation to government and diverse forms of government
The happiness of men in relation to the gods or the after-life 706
The distinction between temporal and eternal happiness
70. The effects of original sin: the indispensabihty of divine grace for the attainment
of natural happiness 707
7#. The imperfection of temporal happiness: its failure to satisfy natural desire
jc. Eternal beatitude: the perfection of human happiness
(1) The beatific vision 708
(2) The joy of the blessed: the communion of saints
(3) The misery of the damned 709
yd. The beatitude of God
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
695
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of me passages referred to, For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad* BK H [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES • Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases, e.g., Iliad* BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g.* OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45 —(D) II Esdras* 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The desire for happiness: its naturalness and
universality
7 PLATO Euthydemus, 69a / Symposium, 164c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [1095*13-29]
340b-c; CH 7 [1097*24^22] 342c-343a; BK x,
CH 6 [ii76a30-b8] 430d-431a / Politics* BK vn,
CH 13 [i33ib39-i332a4] 536c / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 5 [i36ob4~i3] 600d-601a; CH 6 [1362^0-12]
603b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, Slid
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses* BK in, CH 24, 203c-
204c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK x, par 31-34 79c-
80c / City of God* BK x, CH i, 298b,d; BK xix,
CH 12 517b-519a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
REP i lOd-lld; Q 12, A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 8,
REP 4 57b-58b; Q 19, A 3, ANS llOb-lllc, Q 26,
A 2, ANS and REP 2 150c-151a; Q 62, A i, ANS
317d-318c; Q 63, A 3 327b-328b; Q 82, A i
431d-432c; Q 83, A i, REP 5 436d-438a; A 2,
ANS 438a-d; PART i-n, Q i, AA 4-8 6l2a-615c;
Q 2, A 2, REP 3 616d-617b; Q 3, A 6, REP 2
627b-628a; Q 5, A i, ANS 636d-637c; A 4, ANS
and REP 2 639a-640b; A 8 642d-643d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 63,
A i 63a-64a; Q 84, A 4, ANS 176d-178a; PART
H-II, Q 29, A 2 531a-d
21 DANTF- Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[127-129] 79d; xvin [19-33] 8ua
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 6d-7a; 149b-d
31 SPINOZA • Ethics* PARTIV, PROP 19-21 429d-430b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 169 203a; 425 243b-244b;
437 25 la / Geometrical Demonstration, 440b
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding* BK i, CH n,
SECT 3, 104C, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 42-73 188C-
199c passim, esp SECT 42 188c, SECT 51 191 b-c,
SECT 55-56 192c-193b, SECT 64 195a-b, SECT
70 197a-b
42 KAN i . Pure Reason, 235a-b / Fund. Pnn. Meta-
physic of Morals, 258d-259a; 261c; 266b-c;
267b-d / Practical Reason, 300a-d; 306a / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 369c-370d /
Judgement* 478a-479a; 584d-585c; 588b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 461c-464d
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 123
44a-b; ADDITIONS, 78 128c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1544-1706] 37b-41a;
PART n [11,559-594] 281b-282a
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dicl(, 123a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316d-317a; 592d
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK xin, 577a-578b;
BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov , BKV,127b-
137c passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents* 772a
696
THE GREAT IDEAS
2 to la
2. The understanding of happiness: definitions
and myths
6 HERODOITJS: History, BK i, 6c-8a; 48c; BK HI,
98b-99a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124a-129d / Symposium,
164c-165a / Republic, BK n, 311c-312b; BK x,
437c-441a,c / Timaeus, 444c-446b / Cntias,
479b-485d / Statesman, 586c-589c / Philebus,
609a-c / Laws, BK n, 656d-658d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i 339a-348d csp CH 7
[i097b22-io98ai9] 343a-c; BK ix, CH 9 [1169°
28-30] 423c; BK x, CH 6-8 430d-434a /
Politics, BK iv, CH ii [1295*35-38] 495c; BK
vn, CH 13 [i33ib24-i332a27] 536b-537a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [136(^4-18] 600d-601a /
Poetics, CH 6 [1450*17-20] 684c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; [646-651] 23b; BK in [14-24] 30b; BK
v [1-54] 61a-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 4 108d-
llOa
12 AURELIUS- Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3 263b-
264a
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv 14a-15b / Aeneid, BK vm
[306-336] 267a-268a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74c-75c / Pyrrhus, 320c-
321a
17 PLOHNUS. First Ennead, TR iv-v 12b 21a
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK x, par 29-34 ?8d-
80c / City of God, BK xn, CH i 342b,d-343c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 4 625b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A
I, REP I lOd-lld, PART I-II, QQ 2-4 615c-
636c
23 HOB BBS: l^eviathan, PART i, 65a-b; 73d;
76c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18a-b, 60c-66b csp 65c-66b
25 MONIAIGNE: Essays, 26d-28a; 538a-543a,c
31 SPINOZA: Ethtcs, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 28 429a-431c; APPENDIX, iv 447b-c;
PART v, PROP 39, SCHOL 462b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vn,
SECT 2 131c-d, CH xxi, sicT 42-43 188c-d;
SECT 55-56 192c-193b; SECT 64 195a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 100
432b-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-d / Fund. Prin.
Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 256d-257d;
267b-d / Practical Reason, 298c-d, 339b-d;
345a-c / Judgement, 584d-587a; 594c-596c
43 MILL: Utihtariantsm, 448a-452b esp 448a;
456a-d; 461c-464d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 144d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 123
44a-b; ADDITIONS, 78 128c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [9695-9902] 235a-
240b
54 FREUD- Civilization and Its Discontents, 7
777c-778a; 782d
2a. The marks of a happy man, the quality of a
happy life
5 AESCHYLUS- Agamemnon [351-474] 55d-57b
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [582-624] 136b-c; [1155-
1171] 140d-141a
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c /
Hecuba [619-628] 358a
7 PLATO- Gorgias, 284a-285a / Philebus, 614b-d;
617d-618a; 635b-639a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [1097*15-1098*
19] 342c-343c; CH 8 [io98b2O-29] 344a-b; CH
9 [I099b33l-CH I0 [1101*20] 345b-346c; BK x,
CH 7-8 431d-434a / Politics, BK vn, CH 8 [1328*
37-b2] 532d, CH 13 [i33ib24-i332*27] 536b-
537a / Poetics, CH 6 [1450*15-20] 684c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d
12 EPIC FETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 24 203c-
210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b; SECT 34 273c; SECT 36 273d; BK ix,
SECT 2 291c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 91c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, PREF 207b;
BK vm, CH 8 270a-d, BK x, CH 1-3 298b,d-
301a; BK xir, CH i 342b,d-343c; BK xix, CH
13-14 519a-520d, CH 20 523d-524a, CH 26
528d-529a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
2-5 615c-643d passim, esp Q 2, A 4, ANS
618a-d, Q 5, A 8 642d-643d
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 84,
A 4, ANS 176d-178a
24 RABEL\IS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 26d-28a; 107d-108c;
146b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE Richard II, ACT i, sc in [275-
303] 326c-d / Merchant of Venice, ACT i, sc n
[i-io] 408b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART HI, 49d-50b
32 MILTON. L' Allegro 17b-21a / // Penseroso 21a-
25a
33 PASCAL Penstes, 169-170 203a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 351c-352a
42 KANT Pure Reason, 236b-237c / Practical
Reason, 298c-d, 345a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 293d-297b / Representative
Government, 347d-348b/ Utilitarianism, 448a;
450b-c; 451a-b
44 BOSWELL - Johnson, 144d-145a; 164d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 20 17a;
ADDITIONS, 15 118d / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 165a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3431-3458] 84a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 204b-205a; 287b-
288a; 360a-361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 259b-260a;
BK xi, 480a-482b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 130a-
136b; BK vi, 148d-150d; 153d-157b; BK VH,
190c-191a,c
2b to 2b(\)
CHAPTER 66:
2b. The content of a happy life: the parts or
constituents of happiness
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [351-474] 55d-57b
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1155-1171] 140d-141a
5 EURIPIDES: Ion [585-647] 287d>288b / Bac-
chantes [878-91 1] 347b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-8a
7 PLATO. Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Gor-
gias, 2(57c-270a; 275b-276b / Republic, BK i,
295d-297b; BK v, 364c-365d / Timaeus, 475d-
476b / Laws, BK i, 643c; BK n, 656d-658d;
BK v, 688c-690c; 694a-d, BK vin, 737c-d; BK
ix, 751c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [1095*13-27]
340b; CH 5 340d-341b; CH 8 [i 099*3 IJ-CH 9
[1100*9] 344d-345c esp CH 9 [io99b25-3i]
345b; BK ix, CH 9 423a-424b passim / Politics,
BK in, CH Q [1280*31-34] 477d-478a; BK vu,
CH I3'[i33ib24-i 332*27] 536b-537a / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 5 600d-602d; CH 9 [i367b33~35] 610d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK v [1-54] 61a-d; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS Discourses, BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a;
CH 6-7 230b-235a
12AuRELius: Meditations, BK in, SECT 12
262b-c; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK vin,
SECT i 285a-b; BK ix, SECT 2 291c-d; BK x,
SECT 6 297a-b; BK xn, SECT 3 307b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74c-75c / Pophcola-
Solon 86a-87d / Demosthenes, 691b,d
17 PLO i INUS . First Ennead, TR v 19b-21a / Second
Ennead, IR ix, CH 9, 70d-71a; CH 15 74d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 9-10 37c-
38b; par 18-20 40d-41c; BK x, par 33-34 79d-
80c / City of God, BK iv, CH 21 198d-199d; BK
vin, CH 8 270a-d; BK xix, CH 1-4 507a-513c;
BK xxii, CH 24 609a-612a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
A 2, REP 2 105c-106b; Q 26, A 4 151c-152a,c;
PART i-n, Q i, A 5, REP i 613a-614a; A 7 614c-
615a; Q 2 615c-622b; Q 4 629c-636c
22 CHAUCER- Knight's Tale [1251-1267] 180b /
Wife of Bath's Prologue [558 5-641 o] 256a-269b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
60c-66b csp 65c-66b; BK in, 133b-140b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 70d-72a; 107a-112d;
126b-131a, 231d-238d; 279d-281a; 312c-314b;
459c-462a; 471a-472a; 478c-479c; 486b-497b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 379d-380a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72c
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 28 429a-431c; APPENDIX, iv 447b-c
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 164-172 202b-203b; 174 204a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 55-56 192c-193b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 311b-312a; 403a-405d
csp 403c-d, 404b
38 MONTESQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 104c-
105a
39 SMITH: Wealth of 'Nations, BKv,336c-d;343b-c
697
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 572a-c; 644d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 297c-298a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-237c / Fund, Prin.
Mctaphysic of Morals, 256a-257c; 258d 259a;
266a-c; 267b-d / Practical Reason, 345a-c /
Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 370b-d
/ Judgement, 584d-586a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-453a passim; 461 c-
464d
44 Rosw ELL: Johnson, 123b; 203b-c; 214b; 350d-
351b; 505c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 20 17a;
ADDITIONS, 15 118d
47 GOETHE: Faust csp PART i [354-521] lla-
15a, [602-784] 16b-20b, [1064-1125] 26b-28a,
[1544-1571] 37b-38a, [1660-1706] 40a*41a,
[1765-1775] 42b, [3217-3281] 79a-80a, PART
" [9356-9573] 227a-232a, [9695-9944! 235a-
241 b, [11,441-452] 278b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 308a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194a-198b
passim; 215b-218b; BK vi, 235a-238a; BK vu,
275a; BK xm, 577a-578b; BK xiv, 605b-d; BK
xv, 630c-634a
52 DOSTOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 25d-
27d; 37c-38a; BK v, 127b-137c passim, csp
135d-136b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 199b-204b passim, csp
199b-202a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-
779a csp 772a-776b, 777a-b
contribution of the goods of for-
tune to happiness: wealth, health, lon-
gevity
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:17 / Deuteronomy,
11:13-17 / Psalms, 34:9-10; 91; 112:1-$; 128;
i44:ii-i5~(D) Psalms, 33:10-11; 90; 111:1-3;
127; 143:11-15 / Proverbs, 10.27; 15.16-17;
1 6. 8 / Ecclesiastes, 2:4-11; 4.5-8; 5-6 esp 5:9-
17— (D) Ecclesiastes, 2:4-11; 4:5-8; 5-6 csp
5 8-16
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 30:14-17— -(D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 30:14-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:16-30 / Philip-
plans, 4.10-23 / 7 Timothy, 6 / Hebrews, 13-5
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [155-172] 16d-17a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248]
125b-c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a
/ Trojan Women [466-510] 274a-b / Electra
[420-431] 331a / Phoenician Maidens [552-558]
382d / Cyclops [316-346] 443b
5 ARISTOPHANES; fftrds [592-610] 550a-c / Plutus
629a-642d esp [415-618] 633d 636d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7b-8a; BK vu,
224d-225a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Re-
public, BK i, 295d-297b; BK in, 325b-c; BK
HI-IV, 341c-343b; BK v, 364c-365d / Critias,
485b-c / Laws, BK v, 690a-c; 694a-d; BK ix,
751c / Seventh Letter, 805d-806a
698
THE GREAT IDEAS
2b(\) to 2b(2)
(26. The content of a happy life: the parts or con-
stituents of happiness. 26(1) The contri-
bution of the goods of fortune to happiness:
wealth, health longevity.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [1095*13-27]
340b; CH 5 [1096*5-10] 341a-b; CH 7 [1098*18-
19] 343c; CH 8 [i099*3i-b8] 344d-345a; CH 10-
ii 345c-347a; BK vn, CH 13 [ii53bi4~24] 405a;
BK x, CH 8 [ii78b33-i 179*16] 433c-d / Politics,
BK vn, CH i 527a-d esp [i323b22-29] 527c-d;
CH 13 tai*^1^2*2?] 536c-537a / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 5 [i36obi4~3o] 601a-b; [i36ib27-35J
602b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK in [59-78] 30d-31a; [1076-1094]
44a,c; BK v [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 6 230b-232c
14 PLUTARCH. Solon, 74c-75c / Aermhus Paulus,
224d-225c; 229a-c / Marcus Cato, 285c d /
Pyrrhus, 320c-321a / Cams Marius, 353d-
354a,c / Demosthenes, 691 b,d
15 TACITUS* Annals, BK vi, 91c; BK xiv, 154a-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR v 19b<21a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 8,
270a-b; BKXix,cH3, 510a-c; CH 13-14 519a-
520d
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26,
A 4, ANS and REP 2 151c-152a,c; PART i-n, Q
i, A 7, ANS 614c-615a; Q 2, AA 1-5 615d-619c
esp A 4, ANS 618a-d; Q 4, AA 5-7 632c-636a;
0 5, A 4, ANS 639a-640b; Q 12, A 3, REP i 670d-
671b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [25-96] 9d-
lOc, PURGAIORY, xv [40-81] 75d-76a
22 CHAUCER: Prologue of Man of Law's Tale
[4519-4546] 235b-236a / Tale ofMehbeus, par
49-50 422a-423a / Parson's Tale, par 28, 515a
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
133b-140b; BK iv, 234a-235a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 33b-36a; 108c-110c;
122a-124d; 126b-129d; 368d
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Life It, ACT u, sc i
[1-20] 603c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE. Hamlet, ACT HI, sc 11 [68-79]
49c-d / Othello, ACT i, sc in [199-220] 211a-b
/ Sonnets, CXLVI 608c
30 BACON* Advancement of Learning, 86b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61a-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 124a-129a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 2b; 263c-d; 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350c; 363a-366d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b / Practical Reason, 330d-331a / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 370b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 451d-452b; 462c-463b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 102d-103a; 124d-125d;
349a-c; 403a; 491 b; 492b-c; 494b; 498d-
499a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194c-d; BK x,
430a-b; BK xi, 514b-d; BK xin, 577a-578b;
BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164b-d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 189a-b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 777a-
779a
2b(2) Pleasure and happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 13:19; 21*17; 23:20-
21,29-35 / Ecclesiastes, 2.1-2; 3:12-13,22;
5:18-20; 8:15— (D) Ecclesiastes, 2:1-2; 3:12-
13,22; 5-18-19; 8:15 / Isaiah, 22:12-13—
(D) Isaias, 22*12-13
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:1-9— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 2 1-9
NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 12:16-21 / II Peter,
2*12-14
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1155-1171] 140d-141a
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [773-802] 243d- 244a /
Cyclops [163-174] 441d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 57d-62d / Gorgias, 275b-
284d / Republic, BK ix, 421a-427b / Philebus
609a-639a,c esp 635c-639a,c / Laws, BK i,
646a; BK v, 689c-690c; BK vn, 715c-716a /
Seventh Letter, 801 b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [io72b
14-24] 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [io95bi3~22]
340d, CH 8 [1099*7-30] 344c-d, BK vii, CH 11-
i4403c-406a,cespCH 13 [i I53b8-i 154*6] 404d-
405b; BK ix, CH 9 423a-424b; BK x, CH 1-5
426a-430d passim; CH 6 fii7<)b8]-CH 7 [1178*8!
431a-432c esp CH 7 [1177*24-28] 431d-432a /
Politics, BK vm, CH 3 [i337b27-i338B9] 543a-b;
CH 5 [i339b32-4o] 545b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH
5 [i36obi4-i8] 601a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-36]
15a-c; BK in [1003-1010] 43a, BK v [1412-
1435) 79b-d
14 PLUTARCH* Demetrius, 747b
17 PLOTINUS. First Ennead, TR iv, CH 1-2 12b-
13c; CH 6-7 15a-16a; CH 12 17d; TR v, CH 4
19c; CH 8-9 20c-d / Second Ennead, TR ix, CH
15 74d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE* City of God, BK vni, CH 8
270a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26, \
4, ANS and REP 2 151c-152a,c; PART i-n, Q i,
A 6, REP i 614a-c; A 7, ANS 614c-615a; Q 2, A
6 619d-620d; Q 3, A 4, ANS 625a-626b; Q 4, AA
1-2 629d-631a; Q 5, A 8 642d-643d; Q 34, A 3
770c-771c; Q 35, A 5 775d-777a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 84,
A 4, ANS 176d-178a; PART n-ii, Q 28 527b-
530a; Q 180, A 7 614d-616a; PART in SUPPL,
Q 81, A 4, REP 4 966d-967d; Q 90, A 3 1014d-
1016a; Q 95, A 5, ANS 1048a-1049d
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvii
[127-139] 79d; xix [1-69] 81c-82a; xxx-xxxi
99b-102b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [331-360] 165a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
60c-66b esp 65c-66b
2*(3) to 2*(4)
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
699
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 70d-72a; llOc-
112a; 235c-236a; 394a 395b; 406a 408b;
431c-432d; 527b-528a; 538a-543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT i,
sc i [1-162] 254a-256a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 193b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 139-143 196b-200a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH vn,
SECT 2 131C-d, SECT 5 I32cj CH XXI, SECT 42-
47 188c-190b passim, csp SECT 42-43 188c-d;
SECT 55-56 192c-193b passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 192b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 256c-
257c; 258d-259a / Practical Reason, 298c-300d
csp 298c-d / Judgement, 478b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 447b-455a esp 448a;
461c-464d
44 Bosw ELL- Johnson, 378a-b
46 HLGEL. Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 15
118d
47 GOETHE Faust, PART i [1741-1775] 41b-42b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 94a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 259d-260a;
BK vin, 334d-335a; BK xin, 577a-578b; BK
xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631c
52 DOSTOEVSKV: Brothers Karamazov , BK in 46a-
82a,c esp 54b-58a, BK iv, 88d, BK xn, 370b-d
54 FREUD- General Introduction, 599b-d / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 772a-774cesp 772a-c
2^(3) Virtue in relation to happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:26; 20:12 / Psalms,
i ; 34:11-22; 106-3; 112; 119; 128— (D) Psalms,
i; 33-12-23; 1053; in; 118; 127 / Proverbs,
3:13-26,33; 10:6-7; 10:27-11:11; 16:8,20,32;
28:14,16,20; 29:18; 31:10-31 / Ecclesiastes,
7.16-17— (D) Ecclesiastes, 7:17-18 / Ezetyfl,
i8:5-9-(D) Ezechiel, 18:5-9
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:1-10; 25:1-12—
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14-1-10; 25-1-16
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 4.6-8 / / Timothy, 6
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Phae-
drus, 128d-129c / Gorgias, 262a-270a; 275b-
284d / Republic, BK i, 295d-297b; 304a-c; BK
i-n, 306b-315c; BK ix, 418d-421a; BK x, 436c-
437c; 439b-d / Timaeus, 475d-476b / Cntias,
485b-c / Theaetetus, 528c-531a / Laws, BK n,
656d-658c; BK v, 688c-690c esp 690b-c /
Seventh Letter, 806b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [iO95b26-io96*
4] 341a; CH 7-13 342c-348d passim, esp CH 8
344a-345a; BK vi, CH 12 393b-394a passim, esp
[1144*1-6] 393c; BK x, CH 6 [ii76*3o-b8] 430d-
431a; CH 6 [1177*1]-^ 8 [1179*32] 431c-434a
/ Politics, BK iv, CH n [1295*35-38] 495c; BK
vn, CH i 527a-d esp [i323b2i-i32<i*4] 527c-d;
CH 8 [i328*37-b2] 532d; CH 9 [i328b33-i329*2J
533b; [1329*18-24] 533c; CH 13 [1332*8-27]
536d-537a; CH 15 [i334»i2-b7] 539a-b / Rhet-
oric, BK i, CH 5 [i36obi4-27] 601a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c; BK
in, CH 24 203c 210a; BK iv, CH i 213a-223d
12 AURELIUS • Meditations, BK in, SECT 12 262 b-c;
BK v, SECT 34-36 273c-d; BK vi, SECT 16
275b-d; BK vn, SECT 28 281 d; SECT 68
284c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 60a-b / Aris-
tides, 265c-d / Demosthenes, 691b,d
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 15 74d-
75b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin, CH 8 270a-d;
BK ix, CH 4 287a-288b; BK xix, CH 1-4 50 7a-
513c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26, A
I, REP 2 150b-C; PART I-II, Q 2, A 2, REP I 616d-
617b; A 4, ANS 618a-d; A 7 620d-621c; Q 4, A
4 631d-632c; Q 5, A 4, ANS 639a-640b; A 7,
ANS 642a-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i-
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 70d-72a; 146b-c;
389d-390a
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 222b*c
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 71d-72a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 28 429a-431c; PART v, PROP 42 463b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 72 198a-c
36 STERNE' Tristram Shandy, 538a-539a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 316a-c
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
42 KANT- Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 282d-
283d / Practical Reason, 306d-307a; 338c-348b
esp 339a-b, 340c-342a, 344c-347d / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 366a-b, 374a-c
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 452b-455a; 461d-464d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-216d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 26a-
27d; BK vi 146b,d-170d csp 164a-165a, 167b-
168c; EPILOGUE, 411b-412d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 793a-
794a / New Introductory Lectures, 878a-b
2b(4) The role of honor in happiness
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [307-429] 60b-61c; BK
xn [290-328] 85b-c
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [683-684]
34c
5 EURIPIDES: Andromache [768-789] 321d /
Hecuba [299-331] 355b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-7b; BK ix,
304a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War^ BK n, 397d-
398d
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a*b / Republic, BK n,
310c-315c passim; BK ix, 421a-422b / Seventh
Utter, 805d-806a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [i095b22~3i]
340d-341a / Politics, BK VH, CH 13 [1332*8-27]
536d-537a; CH 14 [i333ft30-b25] 538a-c; CH
15 [i334*i2-b8] 539a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5
[1360^19-27] 601a
700
THE GREAT IDEAS
to 2b(5)
(26. Tbt content of a happy l#e: the parts or con-
stituents of happiness. 26(4) The role of
honor in happiness.)
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-78]
30d-31a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 21 127b-c;
BK iv, CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT n 258a b;
BK vi, SECT 51 279b-c; BK vin, SECT i 285a b
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
vi [886-892] 234b-235a; BK vm [608-731]
275a-278b; BK x [276-286] 309b-310a; [656-
688] 320a-321a; BK xi [376-444] 338b<340a
14 PLUTARCH: Poplicola- Solon, 86a-c / Pelopidas,
245c-d / Lysandcr, 354b,d / Agis, 648b,d-
649a / Cicero, 717a-b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 267c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 59-64 86b-
87d / City of God, BK v, CH 12-20 216d-226a;
BK vni, CH 8 270a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26, A
4, ANS 151c-152a,c; PART I-H, Q 2, AA 2-3 616d-
61 8a; Q 4, A 8, REP r 636a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ri, Q
185, A i 639c-641c; PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 7,
REP } 1061b-1062a
21 DANTR • Dwme Comedy, HELL, in [22-69] 4b-d;
PARADISE, vi [112-126] IHd-llSa
22 CHAUCER- Knight's Tale [3041-3056] 210a /
Parson's Tale, par 10, 500a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 161c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 112a-d; 125a-c; 300c-
306a passim
26 SHAKESPEARE' Richard II, ACT i, sc i [175-
185] 322b-c / 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc in [160-
208] 439b-d; ACT v, sc i [127-144] 462a-b /
Henry V, ACT iv, sc in [16-67] 555d-556b /
Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n [84-96] 570b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n 113c-115d; ACT v, sc in [23-28] 137b /
Othello, ACT n, sc in [262-270] 219d; ACT in,
sc in [155-161] 223d / Conolanus, ACT i, sc
in [1-28] 355b-c / Sonnets, xxv 590a
29 CERVANTES . Don Quixote esp PART i, 32c-33a,
57d-58a, 145b-147d, PART n, 222b-c, 227c-
228d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 65c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 53, COROL
413a; PROP 55, SCHOL 413b-d
32 MILTON: Lycidas 27b-32a csp [64-84] 29a-b
33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 147-155 200b-201b; 158-164
202a-b; 400-401 240b-241a; 404 241a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360c-361a; 362 b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 176c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 449a-c
44 BOSWBLL: Johnson, 124d-125d; 128b; 163d
[fn 4); 498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 124
44 b-d; PART in, par 253 79a-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-d; 312a-314b
passim, esp 312c; 322a-c; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 82a-83c; BK
in, 146d-147c; BK v, 214c-215a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 189b-191a; 198b-199b
2£(5) The importance of friendship and love
for happiness
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvin [1-137] 130a-131c
7 PLATO: Lysis, 18d / Phaedrus, 126c-129d /
Symposium, 155d-157a; 164c-167d / Republic,
BK in, 325b-c; BK ix, 417b-418a / Cntias,
485b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH n 346c-347a; BK
vin, CH i [i 155*1-32] 406b,d;cH 3 [ii56b6-32]
408a-c; CH 5 [1157*25-38] 409c-d; CH 6 [1158"
22-28] 410a-b; BK ix, CH 9 423a-424b; CH u
425a-d / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*25-29] 446c-d
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [i36obi9~27] 601a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1058-
1191] 57d-59d
12 EPICTETUS Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-
170a; BK in, CH 16 191a-d; BK iv, CH 2 223d-
224b
14 PLUTARCH- Popltcola-Solon, 86a b
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a / City of God, BK xix, CH 3, 510d; CH 5-9
513d-516c; CH 13-14 519a-520d; CH 17 522b-
523a, CH 26 528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 4,
A 8 636a-c
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, v [70-138] 7d-
8b; PURGATORY, xv [40-81] 75d-76a; xvn [82]-
xvin [75] 79b-80c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
ni-112 36a; STANZA 119-128 37a 38a; BK in,
STANZA 1-7 54b-55b; STANZA 117-120 69b-
70a; STANZA 241-242 86a, STANZA 250-253
87a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 87d 88a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour1* Lost, ACT iv,
sc in 268b-272c / Midsummer -Night's Dream,
ACT i, sc i [67-78] 353a-b
27 SHAKESPFARE: Othello, ACT iv, sc n [47-64]
233c-d / King Lear, ACT v, sc in [1-26] 279a-b
/ Timon of Athens, ACT i, sc n 397a-400a;
ACT in, sc n [71-94] 404c-d; ACT iv, sc i
409c-d; sc in [249-305] 413c-414a / Sonnets,
xxv 590a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, DEMONST
and SCHOL i, 434b~435a; APPENDIX, ix 448a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 100 191a-192b; 155 201b;
211 2Mb
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 103c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 367d-368a /
Utilitarianism, 451 be
44 BOSWBLL: Johnson, 83b-c; 107a; 423c-d; 490a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3125-3136] 76a-b;
[3374-3413) 82b-83a; PART n [935^5731
227a-232a
2£(6) to 2b(!)
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
701
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic1(, 36b 39b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK m, 116c-117a;
122b-c; BK v, 214c-215b; BK xi, 525c-526b;
BK xv, 642c-643b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
27c-d; BK vi, 158b-159a; 167b-168c; 169c-
170b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 774d-
775a; 782d-783b; 792a-d
2b(6} The effect of political power or status
on happiness
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-8a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 75c-76b / Gorgias, 262a-
270a esp 262a-265c / Republic, BK i, 304a-c;
BK ii, 311a-313a; BK ix, 416a-421a esp 418d-
421a; BK x, 439b-440c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 7-8 431d-434a
passim, esp CH 7 [i 177^-25] 432a-c, CH 8 [i i78b
33-1179*15] 433c-d / Politics, BK vn, en 2-3
528a-530a; CH 14 [i333fti7]-CH 15 [i334b8]
538a-539b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK n [37-61]
15c-d; BK in [59-78] 30d-31a; [995-1002] 42d-
43a; BK v [1117-1135] 75d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 4-6 225a-
232c, CH 9-10 237d-240d
14 PLUTARCH Numa Pomptlius, 51c-52b / Solon,
74c-75c / Pyrrhus, 320c-321a / Ninas, 425b-c
/ Crassus 438b,d-455a,c / Demosthenes, 701a-
702a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xiv, 154a-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR v, CH 10 20d-21a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 24 26 227d-
230a,c, BK xix, CH 5-7 513d 515c, CH 19
523b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, o 26,
A 4, ANS 151c-152a,c; PART 1-11, Q 2, A 4
618a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 66,
A 5, REP 1-2 79b-80c
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, HELL, xn [100-139]
17b-d; PURGATORY, xi [73-117] 69c-70a;
PARADISE, vi 113c-115a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE* Essays, 107a-112d; 126b-131a;
382b-383d, 400b-d, 443d-446a, 486b-489b;
538d-540b
26 SHAKESPEARE' 3rd Henry VI, ACT n, sc v
[1-54] 81d-82a / Richard II, ACT iv, sc i [162-
334] 343b 345a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT HI, sc i
[4-31] 482d-483a / Henry V, ACT iv, sc i [247-
301] 554a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 193a-b;
PART n, 368c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326b-327a; 362b-d;
364a-b / Political Economy, 372b-377b esp
373c-374a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 157b-d; 572a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 194a-d; 297c-298a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 382 b / Utili-
tarianism, 462c-463b passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 167b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 215d-216d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 799c
26(7) The function of knowledge and wisdom
in the happy life: the place of speculative
activity and contemplation
OLD TESTAMENT: / Kings, 10:1-10— (D) III
Kings, 10:1-10 / // Chronicles, 9:1-9— (D) II
Parahpomenon, 9.1-9 / Proverbs, 1-4; 8-9;
16 16, 17-16; 19-8; 20 15; 22-17-18; 24:13-14
/ Ecclesiastes, 1:13-18; 2:12-26; 6:8, n; 7:11-
12,16-19; 9:13-18— (D) Ecclesiastes, 1:13-18,
2:12-26; 6 8,n; 7:12-13,17-20; 9'i3-i8
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6-n— (D) OT,
Boof( of Wisdom, 6-1 1 / Ecclesiasticus, 4 .11-19 J
618-37; M I9-I5-'8; 24:13-21; 37:24~(D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 4:12-22; 6:18-37; 14:20-
15.8; 24:17-29; 37-27
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1348-1353] 142d
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [292-305) 214c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES. Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO Charmides, 12a-13c / Lysis, 16c-18a /
Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Symposium,
•167a-d / Meno, 183d-184c / Apology 200a-
212a,c / Phaedo 220a-251d / Republic, BK vi,
380d-381a; BK vn 388a-401d / Timaeus, 47Sd-
476b / Theaetetus, 528c-531a / Statesman,
587d-588c / Philebus 609a-639a,c esp 635c-
639a,c / Laws, BK v, 688c / Seventh Letter,
806b-c; 808c-809a
8 ARISTOTLE- Metaphysics, BK i, CH 1-2 499a-
501c; BK xii, CH 7 [io72bi4-29] 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [io97b22-
io98fti9] 343a-c; BK vi, CH 12 393b-394a esp
[ii43bi7-i 144*6] 393b-c, BK x, CH 7-8 431d-
434a / Politics, BK VH, CH 2 [1324*23-35]
528b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, Slid
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
15a-d; BK v [1-54] 61a-d, [1113-1135] 75c-d;
BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTLTUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 29 134d-
138a; BK in, CH 10 185d-187a; CH 15 190a-
191a; CH 22 195a-201a; BK iv, CH 4 225a-
228a; CH 6 230b-232c
12 AtiRELius. Meditations, BK in, SECT 6 261a-c;
SECT 9 261d; SECT 12 262b-c; BK iv, SECT 16
264d; BK v, SECT 9 270b-c; BK vi, SECT 12
274c; BK x, SECT 12 298c-d
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, 11 [490-493] 65b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b/ CaiusMarius,
353d-354a,c
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK xiv, 154a*c
17 PLOTINUS- First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b esp
CH 3-4 13c-14c, CH 9-10 16c-17c; TR v, CH 10
20d-21a / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 34-35 338b-
339c; TR ix, CH 9-11 358d-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 7-9 28c-
29b / City of God, BK vin, CH 8 270a-d; BK x,
CH 2 299d-300a; BK xix, CH 1-3 507a-511a;
CH 14 520a-d; CH 19 523b-d
702
THE GREAT IDEAS
3/o 4
(26. The content of a happy life: the parts or con-
stituents of happiness. 26(7) The Junction
of knowledge and wisdom in the happy
life; the place of speculative activity and
contemplation*)
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26
150a-152a,c passim, csp A 2 150c-151a; PART
i-n, Q i, A 6, REP 1-2 614a-c; Q 3, AA 3-8 624b-
629c; Q 5, A 4, ANS 639a-640b; Q 35, A 5 775d-
777a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 66,
A 5 csp REP 2 79b-80c; PART II-H, Q 180 607d-
61 6d; Q 182 620b-624d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, iv [106-147]
6c-7a; PURGATORY, xxx-xxxi 99b*102b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART i, 63a; 65a-b; 76c
25 MONTAIGNL: Essays, 6d-7a; 28a-29c; 70d-
72a; 231d-238d; 399d-401a; 502c-504c; 508a-
512a; 541d-543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE' Love's Labour's Lost, ACT i,
sc i [1-162] 254a-256a
27 SHAKESPEARE' Pericles, ACT HI, sc n [26-42]
434d-43Sa
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART i, 145d-146a
30 BACON* Advancement of learning, 18a-b;
27c-d; 71a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i, Id / Discourse, PART i,
41d-42a; PART HI, 49d-50b / Meditations, in,
88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 26-28 431a-c;
APPENDIX, iv 447b-c; xxxn 450c-d; PART v,
PROP 31-33 459d-460c; PROP 37 461c
32 MILTON: // Penseroso 21a-25a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 73-74 185a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SLCT 44 188d-189b; SECT 55-56 192c-193b
passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345a / Political Econ-
omy, 373c-374a
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 645c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 256c-
257d; 267b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448d-449c; 451c<452a
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, 118a; 299b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 20
17a; ADDITIONS, 15 118d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [354-521] lla-15a;
[3217-3246] 79a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 255a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 773b-
774c
3. The argument concerning happiness as a
first principle of morality: the conflicting
claims of duty and happiness
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i 339a-348d passim,
esp CH 4 340b-d, CH 7 342c-344a, CH 12
347a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 22 127c-128c;
BK n, CH n 150a-151b; CH 19 162c-164b; BK
HI, CH 2 177c-178d; CH 10 185d-187a; CH 14
189c-190a; CH 24 203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK HI, SECT 6 261a-c; BK vn, SECT
55 283b-c; BK vm, SECT i 285a-b; SECT 32
287d-288a; SECT 39 288c; BK ix, SECT i
291a-c; SECT 7 292b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ix, CH 4-5 287a-
289a, BK xiv, CH 8-9 381c-385b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q i
609a-615c passim; Q 5, A 8 642d-643d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 2, ANS 206b*207a; Q 91, A 4, ANS 210c-211c;
Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72b
33 PASCAL- Provincial Letters, 62b-68b
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 3, 104c; BK ii, CH xxi, SECT 42-73 188c-
199c passim
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b; 236b-239a / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals 253a-287d esp
256a-257d, 258d-259a, 261c-264a, 266a-b,
267b-d, 274d-275b, 282b-283d, 286a-c /
Practical Reason 291a-361d esp 304d-307d,
325a-327d, 330c-331a, 338c-355d / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 365b-366d; 367c;
369c-373b / Intro. Metaphysic of Moral*, 387b-
388c; 389a-390a,c / Judgement, 478a-479a;
584d-587a; 588b [fn 2); 591b-592c; 595a-c;
596c-597d; 604d-606d esp 604d-60Sc, 605d-
606b [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism 445a-476a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 124
44b-d; par 134-135 47b-d, PART in, par 155
57c; par 261 83a-d; ADDITIONS, 76-81 128a-
129a; 85-87 129b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316a-317a; 592d
52 DOSTOEVSKV Brothers Karamazov, BKV, 127b-
137c passim
54 FREUD Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 20c-d / Civilization and Its Discon-
tents, 772a-b; 800c>801b
4. The pursuit of happiness
6 HERODOTUS - History, BK i, 6c-8a; BK n, 77a-b;
BK in, 98b-99a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 10 345c-346c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, Slid
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [1076-
1094] 44a,c
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK in, CH 24 203c-
210a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74c-75b / Caius
Marius, 353d-354a,c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b / Third
Ennead, TR n, CH 4-5 84c-85c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 29-34 ^^'
80c
CHAPTBR 33: HAPPINESS
703
19 AQUINAS: Sutnma Theologies PART i, Q 23, A
i, ANS and REP 2-3 132c-133b; PART i-n, Q 5
636d-643d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy esp PURGATORY,
xxvn-xxxni 94c-105d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d; PART iv,
247c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-7a; 149b-d; 541b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xxi,
SECT 44 188d-189b; SECT 52 191d; SECT 63-64
194d-195b passim
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 300a-d; 304d-307d;
345a-347a / Judgement, 584d-587a esp 584d-
586a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-15] la-b
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 448a-453a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 11, par 123
44a-b; par 124, 44c; par 134 47b; PART HI, par
207 69b-c; ADDITIONS, 78 128c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtcf(, 267a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vr, 235a-238a;
BK xiv, 605b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 25d-
27d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771d-
776b esp 772a-d, 775c, 799c
4a. Man's capacity for happiness: differences in
human nature with respect to happiness
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9 [io99b}3-i 100*9]
345b-c; BK vn, CH 14 [i 154^0-30! 406c; BK x,
CH 6 [1177*1-11] 431c; CH 7 [ii77b26-i 178*8]
432c; CH 8 432d-434a passim, esp [ii78b23-32J
433c / Politics, BK vii, CH 8 [i328»37-b2] 532d;
CH 13 [i33ib24-i332a32] 536b-537a
12 EPICFLTUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 24 203c-
210a
14 PLUTARCH: Cains Marius, 353d-354a,c
17 PLOIINUS: First Ennead, TR iv 12b-19b/ Third
Ennead, TR n, CH 4-5 84c-85c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23, A
i, ANS and REP 2-3 132c-133b; Q 62, A 2, ANS
and REP 2 318d-319c; PART i-n, Q i, A 7 614c-
615a, Q 5, AA 1-2 636d-638a; A 5 640b-641a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxvm
[91-148] 97a-c
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5583-6410!
256a-269b
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Lify It, ACT iv, sc i
[1-41] 617a-c; ACT v, sc iv [176-202] 625c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 70b-d; 73d-
74a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 42 463b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 42 188c; SECT 55-56 192c-193b; SECT 61
194b-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338b~c; 342c-343b;
363a-366d passim
42 KANT: Fund. Prm, Metaphy sic of Morals, 256d-
257d; 267b-d / Practical Reason, 300a-c ; 304d-
305d / Judgement, 584d-586a
43 MILL: Liberty, 293b-302c esp 299b-c / Repre-
sentative Government, 367d-368a / Utilitarian*
ism, 448d-450a; 450c-453a; 461c-464d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 144d-145a; 214b; 391d-
392a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 166
59d-60a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b-
168a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 54b-5Sa; 122b-123a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 117d; BK v,
215b-d; BK vi, 235a-238a; 262d-263a; BK vui,
303a-305b; BK xi, 480a-482b; BK xm, 577a-
578b; BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-631c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV,127b-
137c passim; BK xi, 307c-310c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 201a-202a
54 FREUD. General Introduction, 633d-634a; 635c
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 772b-c; 775c-
776c
4b. The attainability of happiness: the fear of
death and the tragic view of human life
4 HOMER- Iliad, BK vi [144-151] 41c; [440-493]
44c-45a; BK xn [290-328] 85b-c; BK xvn [420-
455] 126b-d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1186-1221]
HOb-c; [1524-1530] 113c / Oedipus at Colo-
nus [1211-1248] 125b-c / Antigone [582-624]
136b-c; [1155-1171] 140d-141a / Trachmiae
[1-48] 170a-c; [121-140] 171b
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [77^-802] 243d-244a /
Trojan Women [466-510] 274a-b/ Andromache
[91-102] 316a / Hecuba [619-^28] 358a; [952-
961] 360d-361a / Heracles Mad [497-51}]
369a-b / Iphigema at Aulis [16-33] 425b
6 HERODOTUS' History, BK i, 2b; 6c-10a esp 6c-
8a, 9c~10a, 20b-21a; BK n, 64d-65a; BK in,
98b-99a; BK v, 160c-d; BK vn, 224c-225a
7 PLATO: Apology, 205d-206d; 2llb-212a,c /
Cnto 213a-219a,c / Phaedo 220a-251d / Re-
public, BK i, 295d-297c; BK vi, 374a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 9-11 345a-347a;
BK vn, CH 14 [ii54b2o™3o] 406c; BK x, CH 7
[i 177^6- 1178*8] 432c; CH 8 432d-434a passim,
esp [n78b23~32] 433c / Politics, BK iv, en n
[i295*25-bi] 495b-c; BK vn, CH 13 [i3$ib24-
I332ft32] 536b-S37a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [i~6r]
15a-d; BK HI [31-93] 30b-31b; [830-1094] 40c-
44a,c; BK vi [1-42] 80a-d
12 Epicrcrus: Discourses, BK i, CH 4 108d-110a;
CH 24 129a*d; BK n, CH 16 156b-158d; BK HI,
CH 24 203c-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK iv, SECT 50 268c; BK v, SECT 16-18
271c-d; SECT 34 273c; BK vn, SECT 35 282a;
SECT 44-45 282b-c; BK ix, SECT 3 291d-292a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74c-75c / Aemilius
Paulus, 224d-225c; 229a-c / Pelopidas, 245c-d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 4 14a-c /
Third Ennead, TR n, CH 4-5 84c-85c
704
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The pursuit of happiness. 4b. The attainabil-
ity of happiness: the /ear of death and the
tragic view of human life.)
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 8 270a-d;
BK xix, CH 4-8 5lla-516a; BK xxn, CH 22-24
606d-612a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 5
636d643d
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xi [1-12]
122a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
31-35 5a-b; BK in, STANZA 117-120 69b-70a;
BK IV, STANZA 72-74 98aj BK V, STANZA 262-
263 154b / Knight's Tale [1303-1324] 181b;
[2837-2852] 206b-207a / Merchant's Tale
[9927-9954] 332a-b / Monies Tale 434a-448b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b; 76c-d;
79b-d; PARTII, 163d-164a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-10a, 26d-36b, 70d-
72a; 115b-119d; 124c-125a; 149b-d; 231d-
233c; 312c-314b; 326b 327b; 339a d; 402c~
403c; 478c-479c, 509b-512a; 528c-529b;
541b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT in, sc n [144-
i85J337a-b; ACTIV, sc i [162-318] 343b-344d;
ACT v, sc v [1-41] 349d-350a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [129-137]
32d-33a; sc iv [13-38] 36a-b, ACT 11, sc n
[303-322] 43d; ACT in, sc i [56-157] 47c-48c
/ Measure for Measure, ACT in, sc i [1-43]
186d-187a / Timon of Athens, ACT iv, sc i
409c-d; ACT iv, sc III-ACT v, sc i 410c-419b /
Henry VIII, ACT HI, sc 11 [350-372] 572c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26a-c;
70b-d; 73d-74a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART iv, PROP 67 444d-445a;
PART v, PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK n [496-505] 122a;
BKX [782-844J291b-292b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 100-110 193b-194a; 126-147
195b-201a; 156-157 201b-202a; 164-183 202b-
204b; 199 210b; 386 239a
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH vn,
SECT 5 132c; CH xxi, SECT 45 189b-d
36 STERNE: Tmtram Shandy, 383a-384a; 388a-
399b, 459a-460a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338b-c; 363a-366d pas-
sim, esp 363a-b, 366b-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals,
256d-257d; 258b; 267b-d / Practical Reason,
345a-347a / Judgement, 584d-586a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 450c-453a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 95c-d; 102d-103b; 104b;
254b-c; 312b; 350d-351b; 362c-363a; 376c-
377a; 540b-542a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 162a-
170b; PART i, 245b-d; PART in, 285a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART i [354-517] lla-
14b, [614-736] 17a-19b, [1064-1125] 26b-28a,
[1544-1571] 37b-38a, [1583-1638] 38b-39b,
[1699-1706] 41a, [1765-1815] 42b-43a, [3217-
3250] 79a-b, PART H [9695-9944] 235a-241b,
[11,433-452] 278a-b, [11,559-586] 281b-282a,
[11,934-12,111] 290b-294b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{ esp 175b-176a, 313b-
314a, 316a-b, 319a-b, 341b-342a, 357a, 360b-
361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 80d-81a; BK
in, 117d; BK vr, 235a-238a; 262d-263a; BK
vn, 294b-296a, BK vin, 303a-305b; BK ix,
357d-358b; 373b-374d; BK xn, 560a-562a;
BK xni, 577a-578b; BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv,
630c-631c; EPILOGUE i, 659c-d; 671c-672a
52 DOSTOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 25d-
27d; BK in, 53b-54b; BK v, 121d-127b; 127b-
137c passim; BK xi, 345a-c
54 FREUD Civilization and Its Discontents, 77la-
802a,c esp 772b-c, 776b-777c, 778d-779a,
788d-789b, 793d-794a, 796b-c, 799c-800a
5. The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine
of the common good
7 PLATO- Euthydemus, 75c-76b / Republic, BK
iv, 342a-d; BK v, 365c; BK VH, 390b-391b /
Statesman, 599c-603d
9 ARISTOTLE Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; BK v,
CH i [ii2obii-ii300i3] 377a-c / Politics, BK in,
CH 9 [1280*31-34] 477d-478a; BK iv, CH 11
[i295*25-bi] 495b-c; BK vn, CH 1-3 527a-
530a, CH 13-15 536b-539d
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-126c;
BK n, CH 10 148c-150a
12 AURELIUS Meditations, BK n, SECT 3 257a-b;
BK in, SECT 4 260b-261a; BK iv, SECT 4 264a;
BK v, SECT i 268b,d; SECT 6 269b-d; SECI 16
271c-d; SECT 22 272b, BK vi, SECT 14 274d-
275a, SECT 45 278c; SECT 54 279c; BK vn,
SECT 44-46 282b-c; BK vm, SECT 12 286b-c;
SECT 23 287b; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECI 23
293c, SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK x, SECT 6-7
297a-c; SECT 20 299b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 1-8
507a-516a; CH 12-17 517b-523a; CH 26 528d-
529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21, A
i, ANS and REP 1,3 124b-125b; Q 60, A 5, ANS
313b-314c; Q 92, A i, RFP 3 488d-489d; Q 96,
A 4 512d-513c; PART i-n, Q i, A 5, ANS 613a-
614a; A 7 614c-615a; Q 19, A 10, ANS 710b-
711d; Q 21, A 3 718d-719c; A 4, REP 3 719d-
720a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 59,
A A 4-5 48c-49d; Q 60, A 2 50d-51b; Q 90, A 2
206b-207a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 207a-c; A 4,
ANS 207d-208b; Q 91, A 6, REP 3 212c-213c;
Q 92, A i, ANS and REP 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 93,
A i, REP i 215b,d-216c; Q 94, A 2, ANS 22ld-
2 23 a; A 3, REP i 223a-c; Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b<
230c; Q 96, A 3, ANS and REP 3 232b 233a; A 4,
ANS 233a-d; A 6, ANS 235a-d; Q 97, A i, ANS
and REP 3 236a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 2 236d-
237b; A 4 238 b 239 b; Q 98, A i, ANS 239b-
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
705
240c; Q 99, A 3, ANS 247a-248a; Q 100, A 2,
ANS 252b-253a; A 8, ANS and REP 3 2S9d-261a;
A ii* REP 3 263c-264d; Q 105, A i, REP 3 307d-
309d; A 2, ANS and REP 1,4 309d~3l6a; A 3,
ANS and REP 5 316a-318b; PART II-H, Q 39, A
2, REP 3 575b-576b; Q 187, A 3, REP 1,3 666a-
669b; PART HI SUPPL, Q 96, A 6, REP 11 1058a-
1061b; A 7, REP 3 1061b-1062a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 84c-86b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-76a esp
71b-c, 72b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 6 105b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 180b-184a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a 328a,c; 333 b-c;
342c-343b; 351c-352a; 363a-366d / Political
Economy, 372b-377b / Social Contract, BK n,
400c-401a; 401d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Pref. Metaphysi-
cal Elements of Ethics, 369c-373b / Science of
Right, 438d-439a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 45, 147c-148a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 453a-454a; 460a-461c;
461d; 475a-476a
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 211 b-c
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 316a-317a; 592d
52 DOSTOEVSKY* Brothers Karam azov, BKV, 127b-
13 7c passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 799a-
802a,c esp 799c-800a
5a. The happiness of the individual in relation
to the happiness or good of other men
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [263-281] 145c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 99a
7 PLATO* Gorgias, 262a-270c; 284a-285a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 6 [n67b5-i5]
420d-421a; CH 8 [n68b28-i 169*11] 422b-d;
CH 9 423a-424b; CH n 425a-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-13]
I5a
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-126c;
BK ii, CH 5 142c-144a; CH 10 148c-150a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK m, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 6 269 b-d; BK vi, SECT 14
274d-275a; BK VIH, SECT 12 286b-c; SECT 56
290c; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECT 23 293c;
SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK x, SECT 6 297a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a / City of God, BK xix, CH 8 515c-516a; CH
12-14 517b-520d
19 AQUINAS . Sumrna Theologica, PART i-n, Q i,
A 5, ANS 613a-614a; A 7 614c-615a; Q 4, A 8
636a-c; Q 32, AA 5-6 762a-763c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a; PART ii-n, Q 17, A 3 458c-
459a; Q26 510b-520d passim; Q 39, A 2, REP 3
575b-576b; PART HI SUPPL, Q 71 900d-917b;
Q 94 1040d-1042c; Q 96, A 7, REP 3 1061 b-
1062a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvi [91-138) 77d-78b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 291d-292a; 305d;
330b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv,
203a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-345c; 363a-366d
esp 363b-364a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 272d-
273a / Practical Reason, 304b-305c / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 369c-373b esp
372a-b; 373d; 375d-376b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 450 b; 452b-454a; 460a-
461c; 461d; 463a-b; 469b-470c
44 RQSW ELL: Johnson, 221d-224a
46 HEGEL; Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 125-
126 44d-45b; par 134 47b; PART in, par 155
57c; par 182-183 64a; par 189 65d-66a; par 192
66b-c; par 249 78c; ADDITIONS, 116 135c-d;
127 137b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,559-572] 281 b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-319a esp 312a-
313a, 314b-315d, 316c-317c; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK HI, 116c-117a;
127d 128d; BK v, 197b c; 214c-216d; BK x
430a-b; EPILOGUE i, 670d-671c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 25d-
27d; 37c-38a; BK v, 121d-127b; BK vi, 154d-
159a; 165b-167b
b. The happiness of the individual in relation
to the welfare of the state: happiness in
relation to government and diverse forms
of government
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, ix:io-n
5 AESCHYLUS : Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
esp [1011-1084] 38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [162-210]
132c-d / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [834-1018]
385c-387b; [1582-1684] 391d-392d / Iphige-
nia at Aulis\ 425a-439d esp [1255-1275] 436c,
[1368- 1401] 437c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-7a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 397d-
398c; 402b-c; BK vi, 511c-d
7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c esp 216d-219a,c /
Republic, BK i, 302c-306a; BK n, 311b-c; BK
iv, 342a-d; BK v, 364c-365d; BK vi, 379d-
380b; BK vii, 390b-391b; 401a-b; BK ix, 416a-
421a esp 418d-421a / Laws, BK v, 692c-693a;
BK vi, 707c-708a; BK ix, 754a-b / Seventh
Letter, 814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [iO94b8-io]
339c-d / Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*1-6] 445a;
BK n, CH 5 [i264bi6-25] 459d-460a; BK HI, CH
6 [i278bi5-29J 475d-476a; BK vn, CH 1-3
527a-530a; CH 8 [i328*35-b2] 532c-d; CH 9
[I328b33-i329a2] 533b; [1329*21-24] 533c; CH
13-14 536b-538d; BK VIH, CH i [1337*28-30]
542b
706
THE GREAT IDEAS
5b to 7
(5. The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine
of the common good. 5b. The happiness of
the individual in relation to the welfare of
the state: happiness in relation to govern-
ment and diverse forms of government.)
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-
126c; BK ii, CH 10 148c-150a; BK HI, CH 22
195a-201a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d; SECT 22 272b;
BK vi, SECT 54 279c; BK vn, SECT 5 280a*b;
BK xi, SECT 21 305d-306a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a 48d csp 44d-45c,
48b-c / Numa Pompilius, 51c-52b; 59d-60b /
Pophcola-Solon 86a-87d esp 87a-b / Nicias,
425b-c / Demosthenes, 691b,d; 699c-700a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK n, 226d-228a
18 AUGUSFINE- City of God, BK xix, CH 17 522b-
523a; CH 26 528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60, A
5, ANS 313b-314c; Q 96, A 4 5l2d-513c; PART
i-n, Q 19, A 10, ANS 710b-711d; Q 21, A 3 718d-
719c; A 4, REP 3 719d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 2 206b-207a; A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 92, A r,
ANS and REP 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 94, A 2, ANS
221d-223a; Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, A
3, ANS and REP 3 232b-233a; A 4, ANS 233a-d;
A 6, ANS 235a-d; Q 97, A 4 238b-239b; Q 98, A
i, ANS 239b-240c, Q 99, A 3, ANS 247a-248a;
Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a; A 8, ANS and REP 3
2S9d-261a; A n, REP 3 263c-264d; Q 105, A 2,
ANS and REP 1,4 309d*316a; A 3, ANS and REP
5 316a-318b, Q m, A 5, REP i 355d-356c;
PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 6, REP n 1058a~1061b
23 HOB BBS: leviathan, PART i, 84c-86b; PART n,
99a; 104b-d, 105c-d; 112b-c; 153a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 381a-388c; 480b-482b;
486 b- 489 b; 490c-491d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACTI, sc i [67-167]
352a-353a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-76a
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistcs [843-902] 358a-
359a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16d-17b / Civil Govern-
ment, CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b; CH ix 53c-54d;
en xi 55b-58b passim; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 112a*115b csp 112a-
113a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 16c; BK
v, 19a-c; 26c; BK vi, 38a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c; 359a b
/ Political Economy, 368c; 372b-377b csp
374a-d / Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c; BK
HI, 415d; 417c-418a; 421d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 350d-351a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 31d-34a,c passim,
esp 32c-33a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 176c; 320d-321a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
438d-439a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-15] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62a-d; NUMBER 45,
147c-148a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 337b;
338b c / Utilitarianism, 460a-461c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 221d-224a; 304c; 393a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 205
68d; par 261 83a d; par 294 98b d; par 325
107d; par 337 109d-110a; ADDITIONS, 116-117
135c-136a; 127 137b; 154-156 142a-b; 158
142d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b;
192c-193a; PART i, 213b; PART HI, 285a-b
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
260a-262a; BK xi, 475b-476c; 480a-482b;
505a-511b csp 509d-510a; 514b-515a; BK xn,
537b-538a; BK xin, 577b-c; BK xv, 634a-635a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 799c-
801a / New Introductory Lectures, 852d-853b
6. The happiness of men in relation to the gods
or the after-life
4 HOMER- Iliad, BK xv [47-77] 104c-d; BK xvi
[843-861] 121c-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [351-474] 55d-57b /
Eumemdes 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1186-1221]
llOb-c; [1524-1530] 113c / Antigone [582-624]
136b-c; [1348-1353] 142d / Trachimae [121-
140] 171b / Philoctetes [1314-1347] 193d-194a
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1687-1692] 314c / Androm-
ache [91-102] 316a; [1284-1288] 326c / Bac-
chantes [878-911] 347b-c / Hecuba [952-961]
360d-361a / Iphigenia at Auhs [16-33] 425b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-10a esp 6c-8a,
9c-10a; 20b-21a; BK n, 77a-b, BK HI, 98b-99a
7 PLATO: Apology, 211c-d / Phaedo, 223a-225c;
249c-250b / Republic, BK vn, 401a-b; BK x,
437c-438c / IMWS, BK n, 658c-d; BK v, 689c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH IOHTI 345c-347a;
BK vn, CH 14 [ii54b20~3o] 406c; BK x, CH 7
431d-432c esp [ii77bi6-ii78»8] 432b-c; CH 8
[ii78b8-32] 433b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-135)
ld-2d; BK in [1-93] 30a-31b; [978-1023] 42d-
43b; BK v [1161-1240] 76b-77b; BK vi [43-79]
80d81b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH i 213a*223d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT n 258a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [264-678] 218a-229a;
[724-751] 230b-231a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 91b-d / Histories,
BK i, 190a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 26 42d-
43a
7. The distinction between temporal and eter-
nal happiness
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 18 310b-d;
BK xix, CH 4-11 511a-517b
7 a to 7c
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
707
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
2-5 615c-643d passim
22 CHAUCER: Merchant's Tale [9511-9558] 325b-
326a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov , BKV,127b-
137c passim
la. The effects of original sin: the indispensa-
bility of divine grace for the attainment
of natural happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:14-24
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:14-21 / / Corin-
thians, 15:21-22
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 33-34 79d-
80c / Cay of God, BK ix, CH 14-17 293a-295c;
BK x, CH 2-3 299d-301a; CH 22-32 312a-
322a,c, BK xiv, CH i 376b,d-377a; BK xxi,
CH 15-16 572c-574a; BK xxn, CH 22-24 606d-
61 2a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 85
178b-184a; Q 91, A 6 212c-213c; Q 109, A 2
339c-340b; A A 7-8 344a-346a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxvm
[9i]-xxix [36] 97a-98a; PARADISE, vn 115a-
116c
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,788-822]
467a-b / Parson's Tale, par 1-15 495a-506b
23 HOB BBS- Leviathan, PART in, 195d-196a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [56-415] 136b-
144b esp [130-134] 138a, [227-238] 140b; BK
xi [1-44] 299a-300a; BK xi [334J-BK xn [649]
306b-333a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 425-430 243b-247b; 447 253a
37 FIELDING Tom Jones, 38d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKV,121d-
127b esp 125d-126b; BK vi, 168a-c
lb. The imperfection of temporal happiness: its
failure to satisfy natural desire
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK iv, par 7-19 20d-
24b; BK viii, par 17 57d; BK ix, par 23-26
68a-d / City of God, BK vin, CH 8 270a-d; BK
ix, CH 14-15 293a-294a; BK xn, CH i 342b,d-
343c; BK xix, CH 4-10 511a 516d; CH 20 523d-
524a; CH 27 529a-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 4 625b-c; CH 38 635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 2,
A r, REP 3 615d-616c, A 3 617b-618a; A 8 621c-
622b; Q 3, A 2, REP 4 623a-624b; AA 6-8 627b-
629c; Q 5, A i, REP 2 636d-637c; A 3 638b-
639a; A 4, ANS 639a-640b; A 5 esp REP 3 640 b-
641a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 66,
A 5, REP 2 79b-80c
21 DANTE: Divtne Comedy, PARADISE, xi [1-12]
122a
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1303-1324] 181b /
Nun's Priest's Tale [15,210-215] 456b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b; 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-100a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 366d-367a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [496-505] 122a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 106 193b; 109-110 193b-
194a; 126-147 195b-201a; 156-157 201b-202a;
164-183 202b-204b; 184-241 205a-217b; 389
239b; 425-555 243b-270a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vn,
SECT 5 132c; CH xxi, SECT 45 189b-d; SECT
61-62 194b-d; SECT 72 198a-c
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
107, 499d-500a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 256d; 401a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1544-1571] 37b-38a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 216d-218b;
BK vi, 273c-274a,c; BK xi, 52Sc-526b; BK xn,
560a-S62a; EPILOGUE i, 650b; 659c-d; 671c-
672a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 127b-
137c passim; BK vi, 153d-167b
7c. Eternal beatitude: the perfection of human
happiness
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 31 8d-9a;
BK ix, par 23-26 68a-d; BK XIH, par 50*52
124c-d / Ctfy of God, BK vn, CH 31 261d-262a;
BK ix, CH 15 293a-294a; BK x, CH 1-3 298b,d-
301a; CH 18 310b-d; CH 22 312a-b; CH 32
319d-322a,c; BK xi, CH 12 329b-c; BK xn, CH i
342b,d-343c; BK xm, CH 20 370c-371a; BK
xix, CH 4 511a-513c; CH 10-11 516c-517b; CH
13 519a-520a; CH 20 523d-524a; CH 27 529a-d;
BK xxi, CH 15 572c-573b; BK xxn 586b,d<
618d esp CH i 586b,d-587b, CH 3 588a-b, CH
29-30 614b-618d / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 4 625 b-c; CH 15 628b-c; CH 32-33 633c-
634b
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12, A
i, ANS 50c-51c; Q 18, A 2, REP 2 105c-106b; Q
26 150a-152a,c; Q 62 317c-325b; Q 66, A 3,
ANS 347b-348d; Q 73, A 2, REP 3 371b-d; Q 75,
A 7, REP i 384d-385c; Q 82, A 2, ANS 432d-
433c; PART i-n, Q 2, A 8 621c-622b; Q 3, A 8
628d-629c; QQ 4-5 629c-643d; Q 19, A 10, REP
i 710b-711d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 55,
A 2, REP 3 27a-d; Q 62 59d-63a; Q 63, A 3, ANS
and REP 2 65a-d; Q 67 81b-87c; Q 68, AA 2-6
89c-94c; Q 69 96c-101c; Q 109 338a-347d;
PART n-ii, Q 2, A A 3-8 392d-398b; Q 17, AA
2-3 457d-459a; Q 26, A 13 519d-520d; PART
in SUPPL, Q 75, A i 935b-937a; QQ 82-85
968a-992a; QQ 92-96 1025b-1066a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; PARADISE, HI [43-90] 109d-110b;
xiv [1-66] 126d-127c; xxi [1-102] 138b-139b;
xxn [1-75] 139d-140c; xxvi [1-69] 14Sd-146c;
xxvm [1-114] 148d-150a
22 CHAUCER: Merchant's Tale [9511-9558] 325b-
326a
708
THE UKtA 1 IDbAS
(7. The distinction between temporal an4 eternal
happiness. 7c. Eternal beatitude: the per-
fection qf human happiness.)
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-100a
29 CERVANTES: JPofl Quixote, PART 11, 366d-367a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: /J/A«*, PART v, PROP 42 463 b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 184-241 205a-217b; 425-555
243b-270a passim
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a / Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH VII, SECT 5 132C| CH XXI,
SECT 38 187b-c; SECT 45, 189c-d; SECT 62
194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 216d-218b;
BK vi, 273c-274a,c; BK xi, 525c-526b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKv,120d-
121c; 125d-126d; 127b-137c passim
7c(l) The beatific vision
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 32 •24^-30 / Exodus,
24 csp 24:9-11; 33:11-23 / Numbers, 12:6-8 /
Deuteronomy, 34:10 / Job, 19:26-27 / Isaiah,
26:10 — (D) Isatas, 26.10
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:8 / John, 1:18;
14:19-21/7 Corinthians, 13:12 /// Corinthians,
12:1-4 / / Timothy, 6:15-16 / 1 John, 3:1-2 /
Revelation csp 4-5, 7-8, n, 14:1-5, 16:1-19:21,
21:1-22:21— (D) Apocalypse csp 4-5, 7-8, n,
14:1-5, 16:1-19:21, 21:1-22:21
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK ix, par 25 68c;
BK xin, par 1 8 115b-c / City of God, BK ix, CH
15 293a-294a; BK x, CH 2 299d-300a; BK xn,
CH 20, 355b; BK xxn, CH 29-30 614b-618d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 10-11 627b-c
19 AQUINAS: Surnma Theohgica, PART i, Q 12,
AA i-n 50c-60d; Q 26, A 3 151a-c; Q 60, A 5,
REP 5 313b-314c; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; A
2, ANS 318d-319c; Q 64, A i, REP i 334a-335c;
Q 82, A 2, ANS 432d-433c; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c;
Q 89, A 2, REP 3 475a-d; Q 93, A 8, REP 4 499b-
SOOc; Q 94, A i, ANS and REP i 501d-503a; Q
100, A 2, ANS 521c-522b; PART i-n, Q 3, A 8
628d-629c; Q 4, AA 1-2 629d-631a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART I-H, Q 67,
A 3 83b-84d; A 6, REP 3 87a-c; Q 69, A 2, REP 3
97b-98c; A 4, ANS and REP 3 lOOc-lOlc; PART
ii-n, Q i, A 8, ANS 387a-388c; Q 8, A 7 421d-
42 2c; Q 9, A 4, REP 3 425d-426c; Q 180, A 5
611d 613a; PART in, Q 9, A 2 764c-76Sa; Q 15,
A 10 795b-796a; PART in SUPPL, Q 90, A 3
1014d-1016a; Q 92 1025b-1037c; Q 94, A i
1040d-1041b; Q 98, A 5, ANS 10 75 b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, v [1-12]
112a-b; xiv [1-66] 126d-127c; xv [28-84] 128c-
129b; xxi [1-102] 138b-139b; xxvm [94-114]
149d-150a; xxxn [i39]-xxxui [145] 156a-157d
22 CHAUCER: Parson** Tale, par 10, 499b-500a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b
7<r(i) to 7c\2)
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 88d-89a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347a
lc(2) The joy of the blessed: the communion
of saints
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 16 esp 16:10; 36 esp
36:8-9; 37; 84; 149— (D) Psalms, 15 csp
15:10; 35 csp 35:9-10; 36; 83; 149 / Isaiah,
65:8-25— (D) Isaias, 65:8-25 / Daniel, 7:18
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:1-9,13-15;
4:7-5:5; 5:15-16— (D) OT, Bool( of Wisdom,
3:1-9,13-15; 47-5*5; 5=16-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5*1-12,19-20; 6:19-
21,33; 13:43; 19:16-30 csp 19:21; 25:31-46 csp
25:34, 25:46 / Marl(, 10:17-31 / Luke, 16:19-
26; 18:18-30 /John, 6:38-40; 8:51; 10:24-30;
11:23-27; 16:20-24; 17:1*3 / Romans, 8*18;
14 117 / / Corinthians, 15 :40~55 / // Corinthians,
4:17-5*10 / Galatians, 6:8 / Ephesians, 2*18-22
/ Hebrews, 10-34 /James, i .12 / I Peter, 1 13-10
/ I John, 2:15-17; 3:1-3 / Revelation passim,
csp 4-5, 7, 14-15, 19, 21-22— (D) Apocalypse
passim, esp 4-5, 7, 14-15, 19, 21-22
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK iv, par 16 23b-c;
BK ix, par 6 63a-b; par 23-25 68a-c; BK x,
par 38-39 81a-c; par 65 87d-88a, BK xn, par
23 104b-c; BK xin, par 50-53 124c-125a,c /
City of God, BK xi, CH 11-13 328d-330b; CH
29-33 339a 341d; BK xu, CH 20 355b-357a;
BK xvni, CH 48 501 b-d; BK xix, CH 10-11
516c-517b; CH 13 519a-520a; CH 17 522b-523a;
CH 20 523d-524a; CH 27 529a-d; BK xx, CH 17
544d-545c; BK XXH, CH 30 616d-618d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 19-22 629a~630a;
CH 38 635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 95, A
4, ANS 509b-510a; Q 113, A 7 580b-581a; PART
i-n, Q 2, A 3, REP i 6l7b-618a; Q 4, AA 1-2
629d-631a; Q 34, A 3 770c-771c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 67,
A 4 84d-85d; PART II-H, Q 18, A 2 462d-463d;
Q 19, A ii 472d-473d; Q 26, A 13 519d-520d;
Q 28, A 3 528d-529c; PART in SUPPL, Q 90, A 3
1014d<lbl6a; Q 93 1037c-1040c; Q 94, A 3
1041d-1042c; Q 96 1049d-1066a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xxviii-xxxin 96a-105d; PARA-
DISE 106a*157d esp in [43-90] 109d-110b, vi
[112-126] 114d-115a, xiv [1-66] 126d-127c,
xx [130-138] 138a, xxi [1-102] 138b-139b,
xxn [52-72] 140b, xxvm [94-114] 149d-150a,
xxx-xxxin 151d-157d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 103 549b-550a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART HI, 195d
32 MILTON: On Time 12a-b / At a Solemn Music{
13a-b / Lycidas [165-185] 31b / Sonnets, xiv
66a / Paradise Lost, BK HI [135-143] 138b;
[344-415] 143a-144b; BK VH [150-161] 220b;
BK viii [618-630] 245a-246a; BK xi [57-66]
300b; [696-707] 314b; BK xn [411-465] 328a-
329a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 643 290b-291a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234b-d
to Id
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
709
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 192d-193a
32 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 22b-
23c; BK xi, 341d-342c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b
c(3) The misery of the damned
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 20.4-29 / Psalms, 9:16-17;
21 8-12; n6'3— (D) Psalms, 9:17-18; 20-9-
13; 1143 / Isaiah, 5:14-15; 14:4-23; 26.10;
66:24— (D) Iwi&s* 5'I4~I5; 14 "4-23; 26 10;
66:24 / Ezefyel, 31:10-18— (D) Ezechid,
31.10-18 / Daniel, 12.2
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16-17— (D) OT» Judith,
16:20-21 / Wisdom of Solomon, 4 16-5.23
passim— (D) OT, Boo^of Wisdom, 4 16-5 24
passim / Ecclesiasticus, 7-17; 21-9-10— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7 • 1 9 ; 2 1 . i o- 1 1
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8*12; 13:41-42,49-
50; 18:6-9; 25:41-46 / Mark 9:42-48— (D)
Marf(, 9:41-47 / Luke, 16:19-26 / Romans,
2 -5-9 / // Thessalomans, 1 7-9 / Jude, 5-7 /
Revelation passim, esp 14:9-11, 17:1-20.15 —
(D) Apocalypse passim, csp 14 9-11, 17 1-20 15
18 AUGUSTINE' City of God, BK xi, CH 33 341a-d;
BK XHI, CH 2 360b-361a; CH 12 365d-366a;
CH 14-16 366b-367d; BK xm, CH 24-BK xiv,
CH i, 376a,c-377a, BK xiv, CH 15 388d-390a;
BK xv, CH i 397b,d-398c; BK xix, CH 13 519a-
520a; CH 28 529d-530a,c; BK xx, CH 6 534a-
535a, CH 14-15 542d-544b; BK xxi 560a-
586a,c esp CH 1-3 560a-562a, CH 9-10 568d-
570b, CH 13 571c-572a, CH 17 574a-b, CH 23
576c-577b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 20-21
629b
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10, A
3, REP 2 42c-43b, Q 21, A 4, REP i 126c-127c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 87,
AA 3-5 187b-189c; PART in SUPPL, Q 70, A 3
897d-900d, Q 86 992b-996a,c; Q 87, A i, REP 4
997b-998c; Q 90, A 3 1014d-1016a; Q 94 1040d-
1042c, QQ 97-99 1066a-1085a,c
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL la-52d esp in
[1-18] 4a-b, [82-129] Sa-b, vi [100-115] 9c, vn
[100-130] lOc-d, xi 15a-16b, xiv [16-72] 19c-
20b, xxvn [55-136] 40a-41b, xxxm [91-148]
50c-51a; PARADISE, vii [64-93] 115d-116a; xv
[10-12] 128c
22 CHAUCER- Friar's Tale [7216-7234] 283b-284a
/ Summoner's Prologue 284b-285a / Parson's
Tale, par 10 498b-502a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 195b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
119b-122a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [42-
63] 115a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 418c-
419a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 226d-227a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i-n 93a 134a; BK
vi [867-677] 215a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 62 194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 188d-189a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127c-d; BK vi, 169c-170b; BK vii, 185a-c
Id. The beatitude of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33 -.18-20 / 1 Chronicles,
29:11-13— (D) I Paralipomenon, 29:11-13 /
Psalms, 8; 19; 24; 104-1; 113:4; 138; 145— (D)
Psalms, 8; 18; 23; 103:1; 112:4; 137; 144 /
Isaiah, 6:1-4— (D) tsaias, 6.1-4
NEW TESTAMENT- Mar^ 8:38 / John, 8 54 /
1 Peter, 4:11 / // Peter, 1:16-18 / Revelation,
5:9-14— (D) Apocalypse, 5-9-14
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xrn, par 4 lllc;
par 53 124d-125a,c / City of God, BK vin,
CH 6 268d-269c; BK xn, CH 17 353a-354a;
BK xxn, CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 26
150a-152a,c; Q 62, A 4, ANS 320b-321b; Q 63,
A 3 327b-328b; Q 65, A 2, ANS 340b-341b; Q
73, A 2, REP 3 371b-d; PART i-n, Q 2, A 2, REP
2 616d 617b; Q 3, A i, REP i 622c-623a; A 2,
REP 1,4 623a-624b; A 8, REP 2 628d-629c; Q 5,
A 3, REP 2 638b-639a; A 7, ANS and REP 2
642a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART m, Q 19,
A 3 819c-820c; Q 26, A i, REP 2 845b-846a;
PART in SUPPL, Q 71, A 8, REP i 909d'910d;
Q 92, A i, REP 5 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-9]
106a, xxxm [46-145] 156d-157d
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PART v, PROP 17 456c-d;
PROP 35-36 460d-461c
32 MILTON- Upon the Circumcision 12b 13a /
Paradise Lost, BK in [56-415] 136b-144b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 347d-348b / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn il
ROSS-REFERENCES
or: Matters most relevant to the general theory of happiness, see GOOD AND EVIL 33, 53; PLEAS-
URE AND PAIN 6-6b, 6d.
Particular goods or virtues which are related to happiness, see COURAGE 5; HONOR 20;
KNOWLEDGE 80(4); LOVE 33; PRUDENCE 2a; TEMPERANCE 3; VIRTUE AND VICE id;
WEALTH ica; WISDOM 2c; and for the discussion of means and ends in the order of goods,
see GOOD AND EVIL 40, 50-5^
Other treatments of the conflict between an ethics of happiness and an ethics of duty, see
DUTY 2; PLEASURE AND PAIN 8b; PRINCIPLE 4-4^
710
THE GREAT IDEAS
For: The bearing of natural desire on the pursuit of happiness, see DESIRE 2a, 33, 70; LOVE
53-53(1); WILL ;d.
The relation of happiness to death and the fear of death, see IMMORTALITY i ; LIFE AND
DEATH 8a-8c.
Other considerations of individual happiness in relation to the state or the common good,
see GOOD AND EVIL 5d ; STATE 2f,
Basic notions involved in the Christian doctrine of supernatural happiness or eternal beati-
tude, see ETERNITY 4d; GOD 6c(4), yd, yg; IMMORTALITY 5e~5g; LOVE 53(2); PUNISH-
MENT 5d, 5e(i); SIN 3c-3d, 4d, 6d, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE 8b, 8e; WILL 76-76(2).
Another discussion of the beatitude of God, see GOD 4h.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Boofy of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Of the Tranquillity of the Mind,"
"Whether Vice is Sufficient to Render a Man Un-
happy," in Moralta
AUGUSTINE. The Happy Life
AQUINAS, Summa Contra Gentiles, BK i, CH 100-102;
BK in, CH 17-63
DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE,
CH 12
. On World-Government or De Monarchia, BK
III, CH l6
HUME. An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART vi
KANT. Lectures on Ethics
DOSTOEVSKY. Notes from Underground
. The Idiot
II.
CICERO. De Finibus (On the Supreme Good)
. Tusculan Disputations, v
SENECA. De Beata Vita (On the Happy Ltfe)
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Ethicists
. Outlines of Pyrrhonism^ BK in, CH 21-32
POMERIUS. The Contemplative Life
BOBTHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK in
• ABAILARD. Ethics (Scito Teipsum)
MAIMONIOES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART in,
CH 8-9
NICOLAS OF CUSA. The Vision of God
TERESA OF JESUS. The Way of Perfection
SU£RBZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xxx (u, 14)
JOHN op THE CROSS. Ascent of Mount Carmel
S. JOHNSON. History ofRasselas
HUTCHESON. A System of Moral Philosophy
VOLTAIRE. Candide
PALEY. Moral Philosophy* BK i, CH 6
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, in, PART in, CH 1-4
BENTHAM. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation, CH i
WORDSWORTH. The Prelude
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL i,
BK IVJ VOL III, SUP, CH 45-50
LEOPARDI. Essays, Dialogues, and Thoughts
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK n, CH
25
KIERKEGAARD. Philosophical Fragments
. Concluding Unscientific Postscript
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK vni, CH 2
FLAUBERT. Madame Bovary
EMERSON. The Conduct of Life
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK n, CH 1-6;
BK III, CH 14; BK IV
IBSEN. A Dolls House
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil
. The Will to Power
HAUPTMANN. The Weavers
CHEKHOV. Three Sisters
MANN. Buddcnbroofy
DEWEY and TUFTS. Ethics, PART 11, CH 14-15
MOORE. Principia Ethica, CH 2-3
. Ethics, CH 1-2
UNAMUNO. The Tragic Sense of Life
B. RUSSELL. What I Believe, CH 4-5
. Sceptical Essays, vin
A. E. TAYLOR. The Faith of a Moralist, SERIES i (9)
KIRK. The Vision of God
SANTAYANA. Some Turns of Thought in Modern
Philosophy, CH 4
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH vn
ADLER. A Dialectic of Morals
LUBAC, Surnaturel
O'CONNOR. The Eternal Quest
Chapter 34: HISTORY
INTRODUCTION
TN our language the term History" Hegel ob-
JL serves, "unites the objective with the sub-
jective side. ... It comprehends not less what
has happened than the narration of what has hap-
pened. This union of the two meanings we must
regard as of a higher order than mere outward
accident; we must suppose historical narrations
to have appeared contemporaneously with his-
torical deeds and events."
Our daily speech confirms Hegel's observa-
tion that "history" refers to that which has hap-
pened as well as to the record of it. We speak of
the history of a people or a nation, or of the
great events and epochs of history; and we also
call a history the book which gives a narrative
account of these matters.
It is as if we used the word "physics" to name
both the object of study and the science of that
object; whereas normally we tend to use
"physics" for the science and refer to its sub-
ject matter as the physical world. We do not
say that matter in motion is physics, but that
it is the object of physics, one of the things a
physicist studies. We might similarly have
adopted the convention of using "history" in a
restricted sense to signify a kind of knowledge
or a kind of writing, and then called the phe-
nomena written about or studied "historical"
but not "history."
That, however, is not the prevailing usage.
The word "history" seems to have at least four
distinct meanings. It refers to-a kind of knowl-
edge. It refers to a type of literature. It means
an actual sequence of events in time, which
constitutes a process of irreversible change.
This can be either change in the structure of the
world or any part of nature, or change in human
affairs, in society or civilization.
- Historical knowledge and historical writing
can be about natural history or human history.
In his classification of the kinds of knowledge,
Francis Bacon makes this distinction when he
divides history into "natural, civil, ecclesiasti-
cal, and literary." Whereas the last three deal
with human things, the first is concerned with
the non-human part of the natural world. At
the same time, this natural history is not, in
Bacon's judgment, the same thing as "natural
philosophy," or what we would now call "na-
tural science."
In this set of great books, natural history,
even cosmic history, makes its appearance in
works which we ordinarily classify as science or
philosophy; for example, Darwin's Origin of
Species, Lucretius' On the Nature ofThtngs, or
Plato's Ttmaeus. The great books of history
deal with man and society, not nature or the
universe. For the most part this is true also of
the great philosophies of history. They, too, are
primarily concerned with human civilization,
not the physical world.
IN ITS ORIGINAL Greek root, the word "history"
means research, and implies the act of judging
the evidences in order to separate fact from fic-
tion. The opening line of Herodotus is some-
times translated not "these are the histories of
Herodotus of Hahcarnassus," but "these are
the researches ..."
The word "research" can, of course, mean
any sort of inquiry— into what is the case as
well as into what has happened. The title of one
of Aristotle's biological works, the History of
Animals, suggests that it is concerned with re-
searches about animals. The book does not deal
with natural history; it is not a history of ani-
mals in the sense of giving the stages of their
development in the course of time. The redun-
dancy of "historical research" can therefore be
excused on the ground that it is necessary to
distinguish between two kinds of inquiry or re-
search—scientific and historical.
711
712
THE GREAT IDEAS
Originally, research set the historian apart
from the poet and the maker of myths or leg-
ends. They told stories, too; but only the his-
torian restricted himself to telling a story based
on the facts ascertained by inquiry or research.
Herodotus deserves the title "father of history"
for having originated a style of writing which
differs from poetry in this extraordinary re-
spect. He tries to win the reader's belief not by
the plausibility of his narrative, but rather by
giving the reader some indication of the sources
of information and the reliability of the evi-
dence on which the narrative is based.
The poet tries to tell a likely story, but the
historian tries to make credible statements
about particular past events. He makes an ex-
plicit effort to weigh the evidence himself or, as
Herodotus so frequently does, to submit con-
flicting testimony to the reader's own judg-
ment. "Such is the account which the Persians
give of these matters," he writes, "but the
Phoenicians vary from the Persian statements";
or "this much 1 know from information given
me by the Dclphiam; the remainder of the
story the Milesians add"; or "that these were
the real facts I learnt at Memphis from the
priests of Vulcan"; or "such is the truth of this
matter; 1 have also heard another account
which 1 do not at all believe"; or again, "thus
far I have spoken of Egypt from my own obser-
vation, relating what I myself saw, the ideas
that 1 formed, and the results of my own re-
searches. What follows rests on accounts given
me by the Egyptians, which I shall now repeat,
adding thereto some particulars which fell un-
der my own notice."
Herodotus seems quite conscious of the dif-
ference between himself and Homer, especially
on those matters treated by the poet which fall
within his purview as an historian. The Trojan
War lies in the background of the conflict with
which Herodotus is directly concerned— the
Persian invasion of Greece— for the Persians
"trace to the attack upon Troy their ancient
enmity towards the Greeks."
Herodotus docs not doubt that the siege of
Troy took place as Homer relates, but he learns
from the Egyptians a legend about the landing
of Paris and Helen on Egyptian soil and the de-
tention of Helen by Proteus, king of Memphis.
"Such is t.he tale told me by the priests con-
cerning the arrival of Helen at the court of Pro-
teus. It seems to me that Homer was acquainted
with this story, and while discarding it, be-
cause he thought it less adapted for epic poetry
than the version which he followed, showed
that it was not unknown to him."
Herodotus cites passages in the //Wand the
Odyssey to corroborate this point. He is willing
to use the Homeric poems as one source of in-
formation, but not without checking them
against conflicting accounts. "I made inquiry,"
he writes, "whether the story which the Greeks
tell about Troy is a fable or not." When he
comes to the conclusion that Helen was never
within the walls of the city to which the Greeks
laid siege for ten years, he tells the reader his
reasons for thinking so. Homer, however, when
he narrates Helen's actions during the siege,
does not bother to establish the facts of the
matter or to give the reader contrary versions
of what took place. That is not the poet's task,
as Herodotus recognizes. It belongs to the his-
torian, not the poet. The story which may have
greater probability in fact may not be the bet-
ter story for the poet.
SINCE HE is BOTH an investigator and a story-
teller, the historian stands comparison with the
scientist in one respect and with the poet in
another. The special character of history as a
kind of knowledge distinct from science or
philosophy seems clear from its object— the
singular or unique events of the past. The scien-
tist or philosopher is not concerned with what
has happened, but with the nature of things.
Particular events may serve as evidences for
him, but his conclusions go beyond statements
of particular fact to generalizations about the
way things arc or happen at any time and place.
In contrast, the historian's research begins and
ends with particulars. He uses particulars di-
rectly observed by himself or testified to by
others as the basis for circumstantial inference
to matters which cannot be established by di-
rect evidence. The method of investigation de-
veloped by the early historians may be the pre-
cursor of scientific method, but the kind of
evidence and the mode of argument which we
find m Hippocrates or Plato indicate the diver-
gence of the scientist and philosopher from the
procedure of the historian.
CHAPTS* 34: HISTORY
713
The contrast between history and science—
or what for the purpose of comparison may be
the same, philosophy— is formulated in Aris-
totle's statement concerning poetry, that it is
"more philosophical than history, because
poetry tends to express the universal, history
the particular." History deals with what has
actually happened, whereas poetry, like philos-
ophy, may be concerned with whatever is or
can be.
One comparison leads to another. Unlike
poetry, history and science are alike in that
they both attempt to prove what they say. But
in distinction from science or philosophy, his-
tory resembles poetry, especially the great epic
and dramatic poems, in being narrative litera-
ture. The historian and the poet both tell stories.
If the poet and the historian— including, of
course, a biographer like Plutarch— are also
moralists, they are moralists in the same way.
Their works do not contain expositions of eth-
ical or political doctrine, but rather concrete
exemplifications of theories concerning the con-
duct of human life and social practices. That
fact explains why much of the content of the
great historical books is cited in other chapters
dealing with moral and political, even psycho-
logical, topics. But in this chapter we are con-
cerned with history itself rather than with the
particulars of history. We are concerned with
the methods and aims of history as a kind of
knowledge and literature; and we are concerned
with the historical process as a whole, the con-
sideration of which belongs to the philosophy
of history.
THE AIMS AND methods of writing history are
discussed by the historian himself, as well as by
the philosopher. Philosophers like Hobbes, Ba-
con, or Descartes consider history largely from
the point of view of the kind of knowledge it is
and the contribution it makes to the whole of
human learning. Historians like Herodotus,
Thucydides, Tacitus, and Gibbon state more
specifically the objectives of their work, the
standards of reliability or authenticity by which
they determine what is fact, and the principles
of interpretation by which they select the most
important facts, ordering them according to
some hypothesis concerning the meaning of the
events reported.
Herodotus writes* he telb us, "in the hope of
preserving from decay the remembrance of
what men have done, and of preventing the
great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and
the barbarians from losing their due meed of
glory." Thucydides proceeds in the belief that
the war between the Peloponnesians and the
Athenians "was the greatest movement yet
known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but
of a large part of the barbarian world — I had
almost said of mankind." Not very different is
the declaration of Tacitus: "My purpose is not
to relate at length every motion, but only such
as were conspicuous for excellence or notorious
for infamy. This I regard as history's highest
function, to let no worthy action be uncom-
me mo rated, and to hold out the reprobation of
posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds."
But though there seems to be a striking simi-
larity in the purpose of these historians, Tacitus
alone of the three avows a moral purpose. Fur-
thermore, each of the three is conscious of the
individual way in which he has put his inten-
tion in to effect. Thucydides, for example, seems
to have Herodotus in mind when he fears that
"the absence of romance in my history will
detract somewhat from its interest; but if it be
judged useful by those inquirers who desire an
exact knowledge of the past. ... I shall be con-
tent." Like Thucydides, Tacitus ij> an historian
of contemporary events and he fears comparison
with the historian of antiquity who can "en-
chain and refresh a reader's mind" with "de-
scriptions of countries, the various incidents of
battle, glorious deaths of great generals." His
own work may be instructive, he thinks, but
it may also give very little pleasure because he
has "to present in succession the merciless bid-
dings of a tyrant, incessant prosecutions, faith-
less friendships, the ruin of innocence, the same
causes issuing in the same results, and [he is]
everywhere confronted with a wearisome mo-
notony in [his] subject-matter."
As we have already noted, Herodotus seems
satisfied to let the reader decide between con-
flicting accounts. Only occasionally does he in-
dicate which is more likely in his own judgment.
Thucydidca claims that he has made a greater
effort to determine the facts. "I did not even
trust my own impressions," he writes; the nar-
rative "rests partly on what I saw myself, partly
714
THE GREAT IDEAS
on what others saw for me, the accuracy of the
report being always tried by the most severe
and detailed tests possible. My conclusions
have cost me some labor from the want of
coincidence between the accounts of the same
occurrences by different eye-witnesses." But he
thinks that his conclusions "may safely be re-
lied on," undisturbed ueither by the lays of a
poet displaying the exaggeration of his craft, or
by the compositions of the chroniclers which
arc attractive at truth's expense."
The historians arc aware of the difficulty of
combining truth-telling with storytelling. Most
men, Thucydides remarks, are unwilling to
take enough pains "in the investigation of
truth, accepting readily the first story that
comes to hand." The difficulty, according to
Tacitus, is the obscurity of the greatest events,
"so that some take for granted any hearsay,
whatever its source, others turn truth into
falsehood, and both errors find encouragement
with posterity."
Reviewing the enormous scope of his work,
Gibbon at the very end concludes that "the
historian may applaud the importance and
variety of his subject; but, while he is con-
scious of his own imperfections, he must often
accuse the deficiency of his materials." Because
of the scarcity of authentic memorials, he tells
us in another place, the historian finds it hard
"to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of
narration. Surrounded with imperfect frag-
ments, always concise, often obscure, and some-
times contradictory, he is reduced to collect,
to compare, and to conjecture; and though he
ought never to place his conjectures in the rank
of facts, yet the knowledge of human nature,
and of the sure operation of its fierce and un-
restrained passions, might, on some occasions,
supply the want of historical materials."
Clearly, the historians have different criteria
of relevance in determining the selection and
rejection of materials and different principles
of interpretation in assigning the causes which
explain what happened. These differences are
reflected in the way each histonan constructs
from the facts a grand story, conceives the line
of its plot and the characterization of its chief
actors. Herodotus, for example, has been com-
pared with Homer as writing in an epic man-
ner; Thucydides, with the dramatic writers of
tragedy. Even if they all agreed on the ascer-
tainment of fact, the great historians would dif-
fer from one another as the great poets do; each
has a style and a vision as personal and poetic
as Homer or Virgil, Melville or Tolstoy.
ONLY ONE OF THE great books is, by title and
design, devoted entirely to the philosophy of
history— to the formulation of a theory which
embraces the whole of man's career on earth.
This is Hegel's Philosophy of History. Augus-
tine's City of God presents an equally compre-
hensive vision, but a comparison of the two
suggests that they differ from one another as
philosophy from theology.
The point of this comparison is not that God
and His providence are omitted from the phil-
osopher's view. On the contrary, Hegel regards
the history of the world as a "process of devel-
opment and the realization of Spirit— this is
the true theodicy, the justification of God in
History. Only this insight can reconcile Spirit
with the History of the World— viz., that what
has happened and is happening every day is
not only not 'without God* but is essentially
His Work."
The difference is rather to be found in the
ultimate source of insight concerning human
development and destiny. Augustine sees
everything in the light of God's revelation of
His plan in Holy Writ; Hegel and other phi-
losophers of history from Vico to Toy n bee seek
and sometimes claim to find in the records of
history itself the laws which govern and the
pattern which inheres in the procession of
events from the beginning to the end of human
time.
For Augustine, the great epochs of history
are defined religiously. They are stages in the
development of the city of God on earth, not
the city of man. Man is viewed as dwelling on
earth under four distinct dispensations from
God: (i) in Paradise before the Fall; (2) in the
world after expulsion from Eden and before
the Promise and the Law were given to the
Jews; (3) under the Law and before the coming
of Christ; (4) between the first and second
coming under the dispensation of grace.
Augustine sometimes makes other divisions
of history, but they are always primarily reli-
gious. For example, he divides all of time into
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
715
seven ages, corresponding to the seven days of
creation. "The first age, as the first day, ex-
tends from Adam to the deluge; the second
from the deluge to Abraham. . . . From Abra-
ham to the advent of Christ there are, as the
evangelist Matthew calculates, three periods,
in each of which are fourteen generations—
one period from Abraham to David, a second
from David to the captivity, a third from the
captivity to the birth of Christ in the flesh.
There are thus five ages in all. The sixth is now
passing, and cannot be measured by any num-
ber of generations. . . . After this period God
shall rest as on the seventh day, when He shall
give us (who shall be the seventh day) rest in
Himself. . . . The seventh shall be our Sabbath,
which shall be brought to a close, not by an
evening, but by the Lord's day, as an eighth
and eternal day, consecrated by the resurrec-
tion of Christ, and prefiguring the eternal re-
pose not only of the spirit, but also of the body
. . , This is what shall be in the end without
end."
This same projection of history— in all es-
sentials, at least— is laid before Adam by
the archangel Michael in Milton's Paradise
Lost, just before Adam leaves the Garden of
Fden.
Unlike the four major dispensations of which
Augustine and Milton speak, Hegel's four
stages of the world are epochs in the develop-
ment of Spirit as manifested in the State. They
are secularly defined as the Oriental, the Greek,
the Roman, and the German world and are
seen as a "progress of the consciousness of Free-
dom." The "various grades in the consciousness
of Freedom," Hegel writes, "supply us with
the natural division of universal History. . . .
The Orientals have not attained the knowledge
that Spirit — Man as such— is free; and because
they do not know this, they are not free. They
only know that one is free . . . that one is there-
fore only a Despot; not a free man. The con-
sciousness of Freedom first arose among the
Greeks, and therefore they were free; but they,
and the Romans likewise, knew only that some
are free— not man as such The Greeks,
therefore, had slaves and their whole life and
the maintenance of their splendid liberty, was
implicated with the institution of slavery. . . .
The German nations, under the influence of
Christianity, were the first to attain the con-
sciousness that man, as man, is free.'1
With the complete emancipation of man in
the German-Christian world, history is con-
summated for Hegel. "The grand principle of
being is realized," he declares; "consequently
the end of days is fully come." Another sign
of the finality of the German-Christian world
seems to be its reconciliation of Church and
State: "European history is the exhibition of
the growth of each of these principles severally
. . . then of an antithesis on the part of both . . .
lastly, of the harmonizing of the antithesis."
In the German-Christian world, the secular
and the religious modes of life are ultimately
harmonized, fused in a single order of "rational
Freedom."
APART FROM THE opposition between the phil-
osophical and theological approaches, here rep-
resented by Hegel and Augustine, there seem
to be two main issues in the general theory of
human history. The first concerns the pattern
of change; the second, the character of the
causes at work.
The pattern most familiar because of its
prevalence in modern speculations is that of
progress or evolution. The progress may be
conceived as a dialectical motion in the realm
of Spirit, contrasted by Hegel with the realm
of Matter or Nature, according as "the essence
of Matter is Gravity . . . and the essence of
Spirit is Freedom." But it may also be thought
to occur, as in the dialectical materialism of
Marx and Engels, through the resolution of
conflicting material or economic forces.
"The whole history of mankind," Engels
writes in his preface to the Communist Mani-
festo, "since the dissolution of primitive tribal
society, holding land in common ownership,
has been a history of class struggles, contests
between exploiting and exploited, ruling and
oppressed classes; the history of these class
struggles forms a series of evolutions in which,
now-a-days, a stage has been reached where the
exploited and oppressed class, the proletariat,
cannot attain its emancipation from the sway
of the exploiting and ruling class, the bour-
geoisie, without, at the same time, and once for
all, emancipating society at large from all
exploitation, oppression, class-distinction and
716
THE GREAT IDEAS
class-struggle/' The four great economic sys-
tems'—Che systems of slave labor, feudal serf-
dom, industrial capitalism, and the communis-
tic or classless society— are thus seen as the
stages of progress toward an ultimate perfection
in which history comes to rest because it has
at last fully realized its controlling tendency.
The pattern of progress may be conceived
not as a dialectical motion involving conflict
and synthesis, but rather, as by Kant, in terms
of an increasing actualization of the potentiali-
ties for good in human life. Giving the name of
culture to "the production in a rational being
of an aptitude for any ends whatever of his own
choosing," Kant declares, "it is only culture
that can be the ultimate end which we have
cause to attribute to nature in respect of the
human race." The progressive realization of
culture consists in "the liberation of the will
from the despotism of desires whereby, in our
attachment to certain natural things, we arc
rendered incapable of exercising a choice of
our own." In these terms history moves toward
a perfection which can never be fully achieved
on earth, for man's "own nature is not so con-
stituted as to rest or be satisfied in any posses-
sion or enjoyment whatever/*
As conceived by the evolutionist, progress
may or may not attain its limit, but in cither
case its manifestation in human history appears
to be analogous to as well as an extension of the
line of development along which the world or
all of living nature has gradually advanced.
THESE VIEWS ARE given further discussion in
the chapters on EVOLUTION, PROCRFSS, and
WORLD. Whether or not the same pattern of
change obtains in the historical order of nature
as in the history of man and society, is a ques-
tion to be answered by those who deny as well
as by those who affirm progress. There is cyclical
change in nature, the same pattern of birth,
growth, decay, and death repeating itself gen-
eration after generation. That history too re-
peats itself with the rise and decline of cities
and civilizations, seems to be the ancient view,
it reappears in our day with Spcngler and,
somewhat qualified by the possibility of prog-
ress, with Toynbce.
**Thc cities which were formerly great,"
Herodotus observes, "have most of them be*
come insignificant; and such as are at present
powerful were weak in olden time. I shall,
therefore, discourse equally of both, convinced
that prosperity never continues long in one
stay." Lucretius finds the cyclical pattern both
in the succession of worlds and in the succession
of civilizations. The myth of the golden age of
Kronos and the earth-bound age of Zeus, which
Plato tells in the Statesman, also applies both
to nature and society.
According to the myth, "there is a time
when God himself guides and helps to roll the
world in its course; and there is a time, on the
completion of a certain cycle, when he lets go,
and the world being a living creature, and hav-
ing originally received intelligence from its
author and creator, turns about and by an in-
herent necessity revolves in the opposite di-
rection." Thus the history of the world runs
through "infinite cycles of years," and one age
succeeds another in an endless round.
There is still a third view which sees history
as neither cyclical nor simply progressive. Vir-
gil reverses the order of the Platonic myth by
placing the golden age in the future. It dawns
with Rome, where, in the words of the 4th
Eclogue, "the majestic roll of circling centuries
begins anew: Justice returns, returns old Sat-
urn's reign, with a new breed of men sent down
from heaven . . , and the iron shall cease, the
golden race arise."
Rome for Virgil is not only the beginning
of the golden age; it is also the consummation
of history. In the Aeneid Jupiter himself de-
clares that he has given the Romans "domin-
ion without end"— that he has ordained for
them "neither period nor boundary of em-
pire." The "gowned race of Rome" shall be
"the lords of the world"; then "war shall cease,
and the iron ages soften." Thus, Jupiter says,
"is it willed," and so "a day will come in the
lapse of cycles." The perpetuity of Rome seems
to leave little room for any further essential
progress and no chance for another cycle of
decay and regeneration.
The Christian dogma of the fall of man from
grace and his return through divine mediation
to grace and salvation seems to give history a
pattern that is partly Platonic in the sequence
which makes the loss of a golden age the occa-
sion for striving to regain it. But it also seems
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
717
to be Virgilian in part. The epochal transitions
of history happen only once. The coming of
Christ is an absolutely singular event, after
which there is no essential progress in man's
condition until the Last Judgment at the end
of the world.
COMMON TO THESE diverse conceptions of the
pattern of history is the problem concerning
the causes which are at work as history unfolds.
Whatever the factors, they will operate in the
future as they have in past, unless the milleni-
um is already upon us or about to dawn. From
the knowledge of their own past or from their
dim perception of divine providence, men de-
rive a sense of the future; but they look forward
to that future differently according as some
part of it will stem from choices freely made, or
according as all of it is inexorably determined
by causes beyond their control.
The basic alternatives of fate and freedom,
of necessity and contingency, God's will and
man's choice, are considered in the chapters on
CHANCE, FATE, and NECESSITY AND CON-
TiNGKNCY. Sometimes the issue is resolved in
the same way for the course of nature and the
course of history: necessity reigns in both; as
there is contingency in the events of nature, so
there is freedom in the acts of history. Some-
times the processes of nature and history are
distinguished: the motions of matter are gov-
erned by inviolable laws; whereas the motions
of men arc directed by laws which leave them
free to \vork out a destiny which is determined
by, rather than determines, the human spirit.
Those who do not deny freedom entirely in
the realm of history seldom give it unlimited
scope. What men can do is conditioned from
below by the operation of material forces, and
irom above by what Hegel calls "God's pur-
pose with the world," The vast "arras-web of
Universal History" is woven by the interaction
between God's will (the Absolute Idea) and
human purposes or interests, which Hegel calls
"the complex of human passions.'*
History for him is "the union of Freedom
and Necessity/' where "the latent abstract
process of Spirit is regarded as Necessity, while
that which exhibits itself in the conscious will
of men, as their interest, belongs to the domain
of freedom." But this freedom which coheres
with necessity seems to belong more to the
human race as a whole than to individual men.
The individual man is tossed aside if he tries
to obstruct the path of history. He is powerless
to change its course.
Not even great men can make or determine
history. They are great only because, sensing
the next phase of the historical process, they
identify themselves with the wave of the future
and conform their purposes to the march of
events— the dialectical development of the Ab-
solute Idea. A few men thus become "world-
historical individuals" because their own "par-
ticular aims involve those large issues which
are the will of the World -Spirit." They have
"an insight into the requirements of the time
— what was ripe for development . . . the very
Truth for their age, for their world; the species
next in order, so to speak, and which was al-
ready formed in the womb of time."
Like Hegel and unlike the ancient historians,
Tolstoy also regards the leadership of great
men as illusory. To believe in the efficacy of
heroes or great men, he thinks, is to commit the
fallacy of the man "who, watching the move-
ments of a herd of cattle and paying no atten-
tion to the varying quality of the pasturage in
different parts of the field, or to the driving
of the herdsman, attributes the direction the
herd takes to the animal which happens to be
at its head."
Gieat men are only celebrated puppets,
pushed ahead on the moving front of history.
The motion of history derives its force and
direction from the individual acts of the in-
numerable nameless men who comprise the
human mass. The act of the individual counts
little. The mass motion is a complex resultant
of slight impulses tending in many directions.
But however slight the impulse each man gives,
his contribution to history is a free act, con-
ditioned only by the circumstances under
which he makes a choice and by the divine
providence which grants him the freedom to
choose. Like "every human action," Jwtory,
according to Tolstoy, thus "appears to us as a
certain combination of freedom and incvita-
biJity."
DIFFERENT PROM speculations on a grand scale
concerning the whole historical process is that
7$ THE GREAT IDEAS
type of philosophizing about history which On the practical side, political writers iike
considers its place in education— the light it Machiavclii, Montesquieu, and the Federalists
affords to the mind, and the lessons it teaches use history to exemplify or confirm their gen*
for the guidance of conduct. erahzations. They agree with Thucydides that
Montaigne, for example, makes the reading "an exact knowledge of the past is an aid to the
of history and biography the window through interpretation of the future, which in the
which a man looks out upon the world. "This course of human things must resemble if it does
great world," he writes, "is the mirror wherein not reflect it." Most men, adds Tacitus, "learn
we are to behold ourselves, to be able to know wisdom from the fortunes of others."
ourselves as we ought to do in the true bias." It is on these grounds that the great books
Only against the large scene history reveals of history belong with treatises on morals and
and amidst the variety of human nature it politics and in the company of philosophical
exhibits can a man truly know himself and his and theological speculations concerning the
own time. In a similar vein, Gibbon declares nature and destiny of man. Liberal education
that "the experience of history exalts and en- needs the particular as well as the universal,
Urges the horizon of our intellectual view." and these are combined in the great historical
Hcgcl, on the other hand, insists that "what ex- narratives. Apart from their utility, they have
perience and history teach is that peoples and the originality of conception, the poetic qual-
governments never have learned any thing from ity, the imaginative scope which rank them
history, or acted on principles deduced from it. with the great creations of the human mind.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1. History as knowledge and as literature: Us kinds and divisions; its distinction from
poetry, myth, philosophy, and science 719
2. The light and lesson of history : its role in the education of the mind and in the guidance
ol human conduct 720
3. The writing of history: rcscaich anil narration
30. The determination and choice of fact: the classification of historical data 721
3^. The explanation or interpretation of historic fact: the historian's treatment of
causes
4. The philosophy of history 722
40. Theories of causation in the historical process
(1) The alternatives of fate or freedom, necessity or chance
(2) Material forces in history: economic, physical, and geographic factors 723
(3) World history as the development of Spirit: the stages of the dialectic of
history
(4) The role of the individual in history: the great man, hero, or leader
4^. The laws and patterns of historical change: cycles, progress, evolution
41-. The spirit of the time as conditioning the politics and culture of a period 724
5. The theology of history
5^. The relation of the gods or God to human history: the dispensations of providence
5$. The city of God and the city of man; church and state 725
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER* lltad, BK u [265-285] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set, the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in S3 ]^uv.$. Psychology t 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 1 19. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the let terse and d to the upper and lower halves of the right hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO- Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins m the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side ot page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, en,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, arc given in cer-
tain cases, c.g, Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE INFERENCES. The references arc to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions diifer in title of books or in the numbering of chanters 01 verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT- Nehffntah, 7 45 — (D) // Esdras, 7-46
SYMBOLS* The abbreviation "csp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, sec the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Picfacc.
1. History as knowledge and as literature: its
kinds and divisions; its distinction from
poetry, myth, philosophy, and science
6 HERODOTLsrf/w/ory, BK n,71a-73besp 72a-b;
75b; BK iv, 127a-b; BK vn, 242c-d
6 THUCYDIDES* Peloponnesian War, BK 1, 354a d
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 112b / Republic, BK n, 323d
324a / Ttmaeus, 447a / Crttias, 479d / Laws,
BK in 663d-677a
0 ARISTOTLE- Poetics, CH 9 [i45i*$6-b32)686a-c;
CH 1$ 695a-c
14 PLUTARCH- Theseus, la-c/ Romulus 15a-30a,c
passim, csp 15a 18d / Themistocles, 102a,c
/ Pericles, 128d 129a / Timoleon, 195a-b /
Ctmon, 390b-d / Alexander, 540b,d-S41a /
Dton, 794c-795a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 60d; BK iv, 71d 72b;
BK xi, 107c; BK XIH, 133b / Histories, BK u,
228ab
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 27-
28 650a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 67b-c; 71c-d
25 MONTAIGNB: Essays, 24a-c; 41c-42a; 199a-
200d; 305d 306a; 347c 350d; 457a b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard 111, ACT in, sc t (72-
88] I33c d / Henry V, PKOLOGUB 532b,d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 473b
29 CFRVANTPS- Don Quixote, PART n, 2I3b c
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 32d 39a csp
32d 33a, 38c 39a / Novum Organ um, BK i,
APII 87, 123b
31 DFSCARTES: Rules, in, 3b-d / Discourse, PART
i, 43a b
33 PASCAL: Pcmtcs, 628 287a / Vacuum, 355a-
356a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi,
SPCT 7-1 f 368d 370a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vni, DIV
65, 479b-c; SPCT xu, DIV r$2, 509c
37 FIELDING- Tom Jones, 19a 20a; 49b-50c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 88a-d; 97c-98d
pasMm; 211a;398b; 47Ic-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 337c
44 BoswELL-MfW<w,203a b;258d-2S9a;3S3b c
46 HPOEL* Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3, lOa-
llc; PART in, par 355, 112d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 153a 158a; 182d-183d; 193d-
194a; PART i, 230c-231b; 248c; PART in, 285d-
286a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 430d-431a;
BK xi, 469a-470c; BK xin, 563a-b; EPILOGUE
11 675a 696d pa.s$im
53 JAMES: Psychology, 863b (fn 2)
720
THE GREAT IDEAS
2/<>3
2. The light and lesson of history: its role in the
education of the mind and in the guid-
ance of human conduct
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 6:20-25, 7.6-
11,17-19; 8; 16*1-12; 29 / Joshua, 24*1-27 —
(D) Josue, 24:1-27 / / Samuel, 12:6-25—
(D) / Ktngs, 12:6-25 / Ezra, ^.j-2^-(D)
I Esdras, 4:7-23 / Nchemiah, o,-(D) II Esdras,
9 / Psalms, 44:1-?; 78; 81; 105-106; 136 csp
136:10-24— (/)) Psalms, 43*1-4; 775 80; 104-
105; 135 csp 135:10-24 / Ecclesiastes, i:n;
2:16 / Isaiah, 46.8-11— (D) Isaias, 46*8-11
/ Jeremiah, 2:1-9— (D) Jeremias, 2:1-9 /
Ezefyel, 20:1-44— (D) Ezechiel, 20:1-44
APOCRYPHA* Wisdom of Solomon, 2:2-4— (D)
OT, Boot( of Wisdom, 2-2-4
NEW TESTAMENT: // Peter, 2 / Jude
4 HOMFR. Iliad, BK ix [485-605] 62a 63b
6 HERODOTUS; History, BK i, 2b; BK v, 175b;
BK vin, 273b c; BK ix, 309d-310a
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK i,
354b-c; 379c-d
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 452b / Statesman, 587d /
Philcbus, 61 2a / Laws, BK in 663d-677a csp
667a-b; BK xn, 788a
SARisioTLE' Sophistical Refutations, CH 34
[183*16 i84»>8] 253a-d / Metaphysics, BK i,
en 3-10 Sole-Slid c*p CH 3 [o8jb'i 7| 501c-d,
CH 10 511c-d; BK n, CH i [993*30-bi9J 511b,d-
5l2a; BK HI 513b,d 522a,c passim, csp CH i
[995*23 b4] 513b,d; BK xn, ui t[io69»25-29J
598b, CH 8 [io74hi 14) 604d 605a/ Soul, BK i
631a-641d passim, csp en 2 [40^20 -23) 633a
9ARIS10ILE' EthlCS, BK X, CH 9 [ll8lhI2-24|
436c / Pohtus, RK vii, en 10 [i329*40-b35J
533d-S34b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4 [1360*30-37)
600d, BK u, CH 20 [i 393*25 -b3] 641a
12 At'RtLii's. Meditations, BK vi,SEc:r46278c-d,
BK vii, SECI i 279b; SECT 49 282d; BK ix,
SKI r 28 293d-294a; BK x, SECT 27 299d;
BK XI, SECT 2(> 306b
14 PLUTARCH. Pericles, 121a-122b / Timoleon,
19Sa b; 201b 202c / Nuias, 423a c / Alexan
der, 540b,d-541a / Cato the Younger, 634a-c /
Demetrius, 726a d
15 TArmrs://ww&,BKiii,58b-d;60d'BKiv,71d-
72b/ Histories, BK i, 189d-190a; BK in, 255b c
18 Aui.usriNE: Confessions, BK n, par i 9a; BK x,
par 3 6 72« 73a; BK xi, par i 89b-c / City of
Cod, UK i, en 8-9 133a I35a; BK iv, CH 33-34
206c 207a,c; BK v, CH 25 228b-c; BK xi, CH 18
331d-332a; BK xv, CH 21 415b 416a; BK xvn
449a 472a,c csp CH 3 450c-451c; BK xxn, CH
30, 618a b / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 28
650a-d; CH 39 654c-655b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 97,
A i, ANS 236a d
21 DANTE: Dtvine Comedy, PARADISE, vi [31-111]
113d 114d; xi [43-139] 122c 123c; xn [22-126]
123d 125a; xv [88)-xvi [154] 129b 132a; xvn
[103-142] 133b-c
22 CHAUCER: Monlfs Tale 434a-448b
23 MACHIAVELLI* Prince, CH vi, 8c-d; CH xiv-
xv, 22a b; CH xviu 2Sa 26a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 53c-54a
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
58a59d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-c; 41b-42a; 68b-69d;
198c 200d; 455d-456b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT HI, sc i
[45-96] 483b-d
29 CERVANTES* Don Quixote, PART i, 23c-d; 32c-
33a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 4c-6c; 32d-
34b; 85a-c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 98
126d-127b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43a-b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384b 386b
33 P\SCAL Pensees, 619-641 284b-290a / Vac-
uum, 355a-358b
35 I-X^CKL' Civil Government, CH vui, SECT 100-
112 47c-51b passim, csp SECT 103 48b-c /
Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi, SECT n
369d-370a
35 HUML. Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
65, 479b-c
38 RorssbAu: Social Contract, BK in, 420a-c; BK
iv, 428a 435a
39 SMITH Wealth of Nations, BK v, 334c-343d
40 C! IB BON Decline and Fall, 33c, 21 la, 632a-b
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 13d; 194a-d; 311a-
312b; 326d-328a,c
42 K^NI Pure Reason, 5a-8d; 248d-250a,c /
Fund. Pnn. Metaphyxc of M or ah, 266d [fn 2]
/ Practical Reason, 357c-d
43 Fun RAI isi M'MBiR i, 30b; NUMBFR 5,
37b-c, NUMBER 6, 39a; NUMBFR 17, 70a-d;
NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b; NUMBER 30, 102b,
NUMBtR 70, 211b d
43 MILL. Utilitarianism, 456a b
44 Boswr-LL'/oAmon, xiia-c; 3c 4c; 116b; 258d-
259a; 314c-315b, 347c d; 458d
46Hh(,i,L Philosophy of History, INTRO, 155b-
I56a, 157bc; 168d 169d, 174d 175d; 178a-
184b, PART i,230c 231 b; r»ARTiv,368d-369a,c
47 GOETHE. Faust, PART i [570-585] 16a
50 MARX- Capital, 7b d
50 MARX-ENGELS Communist Manifesto^ 415a*
42Sb
52 I>3sioEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
291 bd
3. The writing of history: research and narra-
tion
APOCRYPHV // Maccabees, 2:22-31— (D) OT,
// Machabees, 2 '23-32
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i la 48a,c passim, csp
la,c, 2b, 4d-5a, 23a b; BK n, 68b d; 75b; BK
vii, 242c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Pelopormesian War, BK i, 349a-
355a passim; 373c; BK vf 489a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK in, CH 9 [1409*23-34]
660d; CH 16 670c 672a
3* jo 3*
CHAPTER 34; HISTORY
721
14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 102a,c / Pericles,
128d-129a / Ttmoleon, 195a b / Cimon,
390b-d / Matt, 423a-c / Demosthenes,
691b,d-692b / Dion, 794c~795a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, la-b; BK n, 44d-45a;
BK m, 48c; 49c-d; 60d-61a; BK iv, 66b-d; 71d-
72 b; BK xii, 118d; BK xvi, 179d / Histories,
BK i, 189a-b; 190a; BK in, 255b*c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 67b-c
25 MONT\IGNE: Essays, 24a-c; 41b 42a; 68b-
69a; 198c-200d; 347c-350d; 455d 457b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 23c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d-38c csp
34b 35a / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 97-98
126c-127b; APH 101-103 127c-128a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 622-628 286a-287a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 209b-210b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 19a-20a; 49a-50c
40 GIB BON. Decline and Pall, Ib; 87a; 96c d;
213a-214b; 234b; 240b-c; 648d-649c
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 112a-b; 161a-163d;
186a-b; 255b-c; 598a,c; 635d [n 57); 639a-d
[n i); 755d-756a [n 41); 7S6d-757a (n 61]; 790d-
791a,c [n 98J
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, xia-xiiia; la-4c; 5c-d;
99a; 120c; 217a b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-
158a; 181b-182c; PART i, 230c-231b; PART HI,
285d-286a
48 MELVILLE Moby Dic{, 195a-201a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 134a-c; BK
ix, 366d 367b; BK x, 405a-406c
3*. The determination and choice of fact: the
classification of historical data
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK i, 2b; 17c; 23a-b, BK
n, 49a-56b passim; S9a; 60a; 60c 61b; 69b tf ;
7la-73b; 76a b; 76d; 77b-c; 80b c; BK in,
89c-d; 97d-98a; 99b*c; 114a b; 115b d; »K iv,
127a-b; 142c-d; 150b-151c; 158a-b, BK v,
161b, 168b-c; BK vn, 221b-c; 242c-d; 254c-d;
BK viu, 261b-c; 281d 282b, BK ix, 305d;
306b
6 THUCYDIDES' Peloponncsian War, BK i, 349a-
355a; 373c; BK 11, 391c d; 399c; BK in, 439 b;
442c-443a; BK v, 487d; 500d-501a; BK vi,
523c-524d passim
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c passim, csp la c
/ Romulus 15a-30a,c passim, csp 15a-18d /
Lycurgus, 32a-b / Numa Pompuius, 49a-b /
Themtstocles, 102a,c / Camillus, llla-b; 1 1 Ga-
ll 7a passim / Pericles, 128d-129a / Conolanus,
191d 192b / Aristtdes, 262b,d-263c / Cimon,
390b d / Nicias, 423a-c / Pompey, 502d /
Alexander, 540b,d-541a / Cato the Younger,
634a-c / Demosthenes, 691b,d-692b; 698b
699a / Galba, 859d
15 TACITUS* Annals, BK in, 48c; 49c; 60d-61a;
BK iv, 66b-d; 71d 72b; BK vi, 87 d; BK xi,
107c; BK xin, 133b; BK xiv, 157c; BK xvi,
179d / Histories, BK i, I89a b; 190a b; BK n,
228a b; BK in, 255b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par i 9%; BK
x, par 4-5 72a-c / City of God, BK x, CH 14
307c-308a; BK xv, CH 1-5 397b,d^00c; BK
xvir, CH r-a 449a-450c; BK xvin, CH 40
495a b; BK xxn, CH 30, 618c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 67b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 41b-42a; 68b~69a; 81a-c;
199a-c; 305b-306a; 347c-350d; 457a b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 13d-14b;
32d-39c csp 32d-33d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 64a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 626 286b; 6a8 287«; 786-787
325b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 209b-210b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 19a-20a; 49b-50c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 428a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88a-d; 96b,d; 97c-
98d passim; 103c; 201b-204d passim, csp
203a b; 212b-214b esp 729b-c [n ?i), 213a d;
232b-234a,c csp 23 2c, 736d [n 182); 295c-
296c; 354c-d; 413b-d; 428b-c; 471c-d; 648d-
649b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 311a-312b; 337c;
501c-503a; 639a-d (n i]; 660d [n 149]; 710a b
[n i); 756d fn 60]
44 BOSWRLL: Johnson, Ib-c; 2d-4b; 5c-d; 27c-d;
119a;139a;177d-178a;210d;254b;286b;311d-
3I2a; 347c-d; 359d 360a; 42 5a; 458d; 575b
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-
154c, 155b; 180c 182c; 196d-199d csp 199d;
203b 206a,c; PART i, 209b 210c; 230c-231b;
247d-248a; PART iv, 319a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 86d (fn 4)
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 582 b-d;
584a b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450d 451a
*. The explanation or interpretation of his-
toric fact: the historian's treatment of
causes
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 51a-54b; BK in,
96c; 97d 98a; BK vi, 201b c; 204b c; BK vn,
221a b; 226c; 237a-b; 238d 239c, 250b d; BK
vin, 265b; BK ix, 289c; 292a; 309d 310a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 349a-
355c; 371bc, 384b-386d passim; BK v,
489a-b; BK vin, 586b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 17b-18d / Camtllus,
107b-d; 109c-110a / Coriolanus, 191d-192b /
Timoleon, 201c-d / Plaminmus, 307d 308a /
Cimon, 390b-d / Demosthenes, 698a-699a /
Dion, 794d-795a / Marcus Brutus, 815b c;
822a b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 58b-d; BK vi, 91 b-d;
BK xvi, 179d / Histories, BK i, 189b~190b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, PREP 129a-d;
CH 36 149c-d; BK v, CH i 207d-208c; CH 11-26
216c-230a,c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 200b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34c; 37a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government* ca vnt, SECT ioo~
ii247c-51b
722
THE GREAT IDEAS
4 tt> 4«(1)
(3. T6* writing of history* rtuarcb and narra-
tion, 36* The explanation or interpreta-
tion of historic jact: the historian's treat-
ment of causes.)
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 428a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 148d-149a;
BK v, 305b-309a,c
40 GIBBON: Dating and Fall, 179a-d; 190a-d;
200a-201b; 207b; 211a-c; 232b-233c; 294a-
296d; 409b410a;456c-457a,c; 630b,d 634a,c
esp 631a 632a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 244b-245«;386a-b;
451c-453a,c
44 BOSWKLL: Johnson, 166c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INIRO, par 3, lOa-
llb; PART ii, par 124 44b-d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 154c-158a; 165a-166d; 182d-
184b; PART iv, 368d-369a,c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto^ 430b-
433d passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b,
BK x, 389d-390a; 405a-b; 430b-432c; 447c-
448c; BK xi, 469a 470c; BK xui, 563a-564a;
582b d; BK xw, 588a 589a; 610d 611c; BK
xv, 619c-620a; EPILOGUE n 675a-696d
4. The philosophy of history
4a. Theories of causation in the historical
process
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v 502a-519d passim
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK i (449-482)
6c 7a; BK n [1105-1174] 29a-30a,c; BK v [65-
109] 62a-c; [170-194] 63b-c; [772-1457] 71a-
80a,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, sccr 8 269d-
270b; BK ix, SFCT 28 293d-294a
18 AUGUSTINE * City of God, BK i, PREP 129a d;
CH }6 149c-d; BK 11, en 2- 3 150c-151c, BK iv,
CH w 206c-d; BK v, en i 207d 208c; CH 11-26
216c-230a,c; BK xi, en 18 331d 332a, BK xn,
CH 21 357a-b; BK xiv, CH 28 BK xv, CH i
397« 398c; BK xv, CH 21-22 415b*416c; BK
xvni, CH 1-2 472b,d-473d
21 DANTE: Dwme Comedy, HKLL, VH [61-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, xvi (52-114) 77b'78a
23 MACHIAVBLLI: Prince, CH xiv, 21b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c
40 GIB BON: Decline and Fall, 456d457a,c;
630b,d 634a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451c-453a,c
43 FEDERALISM NUMBER ^, 33c
43 MiLL:^rprr^j/o^trGc«rnTmr7j/l327b,d-332d
passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 11, par 115
42b-c; PART HI, par ^40-360 110b-114a,c esp
par ^42 HOc-d, par 347 lllbc; ADDITIONS,
15? Hid / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
170b; 190b-201a,c esp 190b-d, 194b-196a;
PART i, 258b-d; PART u, 262c 263d; 274a-
27Sa
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a-328d
50 MARX: Capital, 6d 7d; 8a lid passim; 35b-c;
36c-d [fn 2}', 181d [fn 3]; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto^ 416c-
417a,c; 419b,d-425b passim; 428b-d
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK ix, 342a-344b;
BK xi, 469a-472b; BK xiii, 563a-575a; BK xiv,
S88a 590c; 609d-613d; BK xv, 618b-621b;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE n 675a-
696d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
345ac
53 }AMES: Psychology, 361 b
54 FREUD* Civilization and Its Discontents, 781a-
789b esp 787a-788d; 791b-d, 799a-802a>c /
New Introductory Lectures, 834b-c; 882b-
884c
4<*(l) The alternatives of fate or freedom, ne-
cessity or chance
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 21d-22a; BK ix,
291b-c
6 THUCYDIDCS- Pehponnesian M/ar,BKiv,462a b
7 PLAIO: I^aw^ BK iv, 679a-c
12 AuRtLius: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d
270b
13 VIRGIL Aenad* BK i [254-296] llOa Ilia
14 PLUTARCH. Romulus, 18d, 20b-c / Camilla^
109c-110a / Conolanus, 188d-192b / Timolcon
195a-213d csp 201a-203b / Philopoemen,
300 b c / Demosthenes, 698b 699a / Marcu*
Brutus, 814d-815c; 822a-b
15 TACITUS Annah, BK in, 49c; BK iv, 69a-b,
BK vi, 91b-d / Histories, BK i, 194b; BK n,
232d-233a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH i 207d-
208c;cii ii-26216c 230a,c
21 DANFL: Dwme Comedy, HELL, VH [61 -96]
lOb-c; ruR(.AiORY, xvi [52-129] 77b-78a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vi, 8d 9b; CH xxv
35a36b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc in
[215-224] 590d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 609b-c; 630b
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 590a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 340
HOb c, par ^42 345 llOc-lllb; par 348 llld /
Philosophy of History ; INTRO, 153a 190b esp
156d 158a, 158c-160b, 161d 162a, 166b-168b,
170d-172b, 178a 179c; 203a-206a,c; PART i,
258b d, PART n, 283d 284a,c; PART in,
285a b,300a-30lc
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,849-872] 264a b
50 MARX: Capital, 6d; 7b-c; lOb lib; 174a c;
378b-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto^ 421d-
422c passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 143a<c; BK
ix, 342a-344b; BK x, 389a-39ic; BK xni,
563a b; BK xv, 618b-621b; 626d-630a; EPI-
LOGUE i, 645« 650c; EPILOGUE n 675a-
696d
4tf(2) to 4* CHAPTER 54: HISTORY
54 FRIUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 801 d-
802a,c
723
Material forces ia history: economic,
physical, and geographic factors
6 HERODOTUS • History, BK n, 50a-56c csp 51b d;
BK in, 114b-c; BK vn, 237b-c; BK ix, 314a,c
6 THUCYDIDBS • Pehponnesian War, BK i,
349 b-d; 350d; 352a-d; 372c-d
7 PLATO: Ttmaeus, 444d-445b / Statesman,
587b 589c / Laws, BK HI, 663d-666d; BK iv,
677a-678c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spmt of Laws, BK i, 3c-d; BK
vui, 56b 57c; BK xiv I02b,d 108d; BK xvn-
XVIH, 122a 129c; BK xxi 153a-173d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 3a-6d; 8b-
lOb, 34a-b; 71a-d; BK HI, 173b d; I77c-179a;
BK iv, 189c-191a; 243b,d 246d; BK v, 305b
309a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89b-d; 90c-d; 236c-
237a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 220b-225a passim,
csp 224b; 338b-c; 355c-d; 427b-428a
43 MIIL Represe ntatwe Government, 327b,d-332d
passim, csp 331b-332d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par
346 lllb / Philosophy of History, IN IRQ,
190b-201a,c esp 190b d, * 194a-195c, 199d
20Ia,c; 203a>b; PART i, 236d 237a; 243d-
244c; 248c-d; PART 11, 259d-260a; PART HI,
286b
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 323a-328c passim,
esp 323a-b
50 MARX- Capital 6d-7d; 10b-lld; 25c-d; 35b-
36c, 86c; 181d [fn 3); 187a-c; 239b-241a, 377c-
378d
50 MARK-ENGLLS: Communist Manifesto 415a-
434d csp 416c-d, 419b,dt 421d-422a, 427a b,
428b-d
54 FRLUD- New Introductory Lectures, 834c; 882c-
883bt884c
•f</(3) World history as the development of
Spirit: the stages of the dialectic of his-
tory
46 HLGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 279,
94b-d; par 340-360 110b-114a,c; ADDIIIONS,
153 141d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c-
162a; 163a-165b; 166b-c; 169d-17lb, 176b-c;
177d-190b; 203a-206a,c; PART iv, 368d-369a,c
4a(4) The role of the individual in history: the
great man, hero, or leader
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 (1253*29-31)
446d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi (756-892) 23Ia 235a;
BK vm (608-731) 275a-278b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c csp 9a-d / Romu-
lus 15a-30a,c / Lycurgus 32a-48d csp 47a-48c
/ Numa Pompilms 49a-61d csp 59c-60b /
Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Pericles 121a-141a,c csp
129c-130b, 140c-141a,c / Timoleon 195a 213d
esp 212*2134 / Pkuninmus, 307d-308a /
Lysander, 358b-d / Pompey 499a-538a,c /
Caesar 577a-604d / Antony 74«a-779d c?p
750a-b / Marcus Brutus 802b,d 824a,c
15 T\cnus: Atmals, BK n, 44d-45a
23 MACHIAVBLU* Prmee, en vi 8c-10a; CH xx,
30d, CH xxv-xxvi, 35c-37d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantapntel, BK iv>
267c-270b
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. CromuW/69a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK x, 65d-
68a
38 RorssEAU : Inequality, 362a b / Political Econ-
omy, 373c-374a / Social Contract, BK n, 400c-
402a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 633d-634a,c
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 220b; 251d-253a,c;
327d 328a,c; 492a
43 FrnhR\Lisr: NUMBER 72, 217d-218a
43 MILL: Representative Goi*emment, 332a-c
46 HLC.FL Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 93
36a-b; par 102 39a b; PART n, par 124 44b-d;
PART in, par 167 60b; par 318 I05b; par 344
Ilia; par 348 Hid; par 350 112a; ADDITIONS,
58 125c; '186 149b / Philosophy of Historv,
INTRO, 162a-170b; 184b-d; PART i, 241d 242b;
PART n, 259b-c; 273a; 275d-276a; 280b 281a;
281d-282d; 283c d; PART rn, 298a-b; 300a-
301c; PARI iv, 360b c; 361d-362a; 366b
47 GOFTHE: Faust, PART i (570-580] 16a
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dtcl(t 107a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace passim, csp BK i,
8d-10d, BK in, 143a c, 162b-164a,c, BK ix,
342a-344b, UK x, 389a 391c, 405a-b, 430b-
432c, 447c-448c, 465c-467a, BK xi, 469a-470c,
497c-499c, 507a, BK xni, 563a-575a, BK xiv,
610d 611c, BK xv, 6l9c 621b, hniu)c,»'E i,
645a 650c, EPILOGUE n 675a-696d passim
54 FREUD- Civilization and Its Discontents, 800a b
/ New Introductory lectures, 834b c
4b. The laws and patterns of historical change:
cycles, progress, evolution
6 HERODOTUS: History, »K i, 2b
6 THUCY/DIDES: Pehponnestan War, BK i, 349a-
352a
7 PLATO. Republic, BK vm, 403a-d / Timaeus,
444d-445b / Statesman, 587b-589c / Laws,
BK HI, 663d 666d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 14 [i23b24-3o|
303c d / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 8 (io74bii-i 3)
60Sa
12 LUCRKTIUS: Nature of Things, BK u (1105-
1174] 29a-30a,c; BK v (65-109) 62a-c; (170-
194] 63b<; (772-1457] 71a-80«,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 14 258d;
BK vt, SECT 46 278c d; BK vn, SECT i 279b;
SECT 49 282d; BK ix, SECT 28 293d 294a; BK
x, SECT 27 299d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv 14a-15b / Aeneid, BK vm
(306-336) 267b-268a
14 PLUTARCH: Sulk, 372a c
724
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Tb< pblbtopby if history. 4b. Tt* laws and
patterns of historical change: cycle*, prog'
rest, evolution.)
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 51b-52b; 58b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 14
307c-308a; BK xi, CH 18 331d-332a; BK
xv-xvui 397b,d-507a,c; BK xxu, CH 30,
618c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 97,
A i, ANS 236a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [67-96]
lOb-c; xiv [94-120] 20c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 439c-440b; 443a-b;
465a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT in, sc i
[45-91] 483 b-c / Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc in
[218-224] 590d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART u, 79a-80a; PART in,
121a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 544d-545d; 632a-
634a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 62c-d; 349a
42 KANT: Judgement, 584d-587a
43 MILL: Liberty, 300d-301c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
340 llOb-c; par 344 Ilia; par 347 lllb-c; par
354-360 112c-114a,c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 161a-c; 174d-175c; 178a-179c; 187a-c;
203b-206a,c; PAHI I, 235d 236a, 258b d;
PART u, 259c-d; 282d-284a,c; PART in,
286C'287a;308ab;pARTiv,315b317d;342d
343a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a; 327a-330a,c
esp 327b
50 MARX: Capital, 10b-lld; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENGEL&: Communist Manifesto, 416c d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 469a-472b;
EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE u 675a-
696d
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
652d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781a-
789b esp 785c; 799a-802a,c / New Introductory
Lectures, 834c; 882c 883a; 883c
4c. The spirit of the time ts conditioning the
politics tnd culture of a period
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 354 234b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 362a d
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, PREP, 6c-7a;
INTRO, par 3 lOa 12c; PART in, par 218 72c d
/ Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c;
177c 178a; 182d 183a; 185a 186d; 187d-189a;
PART i, 211a-219d esp 219c d; 219d-235c up
220b-221a, 322a-223a, 233b-235c; 247b-257c;
PART u, 259d-260c; 263d-281b; PART in, 286c-
298*
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [570-580] 16a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 645a-
646c
52 DOSTOBVSKY: Brothers Kentm&zov, BK xi,
345* -c
3. The theology of hUtory
5*. The relation of the gods or God to
human history: the dispensations of
providence
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesit, 3; 6-9 passim; 16-17;
21:1-24; 22:1-18 esp 22:15-18; 28:11-16;
35:9-13; 45:1-13; 46:1-4 / Exodus, 3-20
passim; 23:20-33 / Deuteronomy, 4:1-40;
7-11 passim; 29 / Joshua, 6:1-20; 10;
24:1-25— (D) Josue, 6:1-20; 10; 24:1-25 /
/ Samuel, 12:6-25— (D) J Ktn8si 12:6-25 /
Nchemtafi, 9:1-10.29— (D) II Esdras, 9:1-
10:29 / Psalms, 44:1-3; 78; 81; 105-106; 136
esp 136:10-24 — (D) Psalms, 43:1-4; 77;
80; 104-105; 135 esp 135:10-24 / Jeremiah,
43:8-13; 44:30; 46~(D) Jeremias, 43:8-13;
APOCRYPHA: Judith passim, esp 5-6, 8-16 — (D)
OT, Judith passim, esp 5-6, 8-16
NEW TESTAMENT. Romans, i-n / / Corinthians,
15:19-55 / Galatians, 3-4 / // Thessalomans,
1:7-2:14 / Hebrews passim / // Peter, 3:3-13 /
Revelation — ( D) Apocalypse
5 AfcscHYLUs: Persians 15a 26d esp [737-908]
23a-24d / Prometheus Bound 40a 51d esp [436-
502] 44c-45a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 21d-22a; BK vi,
204b c; BK vn, 214d-220b esp 218b-220b;
237a b, 238d-239a; 250b-d; BK vm, 2 73 b-c;
BK ix, 309d-310a
7 PL\TO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Symposium,
157b 159b / Republic, BK vi, 378a-b / Critias
478a-485d / Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws,
BK iv, 679a b; 68 2 d 683d; BK x, 765d-
768d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 22 19Sa-
201a, BK iv, CH i 213a-223d; CH 3 224b-d; CH
7 232c 235a
12 AURKLIUS. Meditations, BK u, SECT 11 258a-b;
BK in, SECT ii 262a b; BK vi, SECT 44
278bc
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid 103a-379a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 18d; 28b-29c / Numa
Pompilius, 50d-51c / Camillus, 107b-d /
Conolanus, 188d-192b / Sulla 372a-c /
Demosthenes, 698a-699a / Marcus Brutus,
822a-b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 189b-190a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xin, par 49-51
124a d / City of God, BK i, PREP 129a-d; CH
36 149c-d; BK it, CH 2-3 150c-15lc; BK iv, CH
33-34 206c*207a,c; BK v, CH 11-26 216c-
230a,c; BK x, CH 14 307c-308a; BK xi, CH i
322b(d 323a; CH 18 331d 332a; BK XH, CH 21
357a-b; BK xv, CH i 397b,d-398c; CH 21-22
415b-416c; BK xvu, CH 1-3 449a-451c; BK
xvi 11, CH 1-2 472b,d-473d; BK xxn, CH 30,
618c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 73,
A i, RRP i 370a-371a
5b
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
725
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 98,
A 6 244c-245b; Q 106, AA 3-4 323a-325c; PART
H-II, o i, A 7 385c-387a; PART in, Q i, AA 5-6
707a-709c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, n [13-27] 2d;
VII [61-96] lOb-C; PURGATORY, XVI (52-129]
77b-78a; xxix 97d-99b; XXXH foyj-xxxm
[78] 102d-105a; PARADISE, vi (i-mj 113c-
114d; vni [91-148] 117d-118c; xi [28-39] 122b;
xn [37-45] 124a, xvni [52]-x\ [148] 134a-
138b passim; xxx [i24J-xxxn [138] 153a-156a
23 MACHIAVELLI. Prince, en xxvi, 36b-37a
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 306a*d
26 SHAKESPEARE- Richard III 105a M8a,c csp
ACT v, sc in 143b-147d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 19b-d, 35b;
37c 38a / Novum Organum, BK i, APII 93 125d-
126a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, P\RT i, APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost 93a 333a csp BK i [i-
26] 93b-94a, BK in [80-134] 137a-138a, BK v
[224-245] 180a-b, [519-543] 186b-187a, BK vi
[169-188] 200a, BK vn [139-173] 220a-221a,
BK x [1-21] 274b-275a, [616-640] 288a-b, [720 -
844]290a-292b, BK xi [334J-BK xn [6o5]306b-
332a / Samson Agonizes [60 67] 340b-341a;
[300-325] 346a b, [373 419] 347b 348b, [667-
709] 354a-355a
33 PASCAL: Pensces, 611-613 282b 283a; 619-736
284b 317b esp 655 292b, 699 302b
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 292d-293b
46 HEC.LL Philosophy of Right, PARI in, par 343
llOd Ilia / Philosophy of History, IN i RO, 156c-
160b; PART in, 303c 309d; P^RI iv, 321b-d;
368d369a,c
48 MhLvn LK Moby Dtc{, 85a
SlToisrov. War and Peace, BK ix, 343b-c;
LPILOGUE n, 675a-677b, 680b-c, 684b d
*>b. The city of God and the city of man; church
and state
OLD TFSTAMENT: Psalms, 2; 46*4; 48:1,8, 72*8-
n, 87 3; 101.8; 127.1 — (D) Psalms, 2; 45.5;
47:1,9, 71 8-1 1 ; 86.3; 100.8, 126 i / Isaiah,
60.14— (D) Isaias, 60.14 / Daniel, 2 44;
4 3.34. 7 14— (0) Daniel, 2 44; 3 100; 4 31;
7.14
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6:2-4— (D)
OT, Bool^ of Wisdom, 6:3-5
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 6:33; 17:24-27;
22*i5-22-(O)A/a«^«',6:33;i7i23-26,22 15-
22 / Mar{, 12,13-17 / !#£, 12-31"; 20-21-26 /
John, 18:33-37 / Acts, 5-29 / Romans, 13-1 -8
/ / Corinthians, 15.24-25 / Ephesians, 2.19 /
Colowans, 1-12-13 / / Timothy, 2:1-3 / Titus,
3:1 / / Peter, 2:13-17
12 JfepicTEius: Discourses, BK nt CH 5, 143d-
144a, CH 14, 155a b
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK in, SECT 1 1 262a b;
BK iv, SECT 23 265c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, PREF 129a d;
en 35 149b-c; BK w, CH 33-34 206c-207a,c;
BK v, CH 15-16 220d 221b; CH 25 228b c; BK
xi, CH i 322b,d 323a, BK xiv, CH 28- BK xv,
CH 5 397a-400c, BK xv, CH 21-22 415b-416c;
BK xvn, en 1-3 449a-451c, BK xvni, CH 1-2
472b,d-473d; BK xix, CH 5 513d-514b, CH u
516d517b; m 14 S20a d; on 17 S22b523a;
CH 19-26 523b 529a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 10 627b
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, HELL, u [20-30] 2d-
3a, xiv [94-120] 20cd; xxxiv [61-68] 51d-
52a; PURCMTORY, vi [91 <)6] 61d, xni [(>i -<)6]
72d; xvr [52-132] 77b-78b; xxix 97d 99b;
xxxn [37]-xxxm [78] 102d 105a; PARADISE,
vi [i-ni] 113c 114d; xvin [<>2]-xx [148)
134a-138b passim; xxx [1^4] xxxn [138]
153a 156a
ZSHouBis- Leviathan, PARI n, ISla c, 160a c,
PART in, 177c-180a, 191b 204a; 240a c; PART
in -iv, 245c 249b, PART iv, 266a c; 275a-
278d
32 MILTON- Paradise I ]jost, BK xn (485 5<ji]329b-
331a
38 ROUSSEAU Social Contract, BK iv, 435a-439c
csp 437c-438c
42 KANI: Science of Right, 442c-d; 444a-c /
Judgement, 509d 510a
46 HRGPL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 17Sc-
177d, 205d-206a,c, PART i, 245d 247b, PART
in, 308b-c, 311b d, PARI iv, 315d, 316a-d;
331b342a, 348a369a,c
52 DOSFOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 28d-
32c
726 . THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
Far: The general consideration of history as a kind of knowledge, see KNOWLEDGE 53(5); MEMORY
AND IMAGINATION 3d; TIME 6e; and for other comparisons of history with poetry, science,
and philosophy, see NATURE 4c; PHILOSOPHY id; POETRY 50; SCIENCE 20.
The educational significance of history or of historical examples, see EDUCATION 4d; VIRTUE
AND VICE 4d (4).
Other discussions of ihe logic or method of historical research, see LOGIC 4c; REASONING 6d.
The theory of historical causation, see CAUSE 8; and for the factors of chance and fate, free-
dom and necessity, see CHANCE 6b; FATE 6; LIBERTY 6a; NFCESSITY AND CONTINGENCY
5f; PROGRESS ia; WILL yb.
The idea of progress in the philosophy of history, see EVOLUTION yc; PROGRKSS i-ic; and for
a cyclical theory of history, see LABOR la; MAN 93; PROGRESS ic.
Other discussions of a matenalist philosophy of history, see DIALLCFIC 2d; L\BOR 7c~7c(3);
MATTER 6; OPPOSITION 50; PROGRESS u; WAR AND PE\CE 2c; WF,\LTH ir.
Other considerations of history as a dialectical process in the development of Spirit, see
DIALECTIC 2d-2d(2); LIBERTY 6a; MIND iof-iof(2); PROGRLSS 40.
The role of the great man or hero in history, see HONOR 5d.
The historian or philosopher of history as a prophet, see PATH 6.
Other expressions of historical relativism, see CUSTOM AND CONVINTION 9~9b; RELATION
6-6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 7-70.
Divine providence in relation to the events of history and to the issue of necessity and free-
dom in history, see FATE 4; GOD 7b; LIHI RI Y 5a-<)b; WILL yb.
Other discussions of the city of God and the city of man, or of the issue of church and state,
see RELIGION 4; STATE 2g.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Bool^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with uhich this chapter deals. 'Ihesc \\orks are divided into two groups
I. Works bv authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Idea*.
BODIN Method for the Easy Comprehension of
1 History
UiBtr. Considerations on the Causes of the Bos&utr. Ducours sur fhistoire untver^elle
Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans Vico. The New Science
( ii HRON. An Essay on the Study of literature, LX\ vm- VOLTAIRE "History," in A Philosophical Dictionary
L xxx 1 1 . The Philosophy of History
K\.\r. The Idea of a Umt<er*al History on a Cosmo- HFRDER Outlines of a Philosophy of the Htsior\ of
Political Plan ' Man
HtGFL. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT n, SUB-SECT c CONDORCBT. Outlines of an Historical View of the
(i c, -y) Progress of the Human Mind
] S MILL. A System of Logic, BK vi, CH 10-11 Sc HELLING. The Ages of the World
W. JAMES. "Great Men and Their Fnvironment," SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL in,
in The Will to Believe SUP, CH 38
GUIZOT. General History of Civilization in Europe,
"' LBCT i-n
POLYBHIS, Histories, VOL n, BK xn (xvn-xxvm) MACMJLAY. "History," in Miscellaneous Essays
Loci AN. The Way to Write History F. SCHLECEL. The Philosophy of History
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
727
MICHBLET. Introduction a fhistoire unwcrsellc
BUCHEZ. Introduction ft la science de I'histoire
T. CARLYLE. On History
. On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in
History
EMERSON. "History," in Essays^ i
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, BK vi
. System of Positive Polity, VOL in, Social Dy-
namics
RANKE. Uber die Epochen der neueren Ceschichte
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK VH
BUCKLE. History of Civilization in England
FROUDE. The Science of History
BTRCKHARDT. Force and Freedom* CH 4-6
NIETZSCHE. The Use and Abuse of History
RENOUVIER Essais de critique generalc, w
. Uchrome
BERNHEIM. Ishrhuch der histonschen Methode
B. AD\MS The I^atv of Cwihza twn and Decay
ACTON. Essays on Freedom and Power, CH i
LANGLOIS and SEIGNOBOS. Introduction to the Study
of History
BRADLEY. Collected Essays, VOL 1(1)
FISKJ . Essays' Historical and Literary, VOL 11(1)
H. An\Mi> The Degradation of the Democratic
Dogma
BURY. The Science of History
LAMPRECHT. What Is History?
T. HARDY. The Dynasts
PETRIE. Revolutions of Civilization
PARETO, The Mind and Society, VOL w, CH 13
SPENCLER. The Decline of the West
PtNTY. A Guildsmans Interpretation of History
BUKHARIN. Historical Materialism
BEARD. The Economic Ba*is of Politics
SHOTNVELL, The History of History
BERDYAYEV. The Meaning of History
TROEI.TSCM Der Htstonsmus und seine Vberwindung
TECGARI. Theory of History
DAWSON. Progress and Religion
BECKER. Everyman His OuiJ Historian
STURZO. The Inner Laws of Society, INTRO
COLLINCWOOD. The Idea of History
CROCE History \ Its Theory and Practice
. //ij/ory as the Story of Liberty
KI.NT. Writing History
O R i FC; \ Y G A s s E r To ti'ii rd a Phi h <ophy of History
CXssiRpR. The Myth of the State, PART in (15-17)
M. R. COHEN. The Meaning of Human History
NEI F. The Poetry of History
SCHRI CKER. Worl^ and History
A. J. ToYNiiii'. A Study of History
. Civilization on Trial, en 1-3, 13
LOWITH. Meaning in History
Chapter 35: HONOR
INTRODUCTION
THE notions of honor and fame are some-
times used as if their meanings were in-
terchangeable, and sometimes as if each had a
distinct connotation. In the tradition of the
great books, both usages will be found. It is
seldom just a matter of words. The authors who
see no difference between a man's honor and
his fame are opposed on fundamental issues of
morality to those who think the standards of
honor are independent of the causes of fame.
This opposition will usually extend to psy-
chological issues concerning human motivation
and to political issues concerning power and
justice. It entails contrary views of the role of
rewards and punishments in the life of the indi-
vidual and of society.
Praise and blame seem to be common ele-
ments in the significance of fame 'and honor.
The meaning of honor seems to involve in
addition the notion of worth or dignity. But
whether a man is virtuous or not, whether he
deserves the good opinion of his fellow men, does
not seem to be the indispensable condition on
which his fame or infamy rests. Nor does his
good or ill repute in the community necessarily
signify that he is a man of honor or an honor-
able man.
The connection and distinction of these
terms would therefore appear to be the initial
problem of this chapter. Any solution of the
problem must consider the relation of the in-
dividual to the community, and the standards
by which the individual is appraised— by him-
self and his fellow men. Honor and fame both
seem to imply public approval, but the ques-
tion is whether both presuppose the same
causes or the same occasions for social esteem.
"The manifestation of the value we set on
one another," writes Hobbes, "is that which is
commonly called Honoring and Dishonoring.
To value a man at a high rate, is to honor him;
at a low rate, is to dishonor him. But high and
low, in this case, is to be understood by com-
parison to the rate that each man setteth on
himself." Does Hobbes mean that the value a
man sets on himself is the true standard of his
worth ? Apparently not. Let men, he says, "rate
themselves at the highest value they can; yet
their true value is no more than it is esteemed
by others." What, theni is the measure of such
esteem ? "The value, or worth of a man," an-
swers Hobbes, "is as of all other things, his price;
that is to say, so much as would be given for the
use of his power; and therefore, is not absolute
but a thing dependent on the need and judg-
ment of another."
Here, then, honor is not what a man has in
himself, but what he receives from others.
Honor is paid him. He may think himself dis-
honored if others do not pay him the respect
which accords with his self-respect, but their
evaluation of him is somehow independent of
the standard by which he measures himself It
depends on the relation in which he stands to
them, in terms of his power and their need.
Virtue and duty — considerations of good and
evil, right and wrong — do not enter into this
conception of honor. The distinction between
honor and fame tends to disappear when honor
reflects the opinion of the community, based on
the political utility rather than the moral worth
of a man.
THERE is ANOTHER conception of honor which
not only separates it from fame, but also makes
it independent of public approbation. This is
not an unfamiliar meaning of the term. The
man who says "on my honor" or "my word of
honor" may not be an honest man, but if he
is, he pledges himself by these expressions to
fulfill a promise or to live up to certain ex-
pectations. He is saying that he needs no ex-
728
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
729
tcrnal check or sanction. A man who had to be
compelled by threat or force to honor his
obligations would not be acting from a sense
of honor.
"It is not for outward show that the soul is
to play its part," Montaigne writes, "but for
ourselves within, where no eyes can pierce but
our own; there she defends us from the fear of
death, of pain, of shame itself; there she arms
us against the loss of our children, friends, and
fortunes; and when opportunity presents itself,
she leads us on to the hazards of war: 'Not for
any profit, but for the honor of honesty it-
self.'"
A sense of honor thus seems to function like
a sense of duty. Both reflect the light of con-
science. Both operate through an inner de-
termination of the will to do what reason judges
to be right in the particular case. If there is a
difference between them, it is not so much in
their effects as in their causes.
Duty usually involves obligations to others,
but a man's sense of honor may lead him to act
in a certain way though the good of no other
is involved. To maintain his self-respect he
must respect a standard of conduct which he
has set for himself. Accordingly, a man can be
ashamed of himself for doing or thinking what
neither injures anyone else nor ever comes to
the notice of others. A sense of shame — the
reflex of his sense of honor— torments him for
having fallen short of his own ideal, for
being disloyal to his own conceptions of what
is good or right; and his shame may be even
more intense in proportion as the standard he
has violated is not one shared by others, but
is his own measure of what a man should be
or do.
Dmitri Karamazov exhibits these mixed
feelings of honor and shame when he declares
at the preliminary legal investigation: "You
have to deal with a man of honor, a man of the
highest honor; above all— don't lose sight of
it — a man who's done a lot of nasty things, but
has always been, and still is, honorable at bot-
tom, in his inner being. . . . That's just what's
made me wretched all my life, that I yearned
to be honorable, that I was, so to say, a martyr
to a sense of honor, seeking for it with a lantern,
with the lantern of Diogenes, and yet all my
life I've been doing filthy things."
The sense of honor and the sense of duty dif-
fer in still another respect. Duty presupposes
law. The essence of law is its universality. A
sense of duty, therefore, leads a man to do what
is expected of him, but not of him alone, for
he is no different from others in relation to
what the law commands. In contrast, a sense
of honor presupposes self-consciousness of virtue
in the individual. It binds him in conscience
to live up to the image of his own character,
insofar as it has lineaments which seem ad-
mirable to him.
Without some self-respect, a man can have
no sense of honor. In the great tragic poems,
the hero who dishonors himself in his own eyes
dies spiritually with the loss of his self-respect.
To Jive on in the flesh thereafter would be
almost a worse fate than the physical demise
which usually symbolizes the tragic ending.
THE SENSE IN WHICH a man can honor or dis-
honor himself is closely akin to the sense in
which he can be honored or dishonored by
others. Both involve a recognition of virtue or
its violation. But they differ in this: that a
man's personal honor is an internal consequence
of virtue and inseparable from it, whereas pub-
lic honor bestowed upon a man is an external
reward of virtue. It is not always won by those
who deserve it. When it is, "it is given to a
man," as Aquinas points out, "on account of
some excellence in him, and is a sign and testi-
mony of the excellence that is in the person
honored."
There can be no separation between what a
community considers honorable and what it
considers virtuous or excellent in mind or char-
acter. But it does not necessarily follow that
the man who is actually virtuous will always
receive the honor which is due him. Public
honor can be misplaced either undeserv-
edly given or unjustly withheld. The virtuous
should be prepared for this, in the judgment of
Aquinas, since honor is not "the reward for
which the virtuous work, but they receive
honor from men by way of reward, as from
those who have nothing greater to offer." Happi-
ness, he goes on to say, is the "true reward . . .
for which the virtuous work; for if they worked
for honor, it would no longer be virtue, but
ambition."
730
THE GREAT IDEAS
Tolstoy, however, deplores the injustice of
the honor given Napoleon and the dishonor
in which Kutuzov was held. "Napoleon," he
writes, "that most insignificant tool of history
who .never anywhere, even in exile, showed
human dignity — Napoleon is the object of
adulation and enthusiasm; he is grand. But
Kutuzov— the man who from the beginning
to the end of his activity in 1812, never once
swerving by word or deed from Borodino to
Vilna, presented an example exceptional in
history of self-sacrifice and a present conscious-
ness of the future importance of what was hap-
pening— Kutuzov seems to them something
indefinite and pitiful, and when speaking of
him and of the year 1812 they always seem a
little ashamed."
Kutuzov later received some measure of
honor when he was presented with the rarely
awarded Order of St. George. But what is per-
haps a much higher honor came to him after
his death when Tolstoy enshrined him as one
of the heroes of War and Peace. Sometimes the
virtuous or truly honorable man, living in a
bad society, goes without honor in his own time
to be honored only by posterity. He may even
be dishonored by a society which has contempt
for virtue. Sometimes a man of indifferent char-
acter and achievement, or even one who is
actually base and ignoble, wins honor through
cleverly simulating the possession of admirable
traits.
It seems appropriate to consider the propor-
tion between a man's intrinsic worth and the
honor he receives. The distribution of honors
raises questions of justice—in fact, it is thought
to be one of the chief problems of distributive
justice. For those who hold that honor and
fame are utterly distinct in principle, this is
the clear mark of their difference. Justice does
not require that fame be proportionate to vir-
tue. Though there is a sense in which fame may
not be deserved, the qualities in a person which
justify fame are of a different order from those
which honor should reward. Fame belongs to
the great, the outstanding, the exceptional,
without regard to virtue or vice. Infamy is
fame no less than good repute. The great scoun-
drel can be as famous as the great hero. Existing
in the reputation a man has regardless of his
character or accomplishments, fame does not
tarnish, AS honor does, when it is unmerited.
But for the same reason, fame is often lost as
fortuitously as it is acquired. "Fame has no
stability," Aquinas observes; "it is easily ruined
by false report. And if it sometimes endures,
this is by accident."
THE DISTINCTION between honor and fame is
not acknowledged by those who ignore merit
as a condition of praise. Machiavelli, for ex-
ample, places fame—or, as he sometimes calls
it, glory— in that triad of worldly goods which
men want without limit and without relation
to justice. If the aim of life is to get ahead in
the world, money, fame, and power are the
chief marks of success. A man is deemed no less
successful if he acquires power by usurping it,
or gains it by foul means rather than fair; so,
too, if he becomes famous through chicanery or
deception and counterfeits whatever form of
greatness men are prone to praise.
Along with riches, fame, says Machiavelli, is
"the end which every man has before him."
This men seek to obtain by various methods:
"one with caution, another with haste; one
by force, another by skill; one by patience,
another by its opposite; and each one succeeds
in reaching the goal by a different method."
Some methods, he admits in another place,
"may gain empire, but not glory," such as "to
slay fellow-citizens, to deceive friends, to be
without faith, without mercy, without reli-
gion." Nevertheless, he declares: "Let a prince
have the credit of conquering and holding a
state, the means will always be considered hon-
est, and he will be praised by everybody."
Because fame seems to be morally neutral,
it replaces honor in the discussions of those who
measure men in terms of success instead of vir-
tue, duty, or happiness. Because it is morally
neutral, it is the term used by those who wish
to judge, not men, but the impression they
make. What counts is the magnitude of that
impression, not its correspondence with reality.
To be famous is to be widely, not necessarily
well, spoken of by one's fellow men, now or
hereafter. The man who stands above the herd,
whose outlines are clear and whose deeds are
memorable, takes his place among the famous
of his time or of all times. Plutarch the moralist
certainly does not regard the men whose lives
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
731
he writes as paragons of virtue. On the con-
trary, he plainly indicates that many of them
are examples of extraordinary depravity. But
Plutarch the biographer treats them all as
famous. He takes that as a matter of histonc
fact, not of moral judgment. Good or bad, they
were acknowledged to be great men, leaders,
figures of eminent proportions, engaged in
momentous exploits. They were not all vic-
torious. Few if any were successful in all that
they attempted or were able to preserve what
successes they achieved. But each ventured be-
yond the pale of ordinary men; and each suc-
ceeded at least in becoming a symbol of great
deeds, a monument in human memory.
The opposite of fame is anonymity. In Dan-
te's moral universe, only the Trimmers on the
rim of Hell are totally anonymous; neither good
nor bad, they lack name and fame. Because
they "lived without infamy and without
praise/' Hell will not receive them, "for the
damned would have some boast of them." To
them alone no fame can be allowed. Honor and
glory belong only to the blessed, but the
damned in the pits of Hell, by the record they
left for men to revile, are as well remembered,
and hence as famous, as the saints in Heaven.
THAT MEN NORMALLY desire the esteem of their
fellow men seems to be undisputed. "He must
be of a strange and unusual constitution,"
Locke writes, "who can content himself to live
in constant disgrace and disrepute with his own
particular society. Solitude many men have
sought, and been reconciled to; but nobody
that has the least thought or sense of a man
about him, can live in society under the con-
stant dislike and ill opinion of his familiars,
and those he converses with. This is a burden
too heavy for human sufferance."
A society of misanthropes, despising each
other, is as unthinkable as an economy of
misers. The social nature of man requires sym-
pathy and fellow feeling, love and friendship,
and all of these involve some measure of ap-
proval based on knowledge or understanding.
According to one theory, the highest type of
friendship springs from mutual admiration, the
respect which men have for one another. The
old saying that "there is honor among thieves"
suggests that even among bad men there is a
desire to hold the approbation of those who
share a common life. With this in mind ap-
parently, William James describes fame and
honor as a man's "image in the eyes of his own
'set,' which exalts or condemns him as he con-
forms or not to certain requirements that may
not be made of one in another walk of life."
Though Pascal regards "the pursuit of glory"
as "the greatest baseness of man," he must ad-
mit that "it is also the greatest mark of his ex-
cellence; for whatever possessions he may have
on earth, whatever health and essential com-
fort, he is not satisfied if he has not the esteem
of men. He values human reason so highly that,
whatever advantages he may have on earth, he
is not content if he is not also ranked highly
in the judgment of man. . . . Those who most
despise men, and put them on a level with
brutes, yet wish to be admired and believed
by men, and contradict themselves by their
own feelings."
But is this universal wish for the esteem of
others a desire for honor or a desire for fame ?
Does it make any difference to our conception
of happiness whether we say that men cannot
be happy without honor or that they cannot be
happy unless they are famous ?
Even those who do not distinguish be-
tween honor and fame are led by these ques-
tions to discriminate between fame and in-
famy. As we have already noted, fame and
infamy are alike, since both involve the noto-
riety enjoyed by the outstanding, the excep-
tional, the great, whether good or bad. If what
men desire is simply to be known by others,
and to have a kind of immortality through
living on in the memory of later generations,
then evil will serve as well as good repute.
All that matters is the size of the reputation,
and its vitality. But if the desire is for appro-
bation or praise, good opinion alone will satisfy,
and then the question becomes whether the
object is fame or honor. Which does lago have
in mind when he says, "Good name in man and
woman, dear my Lord, is the immediate jewel
of their souls"?
Opposite answers seem to be determined by
opposite views of human nature and human
happiness. Those who, like Plato, think that
virtue is an indispensable ingredient of happi-
ness, include honor among the "good things"
732
THE GREAT IDEAS
which the virtuous man will seek in the right
way. Possession of good things by itself is not
sufficient, Socrates says in the Euthydcmus. A
man must also use them and use them well, for
"the wrong use of a thing is far worse than
the non-use," Applied to honor, this would
seem to mean that the virtuous man will not
seek praise for the wrong reasons — either for
that which is not praiseworthy in himself or
from others whose lack of virtue disqualifies
them from giving praise with honesty. The
virtuous man will not«eek fame or be unhappy
lacking it, for fame, like pleasure or wealth,
can be enjoyed by bad men as well as good and
be sought for wrong as well as right reasons or
in the wrong as well as the right way. Virtue,
according to the moralists, protects a man from
the seductions of money, fame, and power—
the things for which men undisciplined by vir-
tue seem to have an inordinate desire.
In the theory of virtue, honor, unlike fame,
belongs only to the good and is always a good
object, worthy of pursuit. Honor is, in fact,
the object of two virtues which Aristotle de-
fines in the Ethics. One of these virtues he calls
"ambition," and the Greek name for the other,
which is literally rendered by "high-mmded-
ness," is sometimes translated by the English
word "magnanimity" and sometimes by
"pride." The Christian connotation of "pride"
makes it a difficult word to use as the name for
a virtue, but it can nevertheless be so used
when it is understood to mean a justifiable de-
gree of self-respect—not conceit but a middle-
ground between undue self-esteem and in-
ordinate self-deprecation. When the Aristo-
telian names for these two vices are translated
in English by "vanity" and "humility," it is
again necessary to point out that "humility"
must be understood, not in its Christian sig-
nificance as meaning the virtue of the truly re-
ligious man, but rather as signifying an exag-
gerated meekness or pusillanimity.
The difference between pride and ambition
lies in the magnitude of the other virtues they
accompany and the scale of honor with which
they are concerned. Both are concerned with
honor, which Aristotle calls "the greatest of
external goods." In both cases, "honor is the
prize of virtue, and it is to the good that it is
rendered." The proud man is one "who, being
truly worthy of great things, also thinks himself
worthy of them; for he who does so beyond his
deserts is a fool, but no virtuous man is foolish
or silly." The proud man will be pleased "only
by honors that are great and that are conferred
by good men . . . Honor from casual people and
on trifling grounds, he will utterly despise,
since it is not this that he deserves."
Humility and vanity are, according to Aris-
totle, the vices of defect and excess which occur
when a man fails to be proud. The unduly
humble man, underestimating his worth, does
not seek the honor he deserves. The vain man,
at the other extreme, overestimates himself and
wants honor out of proportion to his qualities.
Honor, like any other external good, "may be
desired more than is right, or less, or from the
right sources and in the right way. We blame
both the over-ambitious man as aiming at honor
more than is right and from the wrong sources,
and the unambitious man as not willing to be
honored even for noble reasons."
However words are used, the point seems to
be clear. It is possible for men to desire honor
more than they should and less. It is also pos-
sible for honor to be rightly desired. Honor de-
sired to excess or in the wrong way may be
called "fame," even as the excessive desire for
honor is sometimes regarded as the vice of
ambition or an aspect of the sin of pride. The
word "pride" seems to have both a good and
a bad connotation. But the point remains that
the difference between these two meanings of
"pride," like the difference between honor and
fame, is understood by moralists in terms of vir-
tue, and it is discounted by those who reject the
relevance of virtue.
THOUGH HONOR MAY be regarded as inseparable
from virtue in moral theory, certain political
philosophers make its separation from virtue
the principle of a type of government.
In Plato's Republic, monarchy and aristoc-
racy are defined in terms of the virtue of the
rulers— either of the one wise man or of the
excellent few. Government by the few is oli-
garchy rather than aristocracy when wealth
rather than virtue is the principle of their se-
lection. Plato sees the possibility of an inter-
mediate between these two which occurs as
a kind of transitional form when aristocracy
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
713
tends to degenerate into oligarchy. He calls
that intermediate "timocracy" and describes
it as "a mixture of good and evil" in which the
ruler is "a lover of power and a lover of honor,
claiming to be a ruler, not because he is elo-
quent, or on any ground of that sort, but be-
cause he is a soldier and has performed feats of
arms." In such a state, he claims, "one thing, and
one thing only, is predominantly seen— -the
spirit of contention and ambition; and these are
due to the prevalence of the passionate or spir-
ited element." In a timocracy, in other words,
honor is divorced from virtue and wisdom and
becomes the only qualification for public of-
fice.
With Montesquieu, the situation is quite re-
versed. For him, virtue is absolutely requisite
in popular government or democracy, and to a
less extent in that other form of republic which
he calls "aristocracy." As virtue is necessary in
a republic, so is honor in a monarchy. "Honor
— that is, the prejudice of every person and
rank — supplies the place of political virtue. A
monarchical government supposes pre-eminen-
ces and ranks, as likewise a noble descent. Since
it is the nature of honor to aspire to preferments
and titles, it properly placed in this govern-
ment."
Though Montesquieu and Plato differ in
their classification of the forms of government,
they seem to agree that honor divorced from
virtue is a counterfeit. Honor identified with
ranks and titles, honor which moves individuals
to serve the public good in order to promote
their own interests, Montesquieu admits is a
false honor, "but even this false honor is as use-
ful to the public as true honor could possibly be
to private persons." Considering the laws of
education characteristic of monarchical govern-
ments, Montesquieu points out that it is not in
colleges or academies, but in the world itself,
which is the school of honor, that the subjects
of monarchy are chiefly trained. "Here the
actions of men are judged, not as virtuous, but
as shining; not as just, but as great; not as rea-
sonable, but extraordinary."
HEROISM is DISCUSSED in the chapter on COUR-
AGE, and the role of the hero— the leader or
great man — in the chapter on HISTORY. Here
we are concerned with the hero in the esteem of
his fellow men, the symbol of human greatness
and the object of human admiration.
Honor, fame, and glory combine in various
proportions to constitute the heroic figures of
classical antiquity: honor, to the extent that
none is without some virtue and each possesses
certain virtues at least to a remarkable degree;
fame, because they are the great among men,
outstanding and well-known, godlike in their
pre-eminence; and glory, almost in the theo-
logical sense, inasmuch as the heroes celebrated
by Homer and Virgil are beloved by the gods.
It is not accidental that the central figure in
the Greek tragedies is called a "hero," since in
the ancient view the tragic character must nec-
essarily belong to a great man, a man of noble
proportions, one who is "better than the ordi-
nary man," says Aristotle. If he also has some
fault or flaw, it is a consequence of strength
misused, not a mark of individual weakness.
Such weakness as he has is the common frailty
of man.
In the modern world heroism and the heroic
are more difficult to identify or define. We tend
to substitute the notion of genius in considering
the exceptionally gifted among men. Glory is
dimly recognized and honor takes second place
to fame. That portion of modern poetry which
deals in heroes — as, for example, the tragedies
and historical plays of Shakespeare — borrows
them from, or models them on, legendary fig-
ures. The great modern novels, counterparts of
the epic poems of antiquity, portray excep-
tional men and women without idealizing them
to heroic stature. One of these novels, Tolstoy's
War and Peace, seeks to deflate the fame of
great men. They do not deserve even their
reputation for great deeds, much less the honor
owed the truly great.
"If we assume as historians do that great men
lead humanity to the attainment of certain
ends . . . then it is impossible," Tolstoy declares,
"to explain the facts of history without intro-
ducing the conceptions of chance and genius."
But in Tolstoy's opinion "the words chance and
genius do not denote any really existing thing
and therefore cannot be defined." We can dis-
pense with these meaningless words, he thinks,
if we are willing to renounce "our claim to dis-
cern a purpose immediately intelligible to us"
and admit "the ultimate purpose to be beyond
734
THE GREAT IDEAS
our ken." Then "not only shall we have no
need to see exceptional ability in Napoleon and
Alexander, but we shall be unable to consider
them to be anything but like ordinary men,
and we shall not be obliged to have recourse to
chance for an explanation of those small events
which made these people what they were, but
it will be clear that all those small events were
inevitable/'
This view of history, with its emphasis on
impersonal forces, finds another expression in
Marxist theory. The machine and the proletari-
at mass are the heroes of history, or of the revo-
lution. Yet the modern period is not without
an opposite strain of thought. Machiavelli calls
for a great man, a hero, to become the "libera-
tor" of Italy, "who shall yet heal her wounds
and put an end to the ravaging and plundering
of Lombardy, to the swindling and taxing of the
kingdom and of Tuscany, and cleanse those
sores that for long have festered." His maxims
for the prince may be read, not merely as ad-
vice for getting and holding power, but as pre-
paring for an heroic effort in which the prince's
power and fame will be used for liberty. The
great man has the historic mission of a pioneer,
not the role of a puppet.
Even in the Renaissance, however, Machia-
velli is answered by Montaigne, who prizes
moderation too much to praise heroism more
than a little. Comparing Socrates and Alex-
ander, Montaigne places all of the la tier's ac-
tions under the maxim, "Subdue the world,"
whereas Socrates, he says, acts on the principle
that it is wise "to carry on human life conform-
ably with its natural condition. "To Montaigne,
"the virtue of the soul does not consist in flying
high, but in walking orderly; its grandeur does
not exercise itself in grandeur, but in medi-
ocrity."
The mediaeval Christian conception of hero-
ism centers on the practice of heroic virtue, by
which the theologian defines sanctity. In the
calendar of saints, there is every type of spirit-
ual excellence, but all alike— martyrs, virgins,
confessors, doctors — are regarded as having,
with God's grace, superhuman strength. The
saints not only perform acts of exemplary per-
fection; they are godlike men in their exemp-
tion from the frailties of human flesh.
The heroes of antiquity also wear an aspect
of divinity, but, like Achilles, each has a weak-
ness in his armor. Moreover, the heroes of the
Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid are men of
overweening pride. They are relentlessly jeal-
ous of their honor. They strive not so much for
victory as for the due meed of honor which is
its fruit. Nothing grieves them so much as to
have their deeds go unrequited by abundant
praise. In the contribution made by this love of
praise to the growth of the Roman empire,
Augustine sees the providential working of
God. In order that that empire "might over-
come the grievous evils which existed among
other nations," he writes, God "purposely
granted it to such men as, for the sake of honor,
and praise, and glory, consulted well for their
country, in whose glory they sought their own,
and whose safety they did not hesitate to prefer
to their own, suppressing the desire of wealth
and many other vices for this one vice, namely,
the love of praise."
To Augustine, however, this glory found in
human praise is far removed from the true
glory. It is, in fact, a sin. "So hostile is this vice
to pious faith," he writes, "if the love of glory
be greater in the heart than the fear or love of
God, that the Lord said, 'How can ye believe,
who look for glory from one another, and do not
seek the glory which is from God alone?' "
The Christian hero, consequently, seeks not
his own glory, but the glory of God, and in
contrast to the pagan hero, he is great, not in
pride, but in humility. His model is seen in the
Apostles, who, according to Augustine, "amidst
malediction^ and reproaches, and most grievous
persecutions and cruel punishments, were not
deterred from the preaching of human salva-
tion. And when . . . great glory followed them
in the church of Christ, they did not rest in
that as in the end of their virtue, but referred
that glory itself to the glory of God . . . For
their Master had taught them not to seek to
be good for the sake of human glory, saying,
'Take heed that ye do not your righteousness
before men to be seen of them* . . . but 'Let
your works shine before men, that they may see
your good deeds, and glorify your Father who
is in heaven.' "
The word "glory" in its theological connota-
tion thus has a meaning distinct from, and even
opposed to, the sense in which U is sometimes
CHAPTER 35: HONOR 735
used as a synonym for "fame." In the liturgy fullness in Himself and the height of all per-
of the church, the psalms and hymns (especially fection"; nevertheless, Montaigne writes, "His
those of the doxology which sing the gloria name may be augmented and increased by the
Patri and the gloria in excelsts Deo) render unto blessing and praise we attribute to His exterior
God the homage which is due His infinite good- works.'*
ness, the reflexive splendor of which is the di- According to Dante, "the glory of Him who
vine glory. As in the strict moral sense honor on moves everything penetrates through the uni-
the human plane is due to virtue alone, so in a verse, and is resplendent in one part more and
strict theological sense glory belongs only to in another less." In his journey through Para-
God, disc, he beholds the saints whom God loves es-
Stnctly, God's glory cannot be increased by pecially, each with a distinct degree of glory
human recognition. Yet every act of religious according to the proximity with which he ap-
devotion is said to redound to the greater glory proaches the presence of God. Their halos and
of God and to diffuse His glory among creatures aureoles, in the imagery of Christian art, are
through the divinity they acquire when they the symbols of the glory in which they are
love God and are beloved by Him. God is uall bathed as in reflected light.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGB
1. The relation of honor and fame: praise and reputation 736
2. Honor and fame in the life of the individual 737
2a. The sense of honor and of shame: loyalty to the good
2b. Honor as an object of desire and as a factor in virtue and happiness
2c. Honor as due self-esteem: magnanimity or proper pride 739
2d. Honor or fame as a mode of immortality
2(?. Honor as the pledge of friendship: the codes of honor among social equals 740
3. The social realization of honor and fame
30. The reaction of the community to its good or great men
3^. The conditions of honor or fame and the causes of dishonor or infamy 741
4. Honor in the political community and in government 742
4/7. Honor as a principle in the organization of the state: timocracy and monarchy
4^. The scale of honor in the organization of the state: the just distribution of
honors 743
4^, Honor as a political technique: the uses of praise, prestige, public opinion
5. Honor, fame, and the heroic 744
50. Honor as a motivation of heroism
5#. Hero-worship: the exaltation of leaders
5^. The occasions of heroism in war and peace 745
5^. The estimation of the role of the hero in history
6. The idea of glory: its distinction from honor and fame 746
6a. The glory of God: the signs and the praise of the divine glory
6£. The reflected glory of the angels and saints
736
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER- Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PACE SECTIONS- When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, Il6a-I19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE RrrrRFNcrs- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), iollows, e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nchemiah, 7.45 — (D) // Esdras, 7.46
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The relation of honor and fame: praise and
reputation
4 HOMI-R: I had, BK i 3a-9a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Andromache [319 -332] 318a; [693-
705] 321a b / Hecuba [251-257] 355a, [623-
628] 358a / Heracles Mad [140-205] 366b-d
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK 11, 395d-
396a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 52a-b / Laws, BK XH,
788d-789a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK n, CH n [115^9-35]
162a,c; BK vi, CH 8 [146^0-24] 200c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [io95b22-3o]
340d-341a; BK iv, CH 3-4 370b-372d; BK vm,
CH 8 [1159*13-26] 411b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9
608c-611c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 16 275b-d;
SECT 51 279b-c;BKix, SECT3o294b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b
14 PLUTARCH: Marccllus-Pelopidas, 262d / Aris-
ttdes, 265c-d / Marcus Cato, 282a / Agts,
648b,d-649a / Demetrius, 737b-d
15 TACITUS- Annals, BK iv, 73b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 21-23 24c-
25a / City of God, BK v, CH 12-20 216d-226a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 2,
AA 2-3 616d-618a
22 CHAUCER* Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
25-27 24b-25a; STANZA 53-55 28b, STANZA
100-115 34b~36b; STANZA 162-163 42b-43a;
BK III, STANZA 22 25 57b; ST\NZA 36-50 59a-
61a / Knight's Tale [3041-3056] 210a
23 MACHIAVELLI Prince, en vni, 13b-c
23HoBBEs- Leviathan, PART i, 71d-76b esp
73b-c, 76b, PART n, 146d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 126b-127c; 300c-307a;
390a-391c; 411a-d; 445c-446a; 450c-453c;
462b-c; 494b d; 496c-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT iv,
sc i [1-40] 264b-d / Richard II, ACT i, sc i
[165-185] 322b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE. Troilus and Cressida, ACT in,
sc in [38-241] 122d-125a / Othello, ACT n, sc
in [262-277] 219d; ACT in, sc HI [155-161]
223d / Cymbelme, ACT in, sc iv 466d-468d /
Henry VIII, ACT in, sc n [350-458] 572c-573d
/ Sonnets, LXIX-LXX 596d-597a; cxxi 604d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART 11, 203a-b;
222b-c; 227d-228d
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 91d-92b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 29 405b;
PROP 53, COROL 413a; PART iv, PROP 58, SCHOL
441d-442a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [960-996] 360b-
361a
2/02*
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
737
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 147-159 200b-202a; 333
232b; 400-401 240b-241a; 404 241a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 119a*121b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 223d-224b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, llc-12a;
BK iv, 13b,d-15a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360a-362d passim,
csp 362b-d / Social Contract, BK iv, 434b-
435a
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 412b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-d; 312a-313a
passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 146d-147c;
BK iv, 170d-171c; BK v, 204a-b; 214d-2l5a;
BK vi, 241c-242b; 247a-c; 250c; BK vm, 304c;
BK xv, 619c-621b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
273a-d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 189b-191a
2. Honor and fame in the life of the individual
20. The sense of honor and of shame: loyalty
to the good
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [1-510] 3a-8b; BK in 19a-
23d; BK iv [326-418] 27b-28a; BK v [520-532]
35c; BK vi [312-358] 43b-d; [440-465] 44c-d;
BK ix 57a-64a,c esp [96-114] 58a-b, [307-429]
60b-61c, [606-619] 63b; BK xn [290-328]
85b-c, BK xxn [99-130] 156b-c; [289-305]
158b
5 SOPHOCLES. Ajax [430-480] 146d-147b / Phil-
octetes 182a-195a,c esp [50-122] 182d-183b
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [373-430] 228b-d /
Heracletdae [i-ii] 248a; [484-596] 252c-253b
/ Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b / Helen [838-
854] 306b-c / Hecuba [342-383] 355d-356a /
Heracles Mad [275-311] 367c-d / Phoenician
Maidens [991-1018] 387a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 187b-188d; BK
vn, 225d-226b; 238a-c; 255b-259a; BK ix,
304d-305c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-d; 154d-155a /
Apology, 205d-206a / Laws, BK i, 651a-652a;
BK v, 686d-688a; BK vn, 730d-731d; BK xn,
788d-789a / Seventh Letter, 802c-803a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 3-4 370b 372d;
CH 9375d-376a,c; BK x, CH 9 [n79b4-n8o"ii]
434b-d / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 6 629d-631c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 5 HOb-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [1-30] 167a-b; BK x
[656-^88] 320a-321a
14 PLUTARCH: Anstides, 264a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lla-b; BK in, 58a;
BK vi, 92 c; BK xvi, 180d-183a; 183d-184a /
Histories, BK iv, 266d; 267b-268a; 289d-
290a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9 lOd-lla;
par 16-17 12c-13a; BK vm, par 18-30 57d-61c
/ City of God, BK v, CH 12 216d-219b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK H, STANZA
53-59 28b-29a; STANZA 100-115 34b-36b;
STANZA 162-163 42b-43a; BK in, STANZA 22-
25 57b; STANZA 36-50 59a-61a / Prologue
[43-78] 159b-160a / Knight's Tale [859-1004]
174a-176b; [3041-3056] 210a / Franks Tale
[11,667^28] 361b-366a / Physician's Tale
366a-371a csp [12,137-191] 369b-370b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 13d-14c; 16a-d; 174d-
176a; 300c-307a; 386a-388c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard H, ACT i, sc i [165-185]
322b-c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT iv, sc v [21-47]
494c-d / Much Ado About Nothing, ACT iv,
sc i 520b-523d / Henry V, ACT iv, sc vn [124]-
sc vin [77] 560a-561b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT iv, sc iv [53-66]
59b-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n
113c-115d / Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc iv [87-187] 185c-186c; ACT in, sc i [133-176]
188b c / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT n, sc vn,
[61-90] 326a-c / Cymbclme, ACT i, sc i [55-
169] 450a-451c / Winter's Tale, ACT in, sc n
[92-117] 502 b-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i 32c-34d;
57d-58a; 81b-84c; 123a-b; 147b-d; PART n,
203a-b; 222c; 227d-228d; 254d-255a; 290a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 58, SCHOL
441d-442a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 630 287b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 36a*38b esp 38a-b;
146b-147a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 69,
30c-d; PART in, par 207 69b-c; par 244 77c;
par 253 79a-c; ADDITIONS, 130 137c-d; 149
140d-141a / Philosophy of History, PART i,
214d-215a; PART iv, 320c; 334b-c
49 DARWIN . Descent of Man, 310d-314b esp 310d,
312a-313a; 322b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 102b-d; BK
iv, 173d-179a csp 177d-178a; BK vn, 281a-d;
291a-292b; 301b-302d; BK vin, 321d-323b;
333b-334c; 336b-337d; BK ix, 365d-366a; BK
xi, 527b-528b; EPILOGUE i, 650d-652a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
41a-b; BKiii,54b-58a; BK vi, 153d-157b; BK
ix, 245a-b; 260a-263a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a-191a; 207a-208a
2b. Honor as an object of desire and as a factor
in virtue and happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Esther, 5 19-14 / Proverbs, 25 16-7
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 7:4— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 7:4/7 Maccabees, 3:14; 9:10— (D)
OT, / Machabees, 3:14; 9:10
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [1-510] 3a-8b; BK ix 57a-
64a,c csp [96-114] 58a-b, [307-429] 60b-61c,
[606-619] 63b; BK xn [290-328] 85b-c / Odys-
sey, BK i [267-305] 185d-186a
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [683-684]
34c
5 SOPHOCLES: PhUoctetes feo-iaaj 182d-183b;
[1314-1347] 193d-194a
738
THE GREAT IDEAS
(2. Honor and fame in the life of the individual.
2b. Honor as an object of desire and as a
factor in virtue and happiness!)
5 EURIPIDES. Rhesus [756-761] 209d / Hippoly-
tus [373-430] 228b-d / Andromache [768-801]
321d-322a / Hecuba [299-331] 355b-c / Hera-
cles Mad [275-311] 367c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-7b; BK in,
118a-c; 122a-d; 123c-d; BK vi, 205a-b; BK
VH, 215c-216b; 243d-245a; 255c-d; BK vm,
264c; 282c-283a; BK ix, 304a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BKi,370a-c;
BK n, 397d 398d; BK v, 486a-d
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-b / Symposium,
154d-155a / Apology, 205d-206a / Republic,
BK n, 310c-315c; BK v, 370b-c; BK vm, 404d-
405a; BK ix, 421a-422b / Laws, BK i, 651a-
652a; BK v, 686d-688a; BK xn, 788d~789a /
Seventh Letter, 805c-806a; 807d-808a; 810d-
81 la, 814b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 8 [i46b2o-24]
200c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 5 [ic>95b22-3o]
340d-341a; CH 10 [1100*10-31] 345c-d; BK n,
CH 7 [no7b22-iio8ai] 353b-c; BK in, CH 10
[ni7b24-36] 364b-c; BK iv, CH 3-4 370b-
372d, CH 7 [ii27b9-22]374d-375a, BK vn, CH
4 398a-399a; BK vm, CH 8 [1159*13-26] 41 Ib;
BK ix, CH 8 [1168*28-34] 421d-422a; BK x,
CH 9 [ii79b4-n8oaii] 434b-d / Politics, BK
vii, CH 13 [1332*9-29] 536d-537a; CH 14
[i333a30-bio] 538a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5
[i36ob4-i36ib2] 600d-602a esp [i36i*25~b2]
601d-602a; CH 6 [i362bio-28] 603b-c csp
[i362b2o-23] 603c; CH n [1371*7-17] 614c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-86]
30d-31b; BK v [1105-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 21 127b-c;
BK iv, CH 6, 230b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK 11, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK iv, SECT 33 266c-d; BK vi, SECT
51 279b-c; BK vm, SECT i 285a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a~116b; BK
vi [886-892] 234b-235a; BK vm [608-731]
275a-278b; BK x [276-286] 309b-310a; [656-
688] 320a-321a; BK xi [376-444] 338b-340a
14 PLUTARCH. Theseus, 2c-3b / Themistocles,
89a-90b; 95d-96a / Alcibiades 155b,d-174d /
Alcibiades-Coriolanus, 194b-195a,c / Anstides,
264a-b; 265c-d / Marcus Cato, 282a / Fla-
mininus 302b,d-313a,c / Lysander, 354b,d /
Sulla, 369a-d / Lysander-Sulla, 387d-388a /
Pompey 499a-538a,c / Alexander 540b,d-
576d csp 542a-d / Caesar, 599b-d / Agts,
648b,d-649b / Cicero 704a-723d csp 706b-c,
717a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 73b-d; BK vi, 92c-d;
BK xi, 101c-102a; BK xiv, 154a-b; BK xv,
162c-163a / Histories, BK i, 195a-b; BK n,
226d-228a; BK iv, 267b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 13, lid;
BK x, par 59-64 86b-87d / City of God, BK v,
CH 12-16 216d-221b; BK vm, CH 8, 270a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26, A
4, ANS 151c-152a,c; PART i-n, Q 2, AA 2-3
616d-618a; Q 4, A 8, REP i 636a-c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 60,
A 5, ANS 53a-54d; PART n-n, Q 25, A i, REP 2
501b-502a; Q 185, A i, ANS and REP 1-2 639c-
641c; PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 7, REP 3 1061 b-
1062a
21 DANTE : DivineComedy, HELL, in [22-69] 4b-d;
iv 5c-7a; vi [76-93] 9a-b, xm [31-78] 18b-c;
xvi [1-90] 22c-23b; xxiv [43-60] 35a-b; xxxii
[i]-xxxin [9] 47c-49c; PURGATORY, xi [73-
117] 69c-70a; PARADISE, i [13-36] 106a-b, vi
[112-126] 114d-115a; ix [37-63] 119a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cresstda, BK n, STANZA
53-55 28b; STANZA 100-115 34b-36b; STANZA
162-163 42b-43a; BK in, STANZA 22-25 57b;
s TANZA 36-50 59a-61a
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, HOd-llla; 112a-d;
125a-c; 300c-307a; 462b-c; 495d-496d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Tans Andromcus, ACT v, sc in
[35-64] 196d-197a / Love's Labour's Lost, ACT
iv, sc i [1-40] 264b-d / Richard H, ACT i, sc i
[165-185] 322b-c, ACT iv, sc i [162-334] 343b-
345a / ht Henry IV, ACT i, sc i [78-90] 435b;
sc in [160-208] 439b-d; ACT in, sc n [129-
161] 454b-c; ACT v, sc i [1*7-144] 462a-b; sc
iv [59-101] 464d-465b / Henry V, ACT iv, sc i
[261-301] 554a-c, sc in [18-67] 555d-556b;
sc v 558a-b / Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc 11 [84-
96] 570b
27 SIJAKFSPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT 11,
sc ii 113c-115d; ACT v, sc in [23-28] 137b /
Othello, ACT n, sc in [262-270] 219d; ACT HI,
sc in [154-161] 223d / Corwlanus, ACT i, sc
in [1-50] 355 b-d / Sonnets, xxv 590a
29 CERVANTES. Dow Quixote esp PART i, 32c-33a,
57d-58a, 147b-d, PART 11, 222b-c, 227c-228d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 65c-d; 66d-
67a,c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 53 413a; PROP
55, SCHOL 413b-d; PART iv, PROP 52 439d-440a
32 MILTON: Lycidas [64-84] 29a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 100 191a-192b; 158-164
202a-b; 400-401 240b-241a; 404 241a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90c-d; BK n,
CH xxvin, SECT 10-12 230b-231c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 146c-147a; 223d-224b;
273b; 313d-314d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360a-362d esp 360c-
361a, 362b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 44d-45c; BK
iv, 269d-271a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 3a
41 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 176c; 194c; 494b,d-
495a
42 KANT: Fund.\ Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b; 258b-c
2cto2d
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
739
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 57, 177b-c; DUMBER 72,
217a-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448d-449c
44 Bos WELL i Johnson, 128b; 163d [£n 4]; 479a-d;
498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 124
44b-d; PART HI, par 207 69b-c; par 253 79a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 45b-46a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-d; 312a-317b
esp 312c-313b; 322a-c; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15d-16a; BK
in, 146d-147c; BK iv, 177d-178a; BK v, 214c-
215a; BK ix, 365d-366a; 370c-372a; BK xiv,
590d-604b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 189b-191a; 198b-199b;
203a-204b; 207a-b; 208b
2c. Honor as due self-esteem: magnanimity or
proper pride
4 HOMER- Iliad, BK xn [290-328] 85b-c
5 AESCHYLUS' Agamemnon [914-957] 61d-62b
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK vi,
513a-d
7 PLATO: Apology, 208c-209b / Laws, BK v,
686d-689c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK 11, CH 7 [no7b22-
no8ai] 353b-c; BK iv, CH 2-4 368d-372d esp
CH 2 [ii22bi9-24J 369c; CH 7 [i 127^*9-33] 374d-
375a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 19, 125c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 16 275b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 283 b-d / Cicero,
706b-c; 713b-c / Demosthenes-Cicero, 724c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 73c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 59-65 86b-
88b / City of God, BK xiv, CH 13 387c-388c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A 5, ANS 53a-54d; Q 66, A 4, REP 3 78c-79b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [46-
120] 69b-70a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 180c-181d; 307a-320b
passim, esp 307a-c; 322b~323b; 408b-409c;
456c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Trotlus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc H-III 113c-118c / Conolanus 351a-392a,c
esp ACT i, sc ix 359c-360c, ACT n, sc n [71-
164] 364d-366a, sc in [44-162] 366b-367d,
ACT in, sc ii [39-145] 374a-375a, ACT iv, sc
vii [28-59] 384c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 40b-c; 57d-
58a; 123a-b; 177a-b; PART n, 203a-b
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK vni [561-594]
244b-245a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 100 191a-192b; 147-159
200b-202a / Vacuum, 361a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b,d-
15a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 362b-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 321b-329a esp 325a-
327d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
376b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 70, 212a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448d-449c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, xiid-xiiia; 16d-17a; 73a-b;
116b-117c; 383c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 267c-
268b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 72d-74a;
102b~d; BK in, 133b-c; BK iv, 173d-179a esp
177d-178a; BK vn, 291a-292b; 301b-302d;
BK vm, 321d-322d; 335b-337d; 338b-339c
esp 339b-c; BK ix, 365d-366a; BK x, 442c-
443b; BK xi, 498b-d; 527b-528b; BK xin,
569d-570a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
104b-109a,c; BK v, HOc-lllc
53 JAMES i Psychology, 2ll&-2l2a *
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 407b-409c passim / Ego
and Id, 707c
2d. Honor or fame as a mode of immortality
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 72:17— (D) Psalms,
71:17 / Proverbs, 10:7 / Eccksiastes, 2:16
APOCRYPHA- Wisdom of Solomon, 4*1-2; 8:9-13
— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 4-1-2; 8-9-13 /
Ecclevasticus, 37-26; 39*9-11; 44:8-15; 46:11-
12— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 37:29; 39:12-15;
44-8-15; 46:13-15 / / Maccabees, 3:1-7— (D)
OT, / Machabees, 3:1-7 / // Maccabees, 6:21-
31— (D) OT, // Machabees, 6:21-31
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ix [307-429] 60b-61c; BK
xii [290-328] 85b-c; BK xxn [289-305] 158b /
Odyssey, BK xxiv [191-202] 319a
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [683-684]
34c
5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetcs [1408-1444] 194d-
195a,c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 398a*c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 166b-167a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 10 [1100*10-31]
345c-d / Politics, BK v, CH 10 [1312*23-39] 514d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 19, 126b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 10 261d-
262a; BK iv, SECT 3, 263d; SECT 19 265a;
SECT 33 266c-d; SECT 35 266d; SECT 48 267d-
268a; BK vi, SECT 18 275d; BK vn, SECT 6
280b; SECT 34 282a; BK vm, SECT 21 287a;
SECT 44 289a; BK ix, SECT 30 294b-c; BK x,
SECT 34 301a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [450-465] 115b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 125b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 195b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [22-69]
4b-d; iv 5c-7a; vi [76-93] 9a-b; xin [31-78]
18b-c; xvi [1-90] 22c-23b; xxxn [i]-xxxm
[9] 47c-49c; PURGATORY, xi [73-117] 69c-70a;
PARADISE, ix [37-63] 119a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 77a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 112d-113a; 267a-b;
301 b-c; 304d-306a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, LV 594c-d; LXV
596a-b; LXXXI 598c-d
740
THE GREAT IDEAS
leto 3a
(2. Honor and f am* m the life of the individual.
2d. Honor or fame as a mode of immor-
tality.)
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 312c-d
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, PART 11, 226d-228d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27d-28c;
29a-b; 36a<c; 72c-73a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 148 201a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 535a-536a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 273b; 274d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94a-b; 219d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 494b,d-495a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 428b-429a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 57d-58a; 163d [fn 4]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 348
llld / Philosophy of History, PART i, 211d-
212c; 255b-d; PART n, 274a-275a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [9981-9982] 243a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, EPILOGUE,
408a-c
2e. Honor as the pledge of friendship: the
codes of honor among social equals
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i 3a-9a,c; BK ix 57a-64a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [509-604] 241c-242b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31d-32a; BK in,
91d-92b; BK v, 183b-c, BK vi, 191a-b
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396c-d
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-d; 154d-155a /
Apology, 205d-206a / Crito, 213d-214b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 6 373d-374b;
BK vin, CH 8 [1159*13-26] 411b; CH 14 415d-
416d; BK ix, CH 2 [n65fti5-35J 418a-b, CH 8
[1168*28-34] 421d-422a; [n69ai2-b2] 422d-
423a
12 EPICTETUS. Discourses, BK n, CH 22, 169b-
170a; BK iv, CH 2 223d-224b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q 25,
A i, REP 2 501b-502a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
63-64 96b-97a; STANZA 206 115b; STANZA 211-
212 116a; STANZA 231-239 118b 119b; BK v,
STANZA 235-244 151a-152a / Knight's Tale
174a-211a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVH, 24a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 125b-126b; 181d-183c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona, ACT
iv, sc i 245b-246b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT in,
sc n [165-212] 121d-122b / Timon of Athens,
ACT in, sc n [71-94] 404c-d; sc in [27-42]
40Sb; ACT iv, sc i 409c-d; sc in [249-305]
413c-414a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 8c-10b;
71c-73a; 120b*134b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvin, SECT 10-13 230b-231c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 70 b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 313d-314d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 389b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par
207 69b-c; par 253 79a-c; ADDITIONS, 130
137c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
H, 72d-74a; BK iv, 173d-179a; BK vi, 241c-
242b; BK VIH, 328a-c; BK x, 442c-443b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
153d-157b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 189b-191a
3. The social realization of honor and fame
3*. The reaction of the community to its good
or great men
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:14-45 / Joshua,
9.8-11— (D) Josue, 9:8-11 /Judges, 8:35-9:20
/ / Samuel, 18:6-8— (D) I Kings, 18:6-8 /
// Samuel, 1:17-27— (D) // Kings, 1:17-27 /
I Kings, 4*30-34; 10— (D) III Kings, 4:30-34;
io/7 Chronicles, 14:17 — (D) I Paralipomenon,
14:17 / 77 Chronicles, 9:1-28— (D) II Parah-
pomenon, 9.1-28 / Esther, 6 /Job, 16:20-17:6;
19:9-21; 29-30 / Proverbs, 10:7; 20:7; 22-1;
31:10-31 esp 31:23, 31:28, 31:31 / Ecclesiastes,
10:5-7 / Isaiah, 9:15— (D) Isatas, 9:15
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 8; 15:7-16:25-^) OT,
Judith, 8; 15 8-16:31 / Wisdom of Solomon,
4 i-2— (D) OT, Bool( of Wisdom, 4 1-2 /
Ecclesiasticus, 10:19-20,24; 37:26; 39:1-11; 44-
50 esp 44:1-15— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:23-
24,27; 37:29; 39:1-15; 44-5° esp 44^-15 /
Susanna, 4— (D) OT, Daniel, 13:4/7 Mac-
cabees, 3.1-9; 5.63-64; 9:19-21; 10:59-65;
13:25-30; 14:4-49— (D) OT, I Machabees,
3:1-9; 5:63-64; 9:19-21; 10:59-65; 13:25-30;
14 4-49
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:23-25; 9.30-31;
13:53-58 / Mar^, 1:27-28; 6:1-6 / Lufa 4:14-
3°»36-37;5:i5/M"> 4:44
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK x [203-217] 67a-b; BK xxni-
xxiv 161a-179d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[31-57] 99b-d, [463-511] 103c-d, [1187-1221]
HOb-c / Antigone [683-704] 137a-b / Ajax
143a-155a,c esp [430-480] 146d-147b, [1047-
1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [299-331] 355b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 14a-d; BK n, 85d-
86b; BK in, lOlc-d; 122a-d; 123c-d; BK iv,
134d-135b; 136a-c; BK vi, 192c; 195d-196c;
198a-199a; 211a; BK vii, 233d 234b; 248d;
BK vin, 282c-283a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 383d-
384a; BK n, 395c-399a esp 395c-d, 399a; BK
v, 484c-485c; BK vi, S13b-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 362a-b; 366c-367b;
BK vn, 401b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 3-4 370b-372d;
BK vxu, CH 14 [n63b5-i3] 416a-c / Politics,
BK n, CH 7 [1267*12-17] 462d / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 5 [i36i»25~b3] 601d-602a
3a to
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
741
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3, 263d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [142-156] 107a; [450-465]
115b
14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 95b-c;97b-d / Ca-
millus, 117a-c/ Fabius 141a-154a,c csp 149b-c
/ Alctbiades 155b,d-174d esp 161d-162b,
165c-d / Coriolanus, 177b-179c / Timoleon,
212c-213d / Aemihus Paulus, 226c-229c /
Pelopidas, 245a-d / Marcellus, 256b-d / Arts-
tides, 265c-266b / Flamminus, 309a-b; 310b /
Sertonus, 464a-c / Pompey, 499a-b / Caesar,
598d-601a / Cato the Younger, 624a-625b;
637a-c / Cicero, 712d-713b / Demetrius,
737b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 33c; 41c-d, 43c-44a;
BK in, 45a-46b; 60d; BK iv, 73b-d; BK xiv,
153dl55a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 2l8b-c;
CH 15 220d-221a; CH 17-18 221b-224b
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 2,
A 2 616d-617b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, iv [64-147] 6a-
7a; PURGATORY, vin [121-139] 65c-d; xi [73-
117] 69c-70a; PARADISE, xvi [16-154] 130a-
132a; xvn [46-142] 132c-133c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvm, 25d-26a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, P\RT i, 73b-c, 75a-b
25 MONTAIGNE Essays, 181d-183a, 445c-446a
26 SHAKLSPEARE. Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc i [37-
65] 568d-569a; ACT v, sc v 595a-596a,c esp
[68-8 1 ] 596a,c
27 SHAKESPLARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT HI,
sc in [175-233] 124b-125a / Conolanus 351a-
392a,c esp ACT i, sc ix 359c-360c, ACI n, sc i
[134-247] 362b-363c, sc ii-m 364a-369a /
Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc v 406d-408a
29 CERVANTES Don Quixote, PARI i, 65c-68b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20b-c
32 MILTON- Areopagitica, 383a
33 PASCAL: Pensecs, 337 232b-233a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28b; PART HI, 119a-
121b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 54d-55a; 313d-314d
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 360a-362d passim, csp
360b-c / Political Economy, 374d-375b / Social
Contract, BK iv, 434a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall; 28b-'29b;92&; 219d-
220a; 298b; 381b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 318b-319b
42 KANT- Judgement, 504a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 57, 177a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 278c-279a; 298b-299a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, xia, 8a-c; 383c; 479a-d;
498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 348
Hid / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 167a-
168a; PART n, 262a-c; 272c-273a; 280b-281a
47 GOETHE* Faust, PART i [1011-1021] 25b-26a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick,, 79a-82b; 84b-85a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 171c-173d;
BK VHI, 338c-d; BK xm, 578b; 582a-584b; BK
xv, 619c-621b; 629b-c
$. The conditions of honor or fame and the
causes of dishonor or infamy
OLD TESTAMENT: Joshua, 6:27— (£>) Josue, 6:27
/ Judges, 5/7 Samuel, i8.6-8-(£>) / Kings,
i8.6-S / / Kings, io-(D) /// Kings, 10 / /
Chronicles, 29:12— (D) I Paralipomenon, 29 12
/ II Chronicles, 9:1-28— (D) II Paralipomenon,
9:1-28 / Proverbs, 3:16; 4-8,18; 8:18; 14:28;
31:23,25,28-31 / Ecclestastes, 1:11; 2:16; 7:1
— (D) Ecclestastes, 1:11; 2*16; 7:2 / Isaiah,
14:20-— (D) Isaias, 14 20 / Jeremiah, 9:23-24
— (D) Jeremias, 9:23-24
APOCRYPHA- Judith, 8:8— (D) OT, Judith, 8:8 /
Wisdom of Solomon, 3:16-17; 4'i-8; 8-9-10 —
(D) OT, Boof( of Wisdom, 3:16-17; 4:1-8;
8:9-10 / Ecclesiasticus, 1*19; 10:5; 10:19-11-2;
37:26; 44:1-15— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1.24;
10.5, 10.23-11 2; 37:29; 44:1-15 / / Macca-
bees, 2.50-51 — (D) OT, / Machabees, 2*50-51
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 21 26-40 / Romans,
14 15-18 / II Corinthians, 10-8-18; 11*16-30 /
/ Thessalomans, 1:6-10
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i 3a~9a,c; BK in 19a-23d;
BK vi [312-358] 43b-d; [503-529] 45b-d; BK
ix 57a-64a,c esp [307-429] 60b-61c, BK x [102-
130] 66a-b, BK xn [290-328] 85b-c; BK xxn
[99-130] 156b-c; [289-305] 158b
5 AESCHYLUS- Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[31-57] 99b-d, [463-511] 103c-d, [1187-1221]
llOb-c / Antigone [163-210] 132c-d; [441-525]
134d-135c / Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [430-480]
146d-147b, [1047-1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES Rhesus [149-203] 204c-205a / Sup-
pliants [857-917] 266a-b / Hecuba [251-257]
355a; [299-331] 355b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 70c-d; 76a-b;
85d-86b; BK in, 93c; BK iv, 134d-135b; UK v,
160d-161a; 168d-169a; BK vi, 206d-207a;
BK VH, 231d; 233d-234b; 248d; 257a; 257c;
BK ix, 303c-304a; 305a-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 350b;
BK n, 395d-396a, 398d-399a, 402c-d, 403c-
404a; BK HI, 427a-c; BK vi, 513a-d
7 PLATO: Laches, 27b-d; 31a-c / Symposium,
152d-153b; 154d-155a / Apology, 205d-206a /
Republic, BK i, 296c-d; BK v, 366c-367b;
370b-c; BK vin, 405d-406a; BK ix, 422a /
Laws, BK in, 673d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK n, CH n [ii5b22-35J
161d-162a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 3-4 370b-372d
/ Politics, BK v, CH 10 [1312*23-39] 514d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [1361*27-34] 601d; CH 9
608c-611c; BK n, CH n [i388B28-b28] 635b-
636a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1105-
1135] 75c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 3, 263d;
BK VH, SECT 34 282a
742
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. The social realization of honor and fame. 36,
The condition* of honor orjame and the
causes of dishonor or infamy.)
13 VIROIL- Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b;
[561-568] 118b; BK ix [590-620] 295a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 117a-c / Fabius 141a-
154a,c esp 149b-c / Alcibiades 155b,d-174d
esp 172b / Akibiades-Conolanus, 194a-195a,c
/ Aemihus Paulus, 224d-229c / Pelopidas,
243c-244b / Marcellus-Pelopidas, 262d / Arts-
tides, 264a-d; 265c-d / Cimon, 392d-393b /
Nicias, 425c-d / Agesilaus, 497a-b / Pompey,
509d-510a / Caesar, 598d-601a / Phocion,
604b>d-605d / Cato the Younger, 637a-c / Agu,
648b,d-649b / Cleomenes, 659d-660a / Cicero,
712d'713b / Demetrius, 737b-d / Dion, 784a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 16d-17a; BK n, 33c;
41c-d; BK in, 60d-61a; BK iv, 72d-73d; BK xi,
101c-102a; BK xv, 169a / Histories, BK n, 226d-
228a; BK in, 248b-c; 259c-260a; BK iv, 289d-
290a
18 AUGUSTINE* City of God, BK v, CH 12-20 216d-
226a passim
19 AOUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 2,
AA 2-1 616d-618a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
73, A 10, ANS 128a-d; PART n-ii, Q 25, A i,
REP 2 501b-502a; Q 43 585a-592d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [22-69]
4b-d; vi [76-93] 9a-b; vn [1-66] 9c-10b, xin
[31-78] 18b-c; xvi [1-90] 22c-23b; xxiv [43-
60] 35a-b; xxxu [ij-xxxm [9] 47c-49c; PUR-
GATORY, via [121-139] 65c-d, xi [73-117] 69c-
70a; PARADISE, xvi [16-154] 130a 132a; xvn
[46-142] 132c-133c
22 CHAUCER. Parson's Tale, par 10, 500a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vin 12d-14c esp
13b-c; CH xiv-xix 21b-30a, CH xx, 30d; CH
xxi 31d-33a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 74c-75b; PART n,
146d; PARr iv, 261c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 7a-d; 103c-104d; 112d-
113d; 126b-127c; 130b-d; 302b-306a; 314c-
316a; 390c-391c; 445a-446a, 450c-453c, 495d-
496d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VIt ACT i, sc n 36b-
37c / Richard U, ACT v, sc n [1-40] 346b-d /
Henry V, ACT iv, sc i [247-301] 554a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT iv, sc iv [46-66]
59b-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc 11
113c-115d; ACT in, sc HI [74-233] 123b-125a /
Coriolanus, ACT n, sc i [220-275] 363b-364a;
ACT in, sc ii-m 373c-377a; ACT iv, sc vn [27-
57] 384c-d / Henry VIII, ACT in, sc n [350-
458] 572c-573d / Sonnets, xxv 590a
29 CERVANTES: Don Qutxotc, PART n, 227a-
228d; 303a-c
,30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 83c; 92a-b
32 MILTON : Lycidas [64-84] 29a-b / Paradise Lost,
' BK n [430-456] 120b-121a / Samson Agonistes
[960-996] 360b-361a
33 PASCAL: Pen&s, 319-324 229b-230b; 337
232b*233a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 15b-16b; PART HI,
119a-121b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 9a-d; 38b; 146c-147a;
223d-224b; 308a-310a; 313d-314d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360a-362d esp 362b-d
/ Political Economy, 372d; 374d-375b / Social
Contract, BK iv, 434b-435a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 354c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 2a; 3a; 92a; 435a-
436b
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 27c-29a; 31b,d-
32c; 68a-b; 71b,d; 176c-d; 209d; 494b,d-
495d, 504c-505c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 68, 206b-c
43 MILL. Utilitarianism, 452c-453a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 62b-c; 124d-125d; 140b-
141a; 160b; 189d-190b; 194c-195a; 197c;
198b-d; 250d-251a; 256d; 299a-b, 412b-d;
479a-d; 498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 244
77c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3734-3763] 91a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 79a-82b; 84b-85a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK iv, 170d-171c;
173d-179a esp 177d-178a; BK v, 204a-205b;
228b-234a, BK vi, 247a-c, 250c; BK vin, 304c;
338c-d, BK xm, 582a-584b, BK xiv, 610c-
611c; BK xv, 619c-621b
54 FREUD. Civilization and Its Discontents, 767a
4. Honor in the political community and in
government
4a. Honor as a principle in the organization of
the state: timocracy and monarchy
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xn [290-328] 85b-c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-d / Republic, BK
vin, 402b-405c
9ARisrorLE: Politics, BK v, CH 10 [i3iob40-
1311*7] 513b; BK vii, CH 2 [i324b2-i325a7]
528c-529a
14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 99b-c / Lysander-
Sulla, 387d-388a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 218d-
219b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 74b-c
25 MONTAIGNE : Essays, 181d-182c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT iv, sc i [162-
334] 343b-345a; ACT v, sc n [1-40] 346b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT in, sc i [142-
161] 370d-371a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 120a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK m, llc-
12b; BK iv, 13b,d-15a; BK v, 32d; BK vin,
53b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326b-327a; 360a-362d
passim, esp 360a-361a / Political Economy,
375a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 630b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 8lc-d, 317b 318b
CHAPTER 35f HONOR
743
46' HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 273,
91c-d / Philosophy of History, PART nf 262a-c;
PART iv, 334b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 241c-242b
4b. The scale of honor in the organization of
the state: the just distribution of honors
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 13:7
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [1-510] 3a-8b; BK ix 57a-
64a,c; BK XH [290-328] 85b-c
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES* Antigone [162-210] 132c~d / Ajax
143a-155a,c csp [430-480] 146d-147b, [1047-
1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES- Hecuba [299-331] 355b-c
6 HERODOTUS. History, BK n, 85a; BK vi, 194d-
195b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a; BK HI, 427a-c; BK vni, 587a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 305d-306b, BK v, 366d-
367a / Laws, BK in, 673d-674b; BK iv,
683b-c, BK v, 686d-688a; BK vi, 699d-700b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [n3ob3o-34]
378b; CH 3 [i 131*24-29] 378d; CH 6 [ii34bi-7J
382b; BK vni, CH 14 [ii63b5~i3] 416a,c /
Politics, BK i, CH 12 [i259b5~8] 454a; BK n, CH
7 [i266b36-i267*2]462c, [1267*37-41 ]463b,cH
9 [i27obi8-25J 466d-467a; CH 11 [127 ^32^7]
469d-470a; BK in, CH 5 [1278*35-39] 47Sc,
CH 10 [1281*29-34] 479a; CH 13 481b-483a,
BK V, CH 2 [l302*l6]-CH 3 [l3O2b2O] 503b-
504a; CH 4 [iwfiy-tf] 505d-506a; C-H 8
[1308*8-11] 510a; [i3o8bio- 17] 510d; [i309ai 3-
15] 511b, CH 12 [i3i6b2i-24] 519d; BK vn, CH
14 [i332b42-i333*i6] 537d-538a / Athenian
Constitution, CH 12, par i 557b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 505a-c / Cato the Young-
er, 636d 637c
15 T\cirus: Annals, BK xr, 105d-107b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12,
218b-c
23 MACHIAVELLI' Prince, CH xxi, 32d-33a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b-c; 74b-c, 75b-
76b; PART H, 103c-d; 104b; 146d, 156c
25 MONTAIGNF Essays, 181d-183a
32 MILTON • Paradise Lost, BK n [430-456] 120b-
121a / Areopagitica, 383a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 305 228a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 15b-16b; 28a-b; PART
m, 119a-121b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, llc-
12b, BK v, 23c-25c; 31a-b; BK xi, 71d-72a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326b~327a; 358b-c;
360a-362d passim, csp 360b,d [fn i] / Social
Contract, BK in, 408c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17a-b; 240c<244c
esp 240c-241b, 244b-c; 245d-247a passim;
501c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 39d; 81c-d; 317b-
318b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 444c-445a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION' vi [87-93] 6^
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE \, SECT
9 [289-295] 14a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 84, 2S2a
44 BQSVSELL: Johnson, 141a; 197c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 206
68d-69b; par 319, 106b-c / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 222a-224a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,849-976] 264a-
267a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 108a-112a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 131c-135c;
BK v, 206b-c; 228b-234a; BK vi, 241c-242b;
250c
4c. Honor as a political technique: the uses of
praise, prestige, public opinion
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK x [60-71] 65d
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [251-257] 355a; [299-331]
355b-c
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnestan War, BK 11, 395 d-
399a; BK in, 427a-c
7 PLATO* Republic, BK i, 305d-306b; BK vi,
377a-379c / Laws, BK vn, 730d-731d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 12 [i259H5 -8]
454a; BK n, CH n [i273a32-b7] 469d-470a; BK
in, CH 5 [1278*35-39] 475c; BK v, CH 8
[i3o8bio-2o] 510d; CH n [1315*4-24] 517d-
518a; BK vn, CH 2 [i324bio-23] 528c-d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 608c-611c
13 VIRGIL: Aencid, BK i [142-156] 107a; [450-
465] 115b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 45c-46b / Alcibtades,
165c-d / Caesar, 598d-599b / Cleomenes, 659d-
660a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 209d-210b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxi, 32d-33a; CH
xxii, 33c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 146d; 156c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 181d-183a; 306a-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT in,
sc in [38-241] 122d-125a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 15b-16b; PART in,
119a-121b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, llc-
12b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 3S8b-c; 360a*362d pas-
sim, esp 360a-b / Political Economy, 375a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 269d-
270d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4d; 644d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81c-d; 317b-318b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 57, 177b-c; NUMBER 68,
206b-c; NUMBER 72, 217a-c
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, I24d; 127b-c; 141a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 318
105b; ADDITIONS, 1 86 149b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART ti [10,849-976] 264a-
267a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK iv, 170d-173d;
BK v, 204c-205b; 228c-d; 230b; 232a-233b;
BK vi, 241c-242b; BK ix, 366d-367b
744
5. Honor* fame, and the heroic
4 HOMER :///*</ 3a-l79d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 70c-d; BK ix,
293c-294c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 92c~93a / Republic, BK v,
366d-367a
9 ARISTOTLE* Ethics, BK iv, CH 3-4 370b-372d
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c csp 2c-3b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, m [22-69]
4b-d; iv 5c-7a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 77c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 181d-183a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes 339a-37Sa esp [23-
67] 340a-341a, [164-175] 343a-b, [340-372]
347a-b, [521-540] 351a-b, [667-709] 354a-
355a, [1065-1300] 362b-368a, [1334-1362]
368b369a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373c-374a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 31b,d-32c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 89b-d; BK in,
131c-135c; 146d-147c; 150a-164a,c; BK vi,
250c; BK ix, 344b-346a; 366d-367b; BK x,
442c-443b; BK xv, 619c-621b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 826a-827a
5a. Honor as a motivation of heroism
4 HOMER. Iliad, BK i 3a-9a,c; BK in [139-160]
20c; BK v [520-532] 35c; BK vi [440-465]
44c-d; BK vin [130-156] 52c; BK ix 57a-64a,c;
BK xii [290-328] 85b-c; BK xxn [99-130]
156b-c; [289-305] 158b
5 SOPHOCLES- Ajax [430-480] 146d-147b
5 EURIPIDES: Heracleidae [i-n] 248a; [484-596]
252c-253b / Suppliants [857-917] 266a-b /
Hecuba [343-383] 355d-356a; [482-603] 357a-
358a / HeracleiMad [275-311] 367c-d / Phoe-
nician Maidens [991-1030] 387a-b
5 ARISTOPHANES. Knights [565-598] 477a-c
6 HPRODOIUS: History, BK vn, 226b-c; 234a-b;
255c-d; BK ix, 291c-292a
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a csp397d-398c; 402c-404a; BK v, 484a-c;
BK vii, 556b-d
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-d; 166b-167a /
Apology, 205d-206a / Republic, BK v, 366c-
367b / Laws, BK i, 651a-652a
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK in, CH 6-9 361a-364b;
BK iv, CH 3 370b-372b passim, esp [m3b3i-
33] 370d, [ii24b7-9] 371b-c / Politics, BK v,
CH 10 [1312*24-39] 514d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [441-493] 115a-116b; BK
x [276-286] 309b-310a; BK xi [376-444] 338b-
340a; BK xii [650-696] 371b-372b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 2c-9a esp 3a-b, 3d /
Romulus-Theseus, 30a-b / Pophcola, 83b-84a
/ Coriolanus, 175d-176b / Pelopidas, 238b-
239c / Flamininus, 302b / Alexander 540b,d-
576d csp 542a-d, 553b-c / Caesar, 583b-585d;
599b-d / Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c
THE GREAT IDEAS
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, 49d; BK xvr, 180d-
183a; 183d 184a / Histories, BK i, 195a-b; BK
n, 226d-228a; BK HI, 248b-c; 256b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12 216d-
219b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
68-70 lOa / Knight's Tale [859-1029] 174a-177a
26 SHAKESPEARE : 1st Henry IV, ACT i, sc in [194-
208] 439d / Henry V, ACT iv, sc HI [16-67]
555d-556b /Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc n [84-96]
570b; ACT v, sc v [68-81] 596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n 113c-115d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART i, 82c-d,
122d-123a, 147b c, 190d-191d, PARTii,203a-b,
227b-d, 256a-d, 280b-c
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 800 328a
38 ROUSSFAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438c
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 3a-b; 92a-b; 93d-
94b; 217d-220d esp 219c-220d; 370b-d;
376a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 324c-325a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 326b-327d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 452c-453a
46 HLGEL- Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 189
149d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b-
168a, 184b-d; PART iv, 341a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 45b-46a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 322c
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK i, 21d-22b; BK
ii, 77c-81b, 89b-d; 97c-106d; BK in, 146d-
147c; 150a-164a,c; BK ix, 366d-367b; 369a-
372a; BK xi, 527b-528b; BK xm, 569d-570a;
BK xiv, 590d-604b passim, esp 603a-604b, BK
xv, 618b-619d; EPILOGUE i, 673d-674a,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY' Brothers Karamazov, BK x,
273a-d, EPILOGUE, 408a-c
54 FREUD- War and Death, 765a-b
5b. Hero-worship: the exaltation of leaders
4 HOMER Iliad, BK xii [290-328] 85b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [1008-1098] 576b-577c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 168d-169a; 183d-
184a; BK vi, 192c; BK vn, 235b-c
6 THUCYDIDES' Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
398a; BK v, 485b-c
7 PLATO. Republic, BK in, 340a-b; BK v, 366c-
367b; BK vn, 401b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vii, CH 14 [i332bi7~
27] 537b-c
13 VIRGIL Aeneid, BK i [267-290] llOa-llla;
BK vi [756-892] 231a-235a; BK vm [608-
731] 275a-278b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 14c-15a,c/ Romulus, 28a-
30a,c / Themistocles, 99b-c / Pericles, 140c-
141a,c / Aemihus Paulus, 226c-230d / Lysan-
der, 361d-362a / Demetrius, 729d-731a; 734b-
735a
15 TACITUS • Annals, BK iv, 73b-d / Histories,
BK i, 198c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagrucl, BK iv
267c-270b
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
745
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 103c-104d; 126b-128d;
145d-146d; 362a-365a; 390c-391c; 452d-453b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT v, sc n [1-40]
346b-d / King John, ACT i 376a-379c / Julius
Caesar \ ACT i, sc i [37-65] 568d-569a; sc n
[90-161] 570b-571a; ACT v, sc v [68-75] 596a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Antony and Cleopatra, ACT v,
sc n [82-100] 347a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, la-8c; 32c-
33a; 41a-c; 82c-d; PART n, 254d-255a
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Lord
Gen. Cromwell 69a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12b-c; 28b-d; 92a;
263a; 298b; 47lc-d; 627a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 131b; 209d; 415d-
416c; 536c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 298d-299a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 107a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 9c-10d; BK n,
97c-101c; BK HI, 13Sc-137c; 140c-142d; 159b-
161b; 162b-164a,c; BK iv, 170d-173d; BK v,
230b-234a; BK vi, 238c-243d csp 242c-243c;
260a-262a; BK ix, 344b-346a; 354a-355c;
366d-367b; 382a-388a,c; BK x, 405a-406c;
444a-445d; BK xi, 518c-d; BK xm, 578b; 582a-
584b; BK xiv, 600d; 610c-611c; BK xv, 619c-
621b; EPILOGUE i, 647b-649d; 673d-674a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 826b-827a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 669a-c; 674b-
675b; 676b-c; 683c-684a; 686b-689d; 691 d-
693a / War and Death, 762c
5c. The occasions of heroism in war and peace
4 HOMER: Iliad 3&-l79d esp BK iv [220-418] 26b-
28a, BK v [520-532] 35c, BK x [203-253] 67a-c,
BK xn [290-328] 85b-c / Odyssey, BK i [267-
305] 185d-186a
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [149-263] 204c-205c /
Heracles Mad [140-205] 366b d / Phoenician
Maidens [991-1018] 387a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 69a-b; BK in,
lOlc-d; 122a-123d; BK iv, 134d-135b; BK vi,
187b-188d; BK vn, 233d-234b; 238a-c; 248d;
255a-257d; BK ix, 291c-292a; 303c-304a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a; BK iv, 457b-c; BK v, 484c-48Sc; 502b-c
7 PLATO: Apology, 205d-206a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 6-9 361a-364b;
BK iv, CH 3 370b-372b passim / Politics, BK
vn, CH 2 [i324bio-23] 528c-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK ix [168-449] 283b-291a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c / Pophcola, 83b-
84a / Coriolanus, 174b,d-179c / Aemilms
Paulus, 219d-229c / Marcellus 246b,d-261a,c
/ Alexander 540b,d-576d / Cato the Younger
620a-648a,c / Demosthenes, 695d-703b /
Cicero, 712d-713b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, lla-b; BK in, 49d;
BK vi, 92c; BK xvi, 180d-183a; 183d-184a /
Histories, BK i, 200b-c; BK 11, 226d-228a;
BK in, 246b-c; 248b-c; 249 b; 256a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 96, AA 5-7 1055c-1062a; AA 11-12 1063d-
1065b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi 38a*39c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida , BK n, STANZA
25-29 24b-25b; STANZA 88-92 33a-b; BK v,
STANZA 258 154a / Prologue [43-78] 159b-160a
/ Knight's Tale 174a-211a csp [859-1004] 174a-
176b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxvi 36b-37d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b-76b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagrucl, BK i,
32c-35a; 42a-44a; 50c-52d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 302b-303a; 340a-343b
passim; 362a-365a; 390c-391c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT in, sc i 543d-
544b; ACT iv, sc in [16-67] 555d-556b
27 SHAKFSPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n 113c-115d / Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [256-
280] 354b-c; ACT n, sc i [130-178] 362b-c;
sc in [86-128] 366d-367b / Ttmon of Athens,
ACT in, sc v 406d-408a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote csp PART i, 147b-d,
PART ii, 203a~b, 280b-c
32 MILTON. Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b~69a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 217d-220d csp
219c-220d; 240b-247a passim; 369d-376c esp
370a-c, 375b-c; 644d-645c
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 19d-20a; 357c-
359c; 415d-416c; 534b-536d passim; 549c-
550c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 241 d-
242b; 247a; PART n, 262c-363a; 274a-275a;
281d-282d; PART in, 298a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 77c-81b;
89b-d; 97c-106d; BK in, 146d-147c; 150a-
164a,c; BK vi, 250c; BK ix, 366d-367b; 369a-
372a; BK xiv, 590d-604b
d. The estimation of the role of the hero in
history
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [756-892] 231a-235a;
BK viii [608-731] 275a-278b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus la-15a,c esp 9a-d / Romu-
lus 15a-30a,c / Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 47a-48c
/ Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 59c-60b / Peri-
cles 121a-141a,c csp 129c-130b, 140c-141a,c /
Timoleon 195a-213d csp 212c-213d / Fla-
mmmus, 307d-308a / Pompey 499a-538a,c /
Caesar 577a-604d / Antony 748a-779d csp
750a-b / Marcus Brutus 802b,d-824a,c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH vi, 9a-b; CH xx,
30d; CH xxv-xxvi, 35a-37a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
267c-268a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 362a-365a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK x, 65d-68a
38 ROUSSEAV: Inequality, 362a-b; 364a-b / Politi-
cal Economy, 373c-374a / Social Contract, BK
n, 400c-402a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 633d-634a,c
746
THE GREAT IDEAS
6 to 66
(5. Honor, fame, and the heroic, 5<£ The estima-
tion of the role of the hero in history.)
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 220b; 251d-252a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 72, 217d 218a
43 MILL: Liberty, 298d-299a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 93
36a-b; PART n, par 124 44b-d; PART HI, par
318 105b, par 344 Ilia; par 348 llld; par 350
112a; ADDITIONS, 58 125c; 186 149b / Philoso-
phy of History, INTRO, 162a-170b; 184b-d;
PART i, 241d-242b; PART n, 259b-c; 273a;
274a-275a; 275d-276a; 280b-281a; 281d-
282d; 283c-d; PART in, 298a-b; 300a~301c;
PART iv, 360b-c; 361d-362a; 366b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [570-580] 16a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Did(, 107a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace passim, csp BK i, 8d-
lOd, BK in, 143a-c, 162b-164a,c, BK ix, 342a-
344b, 350d-355c, BK x, 389a-391c, 405a-b,
430b-432c, 447c-448c, 465c-467a, BK xi, 469a-
470c, 497c-499c, 507a, BK xm, 563a-575a, BK
xiv, 610d-611c, BK xv, 619d-621b, EPILOGUE
i, 645a-650c, EPILOGUE 11 675a-696d passim
53 JAMES- Psychology, 826b-827a
54 FREUD- Civilization and Its Discontents, 800a-b
/ New Introductory Lectures, 884b-c
6. The idea of glory: its distinction from honor
and fame
NEW TESTAMENT : John, 5:44
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 12, 218b-c;
CH 14 220a-d; CH 17-19 221b-225b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 2,
A 2, REP 2 616d-617b; A 3, ANS and REP 1-2
617b-618a; Q 4, A 8, REP i 636a-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 90, A 2 1013d-1014d; Q 96, A 7, REP 3 1061b-
1062a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-9]
106a; vn [1-9] 115a-b; xiv [1-66] 126d-127c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 300c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 227d-228d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 793 326b-327a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 437d-438c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 347d-348b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 203a-204b
6a. The glory of God: the signs and the praise
of the divine glory
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:1-21 / II Samuel,
6; 22-(£>) // Kings, 6; 22 / / Kings, 8-(D)
/// Kings, 8/7 Chronicles, 16.7-36; 17:16-27;
29.10-19— (D) I Parahpomenon, 16:7-36;
17:16-27; 29:10-19 / Psalms passim, esp 8, 18-
19, 24, 29-30, 33-34, 47, 57, 66, 68, 81, 92-93,
95-96, in, 117, 134-136, 138, 145-150-00)
Psalms passim, esp 8, 17-18, 23, 28-29, 32~
33, 46, 56, 65, 67, 80, 91-92, 94-95, no, 116,
135~135> J37» 144-150 / Isaiah, 6:1-6 csp 6:3;
12:1-6; 25-26; 42 esp 42:8-12— (D) Isaias,
6:1-6 esp 6:3; ia:i-6; 25-26; 42 esp 42:8-12
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 8:15-17; 12:6-7; 13— (D)
OT, Tobias, 8:16-19; 12:6-7; J3 / Judith,
i6:i-i8-(D) OT, Judith, 16:1-22 / Rest of
Esther, 13:8-18— (D) OT, Esther, 13-8-18 /
Ecclesiasticus, 18; 39:12-35; 42:15-43:33;
51:1-12— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18; 39:16-41;
42:15-43.37, 51 :i-i7 / Song of Three Children,
28-68-(D) OT, Daniel, 3:51-90 / / Macca-
bees, 4:24— (D) OT, / Machabees, 4:24
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:13-16 / Luke,
1:46-55,68-79; 2:8-14 / John, 8:54 / / Peter,
4.11 / 11 Peter, 1:16-19 / Revelation, 5-9-14;
7:9-17; 11:16-18; 21-22— (D) Apocalypse,
5:9-14; 7-9-17; n 16-18; 21-22
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b; par
4 2a; par 31 8d-9a; BK n, par 13, lid; BK v,
par i 27a-b; BK vn, par 19 49c-d; par 23
50b-c, BK ix, par i 61c-d; par 34 70c-d, BK x,
par 38 81a / Ctty of God, BK v, CH 14 220a-d,
CH 17 221b-222a; BK vm, CH 6 268d-269c, BK
xi, CH 29 339a-b; BK xn, CH 4-5 344b-345b;
BK xxn, CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 26, A
4, ANS 151c-152a,cr Q 44, A 4 241a-d, Q 65, A 2
340b-341b, Q 70, A 2, ANS 364b-365a; PART
I-H, Q 2, A 2, REP 2 616d-617b; A 3, REP i
617b-618a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q 25,
A i, REP 2 501b-502a, Q 31, A i, REP i 536d-
537c; PART in, Q 19, A 3 819c-820c, Q 25 839c-
845a; PART in SUPPL, QQ 90-92 1012a-1037c
passim
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [1-30]
68d-69a; PARADISE, i [1-9] 106a; vn [1-9]
115a-b, xin [1-30] 125b-c; xxvn [1-9] 147b;
xxxiu [49-145] 156d-157d
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART 11, 161b-163d; PART
iv, 261c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 300c-d
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART v, PROP 36, SCHOL
461b-c
32 MILTON- On Time 12a-b / Upon the Circum-
cision 12b-13a / At a Solemn Music\ 13a-b /
Paradise Lost, BK in [56-415] 136b-144b
esp [80-134] 137a-138a; BK v [136-208] 178a-
179b; BK vn [565-640] 229b-231a / Samson
Agonistes 339a-378a esp [23-67] 340a-341a,
[164-175] 343a-b, [340-375] 347a-b, [667-709]
354a-355a, [1130-1155] 364a-b, [1262-1286]
367a-b, [1570-1758] 374a-378a
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 233, 216a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 347d-348b / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn i]
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-270] 7a-b
\b. The reflected glory of the angels and
saints
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 34:29-35 / Psalms,
84:11; 85:8-9— (D) Psalms, 83:12; 84:9-10 /
Isaiah, 60— (D) Isaias, 60
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 44-50— (D) OT, Ec-
clcsiastKUS, 44-50
CHAPTER 35: HONOR
747
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:13-16 / Marl(, 8:38
/ Lul(e, 2:9 /John, 5:44; 8:54; 17:22 / Romans,
8:18 / II Corinthians, 3:18 / // Thessalonians,
i .7-10 / // Peter, i .-17 / Revelation, 21-22— (D)
Apocalypse, 21-22
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 16-18 221a-
224b passim; BK xvm, CH 48 501b-d; BK xix,
CH 13 519a-520a; BK xx, CH 17 544d-545c; BK
xxn, CH 29-30 614b-618d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 62
317c-325b; PART i-n, Q 2, A 3, ANS and REP i
617b-618a; Q 4, A 8, REP i 636a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART in, Q 19,
A 3, REP 3-4 819c-820c; PART in SUPPL, Q
69, A 2, REP 3-4 886c-887d; QQ 82-85
992a; Q 90, A 2, ANS 1013d-l014d; Q 96 1049d-
1066a
21 DANTE; Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [1-9]
106a; vii [1-9] 115a-b; x~xiv 120b-128b csp
xiv [1-66] 126d-127c; xvm fcaj-xix [18] 134a-
135b; xxni 141b-142c; XXVHI [1-129] 148d-
150a; xxix [136-145] 151c-d; xxx-xxxu 151d*
156a csp xxx [97-132] 152d-153a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART 11, 228b~d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 36, SCHOL
461b-c
32 MILTON . On Time 12a-b / At a Solemn Mustcf(
13a-b / Paradise Lost, BK v [809-845] 193a-b
csp [833-8^5] 193b
33 PASCAL. Pensfes, 643 290b-291a; 793, 326b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Honor or fame in relation to virtue, duty, and happiness, see DUTY 4-40; HAPPINESS 2b(4);
VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(a), 6d.
The sense in which pride is a vice and humility a virtue, see SIN 40; VIRTUE AND VICE 8f.
Fame as a mode of immortality, see IMMORTALITY 6b.
Mutual respect or honor as a condition of friendship, see LOVE 2b(3); VIRTUE AND VICE 6e.
The political significance of honor, see GOVERNMENT 2a; JUSTICE 96 ; STATE 9C.
The rhetorical uses of praise or honor, see RHETORIC 43.
Other discussions of heroism and the heroic, see COURAGE 5; TEMPERANCE 6a; and for the con-
ception of the tragic or epic hero, see POETRY 7!).
Various estimations of the role of heroes, leaders, and great men in history, see HISTORY 43(4).
The theological significance of glory, see GOD 4h; HAPPINESS 7c(2), 7d; IMMORTALITY 5f.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Boo^s of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
CHAUCER. The House of Fame
. The Legend of Good Women
F. BACON. "Of Praise," "Of Vainglory," "Of Hon-
or and Reputation," in Essays
HOBBES. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic,
PART I, CH 8
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK n, PART i
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART
i, SECT in, CH 2-3
II.
THEOPHRASTUS. The Characters
BENEDICT OF NURSIA. The Rule
BOETHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy , BK n
Beowulf
Song of Roland
CHRETIEN DE TROYES. Arthurian Romances
Vdlsung Saga
FRANCIS OF ASSISI. The Rules
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE. The Golden Legend
Njalssaga
LULL. The Boo\ of the Ordre ofChyvalry
FROISSART. Chronicles
DIAZ DE GAMEZ. The Unconquered Knight
MALORY. Le morte d* Arthur
ARIOSTO. Orlando Furioso
CASTIGLIONE. The Boof^ of the Courtier
ELYOT. The Governour
748
THE GREAT IDEAS
R SIDNEY. The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia
TASSO. Jerusalem Delivered
SPENSER. The Fame Queene, BK vi
ALRMAN. The Rogue (The Life of Guzman de Alfa-
rache)
BROOKE. An Inquisition upon Fame and Honour
BEAUMONT and FLETCHER. The Maid's Tragedy
CALDER6N. The Physician of His Own Honour
CAREW. A Rapture
CORNEILLE, Le Ctd
. Horace
RACINE. Andromaque
MOLIERE. Ije bourgeois gentilhomme (TheCit Turned
Gentleman)
DRYDEN, All for Love
SHAFTESBURY. Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opin-
ions, Times
MANDEVILLE. An Enquiry into the Origin of Honor,
and the Usefulness of Christianity in War
SAINT-SIMON. Memoirs
HURD. Letters on Chivalry and Romance
VOLTAIRE. "Honor," in A Philosophical Dictionary
MILLAR. Observations Concerning the Distinction of
Ran^s in Society
SHERIDAN. The Rivals, ACT 4, sc i
SCHILLER. Don Carlos
— "— . Wallenstein
W. SCOTT. Ivanhoc
TOCQUEVILLE. Democracy in America, PART n, BK
in, CH 1 8
VIGNY. Military Servitude and Grandeur
WARE. The Law of Honor
STENDHAL. The Red and the Blac{
. The Charterhouse of Parma
T. CARLYLE. On Heroes, Hero- Worship and the Heroic
in History
EMERSON. Representative Men
G ALTON. Hereditary Genius
MEREDITH. The Egoist
HOWELLS. The Rise of Silas Lapham
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil, CH ix
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART vn, CH 3
T. VEBLEN. The Theory of the Leisure Class
ROSTAND. L'Aiglon
T. HARDY. The Dynasts
FARNELL. Gree\ Hero Cults and Ideas of Immor-
tality
T. S. ELIOT. Murder in the Cathedral
RAGLAN. The Hero
CASSIRER. The Myth of the State, PART in (15-17)
Chapter 36: HYPOTHESIS
INTRODUCTION
A COMPARISON of their Greek and Latin
Z\ roots shows that the English words "hy-
pothesis" and "supposition" are synonymous.
To hypothesize or to suppose is to place under—
to make one thing the basis of another in the
process of thought.
The word "hypothesis" is today often popu-
larly misapplied to mean a guess or hunch. The
sleuth in a detective story speaks of having an
hypothesis about who committed the crime.
The popular notion of what it means to suppose
something, or to entertain a supposition, more
accurately reflects the meaning of hypothesis in
logic, mathematics, and scientific or philosoph-
ical method.
A supposition is generally understood to be
something taken for granted, something as-
sumed for the purpose of drawing implications
or making inferences. What is supposed is not
known to be true; it may be true or false. When
we make a supposition, our first concern is to
see what follows from it, and only then to
consider its truth in the light of its conse-
quences. We cannot reverse this order, when
we employ suppositions, and ask first about
their truth.
The word "if expresses the essence of sup-
posing. The word "then" or the phrase "it fol-
lows that" introduces the consequences for the
consideration of which we make the supposi-
tion. We are not interested in the "if" for its
own sake, but for the sake of what it may lead
to. In any statement of the "if . . . then . . ."
sort, it is the if-clause which formulates the sup-
position or the hypothesis; the other part of the
statement, the then-clause, formulates the con-
sequences or implications. The whole complex
statement, which makes an // the logical basis
for a then, is not an hypothesis. Rather it is
what is traditionally called in logic a hypothet-
ical proposition.
THERE is ONE USE of the word "hypothesis" in
mathematics which seems at odds with the
foregoing summary. In Euclid's Elements^
for example, an hypothesis is that which is
given, not as the basis from which the conclu-
sion is drawn or proved, but as a condition of
solving the geometric problem under consider-
ation. Let us take Proposition 6 of Book I. It
reads: "//"in a triangle two angles be equal to
one another, then the sides which subtend the
equal angles will also be equal to one another."
In the demonstration of this theorem, a tri-
angle having two equal angles is regarded as
given or granted. That figure or geometrical con-
dition is a fact obtained by hypothesis. It is the
fact stated in the hypothesis, or the if-clause, of
the theorem.
If the geometrical reality of that fact itself is
questioned, the answer would have to be ob-
tained by a prior proof that such a figure, con-
forming to the definition of an isosceles tri-
angle, can be constructed by the use of no other
instruments than a straight edge and a compass.
The construction is not made, however, as part
of the proof of Theorem 6, any more than is the
demonstration of an antecedent theorem, which
may have to be used in the proof of Theorem
6. In the proof of Theorem 6, the first line, be-
ginning with the word "let," declares that the
construe tibihty of the figure is to be taken for
granted as a matter of hypothesis.
The whole problem of Theorem 6 is to prove
that the then-clause follows from the if-clause.
Euclid appears to accomplish this by introduc-
ing other propositions— drawn from his axioms,
definitions, postulates, or theorems previously
demonstrated— which establish this connection
and so certify the conclusion as following from
the hypothesis. Two points about this proce-
dure should be noted.
First, the conclusion does not follow from
749
750
THE GREAT IDEAS
the hypothesis directly, for if that were so, the
"if-then11 proposition would be self-evident and
would need no proof. Th$ mind which sees im-
mediately that the sides opposite to the equal
angles in an isosceles triangle are necessarily
equal docs not need any demonstration of the
connection between equal angles and tfqual
sides. The Euclidean demonstration consists in
making this connection, which is not immediate-
ly evident, mediately evident; that is, evident
through the mediation of other propositions. It
is not the hypothesis alone which proves the
conclusion, but the hypothesis in the company
of other propositions which serve to take the
mind step by step from the hypothesis granted
to the conclusion implied.
Second, the proposition with the truth of
which the reasoning seems to end is not the
proposition to be proved. The Q.E.D. at the
end of a Euclidean demonstration does not ap-
ply to the last proposition in the line of proof,
but to the theorem itself, for that is the propo-
sition to be proved. The last proposition in the
reasoning is merely the consequent which, ac-
cording to the theorem, is proposed as follow-
ing from the hypothesis. When he is able to
verify the proposed connection between the
hypothesis and its conclusion or consequent,
Euclid says Q.E.D. to the theorem as a whole —
the whole if-then statement.
The process of proof seems to be the same
when the theorem is stated categorically rather
than hypothetically. For example, Theorem 6
might have been stated, as other Euclidean
theorems are, in the following manner: "The
sides subtended by equal angles in a triangle
are also equal to one another." This variation
in mode of statement raises a question, not
about the meaning of "by hypothesis" in Eu-
clidean proof, but about the difference between
hypothetical and categorical propositions,
which we will consider later.
THE EUCLIDEAN USE of a given (that is, a con-
structible) figure as an hypothesis does not
seem to be a method of making a supposition in
order to discover its implications. Nor does it
seem to be a way of testing the truth of an
hypothesis by reference to its consequences.
Both of these aspects of hypothetical reasoning
do appear, however, in Plato's dialogues.
In the MenOj for example, Socrates proposes,
at a certain turn in the conversation about vir-
tue and knowledge, triat he and Meno enter-
tain the hypothesis that virtue is knowledge.
Socrates immediately inquires about the conse-
quences. "If virtue is knowledge," he asks,
"will it be taught?" Since Meno already under-
stands that knowledge is teachable, he answers
the question affirmatively. The utility of ad-
vancing the hypothesis that virtue is knowledge
gradually appears in the next phase of the dia-
logue, wherein it is discovered that virtue is not
teachable at all, or at least not in the way in
which the arts and sciences are teachable. The
discovery throws some doubt on the truth of
the hypothesis that virtue is knowledge; at
least it does not seem to be knowledge in the
same sense as science or art.
This mode of reasoning exemplifies the use of
an hypothesis to test its truth in terms of its
consequences. The underlying logical principle
is that the denial of the consequences requires a
denial of the antecedent hypothesis, just as an
affirmation of the antecedent would require an
affirmation of the consequent. Nothing follows
logically from a denial of the hypothesis, or
from an affirmation of its consequences.
This example from the Meno also illustrates
the difference between Euclid's and Plato's use
of hypotheses. Socrates is not here trying to
prove that //"virtue is knowledge, then virtue is
teachable. The validity of the foregoing if-then
statement is already understood in terms of the
fact that knowledge ts teachable. With the if-
then statement accepted as valid, Socrates uses
it for the purpose of ascertaining whether or in
what sense virtue is knowledge. It is not the hy-
pothetical or if-then statement which is proved,
but the hypothesis— the antecedent in that
statement— which is tested.
The same general method of employing hy-
potheses and testing them is found in the em-
pirical sciences. In medical practice, the physi-
cian, according to Hippocrates, "must be able
to form a judgment from having made himself
acquainted with all the symptoms, and estimat-
ing their powers in comparison with one an-
other"; he should then "cultivate prognosis,"
since "he will manage the cure best who has
foreseen what is to happen from the present
state of matters." '
CHAPTER 36: HYPOTHESIS
751
The preliminary diagnosis states an hypothe-
sis (what the disease may be) and the prognosis
foresees a set of consequences (what is likely to
happen if the diagnosis is correct). Observation
of the course of the symptoms and the patient's
changing condition will either confirm or in-
validate the prognosis. Confirmation leaves the
diagnosis a lucky guess, but fails to prove it. If
the disease does not run the predicted course,
however, the diagnosis on which the prognosis
was based can be dismissed as a false hypothesis.
WHEN AN HYPOTHESIS takes the form of a pre-
diction of what should happen if the hypothe-
sis is true, the failure of the consequences to oc-
cur refutes the hypothesis. Though discussions
of scientific method frequently speak of "pre-
diction and verification," it would seem as
though prediction can only lead to the refuta-
tion of an hypothesis rather than to its verifica-
tion. An hypothesis is overthrown when its pre-
diction fails, but it is not verified when its pre-
diction comes true. To think that it can be veri-
fied in this way is to commit the logical fallacy
of arguing from the truth of a conclusion to the
truth of its premises. How, then, do empirical
scientists prove an hypothesis to be true ? What
do they mean by prediction and verification in
relation to the use of hypothesis ?
There seem to be two possible ways in which
an hypothesis can be proved by empirical or
experimental research. One way can be used
when we know that the consequences implied
follow only from the truth of the hypothesis.
Should the consequences implied be impossible
unless the supposed condition exists, then the
confirmation of the prediction verifies the hy-
pothesis.
The other possible method of verification has
come to be called "the method of multiple
working hypotheses." The validity of this
method depends on our knowing that the sev-
eral hypotheses being entertained exhaust all
the relevant possibilities. Each hypothesis gen-
erates a prediction; and if upon investigation
the observed facts negate every prediction ex-
cept one, then that one remaining hypothesis is
verified. If negative instances have eliminated
the false hypotheses, the hypothesis remaining
must be true, on the condition, of course, that
it is the only possibility which is left.
Both of these methods seem to be valid only
if a prerequisite condition is fulfilled. To verify
one of a series of multiple hypotheses through
the elimination of the others, the scientist must
know that the hypotheses enumerated are truly
exhaustive. In the verification of a single hy-
pothesis by the confirmation of its prediction,
the scientist must know that the observed con-
sequences can follow from no other supposi-
tion. Since such knowledge is often unavailable,
probability rather than complete proof results
from the testing of hypotheses by observation
or experiment.
In his Treatise on the Vacuum, Pascal offers a
summary of the logical situation by distinguish-
ing the true, the false, and the doubtful or
probable hypothesis. "Sometimes its negation
brings a conclusion of obvious absurdity, and
then the hypothesis is true and invariable. Or
else one deduces an obvious error from its affir-
mation, and then the hypothesis is held to be
false. And when one has not been able to find
any mistake either in its negation or its affir-
mation, then the hypothesis remains doubtful,
so that, in order that the hypothesis may be
demonstrable, it is not enough that all the phe-
nomena result from it, but rather it is necessary,
if there ensues something contrary to a single
one of the expected phenomena, that this suffice
to establish its falsity."
BOTH THE USE of hypotheses and the method of
verifying them vary from science to science, ac-
cording as the character of the science happens
to be purely empirical (e.g., the work of Hip-
pocrates, Darwin, Freud), or experimental
(e.g., the work of Harvey and Faraday), or a
combination of experimentation with mathe-
matical reasoning (e.g., the work of Galileo,
Newton, Fourier). Not all scientific work is
directed or controlled by hypotheses, but in
the absence of well-formulated hypotheses, the
research can hardly be better than exploration*
A well-constructed experiment, especially
what Bacon calls an experimentum cruets^ derives
its demonstrative character from the hypothet-
ical reasoning which formulates the problem to
be solved. The value of such a crucial experi-
ment appears in Bacon's reasoning about the
rise and fall of the tides. "If it be found," he
writes, "that dunng the ebb the surface of the
752
TOE GREAT IDEAS
waters at sea is more curved and round, from
the waters rising in the middle, and sinking at
the sides or coast, and if, during a flood, it be
more even and level, from the waters returning
to their former position, then assuredly, by this
decisive instance, the raising of them by a mag-
netic force can be admitted; if otherwise, it
must be entirely rejected."
In the field of mathematical physics, and par-
ticularly in astronomy, the meaning of hypoth-
esis is both enlarged and altered. So far we have
considered hypotheses which are single propo-
sitions implying certain consequences. But in
mathematical physics, a whole theory — a com-
plex system of propositions— comes to be re-
garded as a single hypothesis.
In his preface to the work of Copernicus,
Osiander says that the task of the astronomer is
"to use painstaking and skilled observation in
gathering together the history of the celestial
movements; and then— since he cannot by any
line of reasoning reach the true causes of these
movements— to think up or construct whatever
causes or hypotheses he pleases, such that, by
the assumption of these causes, those same
movements can be calculated from the princi-
ples of geometry, for the past and for the future
too." The elaborate system constructed by
Copernicus and the system constructed by
Ptolemy which Copernicus hopes to replace
are sometimes called "the Copermcan hypothe-
sis" and "the Ptolemaic hypothesis"; and some-
times these two theories are referred to as "the
heliocentric hypothesis" and "the geocentric
hypothesis."
A whole theory, regarded as an hypothesis,
must be tested in a different way from a single
proposition whose implication generates a pre-
diction, As rival hypotheses, one theory may be
superior to another in internal consistency or in
mathematical simplicity and elegance. Kepler
is thus able to argue against Ptolemy by appeal-
ing to criteria which Ptolemy accepts, pointing
out that Ptolemy himself wishes "to construct
hypotheses which are as simple as possible, if
that can be done. And so if anyone constructs
simpler hypotheses than he— understanding
simplicity geometrically — he, on the contrary,
will not defend his composite hypotheses."
But even if the Copernican hypothesis is su-
perior on the grounds of being geometrically
simpler, it must meet another test. As indicated
in the chapter on ASTRONOMY, mathematical
theories about physical phenomena must be
more than ideal constructions of possible uni-
verses. They must try to account for this one
real world and are therefore subject to the test
of their applicability to reality. However ele-
gant it may be mathematically, an hypothesis
—when considered from the point of view of
physics— is satisfactory only if it accounts for
the phenomena it was invented to explain. In
the words of Simphcius, it must "save the
appearances."
An hypothesis can therefore be tested for its
application to reality by the way in which it
fits the observed facts. "In those sciences where
mathematical demonstrations are applied to
natural phenomena," Galileo writes, "the prin-
ciples" which are "the foundations of the entire
superstructure" must be "established by well-
chosen experiments." By such means Galileo
chooses between the hypothesis that the uni-
form acceleration of a freely falling body is
proportional to the units of space traversed and
the hypothesis that it is proportional to the
units of time elapsed.
To borrow Plato's expression in the Ttmaeus,
the mathematical consistency of a theory makes
it "a likely story." The theoretical integrity of
the hypothesis makes it credible. But when
competing credible hypotheses exist, each sav-
ing the relevant appearances equally well,
which is to be believed ? The fact that one of
them, as in the case of the Copermcan-Ptole-
maic controversy, is mathematically superior
cannot decide the question, since the question
is, Which is true of reality ?
Sometimes a single fact, such as the phenom-
enon of the Foucault pendulum, may exercise a
decisive influence, if one of the two competing
theories finds that fact congenial and the other
leaves it inexplicable. Sometimes, as appears in
the discussion of the Copernican hypothesis in
the chapter on ASTRONOMY, of two hypotheses
which are equally satisfactory so far as purely
astronomical phenomena are concerned, one
may have the additional virtue of covering
other fields of phenomena which that hypothe-
sis was not originally designed to explain.
As interpreted by Kepler and as developed
in Newton's theory of universal gravitation,
CHAPTER 36: HYPOTHESIS
753
the Copernican hypothesis brings the terrestrial
phenomena of the tides and of falling bodies
under the same set of laws which applies to the
celestial motions. The hypothesis then has the
amazing quality of consilience—a bringing to-
gether under one formulation of phenomena
not previously thought to be related. This
seems to be what Huygens has in mind when he
considers the degree of probability that is at-
tainable through experimental research." We
have "scarcely less than complete proof," he
writes, when "things which have been demon-
strated by the principles assumed, correspond
perfectly to the phenomena which experiment
has brought under observation; and further,
principally, when one can imagine and foresee
new phenomena which ought to follow from
the hypotheses which one employs, and when
one finds that therein the fact corresponds to
our prevision."
Then, in common parlance, we say that it is
no longer a theory, but has become a fact. Yet
the question remains whether the empirical
tests which eliminate the less satisfactory hy-
pothesis can ever make the more satisfactory
hypothesis more than a likely story.
IN THE Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Newton says, "I have not been able
to discover the cause of those properties of
gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hy-
potheses; for whatever is not deduced from
the phenomena is to be called an hypothesis;
and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or phys-
ical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical,
have no place in experimental philosophy." The
context of this passage, and of a similar state-
ment at the end of the Optics, as well as the
association in Newton's mind of hypotheses
with occult qualities, substantial forms, and
hidden causes, seems to indicate a special mean-
ing of "hypothesis."
Newton criticizes the vortices in the physics
of Descartes on the ground that it is unneces-
sary to appeal to occult or unobservable entities
in order to explain natural phenomena. The
Cartesian vortices, like the substantial forms of
Aristotle, are, for Newton, hypotheses in a very
special sense. They are hypothetical entities.
They are not inferred from the phenomena. Al-
though treated as if they were realities under-
lying the phenomena, they are, as Gilbert says
of the primum mobile, a "fiction, something not
comprehensible by any reasoning and evi-
denced by no visible star, but purely a product
of imagination and mathematical hypothesis."
There is almost a play on words in this iden-
tification of hypotheses with imaginary en-
tities to which reality is attributed; for in their
Greek and Latin roots, the words "hypothesis"
and "hypostasis," "supposition" and "sub-
stance," are closely related. The first word in
each of these pairs refers to a proposition which
underlies reasoning, the second to a reality
which underlies observable qualities or phe-
nomena. To make hypotheses, in the sense in
which Newton excludes them from experi-
mental philosophy, is to hypostatize or to reify,
that is, to make a thing out of, or to give reality
to, a fiction or construction of the mind.
It has seemed to some critics that, no less
than the Cartesian vortices, the ether in New-
ton's theory of light is an hypothesis in pre-
cisely this sense—an imaginary entity. For
many centuries, the atoms and molecules pos-
tulated to explain chemical combinations and
changes were attacked as fictions and defended
as useful hypotheses. On the one hand, there
is an issue concerning the theoretic usefulness
of such constructions; on the other, a question
concerning their counterparts in reality.
It is sometimes thought that fictions are use-
ful for purposes of explanation even when their
unreality is admitted. Rousseau, for example,
explicitly denies any historical reality to the
idea of man living in a state of nature prior to
the formation of society by the social contract.
In this matter, he says, we can lay "facts aside,
as they do not affect the question." These re-
lated notions — the state of nature and the so-
cial contract—are "rather calculated to explain
the nature of things, than to ascertain their
actual origin; just like the hypotheses which
our physicists daily form respecting the for-
mation of the world."
Similarly Lavoisier posits the existence ot
"caloric" for its explanatory value. "It is dif-
ficult," he writes, "to comprehend these phe-
nomena, without admitting them as the effects
of a real and material substance, or very subtile
fluid, which, insinuating itself between the
particles of bodies, separates them from each
754
THE GREAT IDEAS
other; and, even allowing the existence of this
fluid to be hypothetical, we shall see in the
sequel, that it explains the phenomena of na-
ture in a very satisfactory manner/*
ONE OTHER MEANING of hypothesis remains to
be considered. It is the sense in which postu-
lates or assumptions are distinguished from
axioms in the foundations of a science. In Eu-
clid's geometry, as in Descartes', both sorts of
principles appear. The axioms or common no-
tions are those propositions which are imme-
diately seen to be true without proof. The
postulates or assumptions are hypotheses in
the sense that their truth is taken for granted
without proof.
Both sorts of propositions serve as principles
or starting points for the demonstration of
theorems, or the conclusions of the science.
Both are principles of demonstration in that
they arc used to demonstrate other propositions
without themselves being demonstrated. But
axioms are traditionally regarded as intrinsi-
cally indemonstrable, whereas hypotheses —
postulates or assumptions — may not be inde-
monstrable. They are simply asserted without
demonstration.
The possibility of demonstrating an hypoth-
esis gives it the character of a provisional as-
sumption. In the Discourse on Method, Des-
cartes refers to certain matters assumed in his
Dioptrics and Meteors, and expresses his con-
cern lest the reader should take "offence be-
cause I call them hypotheses and do not appear
to care about their proof." He goes on to say:
"I have not named them hypotheses with any
other object than that it may be known that
while I consider myself able to deduce them
from the primary truths which I explained
above, yet I particularly desired not to do so,
in order that certain persons may not for this
reason take occasion to build up some extrava-
gant philosophical system on what they take
to be my principles."
The distinction between axioms and postu-
lates or hypotheses raises two issues. The first
concerns the genuineness of the distinction it-
self. Axioms, self-evident propositions, or what
William James calls "necessary truths," have
been denied entirely or dismissed as tautologies.
The only principles of science must then be
hypotheses—assumptions voluntarily made or
conventionally agreed upon. This issue is more
fully discussed in the chapter on PRINCIPLE.
The other issue presupposes the reality of the
distinction, but is concerned with different ap-
plications of it in the analysis of science.
Aristotle, for example, defines scientific
knowledge in terms of three elements, one of
which consists of the primary premises upon
which demonstrations rest. The principles of a
particular science may be axioms in the strict
sense of being self-evident truths and hence
absolutely indemonstrable; or they may be
provisional assumptions which, though not
proved m this science, can nevertheless be
proved by a higher science, as in "the applica-
tion of geometrical demonstrations to theorems
in mechanics or optics, or of arithmetical dem-
onstrations to those of harmonics." The latter
are not axioms because they are demonstrable;
yet m a particular science they may play the
role of axioms insofar as they are used, without
being demonstrated, to demonstrate other
propositions.
Reasoning which rests either on axioms or on
demonstrable principles Aristotle calls scien-
tific, but reasoning which rests only on hy-
potheses he regards as dialectical. Reasoning re-
sults in scientific demonstration, according to
Aristotle, "when the premises from which the
reasoning starts are true and primary, or are
such that our knowledge of them has originally
come through premises which are primary and
true." In contrast, reasoning is dialectical "if it
reasons from opinions that are generally accept-
ed," and, Aristotle explains, "those opinions
are 'generally accepted' which are accepted by
everyone or by the majority or by the philoso-
phers—•/>., by all, or by a majority, or by the
most notable and illustrious of them." In an-
other place, he adds one important qualification.
In defining a dialectical proposition as one that
is "held by all men or by most men or by the
philosophers," he adds: "provided it be not con-
trary to the general opinion; for a man would
assent to the view of the philosophers, only if it
were not contrary to the opinions of most men."
For Aristotle, dialectical reasoning or argu-
ment moves entirely within the sphere of
opinion. Even an opinion generally accepted,
not only by the philosophers but also by most
CHAPTER 36: HYPOTHESIS
755
men, remains an opinion. The best opinions are
probabilities— propositions which are not self-
evident and which cannot be proved. They are
not merely provisional assumptions. Resting on
assumptions which cannot ever be more than
probable, the conclusions of dialectical reason-
ing are also never more than probable. Since
they lack the certain foundation which axioms
give, they cannot have the certitude of science.
Plato, on the other hand, seems to think that
the mathematical sciences are hypothetical in
their foundation, and that only in the science of
dialectic, which he considers the highest sci-
ence, does the mind rise from mere hypotheses
to the ultimate principles of knowledge. "The
students of geometry, arithmetic, and the kin-
dred sciences," Socrates says in the Republic,
"assume the odd and the even, and the figures
and the three kinds of angle and the like in
their several branches of science; these are their
hypotheses, which they and everybody are sup-
posed to know, and therefore they do not deign
to give an account of them either to themselves
or others." There is a higher sort of knowledge,
he goes on, "which reason herself attains by
the power of dialectic, using the hypotheses
not as first principles, but only as hypotheses —
that is to say, as steps and points of departure
into a world which is above hypotheses, in
order that she may soar beyond them to first
principles."
The issue between Plato and Aristotle may
be only verbal— a difference in the use of such
words as "science" and "dialectic." Whether
it is verbal or real is considered in the chapters
on DIALECTIC and METAPHYSICS. In any case,
the issue throws light on the difference between
an hypothesis as a merely provisional assump-
tion, susceptible to proof by higher principles,
and an hypothesis as a probability taken for
granted for the purposes of argument, which is
itself incapable of being proved.
FINALLY WE COME to the meaning of "hypo-
thetical" in the analysis of propositions and
syllogisms. The distinction between the cate-
gorical and the hypothetical proposition or
syllogism, briefly touched on in Aristotle's
Organon, is developed in the tradition of logic
which begins with that book.
In his work on Interpretation he distin-
guishes between simple and compound propo-
sitions. The compound proposition consists of
several simple propositions in some logical re-
lation to one another. In the tradition of logical
analysis, three basic types of relation have been
defined as constituting three different kinds of
compound proposition. One type of relation is
the conjunctive; it is signified by the word
"and." Another is the disjunctive; it is signified
by the words "either ... or ..." The third
type is the hypothetical and is signified by the
words "if . . . then . . ."
To take an example we have already used,
"virtue is knowledge" and "virtue is teach-
able" are simple propositions. In contrast, the
statement, "//"virtue is knowledge, then virtue
is teachable," is a compound proposition, hy-
pothetical in form. If the proposition were
stated m the sentence, "either virtue is knowl-
edge or it is not teachable," it would be dis-
junctive in form; if stated in the sentence "vir-
tue is knowledge and virtue is teachable," it
would be conjunctive in form. In each of these
three cases, the compound proposition consists
of the two simple propositions with which we
began, though in each case they appear to be
differently related.
Whereas Aristotle divides propositions into
simple and compound, Kant divides all judg-
ments into the categorical, the hypothetical,
and the disjunctive. In the categorical judg-
ment, he says, "we consider two concepts"; in
the hypothetical, "two judgements"; in the dis-
junctive, "several judgements in their relation
to one another." As an example of the hypo-
thetical proposition, he offers the statement,
"If perfect justice exists, the obstinately wicked
are punished." As an example of the disjunc-
tive judgment, "we may say . . . [that] the
world exists either by blind chance, or by in-
ternal necessity, or by an external cause." Each
of these three alternatives, Kant points out,
"occupies a part of the sphere of all possible
knowledge with regard to the existence of the
world, while all together occupy the whole
sphere." The hypothetical judgment does no
more than state "the relation of two proposi-
tions . . . Whether both these propositions are
true remains unsettled. It is only the conse-
quence," Kant says, "which is laid down by
this judgement."
756
THE GREAT IDEAS
In the Prior Analytics, Aristotle distinguishes
between the categorical and the hypothetical
syllogism. The following reasoning is categori-
cal in form: "Knowledge is teachable, virtue
is knowledge; therefore, virtue is teachable."
The following reasoning is hypothetical in
form:' '//"virtue is knowledge, it is teachable;
but virtue is knowledge; therefore it is teach-
able'*; or "//* virtue is knowledge, it is teach-
able; but virtue is not teachable; therefore it is
not knowledge."
The basic issue with respect to the distinction
between categorical and hypothetical syllo-
gisms is whether the latter are always reducible
to the former. One thing seems to be clear. The
rules for the hypothetical syllogism formally
parallel the rules for the categorical syllogism.
In hypothetical reasoning, the consequent must
be affirmed if the antecedent is affirmed; the
antecedent must be denied if the consequent
is denied. In categorical reasoning, the affirma-
tion of the premises requires an affirmation of
the conclusion, and a denial of the conclusion
requires a denial of the premises.
With respect to the distinction between the
categorical and hypothetical proposition, there
is also an issue whether propositions stated in
one form can always be converted into propo-
sitions having the other form of statement. In
modern mathematical logic, for example, gen-
eral propositions, such as "All men are mortal,"
are sometimes expressed in hypothetical form :
"If anything is a man, it is mortal." Logicians
like Bertrand Russell think that the hypothet-
ical form is more exact because it explicitly re-
frains from suggesting that men exist; it merely
states that if the class 'man' should have any
existent members, they will also belong to the
class 'mortal.'
Apart from the question whether a universal
proposition should or should not be interpreted
as asserting the existence of anything, there
seems to be a formal difference between the
categorical and hypothetical proposition. This
is manifest only when the hypothetical is truly
a compound proposition, not when it is the
statement of a simple proposition in hypo-
thetical form, as, for example, the simple prop-
osition "All men are mortal," is stated in hypo-
thetical form by "If anything is a man, it is
mortal." Because it is truly a compound propo-
sition, and not merely the hypothetical state-
ment of a general proposition, the proposition,
"If virtue is knowledge, then virtue is teach-
able," cannot be restated in the form of a
simple categorical proposition.
A simple proposition, whether stated cate-
gorically or hypothetically, may be the con-
clusion of either a categorical or a hypothetical
syllogism. But the hypothetical statement
which is really a compound proposition can
never be the conclusion of any sort of syllogism,
though it may be one of the premises in hy-
pothetical reasoning.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The use of hypotheses in the process of dialectic
2. Hypothetical reasoning and hypothetical constructions in philosophy
3. The foundations of mathematics: postulates, assumptions
4. The role of hypotheses in science
40. Theories, provisional assumptions, fictions, reifications
4^. The purpose of hypotheses: saving the appearances; the formulation of predic-
tions
4r. Consistency, simplicity, and beauty as standards in the construction of hy-
potheses
qd. The task of verification: the plurality of hypotheses
5* Hypothetical propositions and syllogisms: the distinction between the hypothetical
and the categorical
PAGE
757
758
759
760
CHAPTER 36: HYPOTHESIS
757
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS. When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halvesof the page For example, in S3 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of me right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT Nehemiah, j 45 — (D) // Esdras, 7*46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional infoimation concerning the style of the references, sec the Explanation of
Reference Style, for geneial guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The use of hypotheses in the process of dia-
lectic
7 PLATO: Charrmdes, 9d-10a / Protagoras, 49a /
Meno, 183b-190a,c / Phaedo, 242b-243c /
Republic, BK iv, 350d-351b; BK vi, 383d-388a
esp 386d-388a; BK vn, 397a-398c / Ttmaeus,
462b-c / Parmemdes, 491a-511d / Sophist,
570a-d
8 ARISTOTLE* Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*21-
bi6] 39a-c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 6
[75*18-28] 103a-b / Topics 143a-223a,c esp
BK i, CH 1-3 143a-144b, CH IO-H 147b-148c,
CH 14 149a-d, BK vni 211a-223a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 7 112b-113d
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 227a-230c esp 227d-228b
/ Science of Right, 457 a-b / Judgement, 603b-c
2. Hypothetical reasoning and hypothetical
constructions in philosophy
7 PLATO: Meno, 183b-190a,c / Phaedo, 242b-
243c / Republic, BK vi, 386d-388a; BK vn,
397a-398c / Parmemdes, 491a-511d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2
[72*19-21] 98d; BK n, CH 6 125d-126b /
Heavens, BK i, CH 12 [28ib3-25] 373a-b /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 3 [ioo5b5-i7] 524c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 14,
A 6, ANS 680c-681a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 258d-259a
31 DESCARTES' Rules, xn, 23a-c / Discourse,
PART n-iii, 44c-50b passim; PART vi, 66a-b /
Meditations, 72b,d; i-n, 75a-78a / Objections
and Replies, 123d-124c
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH i, SECT i 25a-c /
Human Understanding, BK n, CH i, SECT 10
123b-d; CH xm, SECT 19-20 152c-d; CH xxm,
SECT 1-2 204a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
107 499c-500b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 3 2 9a -33 Id passim, esp
329d-330b; 333d-334a; 348a,c
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 7a-d; 176d-177b; 186d-
187a; 194b-200c, 227a-230c; 232c-233d /
Science of Right, 4$7a-b / Judgement, 603 b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
158a
53 JAMES. Psychology, 84a-119b passim; 221a-
238b; 820b-827a; 880b-886a esp 884b-886a
3. The foundations of mathematics: postulates,
assumptions
7 PLATO: Meno, 183b-c / Republic, BK vi, 386d-
388a; BK vn, 397c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
[71*1-16] 97a-b; CH 2 [72*19-24] 98d; CH 10
104d-105d; CH 12 [77*36^15] 106c-d; BK n,
CH 9 [93b2i-25] 128a-b / Physics, BK i, CH 2
[185*1-3] 259c-d / Heavens, BK in, CH 4
[302b27~3i] 394a / Metaphysics, BK xi, CH 3
758
THE GREAT IDEAS
4/04*
(3. The foundations of mathematics; postulates,
assumptions.)
[io6ia29-b4] 589c; BK xm, CH 2 [io77bn]-
CH 3 [1078*31] 609a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 8 [1151*15-19]
402a
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK i, POSTULATES-COMMON
NOTIONS 2a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK i, AS-
SUMPTIONS 404b / Spirals, 484b / Quadrature
of the Parabola, 527a-b
31 DESCARIES- Rules, n, 2d-3b / Meditations,
73a / Geometry, BK n, 304a-305a; 316a b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 1-5 171a-173a / Vacuum,
365b-366a / Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-
439b passim, 442a-443b
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-b
34 HUYGENS: Light, PREF, 551b-552a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xn,
SECT 1-7 358c-360c passim
42 KANT- Pwr<? Reason, 17d-18d; 24c-25b; 46a-c;
HOa, 211c-218d esp 217a-c / Practical Reason,
302d-303b; 312c-d, 330d-331a / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 376c-d /Judgement,
551a-553c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445b-c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 175b
52 DOSTOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 120d-
121b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 869a-870a; 874a-878a
4. The role of hypotheses in science
7 PLATO: Meno, 183b-c / Republic, BK vi, 386d-
388a / Timaeus, 447a-d
8 ARISTOTLK- Meteorology, BK i, CH 7 [344*5-9]
450b / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 6 [io7ibi2]-CH
7 [io72ft22] 601b 602b; CH 8 603b-605a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par i 19a-b; par 25
26a,c
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32, A
i, REP 2 175d-178a; PART i-n, Q 14, A 6, ANS
680c-681a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 105-106
128b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 23a-c / Discourse,
PART vi, 66a-b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 368b-370a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE i 270a; RULE
iv 271b; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a / Optics,
BK in, 543a b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH m,
SECT 16 317a-c; CH xn, SECT 12-13 362a-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 118a-119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 7a-d / Judgement, 603b-c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements ofChemtstry, PREF, 2a-b;
6d-7a; PART i, 23b-c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 184a
45 FARADAY: Researclies in Ekctncity% 467a-b;
607a,c; 851a*c
49 DARWIN- Origin of Species, 239c / Descent of
Man, 590a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK xm, 563a-b
53 JAMES Psychology, 324b; 862a-866a; 882a-
884b
54 FREUD- Interpretation of Dreams, 3Slc / Nor*
cissism, 400d-401a / Beyond the Pleasure Princi-
ple, 661c-662b
4a. Theories, provisional assumptions, fictions,
relocations
7 PLATO. Meno, 183b-c / Republic, BK vi, 386d-
388a; BK vn, 397c-d / Timaeus, 447d-4SOc /
Laws, BK vn, 730a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 10
[76b22~77a4] 105c-d / Heavens, BK i, CH 12
[28ib3-25] 373a-b; BK n, CH 5 379b-c / Meta-
physics, BK vi, CH i [i025bi-i3] 547b, BK xi,
CH 7 [io64ft4~9] 592b; BK xn, CH 6 [ic>7ibi2]-
CH 7 [1072*22] 601b-602b; CH 8 603b-605a
11 ARCHIMEDES- Equilibrium of Planes, BK i,
POSTULATES 502a-b / Floating Bodies, BK i,
POSIULATE i 538a; POSTULATE 2 541 b
16 PTOLEMY. Almagest, BK in, 83a; 86b-87a, BK
ix, 270b-273a, 291a-292a; BK xm, 429a-b
16 COPLRNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 513b-514b; BK in, 628b-629a;
BK iv, 675b-678a, BK v, 740a-b, 784b-785b
16KLPLER. Epitome, BK iv, 863b-872b, 890b-
892a; 929a-b, 932a-933a, BK v, 964b; 966a-
967a, 984b-985b, 991a-994b / Harmonies o
the World, 1023b-1080b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32, A
i, RFP 2 175d-178a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 258d-259a
28 GILBERT- Loadstone, BK vi, 108b-110b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY,
179c-d; THIRD DAY, 200a-d; 203d-205b;
FOURTH DAY, 240d-241c
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 316a-318b
passim, csp 316a-b / On Animal Generation,
383d
30 BACON* Novum Organum, BK i, APH 66 114d-
115c; BK n, APH 36, 165d-166b; APH 46, 178c
31 DLSCARTES: Rules, xii, 23a-c
33 PASCAL Pensees, 72, l&2b/ Vacuum, 367 &-370a
34 NFWTON. Principles, BK n, HYPOTHESIS 259a;
BK III, HYPOTHESIS I 285a, HYPOTHESIS II
331b, GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a / Optics,
BK i, 379a; BK in, 516a-544a esp 520a-522b,
525b-530b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH i, 557b-560b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
SECT 16 317a-c; CH xii, SECT 13 362c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 118a-119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 227d-228b / Science of
Right, 457a-b / Judgement, 603b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445b-c
45 LAVOISIER! Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 9a-
lOb
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 273a-277a;
758a-759c; 777d-778c; 830b-832c; 850b,d-
855a,c esp 850b,d-851c
4£ to
CHAPTER 36: HYPOTHESIS
759
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 42a
53 JAMES : Psychology, xiiib-xiva; 95a; 231b [fn 3]
54 FREUD- Narcissism, 400 d -401 d / Instincts,
412a-b / General Introduction, 483d-485a /
New Introductory Lectures, 818c-819b
4b. The purpose of hypotheses: saving the ap-
pearances; the formulation of predic-
tions
7 PLATO: Meno, 183b-c / Republic, BK vi, 386d*
388a, BK vu, 397a-398c / Ttmaeus, 447a-d
8 ARISTOTLE* Heavens, BK 11, CH 5 379b-c;
BK in, CH 7 [}o6ai 1 8] 397b-c / Meteorology,
BK i, en 7 [344*5-9] 450b
10 HIPPOCRAIES. Ancient Medicine, par i la-b /
Prognostics, par i 19a-b, par 25 26a,c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK in, 83a; BK ix, 270b-
273a; BK xin, 429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
16 KEPLER. Epitome, BK iv, 852a-b; 888b-890b;
911a-b; 929a; BK v, 964b
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK v, par 4 27d-28a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgtca, PART i, Q 32, A
i, REP 2 175d-178a
28 GILBERT. Loadstone, BK vi, 119a-b
28 HARVLY. Circulation of the Blood, 316a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 18, 149d;
APH 36, 16Sd-166a
31 DESCARTFS- Discourse, PART vi, 66a b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [66-84] 233b-
234a
34 NEWTON. Principles, BK in, GENLRAL SCHOL,
371b-372a / Optics, BK i, 379a
34HuYGFNs: Light, PREP, 551b-552a, CH i,
553a-b
35 LOCKF- Human Understanding, BK iv, on in,
SECI 16 317a-c, GH xn, SHCI 13 362c d
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SLGI 105
433b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, si ci iv, DIV 26
460b-c; SECT ix, DIV 82 487b-c; SECI \i, DIV
107, 499d-500a
36 STERNE. Tristram Shandy, 272b-273b
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 329d-330a, 333d 334a
42 KANT Pure Reason, 228b-c / Science of Right,
457a-b
45 LAVOISIER* Elements of Chemistry, PART i, 9d-
lOa; PART ii, 62a-63a
45 FARADAY- Researches in Electricity, 850 b,d-
851c
49 DARWIN Origin of Species, 42a, 239c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 357b; 367b [fn 5]; 655a;
862a-863a; 883a-884b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 483d-484a /
Group Psychology, 686c-d / New Introductory
Lectures, 840a-b
4c. Consistency, simplicity, and beauty as stand-
ards in the construction of hypotheses
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK in, 93a; BK xin,
429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a; 507a-508a; BK iv, 675b-
678a esp 677b-678a; BK v, 740a-b; 784b-785b
16 KEPLER: Epttome, BK iv, 888b-890a; BK v,
984b-985b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 227d-228d / Judgement,
551a-553c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART n,
62a-63a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 655a-659a csp 655a, 657b-
658b
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 400d-401a
4d. The task of verification: the plurality of
hypotheses
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 49a-c
8 ARISTOTLE. Heavens, BK n, CH 14 387d-389d;
BK HI, CH 7 [3o6a6-i8j 397b-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 14, 177a-
178d
11 ARCHIMEDES. Sand- Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK vi [703-711]
89c-d
16 PIOLEMY- Almagest, BK i, 9a-12b; BK in, 86b-
93a; BK iv, 120a-122b
16 COPERNICUS- Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a, BK i, 514b-515b, BK in,
653b-656b
16 KFPLI H Epitome, BK iv, 852a-b; 857b-860b,
907b-916a / Harmonies of the World, 1014b-
1016a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-28r
19 AQUINAS. Summa Thcologica, PARI i, Q 32, A
i, REP 2 175d-178a
28 GALILEO Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
203d-205b
28 HARVEY- Motion of the Heart, 268d-273c esp
268d, 273c; 286b-304a,c esp 286b c, 295d-
296a / Circulation of the Blood, 311c 312c;
324c-d
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK n, APH 36 164a-
168d
31 DESCARTES 'Discourse, PART vi,61d 62c;66a-b
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK vin [66-178] 233b-
236a
33 PASCAL. Vacuum, 368b-370a / Weight of Air,
404a-405b; 425a-429a
34 NEWTON Principles, BK n, PROP 52, SCHOL,
265a-b; PROP 53, SCHOL 266a-267a; BK in,
GENERAL sciiOL, 369a / Optics, Bk i, 453a-
455a; BK in, 525b-530b, 543a-b
34 HUYGENS: Light, PREF, 551b-552a
35 LOCKE - Human Understanding, BK iv, CH XH,
SECT 13 362c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 118b~119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
43 MILL: Liberty, 283d-284b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 2a-b
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 181b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 385b-c;
440b,d; 830b-832c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 42a-b; 239c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 655a-659a esp 655a-b;
863a-865a, 882a-884b
760
THE GREAT IDEAS
58a-b; CH 29 62d-63d; CH 44 68d-69b; BK 11,
CH 11-14 81b-84b / Posterior Analytics, BK n,
CH 6 125d-126b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, REP 2 86d-88c; Q 19, A 8, REP 1,3
116a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39c-41c esp 40d-41c;
51d-52a; llOd-lllc esp lllb; 129c-d;
179c-180c; 193a-200c esp 194b-d; 232c-233c
/ Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 265c-
267a esp 266a-c / Practical Reason, 297a-
298a
(4. The role of hypotheses in science. 4d, The task
of verifications the plurality of hypotheses.)
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401a / General Introduc-
tion, 502d-503c / New Introductory Lectures,
815a-b; 818c-819b
5. Hypothetical propositions and syllogisms:
the distinction between the hypothetical
and the categorical
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*21-
bi6] 39a-c; CH 23 [40^3-29] 57b-c; [41*21-41]
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The distinction between axioms and postulates, assumptions, and hypotheses, see JUDGMENT
8a; PRINCIPLE 2b(2), 30-30(3); TRUTH 40, 73.
Other discussions of the use of hypotheses in dialectic and philosophy, see DIALECTIC 23(2);
LOGIC 4d; PHILOSOPHY 30-30; and for the distinction between scientific and dialectical
reasoning, see PRINCIPLE 30(2); REASONING 50-50.
Other discussions of postulates in mathematics, see LOGIC 43; MATHEMATICS 33; snd for
other trestments of hypothetical judgments and hypothetical reasoning, see JUDGMENT 6d;
REASONING 2b.
The employment and venficstion of hypotheses in empirical science, see ASTRONOMY 2b;
EXPERIENCE 53-50; LOGIC 4b; MECHANICS 2b; PHYSICS 4b~4d; SCIENCE 46, 56.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART in,
43-47
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART iv, CH 26
SPINOZA. Correspondence, vi, xin
KANT. Introduction to Logic, x
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK in, CH 14
II.
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART n
BOYLE. Reflections upon the Hypothesis of Alkali and
Acidum
T. REID. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, i,
CH3
BROWN. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, VOL i, pp 220-241
HERSCHEL. A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of
Natural Philosophy, par 202, 208, 210, 216
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, BK m, CH i
WHBWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL II, BK XIII
. On the Philosophy of Discovery, APPENDIX H
BERNARD. Introduction to Experimental Medicine,
PART I, CH 2
TYNDALL. Scientific Use of the Imagination
JEVONS. The Principles of Science, CH 23
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, BK i, CH 2
BOSANQUET. LoglC, VOL II, CH 5
C. S. PEIRCE Collected Papers, VOL n, par 619-644,
669-693, 755-791 ; VOL vi, par 7-34
VENN. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
CH 1 6
POINCARE". Science and Hypothesis, PART iv, CH
9-10
MACH. Erfynntnis und Irrtum (Die Hypothese)
DUHEM. La theone physique, son objet — sa struc-
ture
PARETO. The Mind and Society, VOL i, CH 4-5
N. R. CAMPBELL. Physics; the Elements, CH 6
, What Is Science?, CH 5
BOHR. Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature
NORTHROP. Science and First Principles
EINSTEIN. On the Method of Theoretical Physics
FISHER. The Design of Experiments
DEWEY. Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 7
Chapter 37: IDEA
INTRODUCTION
AS the topical analysis or outline in each
JL\ chapter indicates, the great ideas are not
simple objects of thought. Each of the great
ideas seems to have a complex interior structure
— an order of parts involving related meanings
and diverse positions which, when they are
opposed to one another, determine the basic
issues in that area of thought.
The great ideas are also the conceptions by
which we think about things. They are the
terms in which we state fundamental problems;
they are the notions we employ in defining
issues and discussing them. They represent the
principal content of our thought. They are
what we think as well as what we think about.
If, in addition to its objects and content,
we wish to think about thought itself— its acts
or processes — we shall find in the tradition of
the great books a number of related terms
which indicate the scope of such inquiry. Some
of them are: idea, judgment, understanding,
and reasoning; perception, memory, and imag-
ination; sense and mind. Here we are concerned
with one of these— the idea IDEA. It is probably
the most elementary of all these related terms,
for according to different conceptions of the
nature and origin of ideas, the analysis of
thought and knowledge will vary. Different
positions will be taken concerning the faculties
by which men know, the acts and processes of
thinking, and the limits of human understand-
ing.
DOES THE WORD "idea/* when it is used in the
technical discourse of metaphysics or psychol-
ogy, signify that which is known or under-
stood ? Does it signify, not the object of thought,
but the thought itself? Or both? Certainly in
popular speech the word is used both ways, for
men speak of understanding an idea and note
differences in their understanding of the same
idea; and they also say that they have different
ideas about the same thing, meaning that they
understand the same thing differently.
The word "idea" has many other oppositions
of meaning in its tremendous range of ambigu-
ity. It is sometimes used exclusively for the
eternal types in the divine mind or the intel-
ligible forms that exist apart from material
things which are their copies; sometimes for
concepts in the human mind, abstracted from
sense-experience; sometimes for the seeds of
understanding which belong innately to the
intellect and so do not need to be derived from
sense. Sometimes "idea" means a sensation or a
perception as well as an abstract thought, and
then its connotation extends to almost every
type of mental content; sometimes it is denied
that there are any abstract or general ideas; and
sometimes "idea" has the extremely restricted
meaning of an image which is the memory of a
sense-impression.
Kant vigorously protests against what he
thinks is a needless abuse of the term idea. "I
beg those who really have philosophy at heart,"
he writes, "to exert themselves to preserve to
the expression idea its original signification."
There is, he insists, "no want of words to de-
nominate adequately every mode of representa-
tion without encroaching upon terms which arc
proper to others."
Kant proposes a "graduated list" of such
terms. He begins with perception, which he di-
vides into sensation and cognition, according as
it is subjective or objective. A cognition, he
then goes on, "is either an intuition or a con-
ception" according as it has either an imme-
diate or a mediate relation to its object. Di-
viding conceptions into the empirical and the
pure, Kant finally reaches the term idea as one
sub-division of pure, conceptions. If the pure
conception "has- its origin in the understanding
761
762
THE GREAT IDEAS
alone, and is not the conception of a pure sen-
suous image," it is a notio or notion; and "a
conception formed from notions, which trans-
cends the possibility of experience, is an idea, or
a conception of reason."
According to Kant, anyone "who has ac-
customed himself to these distinctions," will
find it "quite intolerable to hear the representa-
tion of the color red called an idea." Tolerable
or intolerable, the word "idea" has been used
quite persistently with the very meaning that
Kant abominates, as well as with a variety of
others. The reader of the great books must be
prepared for all these shifts in meaning and,
with them, shifts in doctrine; for according to
these differences in meaning, there are dif-
ferent analyses of the nature or being of ideas,
different accounts of their origin or their com-
ing to be in the human mind, and different
classifications of ideas. These three questions —
what ideas are, how ideas are obtained, and of
what sorts they are— are so connected that the
answer given to one of them tends to circum-
scribe the answers which can be given to the
other two.
THE UNITY OF EACH chapter in this guide to the
great books depends on some continuity of
meaning in its central term, some common
thread of meaning, however thin or tenuous,
which unites and makes intelligible the dis-
cussions of various authors about the same
thing. Without this, they would not move in
the same universe of discourse at all. Nor could
they even disagree with one another, if the
words they used were utterly equivocal, as for
example the word "pen" is equivocal when it
designates a writing instrument and an enclosure
for pigs.
The extraordinary ambiguity of the word
"idea" as it is used in the great books puts this
principle to the test. Are Plato and Hume talk-
ing about the same thing at all, when the one
discusses ideas as the only intelligible reality
and the other treats ideas as the images derived
through memory from the original impressions
of sense-experience? Is there any common
ground between Aristotle and Berkeley— be-
tween the identification of human ideas with
abstract or general conceptions, quite distinct
from the perceptions or images of sense, and the
identification of ideas with particular percep-
tions, accompanied by a denial of abstract or
general notions?
Do writers like Locke or William fames, for
whom ideas of sensation and abstract ideas (or
percepts and concepts) belong to the one facul-
ty of understanding or to the single stream of
consciousness, communicate with writers like
Plotinus, Descartes, and Spinoza, for whom
ideas belong to the intellect or to the thinking
being, separate from matter and from sensa-
tions which are only bodily reactions? Or with
writers like Aristotle and Aquinas, for whom
there is a sharp distinction between the faculties
of sense and intellect? Can Aristotle and Aqui-
nas in turn explain the origin of concepts or in-
telligible species by reference to the intellect's
power of abstracting them from experience or
sensible species, and still carry on discussion
with Plato, Augustine, and Descartes, who re-
gard the intellect as in some way innately en-
dowed with ideas, with the principles or seeds
of understanding?
The foregoing is by no means an exhaustive
inventory. It fails, for example, to ask about
the sense in which the theologians speak of
ideas in the mind of God and of the illumina-
tion of the angelic or the human intellect by
ideas divinely infused. (What is the common
thread of meaning between such discourse and
that concerned with the formation of abstract
concepts or with the revival of sense-impres-
sions in images?) It fails also to question the
meaning of idea in Kant's tripartite analysis of
the faculties of intuition, judgment, and reason-
ing; or in Hegel's ultimate synthesis of all na-
ture and history in the dialectical life of the
Absolute Idea, (What do these meanings of
"idea" have in common with the sense in which
Freud distinguishes between conscious and un-
conscious ideas ?)
The inventory is also incomplete in that it
does not indicate the many divergent routes
taken by authors who seem to share a common
starting point. Even those who, on certain
points, seem to talk the same language, appear
to have no basis for communication on other
points in the theory of ideas. But the questions
which have been asked suffice for the purpose
at hand. However great the ambiguity of
"idea," it does not reach that limit of equivoca-
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
7«3
tion which would destroy the universe of dis-
course. There is a slender thread of meaning
which ties all the elements of the tradition to-
gether—not in a unity of truth or agreement,
but in an intelligible joining of issues.
This unity can be seen in two ways. It ap-
pears first in the fact that any consideration of
ideas— whether as objects or contents of the
mind — involves a theory of knowledge. This
much is common to all meanings of "idea."
Those, like Plato and Berkeley, for whom
ideas constitute a realm of intelligible or sensi-
ble being, make knowledge of reality consist in
the apprehension or understanding of ideas.
Those, like Aristotle and James, for whom ideas
have no being except as perceptions or thoughts,
make them the instruments whereby reality is
known. On either view, knowledge involves a
relationship between a knower and a known, or
between a knowing faculty and a knowable
entity; but on one view ideas are the reality
which is known, and on the other they are the
representations by which is known a reality
that does not include ideas among its consti-
tuents. These two views do not exhaust the
possibilities.
Ideas are sometimes regarded both as objects
of knowledge and as representations of reality.
Some writers (as, for example, Plato) distin-
guish two orders of reality — the sensible and
the intelligible— and two modes of apprehen-
sion— sensing and understanding; and they use
the word "idea" for both the intelligible ob-
ject and the understanding of it. Locke, beg-
ging the reader's pardon for his frequent use of
the word "idea," says that it is the term "which
serves best to stand for whatsoever is the object
of the understanding when a man thinks." But
Locke also distinguishes between knowledge of
real existences through ideas "that the mind
has of things as they are in themselves," and
knowledge of the relations among our own
ideas, which the mind "gets from their com-
parison with one another," For Hume, too,
ideas as well as impressions are involved in our
knowledge of matters of fact, but relations be-
tween ideas may also be objects of knowledge,
as in "the sciences of geometry, algebra, and
arithmetic."
This double use of "idea" is sometimes ac-
companied, as in Aquinas, by an explicit ac-
knowledgement and ordering of the two senses.
For Aquinas, concepts are primarily the means
of knowledge, not the objects of knowledge.
A concept, Aquinas writes, "is not what is
actually understood, but that by which the
intellect understands"— that by which some-
thing else is known. Secondarily, however,
concepts become that which we know when
we reflexively turn our attention to the con-
tents of our own mind. Using the phrase "in-
telligible species" to signify concepts, Aqui-
nas explains that "since the intellect reflects
upon itself, by such reflection it understands
not only its own act of intelligence but also the
species by which it understands. Thus the in-
telligible species is that which is understood
secondarily; but that which is primarily under-
stood is the object, of which the species is the
likeness."
It is possible, therefore, to have ideas about
things or ideas about ideas. In the vocabulary
of this analysis by Aquinas, the ideas or con-
cepts whereby real things are understood are
sometimes called the "first intentions" of the
mind. The ideas whereby we understand these
ideas or first intentions are called the mind's
"second intentions." An idea is always a men-
tal intention, an awareness or representation,
never an independent reality for the mind to
know.
Locke's differentiation between ideas of sen-
sation and ideas of reflection seems to parallel
the mediaeval distinction between first and
second intentions; but whereas second inten-
tions are ideas engaged in a reflexive under-
standing of ideas as objects to be understood,
Locke's ideas of reflection comprise "the per-
ception of the operations of our own mind with-
in us, as it is employed about the ideas it has
got." A closer parallel, perhaps, is to be found
in Locke's distinction between our knowledge
of reality or of real existences and our knowl-
edge of the relations existing between our own
ideas.
THE SECOND WAY of seeing a connection among
meanings of "idea" depends on recognizing
what is common to contrary views.
The word "pen" is utterly equivocal, as we
have noted, when it names a writing instru-
ment and an animal enclosure. Hence men
764
THE GREAT IDEAS
cannot contradict one another no matter what
opposite things they may say about pens in one
sense and pens in the other. The two meanings
of "pen" are not even connected by being op-
posed to one another. But all the meanings of
"idea" do seem to be connected by opposition
at least, so that writers who use the word in its
different senses and have different theories of
idea cannot avoid facing the issues raised by
their conflicting analyses.
The root of this opposition lies in the positive
and negative views of the relation of ideas to
sensations— or, more generally, to sense and the
sensible. Though there are different analyses of
sensation, one or both of two points seems to be
agreed upon: that sensations are particular per-
ceptions and that sensations result from the im-
pingement of physical stimuli upon the sense
organs of a living body.
Berkeley insists upon the first point while
emphatically denying the second. Ideas or sen-
sations are always particulars; but, he says, "the
various sensations or ideas imprinted on the
sense, however blended or combined together
(that is, whatever objects they compose), can-
not exist otherwise than in a mind perceiving
them," and their cause is neither physical mat-
ter nor the perceiving mind, but "some other
will or spirit that produces them." Others, like
Lucretius and Hobbes, who regard sensations as
particular perceptions, do not use the word
"idea," as Berkeley does, for perceptions of ex-
ternal origin, but restrict it to inner productions
of the mind itself in its acts of memory or imag-
ination.
The various theories of idea thus range from
those which identify an idea with a sensation or
perception or with the derivatives of sensation,
to those which deny the identity or even any
relationship between ideas and sensations or
images of sense.
THE FIRST POSITION is taken by writers who
conceive mind or understanding, in men or
animals, as the only faculty of knowledge. It
performs all the functions of knowing and
thinking. It is sensitive as well as reflective. It
perceives and remembers as well as imagines
and reasons.
Within this group of writers there are differ-
ences. Berkeley, for example, thinks "the ob-
jects of human knowledge" include "either
ideas actually imprinted on the senses; or else
such as are perceived by attending to the pas-
sions and operations of the mind ; or lastly ideas
formed by the help of memory and imagina-
tion— either compounding, dividing, or barely
representing those originally perceived in the
aforesaid ways." Hume, on the other hand,
divides "all the perceptions of the mind into
two classes or species, which are distinguished
by their different degrees of force or vivacity.
The less forcible and lively are commonly de-
nominated Thoughts or Ideas. The other species
want a name in our language and in most others
. . . Let us, therefore, use a little freedom and
call them Impressions." By this term, Hume
explains, "I mean all our more lively percep-
tions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or
hate, or desire, or will."
Another use of terms is represented by Locke,
who distinguishes between ideas of sensation
and reflection, simple and complex ideas, par-
ticular and general ideas, and uses the word
"idea" both for the original elements of sense-
experience and for all the derivatives produced
by the mind's activity in reworking these given
materials, whether by acts of memory, imagina-
tive construction, or abstraction. Still another
variation is to be found in William James. De-
spite the authority of Locke, he thinks that the
word " 'idea' has not domesticated itself in the
language so as to cover bodily sensations." Ac-
cordingly, he restricts the word "idea" to con-
cepts, and never uses it for sensations or per-
ceptions. Nevertheless, like Locke, he does not
think that the development of concept from
percept needs the activity of a special faculty.
Both concept and percept belong to the single
"stream of thought" and are "states of con-
sciousness."
THE SECOND POSITION is taken by writers who
in one way or another distinguish between
sense and intellect and regard them as quite
separate faculties of knowing. The one is sup-
posed to perform the functions of perception,
imagination, and memory; the other, the func-
tions of thought— conception, judgment, and
reasoning, or if not these, then acts of intellec-
tual vision or intuition. Here, too, there are
differences within the group.
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
765
Just as the extreme version of the first posi-
tion is taken by those who identify ideas with
perceptions, so here the opposite extreme con-
sists in the denial of any connection between
ideas and all the elements of sense-experience.
The ideas in the divine mind> or the ideas in-
fused by God into the angelic intellects, have
no origin in experience, nor any need for the
perceptions, memories, or images of sense. They
are not abstract ideas, that is, they are not con-
:epts abstracted from sense-materials.
"Our intellect/' Aquinas writes, "abstracts
the intelligible species from the individuating
principles" — the material conditions of sense
ind imagination. "But the intelligible species
in the divine intellect," he continues, "is im-
material, not by abstraction, but of itself," The
jivine ideas, Aquinas quotes Augustine as say-
ing, "are certain original forms or permanent
and immutable models of things which are con-
tamed in the divine intelligence.*' Following
Augustine's statement that "each thing was
:reated by God according to the idea proper to
it," Aquinas restricts the word "idea" to the
'exemplars existing in the divine mind" and
to the species of things with which God informs
the angelic intellects. He uses the word "con-
:ept" where others speak of "ideas" in the
luman mind.
Descartes, on the other hand, endows the
luman mind with ideas — not concepts ab-
•tracted from and dependent on sense, but in-
:uitive apprehensions which, since they cannot
DC drawn in any way from sense-experience,
nust be an innate property of the human mind,
-ie does not, however, always use the word
'idea" in this strict sense. Some ideas, he says,
'appear to be innate, some adventitious, and
others to be formed or invented by myself."
The ideas called "adventitious" are those which
,eem to come from the outside, as when "I hear
iome sound, or see the sun, or feel heat." Those
vhich we form or invent ourselves are "con-
tructions of the imagination." Only innate
deas, in Descartes' view, are truly ideas in the
cnse of being the elements of certain knowl-
edge and the sources of intellectual intuition.
'By intuition," he says, "I understand, not the
luctuating testimony of the senses, nor the
nisleading judgment that proceeds from the
>lundering constructions of the imagination,"
but "the undoubting conception of an un-
clouded and attentive mind" which "springs
from the light of reason alone."
As mind and body are separate substances
for Descartes — mind being conceived by him
as a res cogitans or thinking substance, quite
separate from a res cxtcnsa or the extended mat-
ter of a bodily substance — so ideas and sensa-
tions are independent in origin and function.
Like infused ideas in the angelic intellect, in-
nate ideas in the human mind are not abstract,
for they are not abstracted. But unlike the
angelic intellect, the human mind, even when
it employs innate ideas, is discursive or cogita-
tive. It is never conceived as entirely free from
the activities of judgment and reasoning, even
when its power is also supposed to be intuitive
—that is, able to apprehend intelligible objects
without analysis or without recourse to the
representations of sense.
The doctrine of innate ideas does not always
go as far as this in separating intellectual knowl-
edge— or knowledge by means of ideas — from
sense-experience. In the theories of Plato and
Augustine, for example, sense-experience serves
to awaken the understanding to apprehend the
intelligible objects for the intuition of which it
is innately equipped.
"To learn those things which do not come
into us as images by the senses," Augustine
writes, "but which we know within ourselves
without images ... is in reality only to take
things that the memory already contains scat-
tered and unarranged . . . and by thinking
bring them together." Moreover, the memory
contains, not only "images impressed upon it
by the senses of the body, but also the notions
of the very things themselves, which notions
we never received by any avenue of the body."
This process of learning by remembering ap-
pears to be similar to the process which Plato
also calls "recollection" or "reminiscence." In
the Meno Socrates demonstrates that a slave-
boy, who thinks he knows no geometry, can be
led simply by questioning to discover that he
knew all the while the solution of a geometric
problem. "There have always been true thoughts
in him," Socrates tells Meno, thoughts "which
only needed to be awakened into knowledge by
putting questions to him/' Hence "his soul
must always have possessed this knowledge."
766
THE GREAT IDEAS
Learning, according to this doctrine of innate
ideas, must therefore be described as an at-
tempt "to recollect/' not "what you do not
know," but "rather what you do not remem-
ber."
Learning by recollection or reminiscence
seems to be a process in which latent ideas
(whether they are retained by the soul from
a previous life or are part of the soul's endow-
ment at its creation) become active either
through the questioning of a teacher or through
being awakened by the perceptions of the
bodily senses. Though such bodily stimulation
of thought implies a functional connection be-
tween body and soul, nevertheless both Plato
and Augustine hold that ideas are independent
in origin. They are not derived from sense,
though their appearance may be occasioned by
events in the world of sense.
ONE OTHER VIEW still remains to be considered.
It denies that ideas are innate in the human
mind at the same time that it distinguishes be-
tween the intellect and the senses as separate
faculties of knowing. Having to explain whence
the intellect gets its ideas, writers like Aristotle
and Aquinas attribute to the human intellect
an abstractive power by which it draws "the
intelligible species" from sensory images, which
Aquinas calls "phantasms."
The concepts by which "our intellect under-
stands material things," we obtain "by ab-
stracting the form from the individual mat-
ter which is represented by the phantasms."
Through the universal concept thus abstracted,
we are able, Aquinas holds, "to consider the
nature of the species apart from its individual
principles." It should be added here that ab-
stractions are not vehicles of intuitive appre-
hension. Conception, which is the first act of
the mind, yields knowledge only when concepts
are used in subsequent acts of judgment and
reasoning.
Abstract or universal concepts are as different
from the ideas which belong to intellects sepa-
rate from bodies— the divine or angelic intel-
lects-—as they are different from the particular
perceptions or images of sense. They occupy an
intermediate position between the two, just as,
according to Aquinas, "the human intellect
holds a middle place" between angelic intelli-
gence and corporeal sense. On the one hand, the
human intellect is for Aquinas an incorporeal
power; on the other hand, it functions only in
cooperation with the corporeal powers of sense
and imagination. So the concepts which the
human intellect forms, being universal, are im-
material; but they are also dependent, in origin
and function, on the materials of sense. Not
only are universal concepts abstracted from the
phantasms, but for the intellect to understand
physical things, "it must of necessity," Aquinas
writes, "turn to the phantasms in order to per-
ceive the universal nature existing in the in-
dividual."
This theory of abstract ideas seems not far
removed from the position of Locke, who dis-
tinguishes between particular and general ideas
(which he calls "abstract") or that of William
James, who distinguishes between universal
concepts and sense-perceptions. Yet on one
question the difference between them is radical,
namely, whether particular sensations and uni-
versal ideas belong to the same faculty of mind
or to the quite distinct faculties of sense and
intellect.
This difference seems to have considerable
bearing on the way in which these writers ex-
plain the process of abstraction or generaliza-
tion, with consequences for certain subtleties,
acknowledged or ignored, in the analysis of
the grades of abstraction. Nevertheless, the
resemblance between the positions of Locke
and Aquinas, or those of William James and
Aristotle, each affirming in his own way that
the mind contains nothing not rooted in the
senses, serves to mediate between the more
extreme positions.
THE DISPUTE ABOUT innate ideas and the con-
troversy over abstract ideas are issues in psy-
chology inseparable from fundamental differ-
ences concerning the nature and operation of
the faculty or faculties of knowing. There are
other issues which concern the being or the
truth of ideas. Here the first question is not
whether ideas are objects of knowledge, but
whether the existence of ideas is real or mental
—outside 'the mind or in it.
One aspect of this controversy is considered
in the chapter on FORM, viz., the argument be-
tween Aristbtle and Plato about' the being of
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
767
the Ideas or Forms apart from both matter and
mind. It is in the context of this argument that
the traditional epithet "realism" gets one of its
meanings, when it signifies the view that ideas
or universals have an independent reality of
their own. The various opponents of this view
are not called "idealists." If they deny any exist-
ence to universal ideas outside the mind, they are
usually called "conceptuahsts"; if they deny the
presence of universals even in the mind, they are
called "nominalists." These doctrines are more
fully discussed in the chapters on SAME AND
OTHER, UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR.
The controversy about the being of ideas has
another phase that has already been noted in
this chapter; and it is in this connection that
the epithet "idealism" gets one of its traditional
meanings. The doctrine is not that ideas have
real existence outside the mind. On the con-
trary, it is that the only realities are mental —
either minds or the ideas in them.
Berkeley's famous proposition— essc est per-
cipi, to be is to be perceived— seems intended
to permit only one exception. The perceiv-
ing mind has being without being perceived,
but nothing else has. Everything else which
exists is an idea, a being of and in the mind.
According to this doctrine (which takes differ-
ent forms in Berkeley and in Hegel, for ex-
ample), the phrase "idea of" is meaningless.
Nothing exists of which an idea can be a repre-
sentation. There is no meaning to the distinc-
tion between thing and idea. The real and the
ideal are identical.
Plato is sometimes called an "idealist" but
not in this sense. He has never been interpreted
as completely denying reality to the changing
material things which imitate or copy the eter-
nal ideas, the immutable archetypes or Forms.
Applied to Plato or to Plotmus, "idealism"
seems to signify the superior reality of ideal (as
opposed to material or physical) existence. Just
as "idealism" has these widely divergent mean-
ings, so does "realism" when it designates, on
the one hand, those who attribute independent
reality to ideas and, on the other hand, those
who affirm the existence of an order of real
existences independent of the ideas which
represent them in the mind.
Writers who distinguish between things and
ideas, or between the order of reality and the
mind's conception of it, face the problem of
differentiating between these two modes of be-
ing. To say that ideas or concepts exist only in
the mind is not to say that they do not exist at
all, but only that they do not exist in the same
way as things outside the mind.
Does an entity in its real existence apart
from knowledge have the same character that
it has when, as an object known, it somehow
belongs to the knowing mind ? Is there a kind
of neutral essence which can assume both modes
of existence— real existence, independent of
mind, and ideal existence, or existence in the
mind, as an object conceived or known? Is an
idea or concept in the mind nothing but the
real thing objectified, or transformed into an
object of knowledge; or is the real thing, the
thing in itself, utterly different from the objects
of experience or knowledge — neither knowable
nor capable of representation by concepts?
These questions, relevant to the consider-
ation of ideas as representations of reality, are,
of course, also relevant to problems considered
in the chapters on BEING, EXPERIENCE, and
KNOWLEDGE. The issues indicated are there
discussed.
Intimately connected with them are ques-
tions about the truth of ideas. Can ideas or
concepts be true or false in the sense in which
truth and falsity are attributed to propositions
or judgments? Under what conditions is an
idea true? In what does its truth consist, and
what are the signs or marks of its truth? These
matters are discussed in the chapter on TRUTH.
Here it is sufficient to point out that the tradi-
tional distinction between adequate and in-
adequate ideas, and the comparison of clear and
distinct with obscure and confused ideas, are
used to determine the criteria of truth. It may
be the truth of a concept taken by itself or of
the judgment into which several concepts enter.
To the extent that ideas are regarded as repre-
sentative, their truth (or the truth of the judg-
ments they form) seems to consist in some
mode of agreement or correspondence with the
reality they represent, or, as Spinoza says, its
idea turn.
Within the conceptual or mental order it-
self, there is a further distinction between ideas
which do not perform a representative function
and those which do. The former are treated as
768
THE GREAT IDEAS
fantasies, fictions, or chimeras; the latter are
called, by contrast, "real ideas," or ideas having
some reference to reality. The question of the
reality of ideas takes precedence over the ques-
tion of their truth, at least for those who regard
the division into true and false as applicable
only to representations. Yet the criteria of the
distinction between the real and the imaginary
are difficult to separate from the criteria of true
and false. The separation is made most readily
by those who use "idea" to mean memory
image. They can test the reality of an idea by
tracing it back to the impression from which it
originated.
Another sort of test is applied by those who
measure the reality of abstract ideas by their fi-
delity to the sense-perceptions from which they
were abstracted. Still another criterion, pro-
posed by William James, is that of freedom
from contradiction. An idea has truth and
its object has reality if it "remains uncontra-
dieted." The idea of a winged horse illustrates
the point.
"If I merely dream of a horse with wings,"
James writes, "my horse interferes with nothing
else and has not to be contradicted But if
with this horse I make an inroad into the world
otherwise known, and say, for example, 'That
is my old mare Maggie, having grown a pair of
wings where she stands in her stall,' the whole
case is altered; for now the horse and place are
identified with a horse and place otherwise
known, and what is known of the latter objects
is incompatible with what is perceived with the
former."
THE CONSIDERATION of ideas or concepts be-
longs to logic as well as to psychology and meta-
physics. The logician sometimes deals with con-
cepts directly and with the judgments into
which they enter; sometimes he deals with
them only as they find verbal expression in
terms and propositions.
The distinction between concepts and judg-
ments (or between terms and propositions) is
discussed in the chapter on JUDGMENT. There
also we see that the classification of judgments
or propositions depends in part on the accept-
ance or rejection of the notions of subject and
predicate in the analysis of concepts or terms;
and, if they are accepted, on the way in which
terms are distinguished both as subjects and as
predicates.
This in turn depends upon certain traditional
divisions which are applicable to terms, if not
always to concepts, such as the familiar distinc-
tions between concrete and abstract, and par-
ticular and universal, terms. When the concept,
which is sometimes called the "mental word,"
is regarded as by its very nature abstract and
universal, these distinctions are applicable only
to the physical words which are terms. Con-
crete and particular terms are then treated as
verbal expressions of sense-perceptions or im-
ages; abstract and universal terms, as verbal
expressions of ideas or concepts. But when ideas
are identified with sense-perceptions or images,
and abstract concepts are denied, the existence
of general names in ordinary discourse suffices
for the distinction between particular and uni-
versal terms, even though the latter do not
express any actual content of the mind.
Unlike the foregoing, other divisions of terms,
as, for example, the distinction between the
univocal and the analogical, or between species
and genera, do not occur throughout the tradi-
tion of logic. They tend to be characteristic of
the logic of Aristotle and its mediaeval develop-
ment. Of these two distinctions, that between
univocal and analogical terms or concepts ap-
pears explicitly, so far as this set of great books
is concerned, only in the Summa Theologica.
Nevertheless, Aquinas does have some back-
ground for his special theory of analogical terms
in Aristotle's treatment of univocal and equiv-
ocal names, and in his separation of terms
which predicate a sameness in species or genus
from those which predicate a sameness by anal-
ogy. The analysis of these distinctions is under-
taken in the chapters on SAME AND OTHER and
SIGN AND SYMBOL.
Other writers, in dealing with universal
terms, recognize that they have different de-
grees of generality. They sometimes formulate
this as an order of more and less inclusive classes.
Sometimes they refer to the intension and ex-
tension, or connotation and denotation, of
terms. The more general terms have a less re-
stricted connotation and hence represent more
extensive or inclusive classes. The more specific
terms have a more determinate meaning and so
also have a narrower denotation and represent
CHAPTER 37: IDEA 769
less inclusive classes. What seems to be peculiar of whether the more or the less general takes
to Aristotle's analysis of species and genera is precedence in the order of learning. The order
the setting of upper and lower limits to the and relation of ideas is even more the common
hierarchy of universal terms, with a small num- ground of both logic and psychology. Both, for
ber of irreducible categories (or summa genera) example, deal with the position and sequence
under which all species fall, and, at the other of terms or concepts in reasoning, though the
extreme, with a finite number of lowest (or logician aims to prescribe the forms which rea-
infimae) species which are incapable of subsum- soning must take in order to be valid, whereas
ing other species. the psychologist tries to describe the steps by
The terms which fall under the lowest species which thinking actually goes on.
must either be particulars or accidental classes. Only the logician, however, is concerned
Those which seem to be predicable of the cate- with the way in which terms arc ordered to
gories themselves, such as being or one, cannot one another as positive and negative, or as con-
be genera. These are the terms which Aristotle's traries; just as from Aristotle to Freud, only
mediaeval followers call "transcendental" and the psychologist deals with the association of
"analogical." Using the word "transcendental" ideas in the stream of thought by relationships
in a different sense, Kant enumerates a set of of contiguity and succession, similarity and
concepts which bear some resemblance to Ans- difference. According as the logical connec-
totle's summa genera, but which he treats as tion of ideas or their psychological association
transcendental categories. is made the primary fact, radically divergent
The difference among concepts with respect interpretations are given of the nature of
to generality is of interest to the psychologist mind, the life of reason, and the process of
as well as the logician, for it raises the problem thought.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1 . Doctrines of idea 771
la. Ideas, or relations between ideas, as objects of thought or knowledge: the ideas
as eternal forms
i b. Ideas or conceptions as that by which the mind thinks or knows 772
ic. Ideas as the data of sense-experience or their residues
id. Ideas as the pure concepts of reason: regulative principles
le. Ideas in the order of supra-human intelligence or spirit: the eternal exemplars
and archetypes; the modes of the divine mind
i/. Idea as the unity of determinate existence and concept: the Absolute Idea 773
2. The origin or derivation of ideas in the human mind
2a. The infusion of ideas: divine illumination
ib. The innate endowment or retention of ideas: the activation of the mind's native
content or structure by sense, by memory, or by experience
2c. The acquirement of ideas by perception or intuition: simple ideas or forms as di-
rect objects of the understanding
2d. Reflection as a source of ideas: the mind's consideration of its own acts or content 774
2e. The genesis of ideas by the recollection of sense-impressions: the images of sense
2/1 The production of ideas by the reworking of the materials of sense: the imagina-
tive construction of concepts or the formation of complex from simple ideas
770 THE GREAT IDEAS
PAGB
2g. The abstraction of ideas from sense-experience: the concept as the first act of
the mind; the grades of abstraction 775
2h. The derivation of transcendental ideas from the three syllogisms of reason
3. The division of ideas according to their objective reference
30. Ideas about things distinguished from ideas about ideas: the distinction between
first and second intentions
3#. Adequate and inadequate ideas: clear and distinct ideas as compared with
obscure and confused ideas 776
3<r. Real and fantastic or fictional ideas: negations and chimeras
4. The logic of ideas
40. The verbal expression of ideas or concepts: terms
4^. The classification of terms: problems in the use of different kinds of terms 777
(1) Concrete and abstract terms
(2) Particular and universal terms
(3) Specific and generic terms: tnfimae species and summa genera
(4) Univocal and analogical terms 778
4^. The correlation, opposition, and order of terms
5. Ideas or concepts in the process of thought
50. Concept and judgment: the division of terms as subjects and predicates; kinds of
subjects and predicates
5^. The position and sequence of terms in reasoning 779
5^. The dialectical employment of the ideas of reason
$d. The order of concepts in the stages of learning: the more and the less general
5*. The association, comparison, and discrimination of ideas: the stream of thought
or consciousness
6. The being and truth of ideas
6a. The distinction between real and intentional existence, between thing and idea:
ideas as symbols, or intentions of the mind
6b. The nature and being of ideas in relation to the nature and being of the mind 780
6c. The agreement between an idea and its object: the criterion of adequacy in
correspondence 781
6d. Clarity and distinctness in ideas as criteria of their truth
6>. The criterion of genesis: the test of an idea's truth or meaning by reference to
its origin
6f. The truth and falsity of simple apprehensions, sensations, or conceptions: con-
trasted with the truth and falsity of judgments or assertions
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
77
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is m section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins m the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO- Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ m title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance m the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Doctrines of idea
la. Ideas, or relations between ideas, as ob-
jects of thought or knowledge: the ideas
as eternal forms
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 125a-
126d / Symposium, 167a-d / Euthyphro,
193a-c / Phaedo, 224a-c; 228d-230c; 231c-
232a; 242b-243c / Republic, BK m, 333b-334b;
BK v, 368c-373c; BK vi, 383d-388a; BK vn,
392b-393b; 397a-398c / Timaeus, 455c-458b /
Parmemdes 486a-511d / Theaetetus, 534d-536a
/ Sophist, 571a-574c / Statesman, 595a-c /
Philebus, 610d-613a / Seventh Letter, 809c-
810d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR ix, CH 1 136a-d /
Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 1-2 228b-229d; TR ix,
CH 6-9 249a-250b / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 21
279b-280a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 16-38 75b-
81a passim / City of God, BK vin, CH 6-7 268d-
269d; BK XH, CH 7 346c-d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 84,
AA 1-2 440d-443c; A 4, ANS 444d-446b; AA 5-7
446c-450b; Q 85, A i, ANS and REP 1-2 451c-
4S3c; A 2, ANS 453d-455b; A 3, REP 1,4 455b-
457a; A 8, ANS 460b-461b; Q 86, A 4, REP 2
463d-464d; Q 87, A i, ANS 465a-466c; Q 88, A
i, ANS 469a-471c; A 2, ANS 471c-472c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 71d-72a; HI, 82d
83a; vr, 96d-97a / Objections and Replie
121a-c; DBF II-HI 130a-b; AXIOM v-vi 131c
132a; 137d; 157b-158a; 212c-213a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
95c-d; BK n, CH vni, SECT 8 134b-c; CH H
SECT i 138b-c; CH xxi, SECT 5 179c-d; BK n
CH v, SECT 12 266d~267a; SECT 14 267b-c; B
iv, CH i, SECT I-CH iv, SECT 12 307a-326d pa:
sim, esp CH n, SECT 1-7 309b-311a, SECT i
312d-313a, CH in, SECT 31 323c-d; CH iv, SLC
18 328d-329a; CH vi, SECT 13 335c-d; SECT i
336d; CH vn, SECT 1-7 337a-338c esp SECT
337a; CH xi, SECT 13-14 357d-358c; CH xvi
SECT 2 371d-372b; SECT 8 377b-d
35 BERKELEY : Human Knowledge 404a-444d pa:
sim, esp INTRO, SECT 21-25 411b-412a,c, SEC
i 413a-b, SECT 18 416b-c, SECT 23 417b-<
SECT 86-91 429c-431a, SECT 135-142 440«
441c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV 2
458b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 16a-c esp 16b; 113b-115
esp 113c-d; 173b-174a esp 173b-d / Practm
Reason, 352c-353a / Judgement, 551a-552c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par I4C
53a-b
53 IAMBS: Psychology, 300a-301a; 307a
772
(I. Doctrines of idea.)
16. Ideas or conceptions as that by which the
mind thinks or knows
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH i [16*4-8] 25a /
Soul, BK in, CH 4 661b-662c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 12, A
2 51c-52c; AA 9-10 58b-59d; Q 13, A i, ANS
62c-63c; A 5, ANS 66b-67d; Q 14, A i, ANS and
REP 3 75d-76c; A 2, ANS and REP 2-3 76d-77d;
A 4, ANS 78b-79a; A 5 csp REP 2-3. 79a-80a;
A 6, REP i 80a-81c; A 8, ANS 82c-83b; A 12, ANS
85d-86d; Q 16, A 2 95c-96b; Q 17, A 3, ANS
102d-103c; Q 27, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 153b-
154b; A 2, ANS and REP 2 154c-155b, Q 32, AA
2-3 178a-180b; Q 34, A 1 185b-187b; QQ 55-58
288d-306b; Q 82, A 3, ANS 433c-434c, Q 84
440b-451b; Q 85, A 2 453d-455b; A 4 457a-d;
A 8, REP 3 460b-461b; Q 86, A i, ANS 461c-
462a; A 2, ANS and REP 2-4 462a-463a; Q 87,
A i 465a-466c; Q 88, A i, REP 2 469a-471c; Q
89, A 2, ANS and REP 2 475a-d; A 6, ANS and
REP 2 478b-d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 71d-72a; in, 82d-
83a / Objections and Replies, 108b-109d;
121a-c; DBF n-iii 130a-b; AXIOM v-vi 131d-
132a; 137d; 157b-158a; 212c-213a
31 SPINOCA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 3 373b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH iv,
SECT 3 324b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15b-c; 22a,c; 30b-c;
31a-d; 38a-39c; 41c-42a; 53b-54b; 58c-59b;
85d-93c; 109d-113b esp 112d-113b; 115b-c;
130b-c; 197a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 300a-314b csp 300a-301b,
302b-303a, 307a, 313a-314a
Ic. Ideas as the data of sense-experience or
their residues
12 LUCRETIUS* Nature of Things, BK iv [722-817]
53d-54d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin, CH 7 269c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a; 52c; 54b-c;
PART iv, 261a; 262a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 137d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 48, SCHOL
391 b-c; PROP 49, SCHOL, 392a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK n, CH i, SECT 1-8 121a-
123a; SECT 17 125c d; CH i, SECT 20-cn iv,
SECT 1 126d-129c; CH iv, SECT 6-cn v 131a-b;
CH vn-ix 131c-141a passim, esp CH ix, SECT i-
7 138b-139b, SECT 15 141a; CH xn, SECT 1-2
147b-d passim; SECT 8 148c-d; CH xin, SECT 2
149a; CH xiv, SECT 31 161d-162a; CH xx, SECT
1-2 176b-c; SECT 15 177d; CH xxm, SECT i
204a-b; SECT 3 204c-d; SECT 7 205d-206a;
SECT 9 206b-c; SECT 15 208c-d; SECT 29-30
211d-212b; SECT 32-37 212c<214b passim; CH
xxxu, SECT 14-16 245c-246b; BK ill, CH i,
SECT 5 252b-c; CH iv, SECT 7-15 260d-263b
esp SECT 11-15 261d-263b; CH vi, SECT 46-47
THE GREAT IDEAS
\b to \e
281d-282b; CH xi, SECT 21-23 304d-305b; BK
iv, CH n, SECT 11-13 311c-312b; CH HI, SECT
23 320a-c; CH iv, SECT 4 324c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i
413a-b; SECT 18 416b-c; SECT 29-33 418c-
419a; SECT 36 419c-d; SECT 88-91 430a-431a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b; SECT VH, DIV 49 471c-d; DIV 61 477c-
478a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 234b-236b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 45b-46a esp 45d-46a;
48b-c; 54b-55a; 101b-102a esp 102a; H5b-c/
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 282 b-c
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 442b-443a / Ego and Id,
700a-701a; 701d
Id. Ideas as the pure concepts of reason: regu-
lative principles
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15c-16a; 37b-39c; 108a-
209d esp 108a-109c, 113b-115c, 117b-119a,
129c-131c, 158a-159d, 166c-171a, 173b-174a,
187a-c, 193b-d, 200d-202a, 203b-d, 209b-d;
237b; 239a-240b / Practical Reason, 310d-
311d; 329a-d; 343a; 349b-355d esp 349b-350c
/ Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 390b / Judge-
ment, 461a-462d; 464c-467a; 489b-c; 504d-
505a; 506a-511a esp 509d-510a; 528c-530c;
542b-544c; 570b-572c; 581a-582c; 596c-598b;
604ab
le. Ideas in the order of supra-human intelli-
gence or spirit: the eternal exemplars
and archetypes; the modes of the divine
mind
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [181-200]
63b-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-2 lOa-d;
TR vi, CH 2-3 21d-23a; CH 9, 26a / Third
Ennead, TR ix, CH i, 136a-c / Fourth Ennead,
TR iv, CH 13 164d-165b / Fifth Ennead 208a-
251d passim, esp TR in 215d-226c, TR v-vn
228b-239b, TR vm, CH 7 242d-243c, TR ix
246c-251d / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 21 279b-
280a; TR vn, CH 2-17 322b-331a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 9, 3a; BK
xn, par 38 108d-109a / City of God, BK vin,
CH 3-4 266a-267c; BK xi, CH 10, 328c-d; BK
xn, CH 17-18 353a-354d / Christian Doctrine,
BK n, CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
PREAMBLE 75c-d; A 4, ANS 78b-79a; A 5 79a-
80a; A 6 esp REP 3 80a-81c; A 8, ANS 82c-83b;
A n, REP 1-2 84c*85c; A 14, ANS and REP 2
88d-89b; Q 15 91b-94a; Q 16, A i, ANS and REP
2 94b-95c; Q 18, A 4 107d-108c; QQ 22-24 127c-
143c passim; Q 34, A 3, REP 4 188b-189a; Q 44,
A 3 240b-241a; Q 47, A i, REP 2 256a-257b; QQ
55-56 288d-294d; Q 58 300b-306b passim; Q
74, A 3, REP 5 375a-377a,c; Q 84, A 2, ANS and
REP 3 442b-443c; A 3, REP i 443d -444d; AA
4-5 444d-447c; Q 85, A 4, ANS 457a-d; Q 87, A
i, ANS and REP 2-3 465a-466c; Q 89, A 3, ANS
If to 2c
and REP 1,3 475d-476c; Q 105, A 3, ANS 540c-
541b; Q 106, A i, ANS and REP i 545d-546d; Q
107 549b-552b; Q 108, A i, ANS and REP 2
552c-553c; Q 115, A 2, ANS 587c-588c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 61,
A 5, ANS 58b-59d; PART in, Q 9, A 3, ANS 765b-
766b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xm [52-
87] 126a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 23 108c;
APH 124 133c-d; BK n, APH 15 149a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 137d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c passim; PART n, PROP 3, DEMONST
374a-b; PROP 4-5 374c-d; PROP 9 376a-c; PROP
19-20 382b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [146-151] 114b;
BK v [469-505] 185b-186a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vi,
SECT 3 268d; CH xi, SECT 23 305a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 29-33
418c-419a esp SECT 33 419a; SECT 70-71 426d-
427a, SECT 75-76 427d~428a; SECT 81 428c-d
42 KANT Pure Reason, 113c-118a; 173b-174a esp
173b-c / Judgement, 551a-552c; 575b~577a;
580c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 169d-
170b
I/. Idea as the unity of determinate existence
and concept: the Absolute Idea
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a;
INTRO, par 1-2 9a-10a; par 31-32 19c-20b;
PART in, par 279, 93b-c; par 345 lllb; par
352-353 112b-c; par 360 113d-114a,c; ADDI-
TIONS, 2 115d; 19 119c-d / Philosophy of His-
tory, INTRO, 156c-162a esp 156d-157b, 158c,
160b-162a; 163a-165b esp 165a-b; 166b-c;
169d-171b; 176b-c; 182d
2. The origin or derivation of ideas in the
human mind
2a. The infusion of ideas: divine illumination
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK iv, par 25 25c;
BK vn, par 8, 45d; par 16 48c-49a; par 23
SOb-c; BK xm, par 19 H5c-d / City of God,
BK VIH, CH 7 269c-d; CH 9 270d-271a; BK x,
CH 2 299d-300a; BK xi, CH 24-25 335c-336d;
CH 27, 337d
19 AQUINAS . Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 84, A
4 444d-446b; Q 89, A i, REP 3 473b-475a; A 2,
REP 2 475a-d; A 4, ANS 476c-477a; A 7, ANS
478d-479c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 9, A
3 765b-766b; A 4, REP 2-3 766b-767b; PART
in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-l032b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 26-
33 418a-419a; SECT 57 423d-424a; SECT 67
426a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-c
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
773
26. The innate endowment or retention of
ideas: the activation of the mind's native
content or structure by sense, by memory,
or by experience
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124a-126c esp 126a-c /
Meno, 179d-183a; 188d-189a / Phaedo, 228a-
230d / Theaetetus, 515d-517b
8 ARISTOTLE- Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
97a-d; BK n, CH 19 [99*20-33] 136a-b / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 9 [992b2 4-993*11] 511a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 22 127c-128c;
BK n, CH ii 150a-151b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 4, 8b-c /
Fourth Ennead, TR HI, CH 25, 155b; TR iv, CH
5 160d-161b / Fifth Ennead, TR in, CH 2, 216b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 15-19 75a-
76b; par 26-38 78a-81a / City of God, BK vin,
CH 6, 269b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 55, A
2 289d-290d; A 3, REP i 291a-d; Q 57, A i, REP
3 295a-d; Q 84, A 3 443d-444d; A 4, ANS 444d-
446b; A 6, ANS 447c-449a; Q 89, A i, REP 3
473b-475a; Q 117, A i, ANS and REP 4 595d-
597c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333d-335a
esp 334c-d
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, Ib-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv, 5c-d; 6d; vin, 13c-d /
Discourse, PART iv, 53b; PART v, 54c / Medita-
tions, ii 77d-81d; in, 83b, 88c-d; vi, 96d-97a;
99a-c / Objections and Replies, 120c-d; 140c;
215b-c; 224b,d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90d-91b; BK i,
CH i, SECT i 95b,d-96a; SECT 15 98d-99a;
SEC r 23-24 101b-102b; CH ii, SECT 12 107b-d;
CH in 112c-121a,c passim, esp SECT 21 118b-
119a; BK ii, CH i, SECT i 121a-b; SECT 6
122b-c; SECT 9 123a; SFCT 17 125c-d; CH ix,
SECT 6 139a; CH xi, SECT 16 147a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV 17,
457b,d [fn i]
42 KANT Pure Reason, 14a-108a,c esp 14a-b,
22a,c, 23a-34c, 41c-42b, 48d-5ld, 53b-55a,
58d-59a, 61a-62c, 66d-93c; 113b-115a / Practi-
cal Reason, 352c-353a / Judgement, 551a-589c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 851a-890a esp 851b-852a,
856a b, 859a-860b, 867a-868b, 879b, 889a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 512b-513b esp
512b; 526c-d; 532b; 599a-b / Group Psy-
chology, 688d-689a; 689b [fn i] / Ego and Id,
707c-708b esp 708b
2c. The acquirement of ideas by perception or
intuition: simple ideas or forms as direct
objects of the understanding
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 224a-c / Republic, BK vi,
383d-388a; BK vn, 392b-393c / Ttmaeus, 457c-
458a / Parmenides, 487d-488a / Theaetetus,
535b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vin, CH 6,
269b c; BK xn, CH 7 346c-d
774
THE GREAT IDEAS
Id to If
(2. The origin or derivation of ideas in the human
mind. 2c. The acquirement of ideas by
perception or intuition: simple ideas or forms
as direct objects of the understanding.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 84, A
i, ANS and REP i 440d-442a; A 2, ANS 442 b-
443c; A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 444d-446b; A A 5-7
446c-450b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4a-b / Meditations, vi,
99a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 14-23 380c-
383c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; CH HI, SECT 21 118b-119a;
BK n, CH i-ix 121a-141b passim, esp CH i,
SECT 1-8 121a-123a, SECT 17 125c-d, CH i,
SECT 20-CH IV, SECT I 126d~l29c, CH IV, SECT
6-cH v 131a-b, CH ix, SECT 1^7 138b-139b,
SECT 15 141a; CH xi, SECT i7~cn XH, SECT 2
147a-d; CH xii, SECT 8 148c-d; CH xm, SECT
2 149a; CH xiv, SECT 2 155b-c; SECT 31 161d-
162a; CH xv, SECT 9 164b-d; CH xvi, SECT i
165c-d; CH xvn, SECT 22-cn XVHI, SECT i
173d-174a; CH xvm, SECT 6 174c-d; CH xx,
SECT 1-2 176b-c; SECT 15 177d; CH xxi, SECT
75 200 b-d; CH xxrn, SECT i 204a-b; SECT 3
204c-d; SECT 5 205a-b; SECT 7 205d-206a;
SECT 9 206b-c; SECT 15 208c-d; SECT 29-30
211d 212b; SECT 32-37 212c-214b passim; CH
xxv, SECT 9 216d; SECT n 217a; CH xxx,
SECT 2 238b-c; CH xxxi, SECT 2 239b-d; CH
xxxn, SECT 14-16 245c-246b; BK in, CH i,
SECT 5 252 b-c; CH iv 260a-263c passim, esp
SECT 11-15 261d-263b; CH v, SECT 2 263d-
264a; CH vi, SECT 46-47 281d-282b, CH xi,
SECT 21-23 304d-305b; BK iv, CH n, SECT 11-
13 311c-312b; CH HI, SECT 23 320a-c; CH iv,
SECT 4 324c; CH xvm, SECT 3 381b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i
413a-b; SECT 18 416b-c; SECT 25-33 417d'
419a passim; SECT36419c-d; SECT 88-9i430a-
43 la passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b; SECT vn, DIV 49 471c-d; DIV 61 477c-478a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 318b-319a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14a-b, 23a-33d esp 25b-c,
27c, 28d-29d, 32a-c; 34a-c; 41c-42a; 45b-46a;
S3b-S5a; 66d-72c esp 69c-72c; 85d-93c; 99a-
107b; 131a-c; 186d-187a / Judgement, 465a-c;
528c-530c; 570c-572b
45 LAVOISIER- Elements of Chemistry, PREF, Ic-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 502a-505b esp 502a
Id. Reflection as a source of ideas: the mind's
consideration of its own acts or content
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 4 [429b26~430a9]
662b~c
12 EPICTKTUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH 17 122d-124a; CH 20 126c-127b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 12-31 74b-
79d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12, A
9, REP 2 58b-59a; Q 28, A 4, REP 2 160c-161d;
Q 85, A 2 453d-455b; Q 87, A 3 467b-468a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 96d-97a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH i,
SECT 1-8 121a-123a; SECT 17 125c-d; SECT 24
127b-c; CH in, SECT i, 128d; CH vi-vn 131b-
133b; CH ix, SECT 1-2 138b-c; CH xi, SECT 14,
146d, CH xii, SECT 1-2 147b-d; SECT 8 148c-d;
CH xiv, SECT 2-6 155b-156c; SECT 31 161d-
162a; CH xvn, SECT 22 I73d-174a; CH xvm,
SECT 6 174c-d; CH xx, SECT 1-2 176b-c; SECT
15 177d; CH xxi, SECT 4 178d-179c; SECT 75
200b~d; CH XXIH, SECT i 204a-b; SECT 5
205a-b; SECT 15 208c-d; SECT 29-30 211d-
212b; SECT 32-37 212c-214b passim; CH xxv,
SECT 9 216d; SECT n 217a; BK in, CH i,
SECT 5 252b-c; CH v, SECT 2 263d-264a; BK
iv, CH in, SECT 23 320a-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT i 413a-b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV 14
456b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 15c-16c; 55a-56c; 99a-
107b; 121a-123b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 138
48c-d; ADDITIONS, 89 129d-130a
53 JAMES. Psychology, 121a-b; 122b-126a passim,
esp 122b-124b
2e. The genesis of ideas by the recollection of
sense-impressions: the images of sense
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 8-18 73b-
76a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a-d; PART iv,
258b-c; 262a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 26 156a-
157a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xii, 19a-20d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 17-18 380d-
382b, PROP 40, SCHOL 2 388a-b; PROP 49,
SCHOL, 391d-392c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 21 118b-119a; BK n, CH x 141b-143d
passim, esp SECT 2 141b-c, SECT 7 142c-d; BK
iv, CH ii, SECT 14 312b-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b; SECT vn, DIV 49 471c-d; DIV 61 477c-
478a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341d-342a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 54b-55a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 480a-501b esp 480a-b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 351c-352d
esp 351d-352a; 363c-364b; 367 b-c; 384c-385c
esp 385b-c / Unconscious, 442d-443a / General
Introduction, 5l8c-d / Ego and Id, 700a-701d
2/. The production of ideas by the reworking of
the materials of sense: the imaginative
construction of concepts or the forma-
tion of complex from simple ideas
12 LUCRETIUS: "Nature of Things, BK iv [722-748]
53d-54a
2g to 3a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 14 74d-75a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies, PART i, Q 12, A
9, REP 2 58b-59a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 50d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, i, 76a-b; in, 83b /
Objections and Replies, 210d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [95-128] 177b-
178a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH i,
SECT 5 122a-b; SECT 24 127b-c; CH n, SECT i-
2 127d-128b; CH vn, SECT 10 133a-b; CH xi,
SECT 6-7 145a-b; CH xn-xxvin 147b-233d
passim, esp CH xin, SECT i 148d~149a, SECT
4-6 149b-d, SECT 27 154c-d, CH xiv, SECT 27-
31 16Gd-162a, CH xv, SECT 2-3 162c-d, SECT
9 164b-d, CH xvi, SECT 1-2 165c-d, SECT 5
166b-c, SECT 8 167c, CH xvn, SECT 3 168b,
SECT 5 168d-169a, SECT 22 173d-174a, CH xxi,
SECT 75 200b d, CH xxn, SECT 2 201a~b, SECT
9 202c-203a, CH xxv, SECT 9 216d, SECT n
217a, CH xxvni, SECT 14 231d-232a, SFCT 18
232d-233b; CH xxx, SECT 3-5 238c-239b;
CH xxxi, SECT 3-14 240a-243c passim, CH
xxxn, SECT 12 245b-c; SECT 17-18 246b-247a;
SECT 22-25 247c-248a passim; BK in, CH n,
SECT 3 253c; CH iv, SECT 12-14 262b-263a; CH
iv, SECT I7-CH v, SECT 16 263c-268b; CH vi,
SECT ii 271b-d; SECT 26-51 274d-283a passim;
CH xi, SECT 15 303b-c; SECT 18 304a-b; BK
iv, CH iv, SECT 5-8 324d-325c; SECT 11-12
326b-d
35 BLRKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SFCF
10 406d-407b; SECT i 413a-b; SECT 28 418b-c
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV
13-14 455d-456b; SECI in, DIV 18 457c-d;
SECT v, DIV 39, 466c-d; DIV 40, 467b; SECT
vn, DIV 49, 471d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338a, 341d-342a
42 KANI. Pure Reason, 5d-6b; 31c-d; 45d-46a;
65d-108a,c esp 66d-91d, 101b-107b; 193a-
195a; 211d-216c / Judgement, 493c-495a,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 104a-106b, 149b-153b esp
150a, 153a-b; 179b-181a esp 181b [fn i]; 362a-
363b; 480a-481a
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 270c-271a
2g. The abstraction of ideas from sense-
experience: the concept as the first act
of the mind; the grades of abstraction
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[99b2o-ioob4f 136a-d / Physics, BK n, CH 2
[i93b22-i94*n] 270a-c / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH i [98o*28-98ibi3] 499a-500a; BK iv, CH 4
[ioo6*i2-bi2] 525b-d; BK vi, CH i [io25b28-
1026*6] 547d-548a; BK vn, CH 10 [iQ35b35~
1036*12] 559b-c; BK xi, CH 3 [io6ia29~bi2]
589c-d; BK xm, CH 2 [i077bi]-cH 3 [1078^]
608d-610a / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*2-16]
632a-b; BK in, CH 4 [429*10-23] 661d-662a;
CH 7 [43i"i4-bi9] 663d-664b; CH 8 664b-d /
Memory and Reminiscence, CH i [449^0-
450*25] 690c-691a
37: IDEA
775
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q i, A i,
REP 2 3b-4a; Q 12, A.I3, ANS 61c-62b; Q 14, A
n, REP i 84c-85c; Q 40, A 3, ANS 215c-216d;
Q 54, A 4, ANS and REP 2 287b-288a; Q 55, A 2
289d-290d; Q ^7, A i, REP 3 2§5a-d, Q 75, A 2,
REP 3 379c-380c; A 3, REP 2 380c-381b; A 5,
ANS 382a-383b; Q 76, A 2, REP 4 388c 391a,
Q 79, AA 3-4 416a-418c,4 A 5, REP 2 418c-419b,
Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c; A 6 447c-449a; Q 85,
AA 1-3 451c-457a; AA 5~6457d-459c; A 8 460b-
461b; Q 89, A i, REP 3 473b-475a; A 4, ANS and
REP i 476c-477a; A 7, ANS 478d-479c; Q 117,
A i 595d-597c; PART i-n, Q 29, A 6, ANS and
REP 1,3 748b-749a
20 AQUINAS, Summa Theohgica, PART HI, Q 9,
A 4 766b-767b; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS
1025c-1032b
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 305a / On
Animal Generation, 332a-335c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xiv, 29b-30d / Discourse,
PART iv, 53b / Objections and Replies, 215b-c;
216d-217d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 2
388ab
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECTi598d-99a; BKII, CHXI, SECT 9-11 145b-
146a; CH XH, SECT i, 147b-c; CH xxxn, SECI
6-8 244b-d; BK in, CH in, SECT 6-9 255c-
256c; CH vi, SECT 32-33 277c-278c; BK iv, CH
vn, SECT 9 338d-339b; CH ix, SECT i 349a
35 BERKB-LEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO 405a-
412a,c esp SECT 6-19 405d-410c; SECT 5
414a-b; SECT 97-100 431d-432c; SECI 118-
120 436b-d; SECT 143 441c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT XH, DIV
122 S05c-d; DIV 124-125 506a-507a esp DIV
125, 507b [fn i]
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 23a-24a; 45d-46a; 115b-c;
193a-195a
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 296c-297b passim
53 JAMES. Psychology, 305a-312a passim; 329a-
331b esp 331b
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 442b-443d
2h. The derivation of transcendental ideas from
the three syllogisms of reason
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 109d-120c esp HOd-lllc
3. The division of ideas according to their
objective reference
3*. Ideas about things distinguished from
ideas about ideas: the distinction be-
tween first and second intentions
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12, A
9, REP 2 58b-59a; Q 14, A 6, REP i 80a-81c; A
13, REP 2-3 86d-88c; Q 15, A 2, ANS and REP
2 92a-93b; Q 29, A i, REP 3 162a-163b; Q 30,
A 4, ANS 170c-171b; Q 66, A a, ANS and REP 2
345d-347b; Q 84, A i, REP i 440d-442a; Q 85,
A 2 453d-455b
776
THE GREAT IDEAS
3£ to
(3. The division of ideas according to their objec-
tive reference. 3a. Ideas about things dis-
tinguishedfrom ideas about ideas: the dis-
tinction betweenfirst and second intentions.)
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan* PART iv, 270a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK u,
79c; BK in, 150a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH u
252d-254c passim, CH iv, SECT 2 260b; CH v,
SECT 12 266d-267a; SECT 14 267b-c; CH vi,
SECT 19, 273b, SECT 48-50 282b-d; CH xi,
SECT 10 302b; SECT 24 305b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15d-16c csp 16c; 55a-56c;
99a-101b; 121a-123b
46 H KG EL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
158a
S3 JAMES: Psychology, 300b
3£. Adequate and inadequate ideas: clear and
distinct ideas as compared with obscure
and confused ideas
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b
19 AQUINAS: Sumtna Theologtca, PART i, Q 12, A
6, ANS and REP 3 55b-56a; Q 13 62b-75b, Q 14,
A 6 80a-81c; A 12, REP 2 85d-86d; Q 55, A 3
291a-d; Q 85, A 3 455b-457a; A 4, REP 3
457a-d; A 8, ANS 460b-461b; Q 89, A i, ANS
473b-475a; A 2, ANS and REP 2 475a-d; A 3,
ANS and REP 2,4 475d-476c; A 4, ANS and REP
2 476c-477a; Q 94, A i, REP 3 501d-503a;
Q 117, A i, REP 4 595d-597c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 10,
A 2, REP 3 768b-769c; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A
i, REP 2 1025c-1032b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-333d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 14-17
107d-108a
31 DESCARTES- Discourse, PART iv, 51b-52a /
Meditations, 73d-74a; in, 82a-d; 85b-86b, vi,
99a-c / Objections and Replies, POSTULATE v-
vi 131b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 4 373b; PROP
34-36 385d-386b; PROP 38 386c-d; PROP 40-
43 387a-389b; PART HI, DEF 1-3 395d-396a;
PROP i 396a-c; PROP 3 398b~c; PART iv, AP-
PENDIX, u 447b; PART v, PROP 3-4 453a-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 91d-92c; BK i,
CH III, SECT 19 117c-dj BK II, CH XIII, SECT 17-
20 152a-d; CH xvi, SECT 3-4 165d-166b; CH
xvii, SECT 7-8 169b-170a; SECT 12-21 170d-
173d passim, esp SECT 15 171b-172a; CH xxv,
SECT 8 216b-c; CH xxvin, SECT 19 233b-c; CH
xxix 233d- 238a; CH xxxi 239b-243c passim;
CH xxxii, SECT 18, 246d-247a; BK m, CH vi,
SECT 37 279b; SECT 40 280a-b; SECT 43-51
280c-283a; CH x, SECT 2-4 291d-292c; CH xi,
SECT 24 305b-d; BK iv, CH n, SECT 15 312d-
313a; CH in, SECT 26 321b-c; CH xn, SECT 14
362d-363a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30 418c;
SECT 33 419a; SECT 36 419c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VH, DIV
48-49 470d-471d; SECT xn, DIV 125 506d-
507a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 30b-31a; 125b
[fn i]; 193a-b / Judgement, 603c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 311b-312b ffn i]; 480b-
484a
3c. Real and fantastic or fictional ideas: nega-
tions and chimeras
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [722-748]
53d-54a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12, A
9, REP 2 58b-59a; Q 17, A 2, REP 2 102a~d
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART i, 50d; 57b-c; PART
iv, 258b-d; 261a; 262a-c
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK i, APH 60 112c-
113a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, i, 76a-77c; in, 83b
/ Objections and Replies, 210d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH vin,
SECT 1-6 133b-134a;cHxvn, SECT 12-21 170d-
173d esp SECT 15 171b-172a; CH xxx 238a-
239b; BK in, CH i, SECT 4 252a; BK iv, en iv,
SECT 1-12 323d-326d passim; CH v, SECT 7-8
330b-d
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SECT 29-30
418c; SECT 33-34 419a-c; SECT 36 419c-d;
SECT 82-84 428d-429c, SECT 86-91 429c-
431a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 62d-63a; 174d-175b;
193a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 300b; 639a-644a csp 640a-
641b, 642b [fn 2], 643b [fn ij; 646b-655a;
659a-660b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 158a-d; 270c-
271a / General Introduction, 597b-598a
4. The logic of ideas
4a. The verbal expression of ideas or concepts:
terms
7 PLATO: Cratylus 85a-114a,c / Phaedrus, 138c-
140c / Sophist, 575d-577b / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE • Categories 5a-21d / Prior Analytics,
BK i, CH i [24bi6-i8] 39c; CH 35 66c-d
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK xin, par 36
120c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 34, A
i, ANS 185b-187b; Q 85, A 2, REP 3 453d-455b;
Q 107, A i, ANS 549b-550b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-58a; PART iv,
270a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 57d-58a;
60b-c; 61b-c; 62c-d / Novum Organum, BK i,
APH 14 107d-108a; APH 59 112b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xm, 26b-c / Objections
and Replies, 137a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 49, SCHOL,
392a-c
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 392 239b-240a
\b to
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
777
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK ir, CH xxn
200d-204a passim, csp SECT 3-10 201b-203c;
CH xxxii, SECT 7-S 244c-d; BK in 251 b,d-
306d passim, esp CH i-vm 251b,d-285a, CH xi
300a-306d; BK iv, CH v, SECT 4 329b-d; CH
vi, SECT 1-3 331b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
11-12 407b-408b; SECT 15 409a-b; SECT 18-19
410a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340a-342c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, Ib-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 127b-128a; 153b-154a;
158a-159b; I81b-183a; 332b-334a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 662a-b
4£. The classification of terms: problems in the
use of different kinds of terms
46(1) Concrete and abstract terms
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 34 66b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
3, REP i 16a-d; Q 13, A i, REP 2 62c-63c; A 9,
ANS 71b-72c; Q 32, A 2 178a-179b; Q 39, AA
4-5 205c-208c; Q 54, A i, REP 2 285a-d
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART i, 57a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vm
284b<285a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 305a-308b esp 308b-309b
[fn 1-3]; 689a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 516b-c
4b(2) Particular and universal terms
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [ia2o-b9J 5b-c;
CH 5 [2an-3b23) 6a-8a / Interpretation, CH 7
[17*37-40] 26d / Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 10
[io35b28-32] 559b; CH n [1037*5-9] 560c
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 12 251a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13, A
9 71b-72c; Q 29, A i 162a-163b; A 4, ANS and
REP 4 165c-167a; Q 30, A 4 170c-171b; Q 33, A
3, REP i 182c-183c; Q 36, A i, ANS 191a~192a;
Q 40, A 3, ANS 215c-216d; Q 55, A 3, REP 3
291a-d; Q 57, A 2, REP 3 295d-297a; Q 76,
A 2, REP 3 388c-391a; Q 85, A 2, REP 2 453d-
455b; A 3, REP 1,4 455b-457a; Q 86, A 2, REP 4
462a-463a; PART i-n, Q 30, A 4, REP 2 751c-
752b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 7, A
13, REP 3 755c-756c; Q 10, A 3, REP 2 769d-
771b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 55b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i
387b-388a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK n, CH xi, SECT 8-n 145b-
146a; CH xvi, SECT i 165c-d; BK HI, CH i,
SECT 3 251d-252a; CH in 254d-260a; CH vi,
SECT i 268b-c; SECT 32-33 277c-278c; BK iv,
CH HI, SECT 31 323c-d; CH vn, SECT 9 338d-
339b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
ii-i2407b-408b;sEcrr5-i6409a-d;sECTi8-
19 410a-c; SECT 123 437b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 307a-312a
Specific and generic terms: infimae species
and summa genera
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 3-9 5d-16d / Prior
Analytics, BK i, CH 27 [43*25-44] 60c-d /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 19-22 lllc-115b /
Topics, BK i, CH 9 I47a-b; CH 15 [107*3-11]
151a; BK iv, CH i [i20b36-i2i*9] 168d-169a;
CH 2 [122*3-19] 170a-b; CH 4 [i24bi5-22] 173c;
CH 4 [i25*5]-CH 5 [i25bi9] 173d-174d; CH 6
[128*13-29] 177d-178a; BK v, CH 3 [132*10-23]
182d-183a; CH 4 [i32b35-i33*n] 184a; BK vi,
CH 5 196b-d; BK vn, CH i [152*38-39] 207b /
Sophistical Refutations, CH 22 245a-246c /
Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i85*2o-b4] 260a-b; BK HI,
CH r [2oob32-2oi*3] 278b; BK iv, CH 3 [210*
17-19] 289a; BK vn, CH 4 330d-333a csp
[249*8-b26] 332a-333a / Heavens, BK iv, CH 4
[312*12-17] 403d / Generation and Corruption,
BK i, CH 3 413c-416c / Metaphysics, BK HI, CH
i [995b27~3i] 514b; CH 3 517a-518a; BK v,
CH 3 [ioi4b3-i}] 534d; CH 7 [1017*24-31]
537d-538a; CH 8 538b-c; CH 13-15 541b-543a;
CH 19-21 543d-544b; CH 25 [ 1 023^2-2 5]
545c; CH 28 [io24bio-i6] 546c; BK vn, CH 3
[1029*11-26] 551c-d; CH 12-13 561b-563a; BK
vni, CH 6 569d-570d; BK ix, CH i [io45b27-
33] 570b; BK xi, CHI [io59b2i-io6o*i] 587d-
588a; BK xiv, CH i [io88a23-b4] 620c-d; CH 2
[1089*6-1090*3] 621b-622c / Soul, BK i, CH i
[402*23-25] 631b-c; CH 5 [410*12-23] 640a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 3 [642b
20-643*28] 166a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 34,
670c-671a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
4, REP 1 16d-17c; A 5 17c-18b; A 6, REP 2 18c-
19a; Q 5, A 3, REP i 25a-d; A 6, REP i 27c-28b;
Q n, A i, REP i 46d-47d; Q 12, A 9, REP 2 58b-
59a; Q 13, A 7, ANS 68d-70d; Q 15, A 3, REP 4
93b-94a; Q 28, A i, ANS and REP 1-2 157c-
158d; A 2 158d-160a; Q 29, A 2, REP 4 163b-
164b; Q 30, A 4, ANS and REP 3 170c-171b; Q
50, A 2, REP i 270a-272a; Q 66, A 2, REP 2
345d-347b; Q 76, A 3, REP 4 391a-393a; A 6,
REP 1-2 396a-d; Q 77, A 4, REP i 403a-d; Q 85,
A 3, ANS and REP 4 455b-457a; A 4, ANS
457a-d; A 5, REP 3 457d-458d; Q 88, A 2,
REP 4 471c-472c; PART i-ii, Q 18, A 7, REP 3
698c-699c; Q 35, A 8, ANS and REP 3 779c-
780c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 49,
A i lb-2b; Q 61, A i, REP i 54d-55c; PART in
SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS 1025c-1032b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 55b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 28 158d-
159a
778
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4b. The classification of terms: problems in the use
of different kinds of terms. 46(3) Specific
and generic terms: innmae species and
summa genera.)
35 LOCKE : Human Understanding, BK in, CH m,
SECT 8-9 256a-c; CH iv, SECT 16 263b c; CH
vi, SECT 11-12 271b-272b; SECT 32-33 277c-
278c; SECT 36-41 279a-280b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 42b-43b; 193a-200c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 30d-31b; 64a;
207a-208acsp207d;210b-211b, 238b-c; 241 d-
242a / Descent of Man, 332b-c; 347a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 345a-b; 870b-871a
4b(4) Univocal and analogical terms
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH i 5a-b / Topics, BK
i, CH 15 [107*3-18] 151a-b; BK vi, CH 10 [148*
23-25] 202b; [i48*38-b4] 202c; BK vm, CH 3
[I58b8-i59fl2] 215b-c / Sophistical Refutations,
CH i [165*6-12] 227b-c; CH 33 [182^3-21]
251d / Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i85a2o]-cH 3 [187*
10] 260a-262a; BK vn, CH 4 [249*3-24] 331d-
332b / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2 [ioo3*33-bi5]
522b-c; BK vn, CH 4 [io30a32-b3] 553a-b; BK
xi, CH 3 [io6ob34~io6iaio] 589a-b; BK xn, CH
4-5 599d-601a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
6, REP i 18c-19a; Q 13, AA 5-6 66b-68c; A 10
72c-73c; Q 16, A 6, ANS 98b-d; Q 29, A 4, REP 4
165c-167a; Q 32, A i, REP 2 175d-178a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A i, REP i 54d-55c; PART in, Q 60, A i, ANS and
REP 3 847b-848a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 57d-S8a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60b-c /
Not/urn Organum, BK i, APH 43 109d-110a; APH
59-60 112b-113a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH iv,
SECT 5, 131a; CH xm, SECT 18 152a-c; CH
xxix, SECT 6-12 234d-236c; BK HI, CH vi,
SECT 28 276a-b; SECT 47-51 282a-283a; CH ix
285a<291c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm, DIV
62-63 47Bb-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 307b-308b
42 K\xr: Judgement, 547b-548c; 602b-603a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 549b-550a; 689a-b
4c> The correlation, opposition, and order of
terms
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 49a-50b / Phaedo, 226d-
227a; 242d-245c / Republic, BK iv, 350c-353d
esp 351b-352b; BK vn, 392b-393b / Sophist,
573b-574a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [3*24-31] 8a; CH
6 [5bii-6ai8] lOa-c; CH 7 Ha-13d; CH 8 [iobn-
25) 15d; CH 10-15 16d-21d / Prior Analytics,
BK i, CH 46 70b-71d / Topics, BK n, CH 7-8
4£(4) to 5a
158b-160a; BK iv, CH 3 [i23bi-i24aio] 171d-
172c; CH 4 [i24*35-b34] 173a-d; [125^14]
173d-174c; BK v, CH 6 187a-188c; BK vi, CH 8
200b-201a; CH 9 [i 47*23-1 48a9] 201b-202a;
CH 12 [i49b4-23) 203d-204a / Physics, BK in,
CH i [2oia4~8] 278c / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 2
[ioo4a9-i7J 523a~b; [ioo4b27-ioo5a2] 523d-
524a; BK v, CH 10 539a-c; CH 15 542a-543a;
BK ix, CH i [1046*29-36] 571 b; CH 2 [io46b
7-15] 571c-d; BK x, CH 3 [io54b23]-CH 10
[1059*15] 581c-586d; BK xi, CH 3 [io6iai8-28]
589b-c; BK xn, CH 10 [io75b2o-24] 606c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13, A
7 68d-70d; Q 16, AA 3-4 96b-97c; Q 17, A i,
ANS lOOd-lOld; A 4, ANS 103c-104b; Q 28 157c-
161d passim; Q 32, A 2, ANS 178a-179b; Q 33,
A 4, REP 1-3 183c-185a; QQ 40-41 213a-224a
passim; Q 48, A i, ANS and REP i 259b-260c;
A 3, REP 3 261b-262a; Q 49, A 3, ANS and REP
i 266d-268a,c; Q 103, A 3, REP 2 530a-c; A 8,
REP 3 533d-534b; PART i-n, Q 18, A 8, REP i
699d-700b; Q 29, A 2, REP i 745c-746b; Q 35,
A 4, ANS and REP 2 774d-775d; Q 36, A i, ANS
780c-781b; Q 46, A i, REP 2 813b-814a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 64,
A 3, REP 3 68b-69b; Q 67, A 3, ANS 83b-84d;
Q 71, A 6, REP i llOb-lllb; Q 72, A 6 116b-
117a; PART ii-n, Q 21, A 3, REP 2-3 479c-480b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 57b-c; 58a-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
12d-13b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 869a-872b; 878a-879b
5. Ideas or concepts in the process of thought
5a. Concept and judgment: the division of
terms as subjects and predicates; kinds
of subjects and predicates
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2-3 5b-d; CH 5
[2an-3b24] 6a-8a / Interpretation 2Sa-36d /
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 27 [43*25-44] 60c-d /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 4 lOOa lOlb; CH
19 [8ib23-;jo] llld / Topics, BK i, CH 4-9 144b-
147b/ Physics, BK i, CH3 [i 86*22-187^0] 261b-
262a; CH 6 [i89a28-33] 264d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 28-29
26a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
ANS lOd-lld; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; Q 13, A
12 74c-75b; Q 16, A 2 95c-96b; Q 58, A 2
301b-d; A 4 302d-303c; Q 76, A 3, ANS 391a-
393a; Q 85, A 2, REP 3 453d-455b; AA 5-6
457d-459c; A 8, ANS 460b-461b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 270a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, XH, 22a-b / Meditations,
in, 83a / Objections and Replies, DEF ix
130d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39a-44c; 51d-52b; 59c-
66d esp 63d-64a ; 180c-182b /Judgement, 480d-
482b; 562a-d; 572b-575b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 144a-b; 178a-179a; 313a-b;
638b; 861b; 870b-873a
jb to 6a
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
779
6. The position and sequence of terms in
reasoning
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 4 [25b3i-
26*2] 40d-41a; CH 5 [26*34-27*2] 42a; CH 6
[28*10-16] 43b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59c-60a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH
xvn, SECT 4, 373a-375a; SECT 8, 377c-d
36 STERNE- Tristram Shandy, 318b-319a
42 KANT Pure Reason, HOd-lllc; 118a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 667b-668a, 672b-673b;
868b-879b esp 869b-873a, 878a-879b, 889b
r. The dialectical employment of the ideas of
reason
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c esp la-b; 7a-8b;
15c-16c; 20a; 53b-54b, 59c-d; 93c-99a; lOlb-
107b; 108a-209d esp 108a-112d, 120c-121a,
129c-130b, 133d, 173b-174a, 175c-d, 185b-c,
190a-209d; 217d-218a; 219a-223d; 227a-235a
esp 229b-c, 231c-232a / Fund. Prin. Meta-
physic of Morals, 260d-261c; 283d-284d /
Practical Reason, 291a-292a; 296a-d, 309b;
310d-311d; 313b-314d, 320c-321b, 335c-
337a,c; 337a-355d esp 337a-338c, 343b c,
347d-348a, 348d-355d / Judgement, 461a-c;
540a-542a; 551a-552c; 562a-564c; 570b-572b;
606d-607c
d. The order of concepts in the stages of learn-
ing: the more and the less general
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH i [i84a2i-bi4]
259b
9 ARISTOTLE Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [639*
i2-bi2] 161b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5, A 2
24b-25a; Q 10, A i, ANS and REP 1,5 40d-41d;
Q 14, A 6, ANS 80a-81c; Q 33, A 3, REP i 182c-
183c, Q 55, A 3, REP 2 291a-d, Q 85, A 3 455b-
457a
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 332a-334d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 68d-69c /
Novum Organum, PREF 105a-106d
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 167c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; SECT 20, lOOd; SECT 23
101b~102a; CH in, SECT 13 116a-b; BK n, CH i,
SECT 6-8 122b-123a; SECT 20-24 126d-127c;
CH xi, SECT 8-9 145b-c; BK in, CH in, SECT
7-9 255d-256c; BK iv, CH vn, SECT 9 338d-
339b; SECT n, 342c-d; CH xn, SECT 3 358d-
359c esp 359a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338a-342b passim, esp
341b-342b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 193a-200c esp 195d-197c
/ Practical Reason, 294a-b / Judgement, 572a-b;
601d-602b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 315a-319a esp 317b-319a;
327a-329a; 360a; 522b-525a esp 524a-b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b / Unconscious, 442b-
443a / Ego and Id, 700d-701a
5e. The association, comparison, and discrimi-
nation of ideas: the stream of thought or
consciousness
8 ARISTOTLE: Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2
[45ib7-453B3iI 692d-695d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 52b-53b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 26 156a-
157a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 18 381 d-
382b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH vii,
SECT 9 133a; CH xi, SECT 2 144a-c; CH xiv,
SECT 1-16 155b-158a; CH xxxin 248b-251d;
BK iv, CH n 309b-313a passim, esp SECT 1-7
309b-311a; CH in, SECT 2-4 313a-c; CH vi,
SECT 13 335c-d; CH vn, SECT 1-7 337a-338c
esp SECT 2 337a; CH xi, SECT 13-14 357d-358c;
CH xvn, SECT 2-3 371d-372b; SECT 4, 373a-
375a passim; SECT 8 377b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 26 418a;
SECT 30 418c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT in 457c-
458a; SECT v, niv 41-45 467d-469c
36 STERNE Tristram Shandy, 194a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 51C'd/Judgemcnt,493c~d;
528c-529b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 15b-19b esp 15b-17a,
19a-b; 35b-37a esp 36b; 146a-187b; 291a-
295a passim, esp 293a-294a; 315a-395a esp
315a-331b, 344b-348a, 360a-395a; 427b-
431a; 502a-507a passim, 525a-526b; 664a-
665a; 677a-678b; 827a-835a esp 828b, 831b-
834a; 867a-873a esp 867a b; 878a-879a
54 FREUD- Hysteria, 65d-67b; 74a-75a; 76c-d /
Interpretation of Dreams, 180a-181b; 347b-
350a passim; 352b-c; 373a-385c esp 375b-
378b, 382a-384c / General Introduction, 486b-
489c passim
6. The being and truth of ideas
6a. The distinction between real and intention-
al existence, between thing and idea:
ideas as symbols, or intentions of the
mind
7 PLATO- Parmenides, 489a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH i [16*4-9] 25a/
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 36 [4884o-b9] 66d /
Metaphysics, BK v, CH 7 [1017*31-34] 538a; BK
vi, CH 4 550a,c; BK ix, CH 3 [i<>47a}0-b2] 572(?f
CH 10 577c-578a,c; BK xii, CH 7 [io72bi8-24]
602d-603a; CH 9 [ro74b35-io75an] 605c-d /
Soul, BK in, CH 2 [425bi7~26] 657d-658a; CH
3 [427«i6-b6] 659c-d; CH 4 661b-662c; CH
8 664b-d / Memory and Reminiscence, CH i
[450*25-451*19] 691a-692b
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK i,
403b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vm, CH 8 132d-
133c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 16-26, 75b-
78a
780
THE GREAT IDEAS
6ato6b
(6. The Iff Ing and truth of ideas. 6a. The distinc-
tion between real and intentional existence,
between thing and idea: ideas as symbols, or
intentions of the mind.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
REP 2 lOd-lld; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; Q 5,
A 2, ANS 24b 25a; Q n, A i csp REP 3 46d-47d;
A 3, REP 2 49a-c; Q 12, A 2 51c-52c; Q 13, A i,
ANS 62c-63c; A 3, ANS and REP 3 64d-65c; A
4 65c-66b; A 7, ANS and REP 2,4-6 (>8d-70d;
A 9, ANS and REP 2 71b-72c; A 11, ANS 73c-
74b; A 12 74c-75b; Q 14, A i, ANS and REP 3
75d-76c; A 2, ANS and REP 2-3 76d-77d; A 6,
REP i 80a-81c; A 8, ANS 82c-83b; A 9, ANS
83b d; A 13, REP 2-3 86d-88c; Q 15, A i, ANS
and REP 1,3 91b-92a; A 3, REP 4 93b*94a; Q
16, A 2 95c-96b; A 7, REP 2 99a-d; Q 17, A 3,
ANS 102d-103c; Q 18, A 4 107d-108c; Q 19, A 3,
REP 6 HOb-Ulc; Q 27, A i, ANS and REP 2
153b 154b; A 2, ANS and REP 2 154c-155b; A
3, AN& 155c 156a; A 4, ANS and REP 2 156b-d;
Q 28 157c-161d passim; Q 29, A i, REP 3 162a-
163b; Q 30, A i, REP 4 167a-168a; A 4 170c-
171b; Q 32, AA 2-3 178a-180b; Q 34, A 1 185b-
187b; A 3, ANS 188b 189a; Q 37, A i, ANS 197c-
199a; Q 50, A 2, ANS 270a-272a; QQ 55-58
288d 306b passim; Q 66, A 2, REP 2 345d-
347b; Q 67, A 3, ANS 351b-352a; Q 74, A 3, REP
5 375a-377a,c; Q 76, A 3, REP 4 391a-393a; A
6, REP 2 396a-d; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-411d; A
4, ANS and REP 2 411d-413d; Q 79, A 4, REP 4
417a-418c; Q 82, A 3, ANS 433c-434c; Q 84
440b-451b; Q 85, A 2 453d-455b; A 3, REP 1,4
455b-457a; A 4 457a-d; A 5, REP 3 457d-458d;
A 8, REP 3 460b-461b; Q 86, A i, ANS 461c-
462a; Q 87, A i 465a-466c; Q 88, A i, REP 2
469a-471c; A 2, REP 4 471c-472c; Q 89, A 2,
ANS and REP 2 475a-d; A 3, ANS and REP 1,3
475d-476c; A 5, ANS 477a-478b; PART i-n, Q
5, A 6, REP 2 641a-642a; Q 6, A 6, ANS and REP
2 649a<650a; Q 8, A i, ANS and REP 3 655b-
6S6a; Q 12, A 3, REP 2-3 670d-671b; Q 17, A 4,
ANS 688d-689c; Q 22, A 2, ANS and REP 3 721c-
722c; Q 28, A i, REP 3 740b-741a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A i, REP 2 215b,d-216c; PART HI, Q 2, A 5,
REP 2 715a-716b; PART in SUPPL, Q 82, A 3,
ANS and REP 2 971a-972d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 53c; PART HI,
172a-d; PART iv, 262a-d; 270a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT v, sc v [1-41]
349d-350a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote csp PART i, la-8c,
18d-22a, PART n, 285a-288c
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 71d-72a; in, 83 b-
86a; v, 93a-94a / Objections and Replies, 108b-
109d, 121a-c; DBF i-iv 130a-b; AXIOM v-vi
131d-132a; 157b-158a; 212c-2l3a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d
csp 371c-372c; PART 11, PROP 5-9 374c-376c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH VHI
133b 138b passim, esp SECT 8 134bc; CH
xxn, SECT a 201a-b; CH xxx, SECT 2 238b-c;
CH xxxi, SECT 2 239b-d; CH xxxii, SECT 8
244d; SECT 14-18 245c-247a; BK in, CH in,
SECT 12-20 257b-260a; CH iv, SECT 2 260b;
CH v, SECT 12 266d-267a; CH vi 268b-283a
passim; BK iv, CH 11, SECT 14 312b-d; CH ix,
SECT i 349a; CH xi, SECT 4-9 355b-357a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 1-96
413a-431d esp SECT 1-24 413a-417d, SECT 29-
44 418c-421a, SECT 48-49 422a-b, SECT 82-84
428d-429c, SECT 86 91 429c-431a
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV
44 468d-469c; SECT xn, DIV 117-123 504a-
506a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 23a-33d; 85d-93c; 95a-d;
97a-b; 117b-118a; 200c-209d; 211c-212a /
Practical Reason, 295b-d / Judgement, 528c-d;
551a-553c; 604a-b
44 Bos WELL '.Johnson, 134c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-c; 158a-
160b; 188d-189a; PARF i, 219d-220a; 236a-c;
257c-d, PART iv, 354b, 364b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 385b
50 MARX. Capital, llb-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 128a-b; 142a-b; 176a-184a
passim, csp 176a-b, 178a-181a, I91b-192a;
299a-302aesp302b [fn i],307a-311aesp311b-
312b [fn i], 639a-645b esp 640a, 659a-b, 852a;
865b-866a, 868b, 878a-882a esp 880b-882a,
889a-890a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 467d, 597d-598a
6b. The nature and being of ideas in relation to
the nature and being of the mind
7 PLATO- Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus,
125a-b / Republic, BK v, 369a-373c; BK vi,
383d-388a / Timaeus, 457b-458a / Parmenides,
486a-491d / Sophist, 567a-569a
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 4 661b-662c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [722-817]
53d-54d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 16-38 75 b-
81a / Cay of God, BK vin, CH 6, 269b-c /
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 38, 654c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 15, A
i esp REP i 91b-92a; Q 16, A 7, REP 2 99a-d;
Q 29, A 2, REP 4 163b-164b; Q 76, A 2, REP 3
388c-391a; Q 79, A 3, ANS 416a-417a; Q 84, A
i, ANS 440d-442a; QQ 85-89 451b-480c passim;
Q no, A i, REP 3 564c-565d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 162b;
212c-213a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 3 373b; PROP n,
DEMONST 377b; PROP 49, SCHOL, 392a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK n, CH vin 133b 138b
passim; CH xxn, SECT 2 201a b; CH xxx 238a-
239b passim, esp SECT 2-3 238b d, CH xxxi,
SECT 2 239b d; CH xxxii, SECT 14-16 245c-
246b; BK in, CH v 263d- 268a; CH vi, SECT 26-
6cto6f
51 274d-283a passim; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 4-5
324c-d; SECT 11-12 326b d; CH xi, SECT 4-9
355b-357a
35 BERKELEY* Human Knowledge 404a-444d csp
SECT 2-4 413b-414a, SECT 25-33 417d-419a,
SECT 48-49 422a-b, SECT 86-91 429c-431a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 14c-15c; 34a-35b; 113c-
118a; 173b-174a; 179c-182b / Fund. Prin.
Metaphystc of Morals, 281c-282d; 285a-287d
/ Judgement, 461a-462d; 542b-544c; 551a-
552c; 604a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165a-b
50 MARX: Capital, llb-c
53 JAMES • Psychology, 104a-115a passim, esp 105b-
106b, HOa-b, 113a-115a; 149b-154a esp 151b-
153b; 325a<327a esp 326a-b [fn i], 394a-b
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 430d-432c esp 431c-
432c; 442b-443a
6c. The agreement between an idea and its ob-
ject: the criterion of adequacy in cor-
respondence
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 83a; 84a-85a;
vi, 99a-c / Objection* and Replies, 108b-109d;
121a-c; DEF i-in 130a-b; AXIOM v-vi 131d-
132a, 153a-c; 157b-158a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART i, AXIOM 6 355d; PART
n, DEF 1-4 373a-b; PROP 24-40 383c-388b;
PROP 43 388c-389b, PART iv, PROP i 424c-
425a
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK n, CH vin
133b-138b passim, esp SECT 2 133c, SECT 7
134b, SECT 15 135c; CH xxm, SECT 8-n 206a-
207a passim; SECT 37, 214a-b; CH xxx-xxxi
238a-243c, CH xxxii, SLCI 8 244d, SECT 13-18
245c-247a passim; BK in, CH vi, SECT 9 270d-
271a; SECT 28-31 276a-277c passim; SECT 37
279b; SECT 40 280a-b, SECT 46-47 281d-282b;
CH xi, SECT 24 305b-d; BK iv, CH iv, SECT i-
12 323d-326d csp SECT 3 324b-c
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 44
468d-469c esp 469b<c
42 KANT • Pure Reason, 36b-37a; 77b-d, 85d-88a
esp 86b-87c; 91d-93c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, Ib-c
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dict(, 231a
53 JAMES- Psychology, 141a-142a; 301b-302a;
307a-b; 480b-484a
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 430b-c
6d. Clarity and distinctness in ideas as cri-
teria of their truth
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 73d- 74a; in, 82a-d;
85b-86d; iv, 89a-b; v 93a-96a esp 93a-94a;
vi, 99a-c / Objections and Replies, 120a-c;
POSTULATE vi-vn 131c; 210b-c, 237c-238b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DEF 4 373b; PROP 24-
40 383c-388b; PART v, PROP 4, COROL and
SCHOL 453b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 91d-92c; BK
n, CH xin, SECT ii 150d-151b; CH xxm, SECT
32, 212d; CH xxix 233d-238a
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
781
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30 418c;
SECT 33 419a; SECT 36 419c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
125 506d-507a
6e. The criterion of genesis: the test of an idea's
truth or meaning by reference to its ori-
gin
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [690-700]
9c; BK iv [469-521] 50b-5la
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 49a; 54b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a; 43d-
44c, 57d-58b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, vi, 99a-c
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxx,
SECT 2 238b-c; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 4 324c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 29-30
418c; SECT 33 419a; SFCT 36 419c-d; SECT 82-
84 428d-429c; SECT 86-91 429c-431a
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b; SECT vn, DIV 49 47lc-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421 &-\s\
428b-d
6f. The truth and falsity of simple apprehen-
sions, sensations, or conceptions: con-
trasted with the truth and falsity of
judgments or assertions
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 85a-86b; 107c-108b / Repub-
lic, BK vii, 392b-393b / Sophist, 575d-577b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 4 [2*4-10] 6a /
Interpretation, CH i [16*9-18] 25a b / Meta-
physics, BK iv, CH 5 [ioiobi4~29] 530b-c; BK
v, CH 29 [1024^7-38] 546d-547a; BK vi, CH 4
[io27bi8-28] 550a,c; BK ix, en 10 577c-
578a,c; BK xin, CH 3 [1078*14-32] 609c-d /
Soul, BK n, CH 6 [418*6-18] 648d-649a; BK HI,
CH 3 [427^-15] 659d-660a; [428*5-429*2]
660b-661a; CH 6 662d-663c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [324-521]
48c-51a esp [469-521] 50b-51a
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 16, A
2 95c-96b; Q 17, AA 2-3 102a-103c; Q 58, A 4,
ANS 302d-303c; Q 85, A i, REP i 451c-453c; A
6 458d-459c; Q 89, A 5, ANS 477a-478b; Q 94,
A 4 505a-506a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 57d-58b /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 14 107d-108a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn 18b-25a passim / Dis-
course, PART iv, 52a / Meditations, in, 83a; iv
89a-93a / Objections and Replies, 123d-125c;
157b-158a, 215d-216c, 229d-230d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART H, PROP 32-35 385c-
386 b; PROP 49, SCHOL, 392a-d
35 LOCKE : Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxxii
243c-248b; BK in, CH vii, SECT i 283a b; BK
iv, CH v 329a-331b; CH vi, SECT 16 336d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 36b-37d; 64d-65c;
108a-d; 179c-180c; 193a-b; 211c-218d /Judge-
ment, 570b-571c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 299a-314b passim; 638b;
640b; 668a-671a
782 THE GREAT IDEAS
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The theory of Ideas as eternal forms existing apart from mind and matter, see CHANGE I5a;
ETERNITY 40; FORM la, 23-20; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 2a.
The theory of ideas as universal conceptions abstracted from the materials of sense, see FORM
33~3b; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 5b, 6c(i); SENSE 53; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 2b,
4C~4d; and for abstraction in relation to generalization and induction, see EXPERIENCE 2b;
INDUCTION la, 3.
The theory of ideas as sense impressions or sense images, see MEMORY AND IMAGINATION la,
53; SENSE id, 53.
The doctrine of innate ideas and the related theory of reminiscence and intuitive knowledge,
see KNOWLEDGE 6c(3); MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 33; MIND 4d(2).
The theory of the transcendental concepts or ideas as constitutive or regulative principles,
see FORM ic, 33; KNOWLEDGE 6b(4), 6c(4); MIND 4d(3); PRINCIPLE 2b(3); and for the
dialectical employment of the ideas of pure reason, see DIALECTIC 2c(2).
The theory of the Absolute Idea, see HISTORY 43(3); MIND iof-iof(2).
The theory of the divine ideas as eternal exemplars, or of the ideas infused into angelic intel-
lects, see ANGEL 3d; FORM 2b; GOD 5f; KNOWLEDGE ya-yb; MIND ice, log; UNIVERSAL
AND PARTICULAR 4b.
The issue concerning the distinction of, and the relation between, sense and intellect, see
BEING 8a-8b; KNOWLEDGE 6a(i), 6b-6b(4); MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 50, 6b, 6d;
MIND i-ig(3); SENSE ia~ib, 43, 5c.
Another discussion of the distinction between first and second intentions, and of the related
distinction between first and second impositions, see SIGN AND SYMBOL 2a-2b.
Other discussions of adequate and inadequate, or clear and distinct ideas, see KNOWLEDGE
6d(3) ; OPINION 3b; TRUTH la; and for other considerations of mental fictions or chimeras,
see BEING 7d(5); MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 53.
The consideration of the expression of ideas m words or terms, see LANGUAGE ia, 7; SIGN
AND SYMBOL if; for the distinction of concrete and abstract terms, see SIGN AND SYMBOL
2e; for the distinction of particular and universal terms, see SIGN AND SYMBOL 2d; UNI-
VERSAL AND PARTICULAR 5c; for the distinction of species and genera, see RELATION 5a(4) ;
SAME AND OTHER 33(1); UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR ^b; and for the distinction between
umvocal, equivocal, and analogical terms, see RELATION id; SAME AND OTHER 3b, 4c;
SIGN AND SYMBOL 3d.
The treatment of the definition of terms as the expression or analysis of concepts, see DEFI-
NITION i, ib.
The correlation and opposition of concepts or terms, see OPPOSITION la-ib; RELATION ic,
4e>
The role played by concepts in the acts of judgment and reasoning, or for terms in relation
to propositions and syllogisms, see JUDGMENT 50-5^ REASONING 2a( i).
Other discussions of the sssociation of ideas, see MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 2c; MIND
ig(i); RELATION 4f.
The metaphysicsl problem of the being of ideas, 3nd for the theory of intentional existence,
see BEING 7d~7d(5); SIGN AND SYMBOL ib; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 2c.
Another consideration of the truth or reality of ideas, see TRUTH 3b(i).
CHAPTER 37: IDEA
783
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Book? of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AQUINAS. On the Trinity ofBoethius, QQ 5-6
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Verttate, Q 3
. De Natura Verbi Intellect™
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART i,
9-10, 45-47
SPINOZA Of the Improvement of the Understanding
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART i
BERKELEY. Sins
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic, par
39. 56
HLGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind
Science of Logic, VOL n, stci i, CH i ; SECT m,
CH i(c), 3
. Logic, CH 9
} S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK iv, CH 2
W. JAMES. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 4-6
II.
CICERO. Academics
PHILO JUDAEUS. On the Creation of the World (De
Opificio Mundi), par 16
PORPHYRY. Introduction to Aristotle's Predicaments
BOETHIUS. In Isagogem Porphyn Commenta
ERIGENA. De Dwisione Naturae, BK m
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogicon, BK n, CH 17
BoNAvtNTURA. On the Reduction of the Arts to
Theology
DUNS SCOTUS. Opus Oxoniense, BK i, DISI 35 (i)
CAJET\N. De Nominum Analogia
. De Conceptu Entis
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xxv
JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho-
misticus, Ars Logica, PART n, QQ 3-5, 23
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART i
MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la verite, BK in (11),
CH 1-8
. Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, in
LEIBNITZ, What h "Idea"?
. Discourse on Metaphysics, xxiv-xxix
— — . Philosophical Worlds, CH 3 (Thoughts on Knowl-
edge, Truth and Ideas)
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK i, BK ii, CH 1-8, 12, 30-33
VOLTAIRE. "Idea," in A Philosophical Dictionary
T. REID Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Mant
iv-v
J. G. FICHTE. The Science of Knowledge
COLERIDGE. Biographia Literana, CH 5-8
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL |,
BK I, Hi; VOL II, SUP, CH 14; VOL III, SUP, CH 29
J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
Mind, CH 2-3, 6, 9
W. HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic,
VOL i (34-36); VOL n (7-12)
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL I, BK I, CH 7
SlGWART. LoglC, PART I, CH 1 4, PART II, CH I J PART HI,
CH 1-2
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK n, CH 3
. LoglC, BK I, CH I
C. S. PLIRCE Collected Papers, VOL v, par 388-410
VENN. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
CH7
RIBOT. The Evolution of General Ideas
ROYCE The World and the Individual, SERIES 1(7)
CROCE. Logic as the Science of Pure Concept
TITCHENER. Lectures on the Experimental Psychology
of the Thought-Processes
CASSIRER. Substance and Function, PART i, CH i
HUSSERL Logische Untersuchungen
. Ideas. General Introduction to Pure Phenom-
enology
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, BK n, PART n, CH I
. Collected Essays, VOL 1(12)
. Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 3
DEWEY Essays in Experimental Logic, vii-vui
. The Quest for Certainty, CH 5-6
WHITEHEAD. Science and the Modern World, CH to
. Process and Reality, PART i
MARITAIN. Reflexions sur I' intelligence et sur la vie
propre, CH i
. An Introduction to Logic,, CH i
. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 2
BLONDEL. La penste
Chapter 38: IMMORTALITY
INTRODUCTION
THE mortality of man defines by contrast
the immortality which some men hope
for, some men fear, some men scoff at, but no
man ever fails sooner or later to consider. The
life of man, like that of other animals, moves
through a normal span of years between birth
and death. Legend tells of certain heroes upon
whom the immortal gods bestowed immortal
life, gracing them with an aspect of their
own divinity. Jewish and Christian faith holds
that Adam, with all his posterity, would never
have suffered disease or death if he had refrained
from sm. But according to the theologians, the
imperishability of the bodily frame of man in a
state of grace is a preternatural condition. Ex-
cept, then, for the miraculous or the super-
natural, death follows birth and life, that which
comes to be passes away, all things of flesh and
blood perish.
The proposition "All men are mortal" has
been repeated during centuries of lessons in
logic. Its truth has never been seriously chal-
lenged even by those who have criticized the
syllogism which reaches the conclusion that
since he is a man, Socrates is mortal. But
throughout the same period, the great books of
poetry and religion, of philosophy and theology,
have recorded the qualifications which men
have placed upon this truth.
Man dies in the flesh to be reborn in the spir-
it. Man, composite of soul and body, perishes
as do all things which are subject to dissolution;
but the soul itself, a simple spiritual substance,
is immortal, living on after its union with the
body is dissolved. The immortal soul is some-
times conceived as having many incarnations,
inhabiting now this body, now that, in an end-
less pilgrimage through endless time; and some-
times, as in the Christian faith, each soul has
only one embodiment on earth. It is specially
created by God to inform the body of a human
being. It is destined to be his immortal spirit
in a future which belongs to eternity rather
than to time.
Except for the form it takes in the doc-
trine of reincarnation, or the transmigration of
souls, the idea of immortality is usually at-
tended by conceptions of an after-life in another
world— the life of the shades in the Elysian
Fields or in Hades, the life of the blessed in
Heaven or of the damned in Hell. The after-
life is never merely a continuation of the life
begun on earth The other world is not just an
abode for the disembodied soul. It is a place of
judgment, of rewards and punishments, in
which the soul realizes the good, or pays the
penalty for the evil, toward which its earthly
career inclined. The connection of immortality
with rewards and punishments appears even in
the theory of reincarnation, for as the soul
passes from one embodiment to another, it en-
joys or suffers the consequences befitting its
previous existence.
STATED AS A speculative problem, the question
of immortality is traditionally formulated as a
question about the soul or the spirit of man:
whether it exists by itself either before or after
its conjunction with a human body; and if so,
in what manner it subsists. For those who affirm
the soul's separate existence, there seems to be
no question about its everlasting endurance,
either without beginning at all or from the
moment of its creation. But the manner of the
soul's subsistence leads to speculation concern-
ing an after-life or an other-life in a world of
spirits, or in realms as far apart as Heaven and
Hell.
We shall presently consider to what extent
such speculations have been submitted to argu-
ment and to what extent they have been mat-
ters of religious belief. But in both these modes
784
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
785
of consideration, the theme of immortality is
never merely a matter of speculative interest,
never merely a question of spiritual substances
and their subsistence. It is always a problem for
the moralist.
Is this earthly life and its brief temporal span
enough for the aspirations of the human spirit,
and for its striving toward a perfection of knowl-
edge, of love, and of repose ? If external sanc-
tions are needed to support the voice of con-
science, are earthly rewards and punishments—-
cither humanly dispensed, or capriciously dis-
tributed by chance or fortune— sufficient sanc-
tion for the moral law? Can perfect justice be
done unless there is a divine law and a divine
judge, a judge who can see beyond the acts of
men into their hearts, from whose judgment
no one escapes, and whose rewards and punish-
ments are supernatu rally established states of
blessedness and misery for the soul ?
Whether or not God, freedom, and immor-
tality are, as Kant suggests, the three great ob-
jects of speculative thought, they do seem to
form the basic triad of religious beliefs. In the
religions of the west, these beliefs take various
forms, but the belief in immortality is seldom
if ever found separate from belief in a super-
natural order, in gods or a God to whom man
owes certain duties and before whom man
stands to be judged as a responsible moral agent
who was free to obey or disobey the divine com-
mands. But, this fact admitted, the question re-
mains whether the principles of morality can be
adequately stated, or made effective in the reg-
ulation of human conduct, without a religious
foundation, or at least without reference to
God and immortality.
On this the moralists disagree. The argument
in Plato's GorgiaSy for example, about whether
it is better to do or suffer injustice, ends with a
myth which tells of the soul standing naked
before its divine judge after a man's death,
showing no marks of the evil the individual has
suffered during his life, but only of the evil he
has done. The reader who thinks the myth is
necessary to complete the argument concerning
justice and punishment, takes one position on
the question. He adopts the view that without
the judgment of souls in an after-life justice
cannot be done.
The preoccupation with immortality in a
great many of Plato's dialogues is not always
based upon moral considerations. It appears as
frequently in discussions of the relation be-
tween the soul and the objects of its knowledge,
If, to be proper objects of knowledge, the Ideas
must be eternal, the soul which knows them
must also be immortal. But when the discussion
of immortality involves a comparison of this life
and the life to come, it usually turns on con-
siderations of goodness rather than of knowl-
edge and truth. For Kant, if not for Plato,
immortality is almost entirely a moral matter;
and where the Platonic myth deals with just
rewards and punishments in an after-life, the
Kantian argument is concerned with the
achievement of moral perfection.
In his Critique of Practical Reason, Kant af-
firms immortality, along with the existence oi
God and the freedom of the will, as necessary
practical postulates— indispensable conditions
of the moral life. "The perfect accordance oi
the will with the moral law," Kant writes, "is
holiness, a perfection of which no rational being
of the sensible world is capable at any moment
of his existence ... It can only be found in a
progress in tnfinitum towards that perfect ac-
cordance ... It is necessary to assume such a
practical progress as the real object of oui
will." The realization of happiness, or the sum-
mum bonum, Kant concludes, "is only jsossible
practically on the supposition of the immor-
tality of the soul."
The opposite view appears to be taken ir
Aristotle's Ethics and Mill's Utilitarianism. Th<
summum bonum is a temporal happiness, a per-
fection attainable on earth and by purely nat-
ural means. In those passages in which Aris
totle defines happiness in terms of contempla
tive activity, he also speaks of it as a godlike
life and therefore one which has a touch of im
mortality. Man is able to lead such a life, h<
writes, only "in so far as something divine i
present in him." To lead the life of reason
which is divine in comparison with any othe
mode of human life, we must, he says, "so fa
as we can, make ourselves immortal, and strait
every nerve to live in accordance with the bes
thing in us."
But to be immortal in this way seems t<
mean the possession of a godlike quality in thi
life rather than the promise of a life hereafter
786
THE GREAT IDEAS
Aristotle demands only "a complete term of
life" as a necessary condition for "the complete
happiness of man." He passes lightly over the
question whether "the dead share in any good
or evil." So far as he considers a blessedness
which the gods can add to human happiness,
it docs not belong to an after-life, but consists
rather in the good fortune which the gods grant
to some men and which increases and secures
their happiness beyond that which is attainable
by virtue alone.
The moral issue concerning immortality is
more explicitly faced by Mill in his examination
of the need for religious or supernatural sanc-
tions. While he docs not admit their indispensa-
bility, neither does he deny their utility.
"There is evidently no reason," he declares,
"why all these motives for observance should
not attach themselves to the utilitarian morali-
ty, as cpmpletely and as powerfully as to any
other." Yet he himself stresses "the possibility
of giving to the service of humanity, even with-
out the aid of belief in a Providence, both the
psychological power and the social efficacy of
a religion."
Mill does not go as far as Lucretius in regard-
ing the belief in immortality, with the attend-
ant possibility of everlasting torment for the
soul, as itself an immoral doctrine. For Lu-
cretius it is a nightmare which haunts the wak-
ing hours of men, filling them with false fears
and putting future pains in the way of present
pleasures. He dedicates his poem to "driving
headlong forth that dread of Acheron, trou-
bling as it does the life of man from its inmost
depths and overspreading all things with the
blackness of death, allowing no pleasure to be
pure and unalloyed."
Where others see in man's fear of death his
natural desire for immortality, Lucretius
thinks it is the dread of immortality which
causes man's fear of death. "We have nothing to
fear after death," he says, if death is the end.
"He who exists not, cannot become miserable."
IN THE GREAT POEMS of antiquity we find the
imagery and detail of the pagan conception of
the life hereafter, Both Odysseus and Aeneas
visit the underworld. They see the shades of the
departed heroes; all that is visible to the bodily
eye are shimmering wraiths. They talk with the
departed, listen to their memories, or hear them
speak prophetically of the future. From An-
chises, his dead father, Aeneas learns his des-
tiny; and Odysseus hears in Hades what has
befallen his companions at Troy and his family
at home during his years of wandering.
Yet there is a striking difference between
Virgil's poem and Homer's with respect to the
after-life. The division which Virgil makes be-
tween Elysium and Tartarus corresponds much
more closely than anything in Homer— or for
that matter in the other Greek poets — to the
Christian distinction between Heaven and Hell.
Though Elysium and Tartarus both belong to
the underworld, one is the abode of the blessed,
the other a place of torment for sinners.
In the sixth book of the Aenetd, the Sibyl ex-
plains the topography of the underworld to
Aeneas. There is a place "where splits the road
in twain," she says:
The right leads to the giant walls of Dis,
Our way to Elysium; but the left wreaks doom
On sinners, and to guilty Tartarus sends.
Tartarus, the abode of the condemned, is sur-
rounded by "a fierce torrent of billowy fire,"
and is filled with the noise of punishment.
Elysium, on the other hand, is
The happy region and green pleasaunces
Of the blest woodlands, the abode of joy.
An ampler ether with purpureal light
Clothes here the plain; another sun than ours,
And other stars they know.
Its inhabitants, in sharp contrast with the un-
fortunates in Tartarus, seem to pass their time
in peace and pleasure.
Homer makes no such sharp division between
the realm of the blessed and the realm of the
condemned. Plutarch speaks of "the isles of the
blessed celebrated by Homer," but the refer-
ence cannot be substantiated. In one passage in
the Iliad Menelaus is promised that he will be
taken "to the Elysian plain, which is at the end
of the world. There fair-haired Rhadamanthus
reigns, and men lead an easier life than any-
where else in the world, for in Elysium there
falls not rain, nor hail, nor snow." But even
this seems to describe a different life rather than
an after-life.
So far as the underworld is described on the
occasion of Odysseus' descent "into the house
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
787
of Hades and dread Prosperine," we are told
that the Theban prophet Teiresias alone has his
"reason still unshaken." All "the other ghosts
flit about aimlessly." The shades of good men
and bad alike languish in the domain of dark-
ness. Tityus, Tantalus, and Sisyphus are sub-
jected to special punishments for their grievous
sins and transgressions, but all the shades—even
of those men whom the gods loved and honored
— seem to be in a state of misery. Though they
are not all beset with torments and agonies,
none seems to be overcome with joy or to have
reached contentment.
Those whom the gods love do not join the
deities on Mount Olympus. When they enter
the somber realm of Pluto— the deity of the
underworld— they, like all the other shades
\\hom Charon ferries across the river Styx, are
more remote from the gods than are mortal
men on earth. The only exception perhaps is
Heracles, whom Odysseus meets in Hades, or
rather "his phantom only, for he is feasting
ever with the immortal gods, and has lovely
Hebe to wife."
The general attitude of all who dwell in the
underworld is summed up by Achilles when he
tells Odysseus: "Say not a word in death's
favor; I would rather be a paid servant in a
poor man's house and be above ground than
king of kings among the dead." And the mother
of Odysseus describes the condition of the dead
"in the abode of darkness" as one in which "the
sinews no longer hold the flesh and bones to-
gether; these perish in the fierceness of con-
suming fire as soon as life has left the body, and
the soul flits away as though it were a dream."
Among other ancient peoples such as the
Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Persians,
Herodotus found other views of immortality
than those which prevailed in Greece. He re-
ports, for example, the doctrine of transmigra-
tion or reincarnation— a doctrine which also
appears in the myth of Er at the end of Plato's
Republic and is alluded to elsewhere in the
Platonic dialogues. "The Egyptians," Herodo-
tus writes, "were the first to broach the opinion
that the soul of man is immortal, and that,
when the body dies, it enters into the form of
an animal which is born at the moment, thence
passing on from one animal into another, until
it has circled through the forms of all creatures
which tenant the earth, the water, and the air,
after which it enters again into a human frame
and is born anew."
Herodotus, however, seems more interested
in the effect of such beliefs on the practices of
the living, especially their funeral rites and
other devotions, than he is with the truth of
conflicting theories of immortality.
"The doctrine of a future state," according
to Gibbon, "was scarcely considered among the
devout polytheists of Greece and Rome as a
fundamental article of faith." Before the time
of Christ, "the description of the infernal re-
gions had been abandoned to the fancy of
painters and of poets, who peopled them with
so many phantoms and monsters who dispensed
their rewards and punishments with so little
equity, that a solemn truth, the most congenial
to the human heart, was oppressed and dis-
graced by the absurd mixture of the wildest
fictions." Lacking an acceptable or satisfying
belief, yet inclined to believe in, as men are
inclined to hope for, a better life, the pagan
world, Gibbon thinks, could not long resist the
appeal of Christian teaching. "When the prom-
ise of eternal happiness was proposed to man-
kind on condition of adopting the faith, and of
observing the precepts of the Gospel, it is no
wonder," he declares, "that so advantageous an
offer should have been accepted by great num-
bers of every religion, of every rank, and of
every province in the Roman empire."
THE ARGUMENTS for personal immortality
which Christian theologians draw from the
nature of the human soul do not differ essen-
tially from the proofs offered by philosophers
without recourse to religious faith. This applies
to arguments advanced before Christianity by
Plato and Plotmus as well as to those developed
by philosophers like Descartes and Locke who
belong to the Christian community. The ex-
clusively theological aspects of the Christian
doctrine of immortality are those matters
which, since they are beyond the reach of
reason, belong to faith alone.
The doctrine that the individual soul is cre-
ated and that it has a unique affiliation with
one human body, is not capable of being proved
or defended by reason against the quite oppo-
site theory that the soul has always existed and
788
THE GREAT IDEAS
inhabits any number of bodies in the course of
many reincarnations. The existence of Hell,
Purgatory, and Heaven as supernatural states
of the soul; the time, place, and manner of the
Last Judgment; the resurrection of the body
and the difference between the bodies reunited
with the souls of the blessed and the damned;
the joy of eternal happiness and the misery of
eternal damnation— these dogmas of Christian
orthodoxy go far beyond all merely philosophi-
cal attempts to prove the soul's immortality or
to consider its life apart from the body.
The great theologians undertake to do more
than expound these articles of faith. Reason
asks questions which the man of faith must try
to answer, defending his faith, not by proof,
but by overcoming doubts, by answering ob-
jections, by making dogmas intelligible. Yet
the great theologians admit an irreducible core
of mystery. The joy of the soul united to God
in the beatific vision surpasses temporal under-
standing. The mysteries of Hell arc perhaps
even greater.
The deprivation of God's love and exclusion
from His presence constitute a spiritual misery
comparable to the beatitude of beholding God
and being within the circle of the divine light.
One is an infinite anguish of frustration and
loss; the other, an infinite rest of peace and
fulfillment. But the theologians also teach that
the damned suffer the pains of sense in Hell, as
well as the pains of deprivation. "That hell,
which also is called a lake of fire and brimstone,"
Augustine says, "will be material fire and will
torment the bodies of the damned." When hell-
fire and the expiatory punishments of Purga-
tory are not merely symbols for the imagina-
tion, they raise extraordinarily difficult ques-
tions, as both Augustine and Aquinas admit.
Dante asks us to read the descriptions he
gives of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise in the
Divine Comedy in a strictly literal sense as well
as in several symbolic meanings, such as the
moral and the allegorical. But he explains in
his own commentary on the poem that the
literal meaning also involves symbolism, insofar
as the things that the words refer to when taken
in their literal sense are themselves the symbols
of other things. In any case the poet may be
more successful than the theologian in making
intelligible through symbol and metaphor what
in its literal significance is strictly unimaginable.
The imagery of darkness, sultriness, noise, and
heaviness, which grows more intense as the de-
scent proceeds in the Inferno , does more than
the anguished outcries of the damned to convey
the reality of Hell.
The metaphors of music and agility express
the harmony of Heaven. But it is especially the
symbolism of light which captures the invisible
in terms of vision, except perhaps when it
reaches a climax in the blinding effulgence at
the end of the Paradtso. As Dante moves up-
ward in the realm of love, where courtesy pre-
vails in every speech and charity suffuses every
will, he sees the mystic rose of Heaven entirely
through reflected light. The saints, and espe-
cially those glorious spirits who instruct his
progress, become pale mirrors of the ineffable
vision which they themselves behold.
Milton too pictures Heaven and Hell, but in
Paradise Lost the destiny of the immortal soul
remains a prophecy, a consequence of the earth-
ly immortality which Adam lost. Except for
the Prologue, Hell and Heaven are offstage in
Goethe's Faust, though they are the main im-
plications of the wager Faust makes with Meph-
istopheles, which puts his immortal soul in
the balance.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL issue concerning immor-
tality cannot be separated from issues concern-
ing the existence and nature of man's soul.
The various arguments for immortality seem
to rest not merely on the reality of the dis-
tinction between soul and body, but more pre-
cisely on the immateriality of the soul. Lucre-
tius, for example, does not deny the existence
of soul, nor does he fail to differentiate the
soul from the body wherein it is located* The
soul, according to Lucretius, like everything
else in the universe, consists of atoms. They
differ from those of the body by their round-
ness, smoothness, and mobility. They are "much
smaller than those of which our body and flesh
are formed ; they are also much fewer in number
and are disseminated merely in scanty number
through the frame."
On this view of the soul as material in nature
and as constituted of many quite separable
parts, the soul is necessarily as perishable as the
rest of the body. "When the body has been
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
789
shattered by the mastering might of time,"
Lucretius writes, "and the frame has drooped
with its forces dulled ... it naturally follows
then that the whole nature of the soul is dis-
solved, like smoke, into the high air; since we
see it is begotten along with the body and grows
up along with it and . . . breaks down at the
same time worn out with age."
It should be observed, however, that it is not
the materiality of the soul, but rather its divisi-
bility into parts, which accounts for its mor-
tality. The atoms after all are material, but
since as the ultimate units of matter they are
simple bodies and so are absolutely indivisible,
they cannot perish. Only the simple is imperish-
able.
The imperishability of the simple (i.e., of that
which has no parts) occurs as a premise in one
of the great arguments for the immortality of
the soul. In Plato's Phaedo, which formulates
this argument as immortality is discussed in the
prison cell where Socrates awaits his execution,
two assumptions seem to be made: first, that
the soul is the principle of life in animate bodies,
for, as Socrates says, "whatever the soul pos-
sesses, to that she comes bearing life"; and sec-
ond, that as an immaterial being, the soul must
be simple, for only bodies are "composite" and
"changing."
From the first of these assumptions, the argu-
ment proceeds in terms of what it means for
bodies to be alive or dead. Socrates argues from
examples. "If any one asks you," he says, "\vhat
that is, of which the inherence makes the body
hot, you will reply not heat . . . but fire. ... Or
if any one asks you why a body is diseased, you
will not say from disease, but from fever." So
if any one asks, "what is that of which the in-
herence will render the body alive ?" the answer
is not life but "the soul." As the principle of
life itself, the soul "will never receive the oppo-
site of what she brings," namely, death. There-
fore the soul is immortal.
On the second assumption, the endless du-
ration of the soul follows from its simplicity as
an immaterial and immutable being. "The
compound or composite," Socrates says, "may
be supposed to be naturally capable, as of being
compounded, so also of being dissolved; but
that which is uncompounded, and that only,
must be, if any thing is, indissoluble." When the
soul leaves the body, for which it has been both
motor and pilot, the body ceases to be alive
and perishes in the manner of material things;
the soul lives on, freed from temporary bondage
to the body, its prison house. It "departs to the
invisible world— to the divine and immortal
and rational."
The argument from simplicity, as repeated in
Moses Mendelssohn's Phddon, is criticized by
Kant. Admitting that a truly "simple being
cannot cease to exist," Kant contends that the
tyiowable soul— which is for him the empirical
ego or consciousness — may have intensive,
though it lacks extensive, quantity. It would
therefore be capable of diminution in reality;
and so it "can become less and less through an
infinite series of smaller degrees."
With regard to the soul as an immaterial and
simple substance (i.e., the transcendental ego),
Kant is willing to affirm that immortality neces-
sarily belongs to such a nature. But he denies
that we can have any knowledge of the soul ex-
cept as a phenomenon of experience. There can
be no valid theoretic argument for immortality
precisely because there can be no scientific
knowledge of the nature of transcendental ob-
jects— bangs beyond all possible experience.
What Kant calls "the paralogisms of rational
psychology" are offered to show the dialectical
futility of proofs or disproofs of immortality, in
the same way that "the cosmological antino-
mies" attempt to expose the untenability of ar-
guments for or against the infinity of time and
space, the infinite divisibility of matter, the
existence of a free will and of God.
Without deciding whether Kant's theory of
experience and knowledge is true, this much we
can learn from him about the issue of immor-
tality. Those philosophers who, like Descartes
and Locke, think they have grounds for affirm-
ing the existence of the soul (or mind or spirit)
as an immaterial substance, also have grounds*
for affirming its immortality. Those who, like
Lucretius and Hobbes, think they have grounds
for denying the existence of anything except
material particles, also have grounds for deny-
ing either the existence of the soul or its having
a permanence not possessed by other material
wholes. And those who, like Hume, think there
are no grounds for affirming the existence of
any kind of enduring substance, material or
790
THE GREAT IDEAS
spiritual— even to the point of doubting per-
sonal identity from moment to moment — can
admit no grounds for affirming a substantial,
much less an immortal, soul.
ONE OTHER POSITION remains to be considered.
Though it does not fall outside the foregoing
alternatives, Aristotle's theory represents an
important variation on one of them. As
against Hume or Kant, Aristotle holds that sub-
stances exist and are knowable, The sensible,
material things of experience are such sub-
stances. But, according to Aristotle, these sub-
stances are not exclusively material. They are
composed of two principles, matter and form,
neither of which is a substance capable of exist-
ing by itself. As the exposition of this theory
(in the chapters on FORM and MATTER) tries to
make plain, form and matter exist only in union
with one another. It is the composite substance
resulting from their union which exists in and of
itself.
The form which enters into the composition
of a substance can be called its "substantial
form." In relation to the matter with which it
is united, the substantial form is the actual-
ization of the potentiality in matter to exist as
a substance of a certain kind. Not all substances
are of the same kind. Some are alive; some in-
animate and inert. In the case of living sub-
stances, the substantial form, according to Aris-
totle, confers upon matter not only the act of
existing as a substance, but also the act of being
alive. Because it thus differs from the form of
an inanimate substance, Aristotle gives a special
name to the substantial form of a living thing.
Because the word "soul" has long been used to
designate "the principle of life in living things,"
Aristotle feels justified in using it as the name
for the substantial forms of plants and animals
as well as men,
This theory and its principal opposite (which
regards the human soul as a complete substance,
not a substantial form) are more fully discussed
in the chapter on SOUL. Here we are concerned
only with the consequences of Aristotle 's theory
for human immortality. If, as he seems to hold,
substantial forms exist only insofar as they exist
in the substances of which they are the forms,
then when a composite substance perishes
through the decomposition of its matter and
form, the form perishes also. Souls—the sub-
stantial forms of living things — would seem to
be no exception, "The soul," Aristotle writes,
"is inseparable from its body, or at any rate
certain parts of it are (if it has parts) —for the
actuality of some of them is nothing but the
actualities of their bodily parts. Yet some may
be separable because they are not the actualities
of any body at all."
The exception which Aristotle seems to have
in mind is that part of the human soul which is
the intellect. It differs from other powers of the
soul, he suggests, as the eternal from the perish-
able. "It alone," he says, "is capable of existence
in isolation from all other psychic powers." He
argues that "in so far as the realities it knows"
—or at least some of them— "are capable of
being separated from their matter, so is it also
with the power of the mind."
What is the significance, for the immortality
of the human soul, of the supposed ability of
the intellect to act independently of the body ?
Aristotle answers in terms of the principle that
"if there is any way of acting or being acted
upon proper to soul, soul will be capable of
separate existence; if there is none, its separate
existence is impossible," If we consider nutri-
tion, sensation, and emotion, there seems to be,
he admits, "no case m which the soul can act
or be acted upon without involving the body."
The one possible exception may be thinking,
but Aristotle adds at once that "if this too
proves to be a form of imagination or to be
impossible without imagination, it too requnes
a body as a condition of its existence."
Later, when he is discussing the power of
thought, Aristotle flatly insists that "the soul
never thinks without an image" and that "no
one can learn or understand anything in the
absence of sense," for "when the mind is active-
ly aware of anything it is necessarily aware of it
along with an image." According to his own
principles it would seem to follow that since
thinking proves "to be impossible without im-
agination, it too requires a body as a condition
of its existence." Hence the intellect is not
separable from matter, nor is the human soul,
of which the intellect is the highest power.
Nevertheless, Aristotle declares, in a passage
which has become famous, that mind as the
active power of thinking "is separable, im-
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
791
passible, unmixed"; and with this declaration
of the intellect's separability from matter, he
seems to affirm immortality, at least for the
intellectual part of the soul. "When mind is set
free from its present conditions,*' he writes, "it
appears as just what it is and nothing more: this
alone is immortal and eternal."
THE PASSAGES QUOTED have been subject to
conflicting interpretations. The Arabic com-
mentators on Aristotle, notably Averroes, find
in them no basis for the immortality of the
individual human soul. The texts, according to
their view, support the theory of a single active
intellect which exists apart from the minds of
individual men— almost a divine principle in
the universe which, acting on the rational souls
of individual men, enables them to think and
understand. Aquinas argues against them to the
opposite conclusion.
Against the Averroists Aquinas contends that
if the individual man, Socrates, can be said to
think, then whatever powers are required for
thinking must belong to his individual nature.
The powers required for thinking are, accord-
ing to Aquinas, twofold: an active intellect,
able to abstract the intelligible forms of things
from their material representation in sensory
images; and a possible or potential intellect,
capable of receiving these forms when separated
from matter by the act of abstraction.
The theory of knowledge and thought which
this involves is discussed in the chapters on
FORM, IDEA, MIND, and UNIVERSAL AND PAR-
TICULAR. Here we are concerned only with the
point which Aquinas makes, that since thinking
involves universal notions, and since forms can
be universal only apart from matter, the in-
tellect which abstracts and receives abstractions
must itself be immaterial. The intellectual pow-
ers do not operate through a bodily organ, as
the power of nutrition operates through the
alimentary system or the power of vision
through the eye. The brain, in other words, is
not the organ of understanding or thought,
but rather, along with the external sense-organs,
it is the material organ of perception, memory,
and imagination.
The argument for the immortality of the
human soul then proceeds on the premise that
that which can act apart from matter can also
exist apart from matter. "The intellectual prin-
ciple which we call the mind or the intellect has
an operation per sc apart from the body. Now
only that which subsists can have an operation
per se, for nothing can operate but what is ac-
tual; wherefore a thing operates according as
it is." Hence Aquinas concludes that "the hu-
man soul, which is called the intellect or mind,
is something incorporeal and subsistent." The
attribution of subsistence to the human soul
means that although it is the substantial form
of the human body, it is also capable of existing
in and of itself as if it were a simple substance.
Unlike angels, which as spiritual substances
are by their very nature separate forms, not
forms of matter, human souls arc substantial
forms which, having a certain degree of im-
materiality, are also to that degree separable
from matter. But the reverse is also true. To
the extent that the soul's powers, such as sen-
sation and imagination, require corporeal or-
gans, the soul is inseparable from the body.
Since, furthermore, Aquinas agrees with Aris-
totle that every act of understanding or thought
involves imagination, he faces the difficulty of
explaining how the soul can function in any
way when separated from the body after death.
"To solve this difficulty," he says, "we must
consider that as nothing acts except as it is ac-
tual, the mode of action in every agent follows
from its mode of existence. Now the soul has
one mode of being when in the body, and an-
other when apart from it. ... The soul, there-
fore, when united to the body, has consistently
with that mode of existence, a mode of under-
standing by turning to corporeal images, which
are m corporeal organs; but when it is separated
from the body, it has a mode of understanding
by turning to simply intelligible objects, as is
proper to other separate substances." Never-
theless, Aquinas adds, it is not natural for the
soul to understand in the latter way, for it is
not by nature a separate substance. Therefore,
"to be separated from the body is not in accord-
ance with its nature."
THIS LAST POINT has both philosophical and
theological significance. Philosophically, it may
be easier to prove the immortality of the soul
if one starts, as the Platonists do, with the prop-
osition that the soul is a purely spiritual prin-
792
THE GREAT IDEAS
ciplc or substance which docs not depend upon
the body. But then, according to Aquinas, you
prove the immortality of the soul at the ex-
pense of destroying the unity of man, for if the
soul is a substance rather than a form, the indi-
vidual man, composed of body and soul, consists
of two distinct substances.
Theologically, Christian faith believes in the
resurrection of the body after the Last Judg-
ment and the end of the world, as well as in the
soul's separate existence immediately after
death. From the point of view of a theologian
like Aquinas, a philosophical proof of immor-
tality must corroborate both of these dogmas.
In his judgment a proof which rests upon the
proposition that the soul has a nature akin to
that of an angel (i.e., a purely spiritual sub-
stance), makes the Christian dogma of the resur-
rected body unintelligible or even abhorrent.
If the immortal soul were a complete and
separate substance, it would have no need for
its body in the life hereafter. It has that need
only if its nature is that of a substantial form,
partly immersed in matter and partly separate
therefrom. Then, because of these two aspects
of its nature, it can be said, not only that "the
human soul retains its proper existence when
separated from the body," but also that it has
"an aptitude and a natural inclination to be
united to the body."
The incompleteness of the soul without the
body and, even more, the dependence of man's
mind upon his bodily senses and imagination
raise, as we have seen, the difficult problem of
how the soul exists and operates when separated
from the body by death and before it is re-
united to a resurrected body. It may even raise
the question whether the reasoning of Aquinas
constitutes a valid philosophical argument for
the actual existence of the soul in separation
from the body, or merely suggests the possi-
bility of such existence. But the facts which
create these difficulties are the very facts to
which Aquinas appeals in his Treatise on the
Resurrection, in order to explain the basis in
nature for the miraculous re-union of the body
with the soul.
THE ARGUMENTS FOR and against immortality
so far considered are couched in the form of
proofs or disproofs which aim at certainty. All
except one arc, moreover, theoretical or specu-
lative in the sense that they proceed in terms
of observations, assumptions, and inferences
about the nature of things — about atoms and
substances, matter and form, extension and
thought, inert bodies and living organisms. The
one exception, already mentioned, is Kant's
practical argument based on the moral necessity
of an immortal life.
There is still another argument, both specu-
lative and practical in character, which does
not aim at certainty nor take the form of a
proof. It is the proposal of a wager concerning
the equally unknown alternatives of oblivion
after death and eternal life. Supposing no ra-
tional evidence to favor the truth of either
alternative, Pascal weighs the probability of
gain and loss which is consequent upon living
according to each hypothesis. The probability,
he thinks, vastly preponderates on the side of
those who choose to forego the worldly life be-
cause, to take the chance of gaining the whole
world during the short term of earthly life,
they would risk the loss of eternal happiness for
their immortal souls.
Locke engages in the same type of calcula-
tion. "When infinite happiness is put into one
scale, against infinite misery in the other; if the
worst that comes to the pious man, if he mis-
takes, be the best that the wicked can attain to,
if he be right, who," Locke asks, "can without
madness run the venture? Who in his wits
would choose to come within the possibility of
infinite misery; which if he miss, there is yet
nothing to be got by that hazard ? Whereas, on
the othei side, the sober man ventures nothing
against infinite happiness to be got, if his ex-
pectation comes to pass." If, wagering on im-
mortal life, "the good man be right, he is
eternally happy"; but "if he mistakes"— if
death ends all— "he is not miserable, he feels
nothing."
ALL THESE THEORIES, including Kant's postu-
late and the wager proposed by Pascal and
Locke, are clearly concerned with arguing for
personal immortality or individual survival.
Among those who deny the survival of the
individual human spirit, some — Hegel and
Spinoza, for example —conceive an impersonal
type of immortality.
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
793
For Hegel it is Spirit itself which is immortal.
"The successive phases of Spirit that animate
the Nations in a necessitated gradation," he
writes, "are themselves only steps in the devel-
opment of the one Universal Spirit, which
through them elevates and completes itself to a
self-comprehending totality." In considering
the history of the world, he regards everything
as the manifestation of Spirit; and because of
this, even when we traverse the past, we have,
he says, "only to do with what is present'* for
philosophy, as occupying itself with the True,
has to do with the eternally present. Nothing in
the past is lost for it, for the Idea is ever pres-
ent; Spirit is immortal; with it there is no past,
no future, but an essential now. This necessar-
ily implies that the present form of Spirit com-
prehends within it all earlier steps. . . . The
grades which Spirit seems to have left behind it,
it still possesses in the depths of its present."
What Spirit is for Hegel, Nature is for Spi-
noza. Spinoza, however, conceives a kind of im-
mortality for the individual man, which is
achieved through his participation m the
eternity of Nature. The body of the individual
man, according to Spinoza, belongs to the in-
finite matter of Nature. It is "a certain mode of
extension actually existing." The individual
human mind is similarly "a part of the infinite
intellect of God." In one sense, both the body
and the mind are temporal things which, like all
other finite modes of God or Nature, have a
fixed and limited duration. Furthermore, the
personal memories and thoughts of the indivi-
dual man depend on the co-existence of his
mind and body. "The mind can imagine noth-
ing, nor can it recollect anything that is past,"
Spinoza writes, "except while the body exists."
But Spinoza also maintains that "only in so
far as it involves the actual existence of the
body, can the mind be said to possess duration,
and its existence be limited by a fixed time." Of
every individual thing — whether it is a finite
mind or a finite body— there exists in the in-
finite and eternal essence of God a conception
or idea. "To conceive things under the form of
eternity," Spinoza writes, "is to conceive them
in so far as they are conceived through the
essence of God." Because he holds that the
human mind can have adequate knowledge of
God, he hold$ that the mind can conceive "it-
self and its body under the form of eternity."
Hence through knowing God, or the eternal
truth about temporal things, the mind partici-
pates in eternity.
Imagination and memory may belong to
time, but not the intellect, which is capable of
knowing God. To explain why we feel "that
we are eternal," Spinoza points out that "the
mind is no less sensible of those things which it
conceives through intelligence than of those
which it remembers." Although we cannot im-
agine or remember that "we existed before the
body," we can tyow intellectually something
about mind and body which belongs to eter-
nity; because, in addition to conceiving them
as "existing with relation to a fixed time and
place," we can conceive them as "contained in
God" and as following "from the necessity of
the divine nature." Since it "pertains to the
nature of the mind to conceive the essence of
the body under the form of eternity," Spinoza
concludes that "the human mind cannot be
absolutely destroyed with the body, but some-
thing of it remains which is eternal."
Such immortality is, in a way, enjoyed in
this life, for it is a present participation in eter-
nity through the mind's knowledge of God.
There is also the impersonal immortality which
men enjoy through contemplating the perpet-
uation of the species, or more particularly the
persistence of an image of themselves in their
offspring. In the Symposium^ Socrates reports
a conversation with Diotima in which she ex-
plains to him that in procreation "the mortal
nature is seeking as far as is possible to be
everlasting and immortal." Men hope that off-
spring "will preserve their memory and give
them the blessedness and immortality which
they desire in the future." But if procrea-
tion through the pregnancy of the body is a
way of achieving immortality, artistic crea-
tion through a kind of pregnancy in the soul,
Diotima argues, is even more so. "Who, when
he thinks of Homer and Hesiod and other great
poets," she asks, "would not rather have their
children than ordinary ones ? Who would not
emulate them m the creation of children such
as theirs, which have preserved their memory
and given them everlasting glory?"
One need think "only of the ambition of
men" and what they will do "for the sake of
794 THE GREAT IDEAS
leaving behind them a name which shall be man's dread of disappearance into utter noth-
sternal," to realize how deeply "they are stirred ingness. Yet, facing death, Socrates faces the
by the love of an immortality of fame." Even alternatives with equanimity. "Either death,"
deeper, according to Diotima, is their love of he declares, "is a state of nothingness and utter
the good, or more precisely, their desire for unconsciousness, or, as men say, there is a
"the everlasting possession of the good" which change and migration of the soul from this
leads all men necessarily to "desire immortality world to another." Either it is like a dreamless
together with the good." and undisturbed sleep or it opens a new world
Whether it is to be attained through the per- to which the good man can look forward with
petuation of the species, through survival in hope. On either alternative we can be of good
the memory of mankind, through knowledge cheer, he tells his friends, if we believe that "no
rf God, or through the subsistence of the soul, evil can happen to a good man, either in life or
the desire for immortality seems to express after death."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1 . The desire for immortality : the fear of death 795
2. The knowledge of immortality: arguments for and against personal survival 796
3. Belief in immortality
30. The postulation of immortality: practical grounds for belief in immortality 797
3#. The revelation of immortality: immortality as an article of religious faith
4. The moral significance of immortality: rewards and sanctions
5. Conceptions of the after-life 798
50. The transmigration of souls: reincarnation
5#. The state of the soul apart from the body 799
y. The judgment of souls
$d. The process of purification: the state of Purgatory
5^. The state of the damned: Hell 800
5/! The state of the blessed: Heaven
5£. The resurrection of the body 801
6. Doctrines of impersonal survival
60. Immortality through offspring: the perpetuation of the species
6b. Enduring fame: survival in the memory 802
6c. Participation in the eternity of truth, ideas, or love
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
795
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 ]\MES -.Psycho logy, IWa-llQb, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119, When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesof the right-hand sideof
the page For example, in 7 PLATO. Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS- One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included m the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; eg., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d
BIBLE REFERENCES^The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
an
James
MENT- Nehemlah, 7 45— (D) II Esdras, 7*46.
SYMBOLS The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
1. The desire for immortality: the fear of death
OLD TESTAMENT: // Samuel, 22.5-7— (D) ll
Kings, 22 '5-7 / Job, 14 ; 30 .23-24 / Psalms, 6
esp 6:4-5; I3 esP J3-35 l6 CSP 16:10; 18:4-6;
49:6-12; 55 esp 55 -4-8; 89:47-48; 116:1-9—
(D) Psalms, 6 esp 6.5-6, 12 esp 12:4; 15 esp
15:10; 17:5-7; 48:7-i3; 54 «p 54 5~9; 88:48-
49; 114 / Ecclesiastes, 8.8 / Isaiah, 38 10-19—
(D) Isaias, 38:10-19
APOCRYPHA: // Maccabees, 6.18-7*42 esp 7.9 —
(D) OT, II Machabees, 6:18-7-42 esp 7 9
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 10 28; 19 16-30 /
MarJ(, 10.17-31 / Lufe, 10-25-37 / Acts,
7.54-60 — (D) Acts, 7:54-59 / Romans, 2-5-8
esp 2 7 / I Corinthians, 15 / II Corinthians, 1 19-
10 ; 4 9-18; 5:1-9/7 Thessalonians, 4-13-17—
(D) I Thessalonians, 4:12-17 / / Timothy, 6:n-
19 esp 6-12, 6-19 / // Timothy, 4-6-8 / Hebrews,
2:14-15
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xu [309-328] 85b-c / Odys-
sey, BK v [203-224] 210a-b
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1579-1779]
128c-130a,c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165b-167a / Apology,
211b-212a,c / Phaedo, 230d-235a / Republic,
BK i, 297a-b; BK in, 324c-325b; BK vi, 374a-d
/ Laws, BK v, 687a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 7 [ii77b26-
1178*1] 432c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [102-126]
2b-c; BK in [31-93] 30b-31b; [830-1094] 40c-
44a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 9, 115b-d;
BK n, CH i, 139b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; BK HI, SECT 3 260b; BK iv, SECT 48
267d-268a; SECT 50 268c; BK vin, SECT 25
287b-c, SECT 58 290d; BK ix, SECT 3 291d-
292a
14 PLUTARCH: Aristides, 265d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 16, 19a;
TR vi, CH 6, 24a-b; TR vn, CH 3 26d-27a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par n 21d-
22a; par 14 22d-23a; BK vi, par 18-19 40d-
41b; BK ix, par 23-29 68a-69c / City of God,
BK i, CH 22, 143 b; BK ix, CH 14-15 293a-
294a; BK xiu, CH 4 361d-362a; BK xix, CH 4-
10 511a~516d; BK xxn, CH 23 608c-609a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgtca, PART i, Q 75,
A 6, ANS 383c-384c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgtca, PART i-n, Q 85,
A 6 182d-184a
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [i5,788-$oi]467a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 33d-36b; 99b-100a;
211a-b; 267a-c; 402c-403c
796
THE GREAT IDEAS
2 to 3
( 1 . The desire for immortality: the /ear of death.)
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT HI, sc i [56^88]
47c-d / Measure for Measure, ACT HI, sc i
[116-136] 188a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, ', PART n, 366d~
367a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 28a-c
31 SPINOZA: EM/r/, PART v, PROP 23 458b-d;
PROP 32 460b; PROP 38-39 461d-462c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [770-844] 291a-
292b
33 PASCAL: Pcns&s, 166,168-169 203a; 210 211b;
239 217a
3d SWIFT: Gulliver, PART HI, 124a<129a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 86c*d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 186a; 219c-220d;
327d-328a;376a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 238c
42 Kwr\ Judgement, 600c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 174b; 238b; 347a-c;
394a-c; 399d-400a; 573a>574a
51 TOLSFOY: War and Peace, BK v, 200c d; 217c-
218b; BK XH, 560a 562d
52 DOSTOFVSKY- Brothers Karamazov, BK ir, 26a-
27d passim; BK vi, 148d-150d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 224a-225a, 653a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 763c-764b
2. The knowledge of immortality: arguments
for and against personal survival
7 PLATO- Phaedrus, 124b-c / Meno, 179d-183a
/ Apology, 211b-212a,c / Phaedo 220a-251d /
Republic, BK x, 434d-436a / Laws, BK xu,
793c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 3 [1070*
24-30] 599c / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*2-15]
632a-b; CH 2 [405*29-34] 634d; BK n, CH i
[413*3-9] 643a; en 2 [4i3b24-29] 643d-644a;
BK in, CH 4 [429*19- b4] 661c-d; CH 5 662c-d;
CH 7 [431*15] 663d; CH 8 [432*5-10] 664c
9 ARISIOTLE- Generation of Animals, BK n, CH 3
(7^5-737^} 277b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [323-
1023] 34b-43b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 24, 203d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 14 258d;
SECT 17 259b-d; BK iv, SECT 21 265b-c; BK v,
SECT 13 271b; BK vn, SECT 50 283a; BK vm,
SECT 37 288c; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c; BK XH,
SECT 5 307d-308a; SECT 14 308c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR 1 139a-b; TR iv,
CH 15 16Sc-d; TR vn 191c-200c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 31 319b-d;
BK xiii, CH 2 360b-36Za
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 61,
A 2, REP 3 3l5c-316a; Q 75, A 2 379c-380c; A 6
383c-384c; Q 76, A i 385d-388c; A 3, REP 1-2
391a-393a; PART i-n, Q 22, A i, REP 3 720d-
721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 85,
A 6 182d 184a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[1-108] 91b-92c; PARADISE, vn [64-84] 115d-
116a; [121-148] 116b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 192c-193c; PART
iv, 250c-251b; 253b-254a; 269d-270d
25 MONTAIGNE' Essays, 250a; 264b-269b
30 BACON' Advancement of Learning, 27d-28c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 51d-52a;
PART v, 60b-c / Meditations, 69a-71a,c passim;
73a-c / Objections and Replies, 127c-d; DBF x
130d; PROP iv 133c
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PART v, PROP 21-40 458a-
462d esp PROP 21-23 458a-d, PROP 38 461d-
462a, PROP 40 462c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [782-844] 291b-
292b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 556, 271b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 141
441a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 186a-187b passim
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 120c-129c esp 124d-128a;
203d-204c, 218d-223d esp 219b-d, 234c-240b
esp 234c-235c, 237d-238a / Practical Reason,
291a-292a / Judgement, 600c-d, 610a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 57d-58a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 77d-78b;
97a-c
53 JAMES- Psychology, 224b-225a
3. Belief in immortality
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1009-1016] 307d
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK n, 75b, BK iv, 140c-
141a
7 PLATO: Apology, 211b-212a,c / Seventh Letter,
806a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 3 260b
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [219-227] 89b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 29a-b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR vn, CH 15 200c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK vi, par 26 42d-
43a
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,787-800]
467a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK iv,
269a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT v, sc i
[17-21] 314d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT n, sc n
[109-114] 477a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc iv [60-68]
36c / Cymbeline, ACT v, sc iv [152-194]
482d-483a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 366d-367a
31 Dts CARTES: Meditations, 69d
32 MILTON: On Time 12a-b / Lycidas [165-181]
31b
33 PASCAL: Pcns&s, 556 270b-272a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
SECT 6, 314c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 205c-
2CM5c
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 186c487b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 135a
30 to 4
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
797
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 242a-d /Judgement, 604d-
606d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 256d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 255c-
256b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 27a-28a
49 DARWIN- Descent of Man, 593c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 200c-d;
217c-218b; BK vn, 295b-c; BK xn, 560a-562d;
BK xv, 615a-616a
52 DOSTOFVSKY Brothers Karamazov, BK 11, 33c-
34b; 40b-c, BK in, 68b-c; BK xi, 312b-d
54 FREUD- Interpretation of Dreams, 296d [fn 2]
I War and Death, 763c-764c
3<*. The postulation of immortality: practical
grounds for belief in immortality
17 PLOTINUS- Fourth Ennead, TR vn, CH 15 200c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 210d-212a; 267a-268a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 184-241 205a-217b passim;
556, 271b
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 72 198a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 186a-b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 15c-16c; 120b [fn i], 127a-
128a, 234c-236a, 240b-243c / Practical Reason,
291a-292a; 338c-352c esp 344a-c, 348b-349b
/Judgement, 599d-600d; 603b-607c esp 606d-
607c
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 394c
48 MELVILLE Moby Dic\, 347a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 224a-225a; 653a
36. The revelation of immortality: immortality
as an article of religious faith
OLD TESTAMENT- II Samuel, 14:14— (D) II Kings,
14:14 / Job, 14:14; 19:25-29; 21 ; 30-23-24 /
Psalms, 1 6 esp 16.10, 37 esp 37:26-40; 49 esp
49.15; 116 1-9— (D) Psalms, 15 esp 15:10, 36
esp 36:26-40; 48-2-21 esp 48:16; ii 4 / Proverbs,
10-2; 11-4,19; 12:28; 13:14; 14:27; 18.21 /
Ecclesiastes, 12 7 / Isaiah, 25:8; 38:10-19— (D)
Isaias, 25:8, 38.10-19 / Ezetyel, 37.1-14— -(D)
Ezechiel, 37 1-14 / Daniel, 12.1-3 / Hosea,
13 14 — (D) Osee, 13*14
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4.10— (D) OT, Tobias, 4:11
/ Wisdom of Solomon, 2:23; 3:1-10; 5:15-16—
(D) OT, Boo t( of Wisdom, 2:23; 3:1-10; 5.16-
17 / Baruch, 2:17— (D) OT, Earuch, 2 17 /
II Maccabees, 6:18-7-42 esp 6:23, 6-26, 7*9-10,
7-14, 7-36; 12-39-45 esp i2'43-45-(D) OT,
IlMachabees, 6:18-7:42 esp 6:23, 6:26, 7:9-10,
7.14, 7:36; 12:39-46 esp 12:43-46
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 5.1-12; 10:28, 25
esp 25-31-467 MarJ(, 9*42-48; 10-28-30 — (D)
Mar{, 9*41-47; 10:28-30 / Lu^e, 10:25-37;
16:19-31 / John, 3:14-17; 4.9-14 esp 4:13-14;
4:35-3<5; 5:21-29; 6:34-59; 8:51; 10:25-30 esp
10:28; 11:1-44; 12:24-25; 17.2-3 / Acts, 13-48
/ Romans, 2-5-8 esp 2*7; 6:1-11, 8:9-11 /
/ Corinthians, 15 / II Corinthians, 1:9-10; 4-9-
18 / Galattans, 6:7-8 / Ephesians, 2:1-10 /
/ Thessalonians, 4:13-18— (D) I Thessalonians^
4:12-17 / / Timothy, 6:11-19 esp 6-12, 6-19 /
// Timothy, i :io / Hebrews, 2 -9, 14-1 6 / / Peter,
1:3-5 esp 1:4 / I John, 2:15-25 esp 2:17, 2:25
/ Revelation passim, esp 21— (D) Apocalypse
passim, esp 21
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 18-19
40d-41b; BK ix, par n 64c-d; par 29 69b-c;
BK xin, par 50-53 124c-125a,c / City ofGodt
BK xin, CH 4 361d-362a
19 AQUINAS . Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 75,
A 6, REP i 383c-384c; Q 97, A i 513c-514c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 85,
AA 5-6 181d-184a
21 DANTE Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxv [40-
96] 144c-145b
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,788-800]
467a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 191b-193c; PART
iv, 250c-251b; 253b-254a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 248c-250b; 267a-268a
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 203a-c
31 DESCARTES* Meditations, 69b d
32 MILTON. Lycidas [165-181] 31b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 556 270b-272a, 560 272b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH in,
SECT 6, 314c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 379c-380a
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 186c-187b
52 DOSTOEVSKY Brothers Karamazov, BK ir,
26a-27d passim
4. The moral significance of immortality: re-
wards and sanctions
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 49— (D) Psalms, 48 /
Proverbs, 10:2; 11:4,19; 14:32; 21:16
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:8-11— (D) OT, Tobias,
4.9-12 / Wisdom of Solomon, 1.12-6.20— (D)
OT, Book of Wisdom, i 12-6 21 / // Mac-
cabees, 7 passim, esp 7:17-18, 7:30-37— (D)
OT, II Machabees, 7 passim, esp 7:17-18,
7-30-37
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5.1-12,22,29-30;
18 7-9; 19*16-30; 25:31-46 / Markj 9 43-48;
10:17-31; 16:16— (D) Mar^, 9*42-47; 10 17-
31; 16:16 / Lu%e, 10:25-37; 14:7-14; 16-19-31;
18:18-30 / Romans, 2:1-11 / Galattans, 6:7-8
/ // Thessalonians, 2:10-12— (D) II Thessa-
lomans, 2:10-11 / II Timothy, 487 Hebrews,
10:26-31 / II Peter, i
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi [568-600] 248d-249a
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1009-1016] 307d
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 74c / Phaedrus, 124a-
126c / Meno, 179d-180b / Apology, 21 la-
212a,c / Phaedo, 230d-234c; 246d-250b /
Gorgias, 292b-294d / Republic, BK i, 297a-b;
BK n, 313b-314d; BK x, 436c-441a,c / TV
maeus, 452d-453b / Laws, BK ix, 757a; BK
x, 768b-d; BK xn, 793c-d / Seventh Letter,
806a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 10-11 345c-347a;
BK x, CH 7 [ii77b26-ii78*i] 432c
798
THE GREAT IDEAS
4to5a
(4. The moral significance o/ immortality: reward*
and sanctions.)
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [31-93]
30b-31b, [830-1094] 40c-44a,c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [637-678] 228a<229a;
[724-751] 230b-231a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 29a-b
17 PLOTINUS- Third Ennead, TR n, CH 13 88d-
89b; TR in, CH 4 94c-95c / Fourth Ennead, TR
HI, CH 24 154b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 26 42d-
43a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 97,
A i 513c-514c; A 4 515d-516d; PART i-n,
QQ 1-5 609a-643d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy csp HELL, in [1-18]
4a-b, [82-129] 5a-b, VH [100-130] lOc-d, xi
15a-16b, .xxvii [55-136] 40a-41b, xxvin [139-
142] 43a, PURGATORY, in [118-145] 57a-c, v
[85-129] 59d-60c, ix 65d-67b, xvn [82-139]
79b-d, xxx-xxxi 99b*102b, PARADISE, vn
[19-120] 115b-116b, xix [22-148] 135b-136c
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale 278a-284a / Sum-
mons's Prologue 284b~285a / MonJ(s Tale
434a-448b / Parson's Tale, par 10 498b-502a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 206d-207a; 210d-212a;
248c-250b esp 250a; 264b-269b; 311a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [42-
63] 115a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [9-22]
37a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 60b-c / Medi-
tations, 69b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 41, SCHOL
463a*b
32 MILTON: Comus [1-17] 33a-b / Paradise Lost,
BK x [782-844] 291b-292b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 184-241 205a-217b passim
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a / Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 62 194c-dj
SECT 72 198a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
108-109 500b-501a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 205c-
206c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366c-d / Social Con-
tract, BK iv, 437d-438c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 187b-c; 198d-199a;
219c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234c passim
42 KANT: Fund. Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals,
264b [fn i] / Practical Reason, 306b-307a;
344a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 290c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 256d; 363a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 341b-342b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 200c~d; BK vi,
273c-274a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 33c-
34b; 40b-c; BK xi, 312b d; 345a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 22Sa
5. Conceptions of the after-life
4 HOMER: Wad, BK xx [54-74] 142d-143a; BK
xxin [54-107] 161d-162b/ Odyssey, BK x [487-
574] 241a-242a,c; BK xi 243a-249d; BK xxiv
[1-202] 317a-319a
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis 237a-247a,c / Helen
[1009-1016] 307d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs 564a-582a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK u, 75b; BK iv, 140c-
141a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-126a / Apology, 211a-
212a,c / Republic, BK n, 313b-314d; BK in,
324c-325b; BK x, 437c-441a,c / Laws, BK v,
687a; BK x, 767c-768c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 10 [nooaio~3i]
345c-d; CH n 346c-347a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 13 188b-
189c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vn, SECT 50 283a
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [219-227] 89b; [467-485]
96a-b / Aeneid, BK vi 211a-235a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix-xxn 507a-
618d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
QQ 69-99 885a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,788-822]
467a-b
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART in, 191b-198a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 248c-250b; 264b-269b
29 CERVANTES: Dow Quixote, PART n, 366d-367a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 88d-89a / Ob-
jections and Replies, 226d-227a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [782-844] 291 b-
292b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 205c-
206c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94a; 186c-d; 187b-
188a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 363a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{< 134b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 560a-562d;
BK xv, 615a-616a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
341c-345c passim
5a. The transmigration of souls: reincarnation
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi [298-304] 246a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 75b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125b-126a / Meno, 179d-
183a / Phaedo, 226c-234c; 246d-250b / Re-
public, BK x, 437c-441a,c / Timaeus, 452d-
453b; 476a-477a,c / Laws, BK x, 767c-768c
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK i, CH 3 [4o6*3o-b5]
635d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [670-783]
38d-40a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 21 265b-c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [219-227] 89b / Aeneid,
BK vi [710-751] 230a-231a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 28a-29b
5b to 5d
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
799
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR r, CH n 5b-c /
Third Ennead, TR n, CH 13 88d-89b; TR HI,
CH 4, 95b-c; TR iv, CH 2-3 97d-98c; CH 6 99b-
lOOb / Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 8, 145d; CH 9,
146d; CH 13-15 149b-150c; CH 24 154b<d; CH
27, 156d; TR VH, CH 14 200b-c; TR vm, CH 3-5
202a-203d / Sixth Ennead, TR iv, CH 14-16
304a-305c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 30 318b-
319b; BK xn, CH 20 355b-357a; BK XXH, CH
27-28 613b-614a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A i, ANS 943a-944d; Q 79, A i, ANS 951 b-
953b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [49-63]
lllb
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 206d-207a; 249b-250a;
264b-265c; 268a-269a
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK 11, CH
xxvn, SECT 6 220c-d; SECT 14 223d-224b;
SECT 27 227d-228a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv,
207a-c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 135a; 226b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 187a-b;
PART i, 255c-256b
47 GOETHE- Faust, PART i [737-807] 19b-21a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^, 316b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VH, 295b-c
54 FREUD: War and Death, 764b
b. The state of the soul apart from the body
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xxn [361-366] 159a; BK
xxni [54-107] 161d-162b / Odyssey, BK xi
243a-249d; BK xxiv [1-203] 317a-319a
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1009-1016] 307d
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-126c / Phaedo, 223a-
226c; 230d-234c; 246d-247b / Gorgias, 292b-
294d / Republic, BK x, 437c-441a,c / Laws,
BK xii, 793c-d
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK iv, SECT 21 265b-c;
BK VH, SECT 50 283a
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [471-477] 96b
14 PLUTARCH Romulus, 29a-b
17 PLOTINUS* Fourth Ennead, TR 1 139a-b; TR HI,
CH 13 149b-d; CH 18 151b-c; CH 24-25 154b-
155c; CH 27 156c-d; TR iv, CH i 159a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Ctty of God, BK xi, CH 23 334c-
335c; BK xni, CH 2 360b 361a; CH 16 367a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 29,
A i, REP 5 162a-163b; Q 77, A 8 406b-407a;
Q 89 473a-480c; Q 117, A 4 599b-d; Q 118, A 3
603b-604b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 67,
AA 1-2 81c-83b; PART in SUPPL, Q 70 893c-
900d; Q 93, A i 1037d-1039a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[67-108] 92a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 270c-271b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
150d-151c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 248c-250a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 38-40 461d-
462d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 192d-193c; 224b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict^ 28a
5c. The judgment of souls
OLD TESTAMENT '.Job, 19:29; 21 / Psalms, 49:6-9;
50 esp 50:4, 50:6, 50:21-22; 96:10-13— (D)
Psalms, 48:7-11; 49 csp 49:4, 49*6, 49-21-22;
95:10-13 / Proverbs, 22:22-23 / Ecclesiastes,
3*16-17; 11:9-10; 12-14 / Isaiah, 11:1-9 csp
11-3-5; 24-21-22; 34; 66 — (D) haias, 11*1-9
esp ii -3-5; 24:21-22; 34; 66 / Daniel, 12 / Joel
APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:17— (D) OT, Judith,
16-20-21 / // Maccabees, 7:31-36— (D) OT,
// Machabees, 7:31-36
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:7-12 csp 3:10,
3*12; 7-1-2; 10:14-15; 11-20-24; 12:34-37;
13:18-50 esp 13:30, 13:39-4?. i3'49-5°; 24-
25 / John, 12:48 / Acts, 17:31 / Romans, 2 /
// Timothy, 4 -i / Hebrews, 9 27 / 1 Peter, 4 15-6
/ // Peter, 2:9; 3:7-13 / / John, 4-17 / Jude,
14-15 / Revelation, 20:9-15— (D) Apocalypse,
20:8-15
4 HOMER- Odyssey, BK xi [568-571] 248d
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [228-231] 3d
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1013-1016] 307d
7 PLATO- Phaedrus, 125b-126a / Phaedo, 249c-
250a / Gorgias, 292b-294d / Republic, BK x,
437c-438c / Laws, BK xn, 793c-d / Seventh
Letter, 806a
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK vi [426-439] 222b; [548-
569] 225b-226a
17 PLOTINUS . Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 24 154b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xx 530a-560a,c;
BK xxi, CH 11-27 570b-586a,c passim
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
QQ 87-90 997a-1016a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, HI [70-136] 4d-
5b; v [1-24] 7a-b; vi [94-115] 9b-c; xni [85-
108] 18d-19a; xx [1-39] 28b-d; xxvii [55-136]
40a-41b; xxix [103-120] 44a-b; PURGATORY,
ix 65d-67b; PARADISE, xix [100-148] 136a-c
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 10 498b<502a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 250a; 265b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT 11, sc in [1-23]
292b
32 MILTON : Christs Nativity [149-164] 5a-b / Para-
dise Lost, BK HI [315-338] 142a-b; BK xi [45-
83] 300a-301a; BK xn [451-465] 329a; [537-
551] 331a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 17b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 187c; 188d-189a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234b
44 BOSWELL:/O^O«, 514d-515a; 573c-574a
5</. The process of purification: the state of
Purgatory
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 4:4— (D) Isaias, 4:4
APOCRYPHA: II Maccabees^ 12 143-46— (D) OT,
// Machabces, 12:43-46
800
THE GREAT IDEAS
5e to 5f
(5. Conceptions of the after-life, id. The process
of purification', the state of Purgatory.)
NEW TESTAMENT. Matthew, 12:32/7 Corinthians,
3:11-15
7 PLATO Cratylus, 95a-c / Phaedo, 224a-225c;
232d-234c; 246d-250b / Gorgias, 292b-294d
/ Republic, BK x, 437c-438c
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK vi [264-751] 218a-231a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 28a-29b
17 PLOTJNUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH u 5b-c /
Third Ennead, TR iv, CH 6 99b-100b / Fourth
Ennead, TR in, CH 27, 156d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 30 318b-
319b; BK xx, CH 25 554c-555a; BK xxi, CH 13
571c-572a; CH 24 577b-579d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 69, A 2, ANS and REP 2 886c-887d; A 7, ANS
and REP 6 891d-893c; Q 71, A 6 908b-909c;
Q 97, A i, REP 2 1066b-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY 53a-105d
esp i--ii 53a-55d, ix 65d-67b, x [106-139]
68c-d, xni [34-93] 72b-d, xvn [82-139] 79b-d,
xix [97-126] 82c-d, xxi [34-72] 85b-d, xxm
[1-75] 88b-89a, xxvn 94c-96a, xxx-xxxi
99b-102b
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART in, 244b-c; PART iv,
251b-c; 255b-258b; 271a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [9-22]
37a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 234b; 520c
44 ROMELL. Johnson, 173d, 193a-b
52 DOSTOFVSKY Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
341c-345c passim
5e. The state of the damned: Hell
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 32 22 / Job, 26 6
I Psalms, 9 16-17; 116-3— (D) Psalms, 9:17-18;
114:3 / Proverbs, 7:27; 15:11,24; 27.20 /
Ecclesiastes, 6:6 / Isaiah, 5 14-15, 14 4-23;
26:10; 33:10-14; 66:24— (D) Iwws* 5:I4~I55
14.4-23; 26.10; 33.10-14; 66:24 / Ezetyel,
31 io-i8—(D) Ezechicl, 31 10-18
APOCRYPHA: ]udith, 16.17— (D) OT, Judith,
16:20-21 / Wisdom of Solomon, 4:16-5:14 esp
4:,9_(£)) OT, Bool( of Wisdom, 4:16-5:15
esp 4:19 / Ecdesiasticus, 7*17; 18 24; 21 '.9-10 —
(D) OT, Ecdesiasticus, 7:19; 18-24; 21:10-11
/ Baruch, 2:17- (D) OT, Baruch, 2:17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:7-12; 5:22,29;
8:12; 10:28; 11:20-24; 13-41-42,49^50; 18:7-
9; 25.31-46 esp 25-41, 25.46 / Marf(, 3 29;
9:43-5o-(#) Mark 3:29; 9:42-49 / Luke,
12:5; 16 .19-26 / John, 15:6 / // Thcssahnians,
1-7-9 / Hebrews, 10:26-31 / Jude, 6-7 /
Revelation passim, esp 9, 12, 17, 19-20— (D)
Apocalypse passim, esp 9, 12, 17, 19-20
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi 243a-249d esp [487-
489] 247d, [568-600] 248d-249a
5 ARISTOPHANES. Frogs [143-159] 565d-566a
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 249c-250a / Republic, BK x,
x, 757a; BK x, 767c-768c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [978-
1023] 42d-43b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [548-627] 225b-227b;
[735-747] 230b-231a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 33 341a-d;
BK XHI, CH 2 360b-361a; CH 12 365d-366a;
CH 14-15 366b-d; BK xm, CH 23-BK xiv, CH i
372a-377a, BK xiv, CH 15 388d-390a; BK xv,
CH i 397b,d-398c; BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a;
CH 28 529d-530a,c; BK xx, CH 15 543d-544b;
BK xxi, 560a-586a,c/ Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 20-21 629b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 3, REP 2 42c-43b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 69 885a-893c; Q 70, A 3 897d-900d; Q 86
992b-996a,c; Q 87, A i, REP 4 997b-998c; Q 90,
A 3 1014d-1016a, QQ 97-99 1066a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL la-52d esp in
[1-18] 4a-b, [82-129] 5a-b, vi [loo-m] 9c,
vn [100-130] lOc-d, xi 15a-16b, xiv [16-72]
19c-20b, xxvn [55-136] 40a-41b, xxvin [139-
142] 43a, xxxni [91-150] 50c-51a; PARADISE,
vn [64-84] 115d-116a; xv [10-12] 128c
22 CHAUCER. Friar's Tale 278a-284a / Sum-
moned* Prologue 284b-285a / Parson's Tale,
par 10, 499b-502a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 193d-195d;
PART iv, 250c-251b; 254a-255b; 271a-b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK u,
119b-122a
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 266c
26 SHAKESPEARE. Richard III, ACT i, sc iv [42-
63] 115a-b
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 418c-419a
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 227a
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK i-n 93a-134a esp
BK i [44-270] 94b-99a, BK n [521-628] 122b-
125a; BK vi [867-877] 215a-b
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 62 194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 188d-189a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 149c-150c passim;
234a-c
44 Bos WELL. Johnson, 363a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 347a
52 DOSIOEVSKY- Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
lOc-d; BK v, 127c-d; BK vi, 169c-170b; BK xi,
341c«345c
5/. The state of the blessed: Heaven
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 16 esp 16*10; 36 esp
36:8-9; 37; 84; 149— (D) Psalms, 15 esp
15:10; 35 esp 35:9-10; 36, 83; 149 / Isaiah,
65.8-25— (D) Isaias, 65.8-25 / Daniel, 7-18
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:15; 3:1-
9,13-15; 4.7-5-5; 5:i5-i6~(D) OT, Boo{ of
Wisdom, 1:15; 3:i-9»i3-i5>* 47-5:5»' 5:i6-'7
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:1-12,19-20; 6:19-
21,33; 7:2I~23; !3'43; i9:2i; 25:3'-46 «p
25:34, 25:46 / Lu^e, 16:19-26 / John, 6:38-
40; 8:51; 10:24-30; 11:23-27; 16:20-24; 17:1-3
5fto6a
I Romans, 8:18; 14:17 / 1 Corinthians, 15:40-
57 / // Corinthians, 4-17-5:10 / Galatians, 6:8
/ Ephesians, 2:18-22 /Hebrews, 10:34 /James,
i :i2 / / Peter, i csp 1 3-5, 1:9 / I John, 2 '.15-17;
3 '1-3 / Revelation esp 7, 14, 21— (Z>) Apoca-
lypse csp 7, 14, 21
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK iv [554-569] 204d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Fr0#f [143-159] 565d-566a
7 PLATO: Apology, 2116-2128,0 / Phaedo, 249d-
250a / Republic, BK x, 437c-440d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [638-678] 228a-229a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 140d / Sertonus, 460d-
461 b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 16 23b-c;
BK ix, par 6 63a-b; BK xn, par 23 104b-c;
BK xiii, par 50-53 124c-125a,c / City of God,
BK ix, CH 14-15 293a-294a; CH 17 295a-c;
BK xi, CH 11-13 328d~330b; BK xn, CH 20
355b-357a, BK xiii, CH 20-24 370c-376a,c;
BK xix, CH 4 511a~513c; CH 10-13 516c-520a,
CH 27 529a-d; BK xx, CH 17 544d-545c; BK
xxn 586b,d-618d esp CH 1-5 586b,d-590a,
CH 12-21 600d-606d, CH 29-30 614b-618d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 4 625b-c; CH 19-22
629a-630a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 509b-510a; PART I-H, Q 4, AA 1-2
629d-631a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67
81b-87c; Q 68, A 6 93c-94c; PART II-H, Q 18,
A 2 462d-463d; Q 19, A II 472d-473d; Q 26,
A 13 519d-520d; Q 28, A 3 528d-529c; QQ
92-96 1025b-1066a
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xxvin-xxxiii 96a-105d; PARA-
DISE 106a-157d esp HI [43-90] 109d-110b, vi
[112-126] 114d-115a, xiv [i-€6] 126d-127c, xxi
[1-102] 138b-139b, xxii [1-75] 139d-140c,
xxviii [94-114] 149d-150a, xxx-xxxin 151d-
157d
22 CHAUCER: Trotlus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
259-261 154a-b / Second Nun's Tale [15,788-
822] 467a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65a-b; PART in,
191d-193d; 195d-197c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-100a; 248c-250b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 88d*89a
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity [7] la; [13] Ib; [52]
2b; [133-148] 4b-5a / On Time 12a-b / At a
Solemn Mustc^ 13a-b / Lycidas [165-185] 31b /
Comus [986-1023] 55b-56b / Sonnets, xiv 66a
/ Paradise Lost, BK III-XH 135a-333a esp BK m
[56-64] 136b, [135-143] «8b, [344-415] l«a-
144b, BK v [246-261] 180b-181a, [461-651]
185a-189b, BK VH [150-161] 220b, BK vin
[595-630] 245a-246a, BK xi [696-707] 314b
33 PASCAL- Pensfes, 643 290b-291a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH vn,
SECT 5 132c; CH xxi, SECT 38 187b-c; SECT 45
189b-d; SECT 62 194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234 b-d
44 BOSWELLI Johnson, 192d-193a; 391d-392a
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY
801
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 227c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 22d-
23c; BK xi, 342c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b
5g. The resurrection of the body
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 14:13-15; 19:25-27 /
Isaiah, 26:19— (P) Isaias, 26:19 / Ezefyl,
37:i-4—(£>) Ezechiel, 37:1-14 / Daniel,
12:1-2
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 27:52-53; 28 esp
28:6 / Mart(, 12:18-27 / Lu^e, 24 esp 24:6,
24:34, 24:46 I John, 2:18-22; 5:21-29; it:i-
44 / Acts, 24:15; 26:8 / Romans, 6:3-11 /
/ Corinthians, 6:14; 15 / // Corinthians, 4:14
/ / Thessalomans, 4:13-18— (D) I Thessalo-
nians, 4:12-17 / Hebrews, 11:35
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 29, 317b-
318b; BK xiii, CH 16-20 367a-371a; CH 22-24
371c-376a,c; BK xx, CH 6-7 534a-536d; CH 9-
10, 540b-541a; CH 14-21 542d 551a; BK xxi,
CH i-io 560a-570b; BK xxn, CH 4-5 588b-
590a; CH 11-21 599c-606d; CH 25-28 612a-
614a / Christian Doctrme, BK i, CH 19-21
629a-b; CH 24 630c-631a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67,
A i, REP 3 81b 82c; PART HI SUPPL, QQ 75-86
935a-996a,c; Q 93, A i 1037d<1039a
21 DANTE: Dwine Comedy, HELL, vi [94-111]
9b-c; x [1-15] 13d; xiii [85-108] 18d-19a;
PARADISE, VH [121-148] 116b-c; xiv [1-66]
126d-127c; xxv [97-129] 145b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART in, 192c-193c;
195b-d; PART iv, 254b-255b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 311a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [227-343] 140b-
143a; BK xn [402-427] 328a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 95 431c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 205d-
206a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 233d; 234d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 472a-b
47 GOETHE : Faust, PART i [737-807] 19b-21a
6. Doctrines of impersonal survival
6a. Immortality through offspring: the perpetu-
ation of the species
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 30:3-6; 40:19; 44:11-
i3~(£>) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 30:3-6; 40:19;
44:11-13
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165b-166b / Laws, BK iv,
685bc
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK n, CH 4 [4i5*22-b8]
645c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK n,
CH i [73ibi8-732a4] 272a-b / Politics, BK i,
CH 2 [1252*26-32] 445c
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART iv, 254c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK H,
81a-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, i-xvn 586a-588d
302
THE GREAT IDEAS
6b to 6c
(6. Doctrines of impersonal survival. 6a. Immor-
tality through offspring: the perpetuation of
the species.)
28 HARVEY- On Animal Generation, 364a; 384 b;
390c391c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 29a-b; 72c-
73a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 173
61a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 189b-c;
PART i, 212b-c; 246d-247a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 340b-341a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401 b; 406c / General Intro-
duction, 616a-b / Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
653b-c; 655b-656a
Sb. Enduring fame: survival in the memory
OLD TESTAMENT. Proverbs, 10:7 / Ecclesiastes, 9 5
APOCRYPHA: ]udtth, 16:20-25— (D) OT, Judith,
16:24-31 / Wisdom of 'Solomon, 4:1-6; 8:9-13
— (D) OT, Boo{ of Wisdom, 4:1-6; 8:9-13 /
Ecclcsiasticus, 37.26; 39:1-11; 40.19; 44-8-15;
46:11-12— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 37:29;
39:1-15; 40:19; 44.8-15, 46.13-15 / / Macca-
lees, 3.i-7-(/>) OT, / Machabecs, 3 1-7 /
// Maccabees, 6:21-31- (D) OT, // Mach-
abees, 6:21-31
4 HOMER. Iliad, BK ix [410-429] 61b-c; BK xn
[309-328] 85b-c; BK xxn [299-305] 158b /
Odyssey, BK xxiv [191-202] 319a
5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes [1408-1444] 194d-
195a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, la-b
6 TttucYmnLs:PeIoponnesian War, BK n, 398a-c
7 PLATO. Symposium, 165b-167a / Laws, BK iv,
$85b-c
9 ARISTOFLE: Politics, BK v, CH 10 [1312*23-39]
5Hd
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [121-124]
2c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 10 261d-
262a; BK iv, SECT 19 265a; SECT 33 266c-d;
BK vi, SECT 18 275d; BK vn, SECT 6 280b;
BK viii, SECT 44 289a; BK ix, SECT 30 294b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [453-463] 115b; [606-
610] 119b; BK iv [321-322] 175b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 125b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 195a-b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, iv 5c-7a; xvi
[1-90] 22c*23b; PURGATORY, xi [73-117] 69c-
70a, PARADISE, ix [37-63] 119a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 77a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81ad
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 112d-113a; 267a-c,301b-
c;304d-306a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Sonnets, LV 594c-d; LXV 596a-
b; LXXXI 598c-d
28 HARVEY: Circulation of the Blood, 312c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 226d-
228d
30 BACON Advancement of Learning, 27d-28c;
29a-b; 36a-c; 72c-73a
32 MILTON: On Shakespear. 1630 16a
33 PASCAL. PensSes, 148 201a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 535a-536a
37 FIELDING- Tom Jones, 273b; 274d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94a-b; 219d
41 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 494b,d-495a
42 KANT- Science of Right, 428b-429a
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 57d-58a, 163d [fn 4]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par
348 11 Id / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
153b-c; PART i, 212b-c; 254d-255d; PART
n, 262c-263a; 274a-275a; 278d-279a, 281d-
282d
47 GOETHE Faust, PRFLUDE [59-74] 2b 3a; PART
ii [9981-9982] 243a
6c. Participation in the eternity of truth, ideas,
or love
17PLOTINUS. Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 34-36
338b-339d
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART v, PROP 21-42 458a-
463d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
168c csp 156d-157b, 168b-c; 190a-b; 203c-
206a,c
CHAPTER 38: IMMORTALITY 803
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of man's attitude toward mutability and death, see CHANGE I2b; HAPPI-
NESS 4b; LIFE AND DEATH 8c; TIME 7.
The basic terms and propositions involved in arguments for or against the immortality of the
soul, see BEING 7b(i)~7b(4); ETERNITY 43; FORM 2d; MAN 33-33(2), 3c; MATTER 2d; MIND
ib, 23, 2d-2e; SOUL 3a~3d, 4b; and for the contrast between souls and angels with respect
to their mode of being, see ANGEL 4; ETERNITY 43; FORM 2d; MAN 3b; SOUL 4d(i).
Other discussions of immortslity as a postulate of the practical reason, see METAPHYSICS 2d;
NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 4b.
Another statement of the doctrine of reincarnation or the transmigration of souls, see SOUL
4d(0-
Articles of religious belief bearing on immortality, such as predestination, the Last Judg-
ment, and the resurrection of the body, see GOD 7f-yh; HAPPINESS 7c; SOUL 4d(3).
The relevance of the doctrine of innate ideas to immortality, see IDEA 2b; KNOWLEDGE 6c(3);
MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 33; MIND 4d(2).
The relevance to immortality of the theory of mind or intellect as an incorporeal power, see
MAN 33(2); MATTER 4d; MIND 23; SOUL 30.
The state of the soul separated from the body, see KNOWLEDGE 7c; SOUL 4d.
The moral significance of immortality in relation to divine rewards and punishments, see
GOD 5i; PUNISHMENT 5d.
Other discussions of the underworld, or of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, see ETERNITY 4d;
HAPPINESS 7c~7c(3); PUNISHMENT 56-56(2); SIN 6d-6e.
The immortality of enduring fame, see HONOR 2d.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
OVID. Metamorphoses
*• SENECA. De Consolattone ad Marciam (On Consola-
AUGUSTINE. On the Immortality of the Soul tion to Marcia)
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK iv, CH 79-95 GREGORY OF NYSSA. On the Soul and the Resume-
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Amma, A 1 4 tion
DANTE. Coiwvto (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE, PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, PROPOSITIONS
CH 9 (4-6) 104-105, 208-210
F. BACON. "Of Death," in Essays SAADIA GAON. The Boo^ of Beliefs and Opinions,
HUME. Of the Immortality of the Soul TREATISE vi, vni
. Of Suicide BONAVENTURA. Breviloquium, PART VH
J. S. MILL. "Theism," PART in, in Three Essays on R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART vn
Religion ALBO. The Boo^of Principles (Sefer ha-llfarim), BK
W. JAMES. Human Immortality iv, CH 29-41
NICOLAS OP CUSA. The Vision of God
"• POMPON AZZI. On the Immortality of the Soul
EPICURUS. Letter to Menoeceus VAUGHAN. The Retreate
CICERO. De Republica (The Republic), vi KING. The Exequy
. Tusculan Disputations, i BROWNE. Hydriotaphia
. De Senectute (Of Old Age) H. MORE. The Immortality of the Soul
804
THE GREAT IDEAS
LEIBNITZ. Discourse on Metaphysics, xxxn-xxxvi
. Monadology, par 19-28
J. BUTLER. The Analogy of Religion, PART i, CH i
LAW. An Appeal to All That Doubt ...the Truths of
the Gospel CH i
SWEDENBORG. Heaven and Its Wonders and Hell
VoLTAiRE."Heaven,""Hell," "Hell (Descent into)/*
"Purgatory," "Resurrection," in A Philosophical
Dictionary
MENDELSSOHN. Ph2don;oderUeberdie Unstcrblichfytt
der Seele
LESSINC. How the Ancients Represented Death
WORDSWORTH. Intimations of Immortality
COUSIN. Lectures on the True, the Beautiful and the
Good, PART in (16)
HAZLITT. On the Feeling of Immortality in Youth
FEUERBACH. Gedanfyn uber Tod und Unsterbhchfyit
I. H. FICHTE. Die Idee der Personlichkeit und der
individuellen Fortdauer
f. H. NEWMAN. "The Immortality of the Soul," in
Parochial and Plain Sermons
KIERKEGAARD. Concluding Unscientific Postscript,
pp 152-158
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL
HI, SUP, CH 41
. "Immortality: A Dialogue," in Studies in Pes-
simism
FBCHNBR. Life After Death
. Religion of a Scientist
CLIFFORD. "The Unseen Universe," in VOL i, Lec-
tures and Essays
ROYCE. The Conception of Immortality
FISKE. Life Everlasting
POHLE. Eschatology
SANTA VAN A. Reason in Religion, CH 13-14
HUGEL. Eternal Life
BOSANQUET. The Value and Destiny of the Indi-
vidual
VONIER. The Human Soul and Its Relations with Other
Spirits
BRADLEY. Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 15(8)
FARNELL. Gree^Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality
MCTAGGART. The Nature of Existence, CH 43, 62
SCHELER. Vom Ewigen im Menschen
LAKE. Immortality and the Modern Mind
BROAD. The Mind and Its Place in Nature, CH 11-12
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART n, CH 2; PART in;
PART IV, BK I, CH 5-6; PART V, CH l6j PART VII,
CH IO-I I
. Man, God, and Immortality, PART iv
J. S. HALDANE. The Sciences and Philosophy, LECT
XVIII
WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality, PART v
KIRK. The Vision of God
HOCKING. Thoughts on Death and Life
A. E TAYLOR. The Christian Hope of Immor-
tality
PERRY. The Hope for Immortality
Chapter 39: INDUCTION
INTRODUCTION
A I the list of Additional Readings indicates,
the theory of induction falls within the
province of logic and is part of the logician's
concern with the methods of inference or rea-
soning employed in the sciences. The great
controversies about induction seem to be of
relatively recent origin in the history of logic,
beginning perhaps with the argument between
William Whewell and J. S. Mill over the con-
tributions of reason and experience to the
inductive process. Later in the nineteenth
century and in our own time, writers like John-
son and Keyncs, Russell and Nicod, who pre-
sent different formulations of inductive infer-
ence, call attention to the unsolved problems
with which any theory is left. They underline
the assumptions that seem to be unavoidable in
any statement of the formal conditions which
validate the so-called "inductive leap" — the
jump from observed particulars to general
truths, truths having a wider generality than
the particular evidences from which they are
drawn or on which they arc based.
The problem of induction, in anyone's ver-
sion of it, is the problem of generalization. This
may involve psychological questions about how
the mind generalizes from experience. But
however they are answered, the basic logical
questions remain substantially unaltered. By
what criteria is valid distinguished from fal-
lacious induction? Can induction be secured
from error by rules of inference ? Is induction
indispensable m the development of scientific
knowledge, or is there, as Whewell, for exam-
ple, suggests, a sharp distinction between the
inductive and the deductive sciences?
What is the relation of induction to deduc-
tion? Is it the relation of a method of discovery
to a method of demonstration or proof? Is it a
relation between two modes of reasoning, both
of which can be formulated as processes of
proof? Is there both an inductive and a deduc-
tive type of syllogism, or is induction the very
opposite of all forms of reasoning and proof?
It is with these last questions that the dis-
cussion of induction begins in the great books,
especially in Aristotle's Organon and Bacon's
Novum Organum, but also in the writings of
Descartes and Locke, and in observations on
scientific method by Newton, Harvey, and
Pascal. Though many of the controversies and
problems which become central in the nine-
teenth century do not appear explicitly m the
earlier tradition, they arc anticipated by the
fundamental distinctions and issues which can
be found in the earlier writers.
Bacon's dissatisfaction with Aristotle, for
example, leads him to formulate specific rules
for induction. Going further in the same gen-
eral direction, Mill later develops his elaborate
theory of inductive inference. We move in the
opposite direction if we are guided by Aristotle's
distinction between scientific and dialectical in-
duction and by his way of setting induction off
as the very opposite of reasoning. The question
then arises whether Bacon and Mill are treating
induction in all or in only one of several quite
distinct senses.
As THE CHAPTER on LOGIC indicates, the names
of Aristotle and Bacon are sometimes used as
the symbols of opposed tendencies in logic.
The one is supposed to represent an almost ex-
clusive emphasis on deduction, the other the
primacy and importance of induction. An op-
position between Aristotle and Bacon is also
implied in the current use of such phrases as
"inductive logic" and "deductive logic." These
phrases are sometimes used to suggest that the
inductive or the deductive process can be
favored to the exclusion, or at least the subor-
dination, of the other. Such understanding of
806
THE GREAT IDEAS
the matter usually includes the popular notion
that induction is always reasoning from par-
ticulars to universals and deduction always
reasoning from universals to particulars.
But none of these things seems to be true, or
at least not without serious qualification. Nei-
ther Aristotle nor Bacon emphasizes deduction
or induction to the exclusion of the other. On
the contrary, both appear to insist on the ab-
solute priority of induction, since, according to
them, it provides deductive reasoning with its
ultimate premises. Far from conflicting, induc-
tion and deduction complement each other.
"The consilience of the results of both these
processes," Mill writes, "each corroborating
and verifying the other, is requisite to give to
any general proposition the kind and degree
of evidence which constitutes scientific proof."
Until principles are established, the deduc-
tion of their implications or consequences can-
not begin. Unless principles, once they are ob-
tained, are then used in the proof of other
truths, or are otherwise rationally employed,
the purpose of inductive generalization is not
fully realized. In this understanding of the re-
lationship between induction and reasoning,
Aristotle and Bacon do not seem to disagree,
nor does either of them conceive induction as a
process of reasoning from particulars to uni-
versals.
There is no question that the direction of
induction is from particulars; but in the precise
sense in which induction precedes deduction—
the sense in which both Bacon and Aristotle
regard it as the source of axioms — they do not
think it is a process of reasoning or a form of
proof. As for deduction, it is questionable, at
least for Aristotle, whether its direction can be
described as from the universal to the particu-
lar.
Aristotle seldom uses the word "deduction"
as the name for that phase of thought which is
complementary to induction. He speaks rather
of demonstration. Demonstration takes place
through the various forms of reasoning which
he calls "syllogisms." As the chapter on REA-
SONING explains, these are collections of premises
each of which yields a conclusion by valid in-
ference. In the most perfect forms of reasoning,
the conclusion is as universal as its premises,
and though there are syllogisms in which a par-
ticular proposition can be demonstrated from a
universal and a particular premise, it is seldom
the case that from exclusively universal premises
a particular conclusion can be validly drawn.The
statement that deduction is reasoning from uni-
versals to particulars certainly does not seem to
fit Aristotle's theory of the syllogism, and even
less his conception of scientific demonstration,
the aim of which is to prove universal, not
particular, propositions.
"WE LEARN EITHER by induction or by demon-
stration," Aristotle writes in the Prior Analytics.
"Demonstration develops from universals, in-
duction from particulars." In the Posterior Ana-
lytics he says that the ultimate premises of dem-
onstration must be primary or basic truths. A
basic truth is an immediate proposition— what
is sometimes called a "first principle" or an
"axiom." Since in his view "an immediate prop-
osition is one which has no other proposition
prior to it," the basic premises cannot be
demonstrated.
Whence come these primary premises which
are indispensable to demonstration but which
demonstration cannot establish? Aristotle's
answer is that "we know the primary prem-
ises by induction." In another place he says,
"it is by intuition that we obtain the primary
premises."
The word "intuition" indicates an essential
characteristic of the sort of induction which,
because it is not itself a form of reasoning, can
be prior to all reasoning and must be> in order to
supply the premises from which reasoning pro-
ceeds. Reasoning is discursive. It is a process in-
volving steps. One proposition is drawn from
another by the mediation of a third. Intuition,
in contrast, is immediate. Like an act of seeing,
it apprehends its object at once and directly.
When Aristotle speaks of induction as a kind of
intuition, he implies, therefore, that it consists
in the immediate grasp of a universal truth. The
proposition thus held he calls "immediate" pre-
cisely because it can be known intuitively and
in no other way. Intuitive induction, as op-
posed to what may be called "inductive reason-
ing," consists in seeing the universal in the par-
ticular. When what is seen is expressed in the
form of a proposition, the universal implicit in
the known particulars is made explicit.
CHAPTER 39: INDUCTION
807
Induction and intuition arc, however, not
identical for Aristotle. In one passage in the
Prior Analytics he considers syllogistic induc-
tion, which can hardly be called "intuitive."
And in the Ethics, where he discusses intuitive
reason, he distinguishes between two sorts of
primary truth that can be known by intuition.
"Intuitive reason/' he writes, "is concerned
with the ultimates in both directions; for both
the first terms and the last are objects of intui-
tive reason and not of argument, and the intui-
tive reason which is presupposed by demon-
strations grasps the unchangeable and first
terms, while the intuitive reason involved in
practical reasoning grasps the last and variable
fact, i.e., the minor premise. For these variable
facts are the starting-points for the apprehen-
sion of the end, since the universals are reached
from the particulars; of these therefore we must
have perception, and this perception is intuitive
reason "
This applies to theoretic as well as practical
knowledge. By intuitive reason, it seems, we
grasp both the universal principles or axioms and
the particular facts of sense-perception. As per-
ception is intuition on the part of the sensitive
faculty, so induction is an intuitive use of the
intellect (though Aristotle attributes both to
"intuitive reason").
These two forms of intuition are functionally
related. The induction of universal truths from
particulars is impossible without sense-percep-
tion, "for it is sense-perception alone which is
able to grasp the particulars." But, according
to Aristotle, a single isolated perception does
not give rise to an intuitive induction. Re-
peated perceptions of things of a certain sort —
particulars of a certain class — are formed by
memory into what he calls "an experience."
Because the experience refers, not to a single
individual, but to a class of similar individuals,
it provides the material for the mind's intuitive
act of induction.
This theory of the role of experience in in-
duction is more fully discussed in the chapter
on EXPERIENCE. For our present purposes, the
main point is that the universal, lying implicitly
in the experience, is ready, as it were, to be ex-
tracted therefrom and made explicit. "Though
the act of sense-perception is of the particular,
its content is universal," Aristotle writes. With
the help of memory and experience, induction
makes the latent universal manifest.
BACON'S CRITICISM of the logic of Aristotle
seems to rest on two counts: first, he com-
plains of Aristotle's over-emphasis on syllogisms,
whether they are used dialectically or demon-
stratively; and second, he charges Aristotle with
a superficial understanding of induction. One
of the chief efforts of the Novum Organum is to
correct the latter mistake.
"There are and can exist," says Bacon, "but
two ways of investigating and discovering
truth. The one hurries on rapidly from the
senses and particulars to the most general ax-
ioms, and from them, as principles, and from
their supposed indisputable truth, deduces the
intermediate axioms. This is the way now in
use. The other constructs its axioms from the
senses and particulars, by ascending continually
and gradually, until it finally arrives at the
most general axioms, which is the true but un-
attempted way."
Where Aristotle proposes that only the pri-
mary truths or first principles be established by
induction, while all the others (which Bacon
calls "intermediate axioms") are to be derived
from them by demonstration, Bacon urges a
method of induction which shall mount grad-
ually from the least general to the most uni-
versal propositions. We should not "suffer the
understanding to jump and fly from particulars
to remote and most general axioms." We should
"proceed by a true scale and successive steps,
without interruption or breach, from particu-
lars to the lesser axioms, thence to the inter-
mediate (rising one above the other), and lastly,
to the most general."
According to this theory, induction can in-
tuitively draw more general from less general
truths, as well as the least general truths from
the particulars of perception. It might seem at
first as if there were no place for deduction in
the development of science. But Bacon divides
the study of nature into two phases: "the first
regards the eliciting or creating of axioms from
experiments, the second the deducing or deriv-
ing of new experiments from axioms." Here too
there seems to be a crucial difference between
Bacon and Aristotle. This difference is indicated
by Bacon's emphasis upon experiments both as
808
THE GREAT IDEAS
the source of inductive generalization and also
as that which is ultimately derived by deduc-
tion from axioms.
The difference between experience (which
Aristotle makes the source of induction) and
experiment is more than verbal. "The axioms
now in use," Bacon contends, "are derived from
a scanty handful, as it were, of experience, and
a few particulars of frequent occurrence,"
There has been too little attention given to neg-
ative instances, that is, of cases which seem to
run counter to the generalization being formed.
"In establishing any true axiom," Bacon in-
sists, "the negative instance is the most power-
ful."
The chapter on EXPERIENCE dwells on the
difference between ordinary experience and
planned experiments. Where Aristotle seems to
be satisfied with the ordinary experience which
arises from the perceptions of men in the course
of daily life, Bacon thinks it does not suffice.
Because it is haphazard, it fails to collect the
variety of instances, both positive and nega-
tive, upon which genuine and solid inductions
can be founded. Unusual and special experiences
must be sought out, and the effort must be
made to invent experiences which do not arise
spontaneously. For* this, experiment— or the
production of experiences — is necessary. Bacon
thinks we must, "by every kind of experiment,
elicit the discovery of causes and true axioms."
Two CONSEQUENCES FOLLOW from the several
differences we have noted between Aristotle's
and Bacon's theories of induction.
In the first place, Aristotle does not seem to
think that induction can be methodically pre-
scribed by logical rules. It is a natural act of
intelligence to draw universals from experi-
ence. Though men may differ in the readiness
of their native wit, the induction of the pri-
mary truths, which are the axioms or first
principles of science, does not require special
genius nor can it be improved or rendered
more certain by following rules. Precisely be-
cause it is intuitive rather than discursive,
induction, unlike reasoning, cannot be regu-
lated by rules of inference such as those which
govern the syllogism.
Without disagreeing that it is intuitive rath-
er than argumentative, Bacon seems to think
that induction requires the practice of the most
detailed and precise method. Not only must the
various ascending stages of induction be regu-
lated by observance of an order of generality,
but the making of experiments and the collec-
tion and arrangement of particulars, "forming
tables and coordinations of instances," must be
governed by a complex set of rules. The twenty-
seven tables of instances, set forth in the second
book of the Novum Organum, constitute the
heart of Bacon's method of induction. This new
method "of discovering the sciences," he ob-
serves, "levels men's wits and leaves but little
of their superiority, since it achieves everything
by the most certain rules."
In the second place, since genuine induction
depends for Bacon upon ample experiments, it
belongs primarily to the method of the experi-
mental sciences — the physical or natural sci-
ences in which experimentation is possible.
Though the first principles or axioms of arith-
metic and geometry may be learned by induc-
tion, the method of gradual ascent from experi-
ments through intermediate generalizations
does not apply to mathematics. Here we may
have the beginning of the notion that only
the experimental sciences are primarily induc-
tive, whereas other sciences, like mathematics,
are primarily deductive.
But such a division of the sciences does not
accord with Aristotle's theory of induction.
He thinks mathematics and metaphysics re-
quire induction for their foundation no less
than physics and in no different way; if any-
thing, induction is of the greatest importance
for metaphysics, because all its principles are
indemonstrable, whereas some of the principles
needed in mathematics and physics can be dem-
onstrated in metaphysics. Yet no science is pe-
culiarly inductive, )ust as none stands in a
special relation to experience. All depend equal-
ly upon experience for the induction of the
primary truths on which their demonstrations
rest.
Descartes seems to fall somewhere between
Aristotle and Bacon. He regards arithmetic and
geometry as more certain than the physical
sciences, because mathematics is largely devel-
oped by deduction, whereas the study of nature
depends upon induction from experiments. In
this lies the superiority of mathematics. "While
CHAFTE* 39: INDUCTION
our inferences from experience are frequently
falkcious," Descartes writes, * 'deduction, or the
pure illation of one thing from another . . . can-
not be erroneous when performed by an under-
standing that is in the least degree rational/'
Nevertheless, Descartes does not exclude in-
duction as the source of the axioms of mathe-
matics or, for that matter, of metaphysics; he
only excludes the kind of induction which de-
pends upon experiments. Such axioms as when
equals are taken from equals the remainders are
equal or the whole is greater than any of its parts
are products of induction, as may be seen, he
points out, from the fact that a child can be
taught these general truths only "by showing
him examples in particular cases." Similarly,
the metaphysical truth in the proposition /
thinfy therefore, I exist cannot be learned by de-
duction or syllogistic reasoning. The axiom that
to thm\ is to exist has to be learned by induction
"from the experience of the individual— that
unless he exists he cannot think. For our mind
is so constituted by nature that general propo-
sitions are formed out of the knowledge of par-
ticulars."
FROM THE FOREGOING we can gather that dif-
ferent theories of induction may be, in large
part, theories about different kinds of induc-
tion. Common to induction of every sort is the
motion of the mind from particulars, appre-
hended by sense, to general propositions or uni-
versal notions. But the character of the induc-
tion, or its conditions and method, may differ
according to the precise character of its source:
(i) whether it arises from ordinary sense-expe-
rience or from planned experiments; and (2)
whether it is based upon a single experiment or
upon an enumeration of instances. There re-
mains the most radical distinction in type of
induction: (3) whether it is intuitive or discur-
sive—accomplished by an act of immediate in-
sight or by a process of reasoning from premises
to a conclusion.
These three divisions cross one another to
some extent. Descartes, for example, seems to
regard the complete enumeration of a series of
connected facts as a way of drawing a general
conclusion about their connection. That he has
inductive reasoning rather than intuitive in-
duction in mind, we learn from his statement
that "by adequate enumeration or induction is
meant that method by which we attain surer
conclusions than by any other type of proof, ,
with the exception of simple intuition."
Pascal seems to be making the same point,
when he says that "in all matters whose proof
is by experiment and not by demonstration, no
universal assertion can be made except by the
general enumeration of all the parts and all the
different cases." Bacon, on the other hand, al-
ways thinks of induction as intuitive generali-
zation, and therefore maintains that "induction
which proceeds by simple enumeration is puer-
ile, leads to uncertain conclusions, and is ex-
posed to danger from one contradictory in-
stance."
The elaborate procedure which Bacon pro-
poses for collating instances stresses, not com-
pleteness of enumeration, but an examination
of their relation to one another and, in the light
thereof, an interpretation of their significance.
Mill's four or five methods of induction bear a
close resemblance to Bacon's more numerous
tables of instances; but Mill's methods are at-
tempts to formulate the rules of inference for
inductive reasoning, whereas Bacon's rules are
rules, not of reasoning, but of tabulating the
particulars from which intuitive generalizations
can be formed.
On Mill's view of induction, it may be ques-
tioned whether induction from an exhaustive
enumeration is induction at all, for it seems to
result in a summary of the facts enumerated
rather than a generalization from particulars.
Where there is no inductive leap, there is no
induction. Where the inductive leap does occur,
however, it seems easier to understand it as an
intuitive act—a seeing of the universal in the
particular — rather than as a process of reason-
ing. Each of Mill's methods requires a rule of
inference which is itself a universal proposition.
His critics have asked, Whence come these uni-
versal propositions about the relations of cause
and effect or about the order and uniformity of
nature? They point out that he cannot answer
that these propositions are themselves conclu-
sions of inductive reasoning without begging
the question.
SUCH CRITICISM of inductive reasoning does
not seem to apply to Aristotle's conception of
810
THE GREAT IDEAS
it, for with him it is not, as with Mill, distinct
in form from the syllogism. It is simply a dis-
tinct type of syllogism, which consists in reason-
ing from effect to cause rather than from cause
to effect. Nor does the observation that an in-
ductive inference cannot be more than proba-
ble apply to what Aristotle means by an induc-
tive syllogism.
The certainty or probability of non-syllo-
gistic induction depends on the source of the
inference— whether it derives from a single
specially constructed experiment or from an
enumeration of particular instances, with or
without a statistical calculation based on their
frequency. The conception of a perfect experi-
ment implies that the operation of a universal
law can be exhibited in a single case. It is almost
as if the controlling aim of the experiment were
to make the universal manifest in the particular.
Newton's experiments on reflection and re-
fraction seem to be of this sort. From them
certain laws of optics are directly induced, even
as, according to Aristotle and Descartes, the
axioms of mathematics or metaphysics can be
directly induced from simple experiences, avail-
able to & child or familiar to all men. Yet New-
ton does not think that the inductive establish-
ment of such laws is as certain as demonstration.
The analytic method, he writes, "consists in
making experiments and observations and in
drawing general conclusions from them by in-
duction. And although the arguing from exper-
iments and observations by induction be no
demonstration of general conclusions; yet it is
the best way of arguing which the nature of
things admits of, and may be looked upon as so
much stronger, by how much the induction is
more general. If no exception occur from phe-
nomena, the conclusion may be pronounced
generally; but if at any time afterwards any ex-
ception shall occur from experiments, it may
then begin to be pronounced with such excep-
tions as occur."
Because it must depend on inductive gener-
alizations from experience which, in his view,
can never be certain, Locke doubts that physics
can ever become a science. "I deny not," he
writes, uthat a man, accustomed to rational and
regular experiments, shall be able to see further
into the nature of bodies and guess nghter at
their ytt unknown properties, than one that is a
stranger to them; but yet, as I have said, this
is but judgment and opinion, not knowledge
and certainty. This way of getting and improving
our knowledge in substances only by experience
and history, which is all that the weakness of our
faculties in this state of mediocrity . . . can at-
tain to, makes me suspect," Locke concludes,
"that natural philosophy is not capable of being
made a science"
Hume offers two reasons for the inconclusive-
ness and uncertainty which he thinks qualify
all our generalizations or inductions from ex-
perience. The first calls attention to the fact
that, unlike mathematical reasoning, inferences
from experience in the realm of physical mat-
ters depend on the number of cases observed.
"The conclusions which [reason] draws from
considering one circle," he says, "are the same it
would form upon surveying all the circles in the
universe. But no man, having seen only one
body move, after being impelled by another,
could infer that every other body will move
after a like impulse."
The principle "which determines him to
form such a conclusion" is, according to Hume,
"Custom or Habit"; and precisely because in-
ductive generalization is an effect of custom
rather than of reasoning in the strict sense, the
strength of the induction — or the force of cus-
tom—varies with the number of cases from
which it arises. "After the constant conjunction
of two objects — heat and flame, for instance,
weight and solidity— -we are determined by cus-
tom alone to expect the one from the appear-
ance of the other. This hypothesis," Hume
maintains, "seems . . . the only one which ex-
plains the difficulty, why we draw, from a
thousand instances, an inference which we are
not able to draw from one instance, that is in no
respect different from them. Reason is in-
capable of any such variation."
Since all the relevant cases can never be ex-
haustively observed, the inference from a cus-
tomary conjunction must always remain un-
certain, no matter how high a probability it
derives from the multiplication of like in-
stances. To this first point, concerning the de-
pendence of the probability of generalizations
from experience upon the frequency of the ob-
served instances, Hume adds a second point
about the similarity of the cases under obser-
: INDUCTION
811
vation. Analogy, he says, "leads us to expect
from any cause the same events, which we have
observed to result from similar causes. Where
the causes are entirely similar, the analogy is
perfect, and the inference drawn from it is
regarded as certain and conclusive. . . . But
where the objects have not so exact a similarity,
the analogy is less perfect, and the inference is
less conclusive; though still it has some force, in
proportion to the degree of similarity and re-
semblance." The absence of perfect similarity
is Hume's second reason for the inconclusive-
ness or uncertainty of inductive generalizations.
The contrary supposition— that one case can
be perfectly representative of an infinite num-
ber of similar cases — may explain why Aristotle
seems to think that induction is able to produce
the primary truths or principles of science with
a certitude which gives certainty to all the dem-
onstrations founded on these axioms. Another
explanation of Aristotle's view may be found
in his distinction between scientific and dialec-
tical induction. He regards the former as based
on the kind of common experience which, un-
like even the best experiment, admits of no ex-
ceptions. In contrast, dialectical induction, or
the still weaker form of induction which he
calls "rhetorical," is based on an enumeration
of cases (which may not be complete) or upon a
single example (which provides no safeguard
against possible exceptions).
In its dialectical form, the inductive argu-
ment proceeds from a number of particulars
taken for granted. Aristotle offers this example
of dialectical induction: "Supposing the skilled
pilot is the most effective, and likewise the
skilled charioteer, then, in general, the skilled
man is the best at his particular task." In its
rhetorical form, no more than a single example
may be used, as when the orator generalizes
that honesty is the best policy from the story
of a particular individual who was finally re-
warded for his virtue.
In both forms, the inductive generalization
is at best probable; and it is more or less proba-
ble according to the soundness of the supposi-
tions or the examples from which it originates
— to be tested only by extending the enumera-
tion of particulars. But if an induction is merely
probable in the first place, it can only be made
more probable, it can never be made certain,
by multiplying cases or by increasing their vari-
ety.
Aristotle's theory of dialectical induction
thus seems to have a bearing on the probability
of induction from limited experiments (or from
a single experiment whose perfection is not as-
sured) and of induction from the frequency or
variety of observed instances. The other point
to be noted is that Bacon's basic rule of gradual
ascent from particular cases through less gen-
eral to more general propositions seems to be
relevant to dialectical induction, but not, on
Aristotle's view, to that kind of induction
which produces the axioms or principles of
science.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The theory of induction: generalization from particulars
i a. Induction and intuition: their relation to reasoning or demonstration
ib. Inductive reasoning: the issue concerning inductive and deductive proof
2. The conditions or sources of induction: memory, experience, experiment
3. The products of induction: definitions, axioms, principles, laws
4. The use of induction in argument
40. Dialectical induction: securing assumptions for disputation
4^. Rhetorical induction: inference from example in the process of persuasion
5. The role of induction in the development of science: the methods of experimental and
enumerative induction
814
812 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK u [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
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PAGE SECTIONS- When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, m 53 JAMFS : Psychology, 1 16a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
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the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
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SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
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Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The theory of induction: generalization from 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 2
particulars 388a-b
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 1-5 171a-173a
la. Induction and intuition: their relation to 35 HltME. Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 2
reasoning or demonstration 451b.c; DIV 9 45^.4553; SECT IV, DIV 26
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3 460b-c
[72bi8-24] 99b-c; CH 23 [84b3i-85*i] 115d- , , , . . < .
116a; cii 31 [87b39-88ai7] 120a-c; CH 33 [88b **• Inductive reasoning: the issue concerning
30-89"!] ^121b-c; BK n, CH 2 [90-24-30] inductive and deductive proof
123b-c; CH 19 136a-137a,c / Topics, BK i, 8 ARISTOTLE Prior Analytics, BK n, CH23 90a-c
CH 12 148d; BK vm, CH i [i55b35-i56*7] / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i [71*1-11] 97a;
211d-212a; [i56bio-i8] 212c-d / Metaphysics, CH 3 [72^5-33] 99c; CH 18 lllb-c; BK n, CH 7
BK i, CH 9 [992b24~993*i] 511a-b [92*34-b'] 126b/ Topics, BKI, CH 18 [io8b7-i2]
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [1098*34^3] 152 d / Physics, BK vm, CH i [252*23-25] 336a
343d; BK vr, CH 3 388b-c; CH 6 389d; CH 8 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [io95*3o-b8]
[1142*23-31] 391 b-c; CH ii 392c-393b csp 340c; CH 7 [1098*35^3) 343d; BK vi, CH 3
[ii43*32-b6]392d-393a/£A<r/orHr, BKII, CH20 388b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i356b5-i8]
[1393*25-26] 641a 596a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-335c 28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
esp 333d-334d 252a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-44c; 28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, fcSOc
59c; 61d; 96d-97a / Novum Organum, 105a- 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42a-c;
195d esp BK i, APH 11-26 107d-108d, APH 69 57b-58b; 61d; 96d-97a / Novum Organum
116a-b, APH 105 128b-c, BK n, APH i-io 137a- 105a-l95d esp BK i, APH 11-26 107d-108d,
140d, APH 15-16 149a-b, APH 20-22 150d- APH 69 116a-b, APH 103-106 127d-128c, BK n,
153c, APH 52 194c-195d APrt 10-52 14dc-195d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, HI 3b-5a esp 4a-b; VH, 31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a; vn, 10c~12a; xi
10c-12a; ix 14d-15d; xi, 17b-d / Objections 17b-18b; xn, 24a-b/ Discourse, PART vi, 61d-
and Replies, 123a-b; 167c-d 62c / Objections and Replies; 167c-d
2/04*
CHAPTER 39: INDUCTION
813
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK HI, RULE iv 271b /
Optics, BK HI, 543a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding* BK iv, CH xn,
SECT 10 361b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
26 460b-c; SECT ix, DIV 82 487b-c; SECT xn,
DIV 131-132 508d-509d passim
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 45b-46a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445a-447b passim;
475b,d [fn i] passim
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 659a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 690b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 674a-675b esp 675b
2. The conditions or sources of induction:
memory, experience, experiment
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 [46*
18-28] 64a; BK n, CH 23 [68bi5~29] 90b-c /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i [71*1-8] 97a;
CH 3 [72b25~33] 99c; CH 18 lllb-c; CH 31
I87b39-88ai7] 120a-c; BK n, CH 2 [90*24-30]
123b-c; CH 7 [92*34~bi] 126b; CH 19 [99b2o-
ioob5] 136a-d / Topics, BK i, CH 12 148d; CH
18 [io8b7-i2] 152d; BK n, CH 7 [113*31-33]
158d; BK vin, CH i [i55b35-i50*7] 211d-212a;
[i56bio-i8] 212c-d / Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b;
CH 8 [191*24-34] 267a-b / Heavens, BK in, CH
7 [306*6-18] 397b-c / Generation and Corrup-
tion, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-8] 411c / Metaphysics,
BK i, CH i 499a-500b; CH 9 [992^4-993*1 ]
511a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [1095*30^8]
340c; CH 7 [1098*34^8] 343d-344a; BK vi,
CH 8 [1142*12-19] 391b; CH n [i 143*32-^6]
392d-393a / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 20 [1393*22-
1394*8] 640d-641d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 51,
A i, ANS 12b-13c
28 GILBERT* Loadstone, PREF, la-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b; 207d-208a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267b,d-268d;
285c-d / Circulation of the Blood, 322d-323d;
324c-d / On Animal Generation, 331b-335c;
383d; 473a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a; 34b;
57b-d; 59c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 17
108a; APH 19 108b; APH 22 108c; APH 25 108d;
APH 69 116a-b; APH 104-105 128a-c; BK n,
APH 11-15 140d-149a
31 DESCARTES- Rules, n, 2d-3a; VH, 10c-12a /
Discourse, PART vi, 61d-62c / Objections and
Replies, 167c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 1-2
387b-388b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a-b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE m-iv 270b-
271b / Optics, BK in, 543a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 107
433d-434a
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT HI, DIV
19, 458a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 45b-46a; 66d-93c
/ Judgement, 562d-563b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 659a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv,
361a-b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 41 2a
3. The products of induction: definitions, ax-
ioms, principles, laws
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 23 90a-c
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3 [72^5-30] 99c;
CH 18 lllb-c; CH 31 [87b39-88*i7] 120a-c, BK
n, CH 2 [90*24-30] 123b-c; CH 7 [92*34~bi]
126b; CH 19 136a-137a,c / Topics, BK i, CH 12
148d; CH 18 [io8b7-i2] 152d; BK vin, CH i
[i55b35-i56*7] 211d-212a; [i56bio-i8] 212c-d
/ Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*
5-8] 41 Ic
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [ro95*3o-b8]
340c; CH 7 [1098*34^3] 343d; BK vi, CH 3
[1139^5-34] 388c; CH 6 389d; CH n [1143*25-
bi3] 392d-393a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 79,
A 12, ANS 425c-426b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, la-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b; 207d-208a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333d-335a
esp 334c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34b, 57b-d;
96d-97a / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 17-2^,
108a-d; APH 103-106 127d-128c; BK 11, APH
i-io 137a-140d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 123a-b;
167c-d
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE ni-iv 270b-
271b / Optics, BK in, 543a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 25 120c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 107
433d-434a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 2
451b-c; DIV 9 454c-455a; SECT iv, DIV 26
460b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 66d-93c; HOa
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 475b,d [fn i]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv,
361a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 690b
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b
4. The use of induction in argument
4a. Dialectical induction: securing assump-
tions for disputation
8 ARISTOTLE- Topics, BK i, CH 12 148d; CH 18
[io8b7-i2] 152d; BK VIH, CH i [i55bi6-i56R7]
211b-212a; [i56bio-i8] 212c-d; CH, 2 [i578i9-
38]213b-d;cn8 [i6o*35-bi] 2l7d; CH 14 [164*
12-17] 222d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i356*36-b26]
596a-b
814
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The use of induction in argument.)
4b. Rhetorical induction: inference from exam-
ple in the process of persuasion
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 24 90c-
91a / Topics, BK vm, CH i [156*10-18] 212c-d;
CH 8 [i6o'35-bi] 217d / Metaphysics, BK n,
CH 3 [995*6-8] 513c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [1356*36-
1358*3] 596a-597d; CH 9 [1368*29-31] 611b-c;
BK ii, CH 20 640d-641d; CH 23 [i398B32-bi8]
646d-647a; CH 25 [1403*5-9] 652d; BK HI,
CH 17 [I4i7b35-i4i8*3] 672b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 58c-59a
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
376c-d
5. The role of induction in the development of
science: the methods of experimental
and enumerative induction
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 23 90a-c
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3 [72b25~33] 99c;
CH 18 lllb-c; BK n, CH 19 136a-137a,c /
Physics, BK i, CH 2 [185*13-14] 259d; BK v,
CH i [224b28--$o] 304d; BK vin, CH i [252*23-
b5] 336a-b / Generation and Corruption, BK i,
CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH 9 [992b30~993Bi] 511b; BK vi, CH i [io25b
1-16] 547b; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*4-9] 592b;
BK xin, CH 4 [io78b28~3o] 610b
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK v,
CH 8 [788bio-2i] 330c / Ethics, BK i, CH 4
[io95a}o-b8] 340c; CH 7 [io98a34~b3] 343d;
BK vi, CH 3 388b-c
10GALFN- Natural Faculties, BK HI, CH 1-2
199a-200a esp 199c-d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREP, la-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b; 207d-208a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 280c; 285c-d
/ Circulation of the Blood, 324c-d / On Ani-
mal Generation, 332a-33Sc esp 334c-d; 383d;
473a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a; 34b;
42a-c; 56b-58c; 96d-97a / Novum Organum
105a-195d esp BK i, APH 11-26 107d-108d,
APH 69 116a-b, APH 104-106 128a-c, BK n,
APH i-io 137a-140d, APH 15-16 149a-b, APH
20-21 150d-153b, APH 52 194c-195d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a; vn 10b-12a /
Discourse, PART vi, 61d-62c / Objections and
Replies, 167c-d
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a-b / Arithmetical Tri-
angle, 451b-452a; 458b-459b; 464a-466a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE m-iv 270b-
271 b; GENERAL scHOL, 371b-372a / Optics,
BK in, 543a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 107
433d-434a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 9
454c-455a; SECT HI, DIV 19, 458a; SECT iv,
DIV 26 460b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 45b-46a; 72c-
85d esp 72c-74b, 82a-b / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 387a-b / Judgement, 562d-563b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445d-446b; 475b,d
IM
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 659a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n,
690b
53 IAMES: Psychology, 385a-b; 677b; 862a-865a
54 FREUD: Instincts, 412a-b
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of induction as an intuitive act of generalization, see JUDGMENT 8a; KNOWL-
EDGE 6c(a) ; PRINCIPLE 33(1), 3a(3)-3b; REASONING 5b(i) ; SCIENCE 50!.
Other treatments of inductive reasoning and its relation to deductive reasoning, see REASON-
ING 40, 6c; SCIENCE 50!; and for parallel distinctions in modes of argument, see EXPERI-
ENCE 2d; REASONING 5b(3), 5b(5).
Discussions dealing with the sources or conditions of induction, generalization, or abstrac-
tion, see EXPERIENCE ab; IDEA 2g; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 30, 6c(i); SENSE 5b;
UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 40.
Induction as the source of principles, axioms, or scientific laws, see PRINCIPLE 3b; SCIENCE
4d; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 4f.
Other treatments of dialectical and rhetorical induction, see DIALECTIC ib, 3b; RHETORIC
4c(i); and for their contrast with dialectical and rhetorical reasoning, see DIALECTIC jc;
REASONING 5C~5d; RHETORIC 40(2).
The role of induction in the experimental sciences, see EXPERIENCE 5a; REASONING 6c;
SCIENCE 4d, 5d.
CHAWER 39: INDUCTION
815
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK m-rv
II.
PHILODEMUS. On Methods of Inference
JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho-
misticus, Ars Logica, PART i, BK m, CH 2; Q 8
(2); PART ii, Q 5
WHATELY. Elements of Logic, BK iv, CH i
GRATRY. Logic, PART iv
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL II, BK XI, CH 1-6; BK XIII
. On the Philosophy of Discovery
SlGWART. LogtC, PART III, CH 5
JEVONS. The Principles of Science, CH 7, 1 1 ; BK iv, esp
CH22
LOTZE. Logic, BK i, CH 3 (A)
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, BK n, PART 11, CH 3
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL n, par 619-644,
669-693, 755-791
VENN. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
CH 5-15, 17, 24
PEARSON. The Grammar of Science, CH 3
BOSANQUET. LoglC, VOL H, CH 3-5
. Science and Philosophy, 4
J. C. WILSON. Statement and Inference, PART iv
POINCARE*. Science and Method, BK n, CH 3-4
CASSIRER. Substance and Function, PART n, CH 5
N. R. CAMPBELL. Physics; the Elements, CH 4
W. E. JOHNSON. Logic, PART n, CH 8-n; PART in,
CH 2
J. M. KEYNES. A Treatise on Probability, PART
in
NICOD. "The Logical Problem of Induction," in
Foundations of Geometry and Induction
MISES. Probability, Statistics, and Truth
M. R. COHEN. Reason and Nature, BK i, CH 3(3)
JEFFREYS. Scientific Inference
MEYERSON. Du chemmement de la pensSe
DEWEY. Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 21
B, RUSSELL. The Problems of Philosophy, CH 6
. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy,
CH3
. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits,
PART V, CH 7 ; PART VI, CH 2~3
Chapter 40: INFINITY
INTRODUCTION
ONE of the persistent questions concerning
infinity is whether we can know or com-
prehend it. Another is whether the infinite
exists, and if so, to what kind of thing infinity
belongs. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
discussion of infinity often borders on the un-
intelligible.
The idea of infinity, like the idea of eternity,
lacks the support of the imagination or of sense-
experience. The fact that the infinite cannot be
perceived or imagined seems sufficient to lead
Hobbes and Berkeley to deny its reality. "What-
soever we imagine is finite" writes Hobbes.
"Therefore there is no idea, or conception of
anything we call infinite. . . . When we say any-
thing is infinite, we signify only that we arc not
ible to conceive the ends and bounds of the
thing named, having no conception of the
thing, but of our own inability."
On similar grounds Berkeley rejects the pos-
sibility of infinite division. "If I cannot per-
:eive innumerable parts in any infinite ex-
tension," he writes, "it is certain that they are
lot contained in it: but it is evident, that I
rannot distinguish innumerable parts in any
particular line, surface, or solid, which I either
Derceive by sense, or figure to myself in my
•mnd; wherefore I conclude that they are not
:ontained in it."
But for most of the great writers on the sub-
cct, the impossibility of representing infinity
md eternity to the imagination does not render
them inconceivable or meaningless. Yet it does
iccount for the difficulty of grasping their
"neanmg, a difficulty further increased by the
act that, whatever their meaning, infinity and
•ternity are indefinable. To define the infinite
vould be to limit — even in thought — the un-
imited.
The notion of infinity involves greater per-
plexities than that of eternity. The meaning of
eternity is weighted with the mystery of God,
the world, and time. All these affect the concep-
tion of infinity; but for the infinite there are
also the mysteries of number and of space, of
matter and motion. In the sphere of quantity,
or of things subject to quantity, infinity is itself
the source of mystery, or at least the root of
difficulty in analysis. It is the central term in
the discussion of the continuous and the indi-
visible, the nature of series and of limits.
As INDICATED in the chapter on ETERNITY,
that idea in each of its applications seems to
have one or the other of two meanings— (i)
the meaning in which it signifies infinite time,
time without beginning or end, and (2) the
meaning in which it signifies the timelessness
or immutability of being. Both meanings are
negative, so far as our understanding is con-
cerned. Yet what is signified by the second is
in itself something positive, at least in the
opinion of those who think that to be exempt
from change entails having every perfection
or being lacking in nothing.
This split in meaning also occurs in the idea
of infinity. As applied to being, the term in-
finite signifies something positive, even though
our understanding of what is signified remains
negative or, at best, analogical. An infinite be-
ing is one which lacks no attribute that can
belong to a being. This is the positive condition
of absolute perfection. The infinite here still
means the unlimited, but that which is un-
limited in being has no defect. To lack defi-
ciencies is to be perfect.
It is in this sense that Spinoza defines God
as "Being absolutely infinite, that is to say,
substance consisting of infinite attributes, each
one of which expresses eternal and infinite es-
sence." Like Spinoza, Aquinas maintains that
"besides God nothing can be infinite." But he
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
817
distinguishes the absolute or positive sense in
which God alone is infinite from the sense of
the word in which it can be said that "things
other than God can be relatively infinite, but
not absolutely infinite." This other meaning,
according to Aquinas, is not only relative but
negative, for it connotes "something imper-
fect," It signifies indeterminacy or lack of per-
fection in being.
What Aquinas calls the relative or potential
infinite, he attributes to matter and to quan-
tities—to bodies, to the magnitudes of space
and time, and to number. This sense of "in-
finite" corresponds to that meaning of "eter-
nal," according to which time consists of an
endless series of moments, each having a pre-
decessor, each a successor, no matter how far
one counts them back into the past or ahead
into the future.
But in the field of quantities other than time,
the meanings of infinite and eternal part com-
pany. There is, of course, some parallelism be-
tween infinite space and infinite time, insofar
as an infinite extension is one which does not
begin at any point or end at any; but the con-
sideration of space and number leads to an as-
pect of infinity which has no parallel in the con-
sideration of eternity.
"In sizes or numbers," Pascal writes, "nature
has set before man two marvelous infinities. . . .
For, from the fact that they can always be in-
creased, it follows absolutely that they can al-
ways be decreased. ... If we can multiply a
number up to 100,000 times, say, we can also
take a hundred thousandth part of it by di-
viding it by the same number we multiply it
with, and thus every term of increase will be-
come a term of division by changing the in-
teger into a fraction. So that infinite increase
includes necessarily infinite division." As end-
less addition produces the infinitely large, so
endless division produces the infinitesimal or
the infinitely small.
A trillion trillion is a finite number, because
the addition of a single unit creates a larger
number. The fact that the addition of another
unit produces a different number indicates that
a trillion trillion has a determinate size, which
is the same as saying that it is a finite number.
An infinite number cannot be increased by ad-
dition, for it is constituted— in thought at
least— as d number larger than the sum of
any two finite numbers; which is another
way of saying that it is approached by carrying
on the process of addition endlessly. The size
of an infinite number is therefore indetermi-
nate.
What Galileo points out about two infinite
quantities seems to hold for an infinite and a
finite quantity. He asks us to consider the
totality of all integers (which is infinite) and
the totality of their squares (which is also in-
finite). On the one hand, there appear to be as
many squares as there are integers; on the
other hand, the totality of integers includes all
the squares. Precisely because "the number of
squares is not less than the totality of all num-
bers, nor the latter greater than the former,"
Galileo insists that "the attributes 'equal,'
'greater,' and 'less' are not applicable to in-
finite, but only to finite quantities." Nor does
the sense in which one finite quantity can be
greater or less than another — that is, by a de-
terminate difference between them — apply in
the comparison of a finite and an infinite quan-
tity. The latter, being indeterminately large,
is indeterminately larger than any finite quan-
tity.
These remarks apply to the infinitely small
as well. The infinitesimal is immeasurably small
or indeterminately less than any finite fraction,
no matter how small, because its own size is
indeterminate. The finite fraction, itself a
product of division, can be divided again, but
if an infinitesimal quantity were capable of
further division, it would permit a smaller,
and since that smaller quantity would be a
determinate fraction of itself, the infinitesimal
would have to be determinate in size. Since that
is not so, the infinitesimal must be conceived
as the indivisible or as the limit approached by
carrying on division endlessly.
"Because the hypothesis of indivisibles seems
somewhat harsh," Newton proposes an analysis
in terms of what he calls "nascent and evanes-
cent quantities," or quantities just beginning
to be more than nothing or just at the point
at which they vanish into nothing. "As there
is a limit which the velocity at the end of a
motion may attain, but not exceed . . . there
is a like limit in all quantities and proportions
that begin or cease to be." Newton warns his
81S
THE GREAT IDEAS
reader, therefore, that if he "should happen to
mention quantities as least, or evanescent, or
ultimate," the reader is "not to suppose that
quantities of any determinate magnitude are
meant, but such as are conceived to be always
diminished without end."
Later, speaking of quantities which are "var-
iable and indetermmed, and increasing or de-
creasing, as it were, by a continual motion or
flux," he adds: "Take care not to look upon fi-
nite quantities as such." The method of fluxions
provides an infinitesimal calculus on the hy-
pothesis of limits rather than of indivisibles.
THROUGH ALL THESE conceptions of infinity-
metaphysical, mathematical, and physical —
run the paired notions of the unlimited and of
limits approached but not attained. The finite
is neither unlimited nor does it insensibly ap-
proach a limit. There are also the opposite no-
tions of the perfect and the indeterminate.
The finite is neither, for it is determinate with-
out being a totality or complete.
Though they have a common thread of
meaning, and though each raises similar dif-
ficulties for the understanding, the conception
of infinity in being or power, and the concep-
tion of infinite for infinitesimal) quantity re-
quire separate consideration. The same ques-
tions may be asked of each, questions about the
existence of the infinite and about our knowl-
edge of it, but the same answers will not be giv-
en in each case. There are those who deny the
existence of an actually infinite body or an
actually infinite number, yet affirm the infinite
existence of God. There are those who declare
the infinity of matter to be intrinsically unin-
telligible, but maintain that God, Who is in-
finite, is intrinsically the most intelligible ob-
ject. They add, of course, that the infinite being
of God cannot be comprehended by our finite
intellects.
On each of these points, an opposite view
has been taken, but the dispute concerning the
infinity of God involves issues other than those
which occur in the controversy over the infinite
divisibility of matter or the infinity of space
and time. It seems advisable, therefore, to deal
separately with the problems of infinity as they
arise with respect to different objects or occur
in different subject matters.
THE CONCEPTION of God, in the words of
Anselm, as a being "than which a greater can-
not be conceived" — or, in the words of Kant,
as an ens realissimum, a most real being — ex-
presses the plenitude of the divine nature and
existence. The mediaeval thesis, defended by
Descartes, that God's essence and existence
are identical, implies that neither is contracted
or determined by the other. The still earlier
notion of Aristotle, repeated by Aquinas, that
God is pure actuality, carries with it the at-
tributes of completeness or perfection, which
are the positive aspects of immutability or in-
capacity for change. Spinoza's definition of sub-
stance as that which exists, not only in itself,
but through itself and by its very nature, en-
tails the autonomy or utter independence of
the divine being.
These are so many different ways of stating
that God is an infinite being. Both Aquinas
and Spinoza make infinity the basis for proving
that there can be only one God. When Spinoza
argues that "a plurality of substances possessing
the same nature is absurd," he has in mind the
identification of infinite substance with God.
"If many gods existed," Aquinas writes, "they
would necessarily differ from each other. Some-
thing would therefore belong to one, which did
not belong to another. And if this were a priva-
tion, one of them would not be absolutely per-
fect; but if it were a perfection, one of them
would be without it. So it is impossible for
many gods to exist" — that is, of course, if
infinity is a property of the divine nature.
Aquinas makes this condition clear when he
goes on to say that "the ancient philosophers,
constrained as it were by the truth, when they
asserted an infinite principle, asserted likewise
that there was only one such principle."
But while it is impossible for there to be two
infinities of being, it is not impossible for there
to be two, or more, infinite quantities. One
explanation of this difference seems to be the
actuality or existence of an infinite being, in
contrast to the conceptual character of the in-
finite objects of mathematics, which are some-
times called "potential infinites" because they
are conceived as in an endless process of be-
coming, or as approaching a limit that is never
reached.
When the physical existence of infinite quan-
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
819
titles is asserted, as, for example, a universe of
infinite extent or an infinite number of atoms,
the uniqueness of these actual totalities seems
to follow. Two infinite worlds cannot co-exist,
though the one world can be infinite in several
distinct respects—in space or duration, or in
the number of its constituents— even as the
infinity of God, according to Spinoza, involves
"infinite attributes, each one of which expresses
eternal and infinite essence/'
Spinoza's argument against two actual in-
finities seems to find confirmation in the posi-
tion taken by Aquinas that God's omnipotence
does not include the power to create an infinite
world. God's infinity, as we have already noted,
follows from the identity of God's essence and
existence. Since a created being has existence
added to its essence, Aquinas asserts that "it is
against the nature of a created thing to be ab-
solutely infinite. Therefore," he continues, "as
God, although He has infinite power, cannot
make a thing to be not made (for this would
imply that two contradictories are true at the
same time), so likewise He cannot make any-
thing to be absolutely infinite."
On this view, an infinite world cannot co-
exist with an infinite God, if, in their separate
existence, one is dependent on the other, as
creature upon creator. The infinity of the
world or of nature, in Spinoza's conception,
is not separate from the infinity of God, but
consists in the infinity of two of God's attri-
butes—extension and thought.
In our time there has arisen the conception
of a finite God— a God who, while the most
perfect being, yet is not without capacity for
growth or change, a God who is eternal without
being immutable. This conception, which in
the light of traditional theology appears to be
as self-contradictory as round square^ has arisen
in response to the difficulties certain critics
have found in the traditional doctrine of an
infinite being. They point to the difficulty of
understanding how finite beings can exist sep-
arate from, yet in addition to, an infinite being;
they also cite difficulties in the notions of in-
finite knowledge, infinite power, and infinite
goodness.
The infinity of the divine omniscience ex-
tends to the possible as well as to the actual.
But the possible includes things which are in-
compatible with one another, things which, in
the language of Leibnitz, are not compatible.
The mcompossiblc would thus seem to be cm-
braced in the infinite scope of divine thought
or knowledge. In the view of one theologian,
Nicolas of Cusa, the mystery of God's infinity
is best expressed by affirming that in God all
contradictions are somehow reconciled.
The infinity of God's power, or the divine
omnipotence, also raises questions about the
possible and the impossible. Is nothing im-
possible to God or must it be said that there are
certain things which not even God can do, such
as reverse the order of time or create a world
which shall be as infinite and perfect as himself?
In the assertion that God cannot do the im-
possible, Aquinas sees no limitation on God's
power. The impossible, he writes, does not
"come under the divine omnipotence, not be-
cause of any defect in the power of God, but
because it has not the nature of a feasible or
possible thing." For this reason, he claims, "it
is better to say that such things cannot be done,
than that God cannot do them." The inability
to do the undoable constitutes no violation of
infinite power, even as the lack of nothing does
not deprive infinite being of anything.
The infinite goodness of God is sometimes
set against the fact of evil, or the existence of
imperfections, in the created world. This aspect
of the problem of evil, like that which con-
cerns man's freedom to obey or disobey the
divine will, cannot be separated from the fun-
damental mystery of God's infinity — in power
and knowledge as well as in goodness. The prob-
lem is considered in the chapter on GOOD AND
EVIL. The point there mentioned, that evil is
essentially non-being or deprivation of being,
leads to one solution of the problem. It accepts
the finitude, and consequently the imperfec-
tion, of creatures as a necessary consequence of
God's infinity. The best of all possible worlds
cannot be infinitely good.
To MAN ALONE, among all admittedly finite
things, has infinity been attributed and even
made a distinctive mark of his nature. Does
this introduce a new meaning of infinity, nei-
ther quantitative nor divine ?
It has seldom if ever been questioned that
man is finite in being and power. The limits of
820
THE GREAT IDEAS
human capacity for knowledge or achievement
are a perennial theme in man's study of man.
Yet it is precisely with regard to capacity that
certain writers have intimated man's infinity.
Pascal, for example, finds the apparent con-
tradictions in human nature intelligible only
when man is understood as yearning for or im-
pelled toward the infinite. "We burn with de-
sire," he says, "to find solid ground and an ul-
timate sure foundation whereon to build a
tower reaching to the Infinite. But our whole
groundwork cracks and the earth opens to
abysses." In this fact lies both the grandeur
and the misery of man. He aspires to the in-
finite, yet he is a finite being dissatisfied with
his own finitude and frustrated by it.
It is sometimes said that the touch of infinity
in man— with the suggestion that it is a touch
of madness — consists in his wanting to be God.
Those who regard such desire as abnormal or
perverse interpret it as a misdirection of man's
natural desire to know God face to face and to
be filled with the love of God in the divine
presence. But, according to the theory of nat-
ural desire, the tendency of each nature is
somehow proportionate to its capacity. If man's
restless search for knowledge and happiness can
be quieted only by the possession of the infinite
truth and goodness which is God, then man's
intellect and will must somehow be as infinite in
nature as they are in tendency. Yet that is not
an unqualified infinity, for the same theologians
who teach that man naturally seeks God also
hold that man's finite intellect cannot compre-
hend the infinite being of God as God knows
Himself. Nor do they think that man's capacity
for knowing and loving God can be fulfilled
except in the beatific vision, which is a super-
natural gift rather than a natural achievement.
These and related matters are discussed in
the chapters on DESIRE and KNOWLEDGE. The
great books speak of other objects than God as
objects of man's infinite desire. The appetite
for money, for pleasure, or for power seems to
be an infinite craving which no finite quantity
of these goods ever satisfies. Two comments are
made upon this fact, which is so amply evi-
denced in the human record. One is that man's
infinite lust for worldly goods exprcsse%even as
it conceals his natural desire for a truly infinite
good. The other is that these worldly goods are
seductive objects precisely because they are
infinite.
Here the word "infinite" is used, not in the
sense which signifies perfection, but in the
quantitative sense which has the meaning of in-
determination. Plato's division, in the Philebus,
of goods into the finite and the infinite sep-
arates measured and definite goods from those
which need some limitation in quantity. Socra-
tes exemplifies the distinction by reference to
the fact that "into the hotter and the colder
there enters a more and a less" and since "there
is never any end of them . . . they must also be
infinite." In contrast, "when definite quantity
is once admitted, there can be no longer a
'hotter' or a 'colder.' " Such things, he says,
"which do not admit of more or less" belong
"in the class of the limited or finite."
Following the line of this example, Socrates
later distinguishes between infinite and finite
pleasures, or pleasures without limit and those
which have some intrinsic measure. "Pleasures
which are in excess," he says, "have no measure,
but those which are not in excess have measure;
the great, the excessive ... we shall be right in
referring to the class of the infinite, and of the
more and less," and "the others we shall refer
to the class which has measure." The fact that
the goodness of wealth or of certain pleasures is
indeterminate or indefinite makes it necessary
to determine or measure the amount of wealth
it is good to possess, or the quantity of such
pleasure it is good to enjoy.
As in the case of desire, so the human intel-
lect is also said to be infinite in the sense of
reaching to an indefinite quantity. On the the-
ory which he holds that the intellect knows by
means of universal concepts, Aquinas attributes
to the human mind "an infinite power; for it
apprehends the universal, which can extend
itself to an infinitude of singular things." Each
universal signifies what is common to an in-
definitely large class of particular instances.
There is still another sense in which the intel-
lect is said to be infinite, namely, by reason of
its having the potentiality to apprehend all
knowable things. But this is a relative infinity,
as is the corresponding infinity of prime matter,
which is conceived as the potentiality for taking
on all forms. In both cases, the infinite is quali-
fied by a restriction— on the kind of things
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
821
knowablc to the intellect and the type of forms
receivable in matter. The infinity of prime
matter— matter totally devoid of form— is also
comparable to the infinity of God in a con-
trast of extreme opposites: the absolute in-
determinacy of pure potentiality on the one
hand, the absolute perfection of pure actuality
on the other.
THE INFINITY OF matter involves different con-
siderations when the problem concerns, not
prime matter, but material things— bodies.
The question is twofold. Can there be a body of
infinite magnitude? Is there an infinite number
of bodies ? To both questions Aristotle gives the
negative answer, while Spinoza seems to answer
the first, and Lucretius the second, affirma-
tively.
Spinoza's affirmation may be qualified, of
course, by his conception of infinite body as an
attribute of God. But there is no qualification
on Lucretius' assertion that "the first-begin-
nings of things are infinite," unless it is his
statement that "the first-beginnings of things
have different shapes, but the number of shapes
is finite." It is only the number of atoms which
is infinite, not their variety.
Aristotle presents many arguments against
the existence of an infinite body or an infinite
number of things, all of which ultimately rest
on his distinction between an actual and a po-
tential infinite. It is not that infinity in magni-
tude or multitude is impossible— for he affirms
the infinity of time and he insists upon the in-
finite divisibility of matter— but rather that if
an infinite body existed its infinity would have
to be actual. Its actuality would necessarily
involve certain determinations, especially those
of dimension and place, which would be in-
consistent with the indeterminacy of the in-
finite. Similarly, a multitude of co-existing
things— unlike the moments of time which do
not co-exist— cannot be infinite, because their
co-existence implies that they can be actually
numbered, whereas their infinity implies that
they are numberless.
The potential infinite, Aristotle writes, "ex-
hibits itself in different ways— in time, in the
generations of man, and in the division of mag-
nitudes. For generally," he says, "the infinite
has this mode of existence: one thing is always
being taken after another, and each thing that
is taken is always finite, but always different*"
When this takes place in the division of spatial
magnitudes, "what is taken persists, while in
the succession of times and of men, it takes
place by the passing away of these in such a
way that the source of supply never gives out."
The opposition between Lucretius and Aris-
totle with regard to the divisibility of matter
is discussed in the chapter on ELEMENT. The
notions of infinity and continuity are different-
ly employed on the two sides of the argument.
Where Aristotle makes the continuity of matter
the condition of its infinite divisibility, Lu-
cretius makes the atom's continuity — its solidity
or lack of void— the cause of its indivisibility.
Where Aristotle asserts that at any moment
there can be only a finite number of particles
in the world because the partition of matter
cannot be infinitely carried out short of infinite
time, Lucretius, on the contrary, thinks that
the division of matter into smaller and smaller
parts finds an end in the atomic particles; and
yet he also asserts an infinite number of atoms.
To contain an infinite number of atoms, an
infinite space is required, according to Lucre-
tius. This presents no greater difficulty for him
than an infinite time. Aristotle, on the other
hand, differentiates between space and time
with respect to infinity. Time can be poten-
tially infinite by way of addition because "each
part that is taken passes in succession out of
existence." But though space may be infinitely
divisible, it cannot be infinitely extended, for
all its parts, unlike those of time, must co-exist.
It would therefore have to be an actually,
rather than a potentially^ infinite quantity, and
this Aristotle thinks is impossible.
These and other conflicting views concerning
the infinity of space and time appear in Kant's
statement of the first cosmological antinomy.
His intention is not to resolve the issues, but
to show that they cannot be resolved by proof
or argument. To do this, Kant sets up what
seems to him to be equally strong — or equally
inconclusive— arguments for and against the
infinity of space and time.
Suppose it be granted, Kant argues on the
one hand, that "the world has no beginning in
time." Then it would follow that "up to every
given moment in time, an eternity must have
822
THE CJREAT IDEAS
elapsed, and therewith passed away an infinite
series of successive conditions or states of things
in the world." But since "the infinity of a series
consists in the fact that it can never be com-
pleted by means of a successive synthesis," it
also "follows that an infinite series already
elapsed is impossible, and that consequently a
beginning of the world is a necessary condition
of its existence."
On the other hand, Kant argues with what
he thinks is equal force, "let it be granted that
[the world] has a beginning. A beginning," he
explains, "is an existence which is preceded by
a time in which the thing does not exist." Then,
Kant continues, "on the above supposition, it
follows that there must have been a time in
which the world did not exist, that is, a void
time. But in a void time, the origination of a
thing is impossible; because no part of any such
time contains a distinctive condition of being
in preference to that of non-being. . . . Con-
sequently, many series of things may have a
beginning in the world, but the world itself
cannot have a beginning, and is, therefore, in
relation to past time, infinite."
With regard to the infinity or finitude of
space, Kant proceeds similarly. If we suppose
space to be infinite, then "the world must be an
infinite given total of co-existent things." But
in order to "cogitate the world, which fills ail
spaces, as a whole, the successive synthesis of
the parts of an infinite world must be looked
upon as completed; that is to say, an infinite
time must be regarded as having elapsed in the
enumeration of all co-existing things." This,
Kant argues, "is impossible," and therefore
"an infinite aggregate of actual things cannot
be considered as a given whole." Hence it fol-
lows that "the world is, as regards extension in
space, not infinite, but enclosed in limits."
If, however, we suppose "that the world is
finite and limited in space, it follows," according
to Kant, "that it must exist in a void space,
which is not limited. We should, therefore,
meet not only with a relation of things in space,
but also a relation of things to space" But the
"relation of the world to a void space is merely
a relation to no object" and "such a relation,
and consequently the limitation of the world by
void space, is nothing." It follows* therefore,
Kant concludes, that "the world, as regards
space, is not limited; that is, it is infinite in re
gard to extension."
The way in which these opposite arguments
nullify each other reveafc more than our in-
ability to prove or disprove the infinity of space
and time. It shows, in Kant's theory of human
knowledge, that we are "not entitled to make
any assertion at all respecting the whole ob-
ject of experience —the world of sense."
ONE OTHER PROBLEM of infinity in the sphere of
physics receives its initial formulation in one of
the great books — in the part of the Dialogues
Concerning the Two New Sciences where Galileo
discusses the uniform acceleration of a freely
falling body. The body which is said to ac-
cumulate equal increments of velocity in equal
intervals of time is also said to start "from in-
finite slowness, i.e., from rest." One of the per-
sons in the dialogue challenges this, saying that
"as the instant of starting is more and more
nearly approached, the body moves so slowly
that, if it kept on moving at this rate, it would
not traverse a mile in an hour, or in a day, or in
a year, or in a thousand years; indeed, it would
not traverse a span in an even greater time; a
phenomenon which baffles the imagination,
while our senses show us that a heavy falling
body suddenly acquires great speed."
What our senses seem to show us is corrected
by an experiment which refines the observa-
tion. But this still leaves a purely analytical
question. Against the statement that the "ve-
locity can be increased or diminished without
limit," Simphcio points out in the dialogue
that "if the number of degrees of greater and
greater slowness is limitless, they will never be
all exhausted," and therefore the body will
never come to rest when it is slowing down or
be able to start to move when it is at rest.
"This would happen," Salviati answers, "if
the moving body were to maintain its speed for
any length of time at each degree of velocity,
but it merely passes each point without delay-
ing more than an instant, and since each time
interval, however small, may be divided into
an infinite number of instants, these will always
be sufficient to correspond to the infinite de-
grees of diminished velocity."
The problem of the infinitesimal velocity
provides another illustration of the difference
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
823
between infinity in the physical and the mathe-
matical orders. Unlike parallel lines in Euclid-
ean geometry, which are lines that remain
equidistant from one another when both are
prolonged to infinity, an asymptote is a straight
line which a curved line continuously approach-
es but never meets, even when both are in-
finitely extended. The distance between the
curve and its asymptote diminishes to smaller
and smaller intervals, but no matter how small
they become, the two lines never coincide.
The diminishing intervals between the curve
and its asymptote are like the diminishing de-
grees of velocity in a body starting from or
coming to rest. But we know that the body
does begin or cease to move, and so there is the
mysterious jumping of the gap between rest
and motion in the physical order, whereas in
the mathematical order the limiting point can
be forever approached and never reached.
THERE is ONE other context in which infinity
is discussed in the great books.
The logicians treat certain terms and judg-
ments as infinite. Aristotle, for example, re-
gards the negative term — such as not-man or
not-white — as indefinite. The mdefiniteness of
its signification may be seen when such terms
are used as subjects of discourse. What is being
talked about? The answer must be given, in
part at least, in positive terms: not-man repre-
sents the whole universe leaving man out, or the
totality of everything except man. Thus, in its
positive signification, the negative term has a
kind of infinity— the infinite 'totality of sub-
jects diminished by one, the one that is negated.
In his classification of judgments, Kant
makes a threefold division of judgments ac-
cording to quality: the affirmative, the nega-
tive, and the infinite. The infinite judgment
involves a negative in its construction, but
when that negative is given an affirmative in-
terpretation, the infinite significance of the
proposition becomes apparent. An example
will make this clear.
The proposition this animal is-not white is
negative; it simply denies a certain quality of
a certain thing. But the proposition this animal
is not- white is infinite, for it affirms the negated
term, and so places the subject in the infinite
class or totality which includes everything
except white things. (The position of the hy-
phen serves to indicate whether the statement
shall be construed negatively or affirmatively
and infinitely.)
The problems of definition and demonstra-
tion are differently solved by logicians accord-
ing to the way in which they propose to avoid
infinite regressions in analysis or reasoning.
There would be no end to the process of de-
fining if every term had to be defined before it
could be used in the definition of another
term. There would be no beginning to the
process of proof if, before a proposition could
be used as a premise to demonstrate some con-
clusion, it had itself to be demonstrated as a
conclusion from prior premises.
In his essay On Geometrical Demonstration,
Pascal refers to the proposal of a plan for defining
and proving everything. "Certainly this meth-
od would be beautiful," he says, "but it is ab-
solutely impossible; for it is evident that the
first terms we wished to define would presup-
pose others for their explication, and that sim-
ilarly the first propositions we wished to prove
would suppose others that preceded them, and
it is thus clear we should never arrive at the
first propositions."
The chapter on DEFINITION considers the
character and choice of the indefinable terms by
which an infinite regression is avoided in the
elucidation of meanings. The chapters on IN-
DUCTION and PRINCIPLE consider the various
sorts of primary propositions—axioms, postu-
lates, assumptions— by which a similar regression
is avoided in the process of proof. The chapter
on CAUSE deals with the problem of an infinite
regression in causes and effects. Here it is ap-
propriate to consider the difference between an
infinite series of reasons and an infinite series of
causes.
To the extent that both are truly series— the
succession of one thing after another — neither
seems to be impossible, given infinite time. Those
who deny the possibility of an infinite number
of causes distinguish between essential and
accidental causes, that is, between causes which
must co-exist with their effects and causes which
can precede their effects, and cease to be before
their effects occur. If there were an infinite
time, there could be an infinite series of acci-
dental causes. But it may be questioned whether,
824 THE GREAT IDEAS
even granted an infinite time, the relation be- conclusion cannot be known until the truth of
twecn the premises and conclusion of reasoning its premises is known, then the pursuit of truth
permits an infinite regression. If the truth of a may be vitiated by a search ad infinitum.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The general theory of infinity 825
i a. The definite and indefinite: the measured and the indeterminate
ib. The infinite in being and quantity: the actual and potential infinite; the formal
and the material infinite 826
2. Infinity in the logical order
2a. The infinity of negative and indefinite terms
2b. The distinction between negative and infinite judgments
2C. Infinite regression in analysis and reasoning
3. The infinite in quantity 827
30. Number: the infinite of division and addition
3^. The infinite divisibility of continuous quantities: the infinitesimal; the method
of exhaustion and the theory of limits
3^. The infinity of asymptotes and parallels
3^. The infinite extent of space 828
3^. The infinite duration of time and motion
4. The infinity of matter
40. The infinite quantity or extent of matter: the problem of an actually infinite
body
4^. The infinite divisibility of matter: the issue concerning atoms 829
4*-. The infinite potentiality of matter: the conception of prime or formless matter
5. Infinity in the world
50. The infinite number of things and the infinite number of kinds
5^. The number of causes
6. The finite and the infinite in the nature of man 830
6a. The infinity of desire and will: the limits of human capacity
6b. The infinity of the intellect: man's knowledge of the infinite
7. The infinity of God 831
ja. The infinite being or essence of God
7& The infinite power of God 832
7^. God's infinite goodness and love
7</. God's infinite knowledge
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
825
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psyc hology, 116a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO- Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT- Nehemiah, 7-45— •(!>) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The general theory of infinity
8 ARisTorLE: Physics, BK in, CH 4-8 280c-286d
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK i [951-1113]
12d-14d
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 2 311b-c;
CH 17-18, 319d-320d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7 31a-
34c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 92, A i, REP 6,12 1025c-1032b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 139c-
153a passim, esp 144b-145a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-
llla
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 86b / Objections
and Replies, 112a-c; 123c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 2 355a; DEF 6
355b; DEF 8 355c; PROP 7-8 356c-357d
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 72 181a-184b; 231-233,
2l3b-2l4a / Geometrical Demonstration, 434\>-
439b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, LEMMA I-H and
SCHOL 25a-32a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvi,
SECT 8-CH XVH, SECT 22 167c-174a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 123-132
437c-439c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
124-125 506a-507a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 24d; 26d; 130b-149d esp
130b-133c, 136a-137a [thesis]; 156b-157d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 17
119a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693c-
694d
tf- The definite and indefinite: the measured
and the "^terminate
7 PLATO: Parmenides, 505c-506d; 510c-511a /
Philebus 609a-639a,c esp 615c-617d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32b4~
23] 48b-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5 [986*
i2-b2] 504b-c; CH 6 [98 7b 19-988*1 6] 505d-
506b; CH 8 [989a3o-b2i] 507c-d; BK vt CH 30
547a-d; BK vn, CH 10 [1036*2-9] 559b-c;
BK ix, CH 7 [io49fti9-bi] 574d-575a; BK xm,
CH 10 [1087*10-25] 619c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 6 [1106^8-35]
352b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811d-812a;
826d-827a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1078a-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR vin, CH 3 28a-c /
Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 13-16 55b-57c /
Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 18, 320c-d
826
THE GREAT IDEAS
\b to Ic
( 1 . The general theory of infinity, 1 a, The definite
and indefinite; the measured and the in-
determinate)
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 20 32d-33a
/ City of God, BK xii, CH 18 354b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 48,
A i, REP 4 259b-260c; PART MI, Q i, A 4 612a-
613a; Q 7, A 2, REP 2 652d-653c
31 DESCARTES. Objections and Replies, 112a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 158a-159d; 196c-197a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 6
117a-b
ib. The infinite in being and quantity: the
actual and potential infinite; the formal
and the material infinite
7 PLATO: Parmemdes, 495c-497c / Sophist, 571d-
573b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i85*28-b4]
260a-b; [i85bi7~i9] 260c; BK HI, CH 4-8 280c-
286d / Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 3
[318*13-24] 414c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 5
[987*13-19] 505b; BK ix, CH 6 [io48b9-i7J
574a; BK xi, CH 10 [io66*35-b22] 594d-595b;
BK xn, CH 7 [1073*3-13] 603a-b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 17, 319d-
320a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 20-21
49d-50a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7
31a-34c; Q 12, A i, REP 2 50c-51c; Q 14, A i,
ANS 75d-76c; Q 50, A 2, REP 4 270a-272a; Q 54,
A 2, ANS 285d-286c; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP
2 612a-613a; Q 2, A 6, ANS 619d-620d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 7,
A 12, REP i 754c-755c; Q 10, A 3, REP 1-2
769d-771b; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, REP 12
1025c-1032b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
145b-146c; 150d<151c
31 DESCARTES. Meditations, in, 86a-88d / Ob-
jections and Replies, 112b; DBF vm 130d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 3,6 355b; PROP 8,
DEMONST and SCHOL i 356d; PROP 9 357d;
PROP 10, SCHOL 358a-b; PROP 13-14 359c-
360a; PROP 15, SCHOL-PROP 16 360b-362a;
PROP 21-23 364a-365a; PROP 28, DEMONST
365d-366a
33 PASCAL: Pcnstes, 121 195a / Geometrical
Demonstration, 434b-439b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 4-6 149b-d; CH xiv, SECT 26-27 160c-
161a; SECT 30 161c-d; CH xv, SECT 2-4 162c-
163b; CH xvi, SECT 8 167c; CH xvn 167d-174a
passim, esp SECT 7 169b-c; CH xxix, SECT 16
237b-238a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 123-132
437c-439c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
124, 506b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 124d-125b; 130b-133c;
135a-137a,c; 160b-163a / Judgement, 498b-
501b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 22
17c-d; PART i, par 104— PART n, par 105 39b-
40a; ADDITIONS, 17 119a / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 156d-160b; 165a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 668a-669a
2. Infinity in the logical order
2a. The infinity of negative and indefinite terms
7 PLATO: Sophist, 571d-573c / Philebus, 615c-
616c
8 ARISTOTLE. Interpretation, CH 2 [16*30-33] 25c;
CH 3 [i6bn-i6] 25d; CH 10 [i9b5-n] 29d /
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 46 70b-71d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 158a-159d
2b. The distinction between negative and in-
finite judgments
SARISTOILF: Categories, CH 10 [i2b6-i5] 17d-
18a / Interpretation, CH 5 [17*8-9] 26b; CH 6
26c-d; CH 10 29d-31c / Prior Analytics, BK i,
CH 3 [25bi9-26] 40c; CH 46 70b-71d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH vn,
SECT i 283a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 40a-c; 210c-d
46 HEGLL- Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 53
25c-d
2c. Infinite regression in analysis and reason-
ing
7 PLATO: Parmenides, 489a-d/ Theaetetus, 542a-
544a esp 543d-544a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 3
99b-100a; CH 19-23 lllc-116a/ Physics, BK i,
CH 4 [187^-14] 262d; CH 6 [i89ftn-i9] 264c /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 3 [1005^5-34] 524d-
525a; CH 4 [1006*5-12] 525a-b; CH 6 [1011*3-
14] 530d, BK xi, CH 6 [1063^-12] 591d /
Soul, BK i, CH 3 [407*22-30] 636d-637a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [1094*18-22]
339b; BK in, CH 3 [ni2b3 3-1 113*3] 358d-
359a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 17, 122d-
123a; BK n, CH 20, 164c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 36, A
3, REP 4 194c-195d; PART MI, Q i, A 4, REP 2
612a-613a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II,Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 292c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-
llla
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, llla-d;
213c-d; 224b,d
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 431 b-
434a / Arithmetical Triangle, 451b-452a; 458b-
459b; 464a-466a
Stole
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
827
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT23 183b-d; SECT 25 184a-b; BK HI, CH iv,
SECT 5 260c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, llld-112d; 115d-119a;
135a-173a esp 158a-159d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 321b [fn i]; 525a-526b
3. The infinite in quantity
3*. Number: the infinite of division and addi-
tion
7 PLATO Parmemdes, 495d-497b
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK HI, CH 4 [2O3b22-24J
281c; [204ft7-8] 282a; CH 5 [2o4b6-9] 282c;
CH 6 [206*15] 284b, [2o6b ^-207*14] 284d-285c;
CH 7 [207B32-bi4) 285d-286a / Metaphysics,
BK xi, CH 10 [io66b23~26] 595b
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK ix, PROP 20 183b-
184a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner 520a-526b pas-
sim
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812a; BK 11,
829b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 2 311b-c;
CH 17, 319d-320a
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK xn, CH 18
354b-d
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 3,
REP 3 32c-33c; A 4 33d-34c; PART I-H, Q i, A 4,
REP 2 612a-613a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 7,
A 12, RFP i 754c-755c; Q 10, A 3, REP 2 769d-
771b
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
144b-145a
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 112b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 121 195a; 233, 213b-214a /
Geometrical Demonstration, 434b-439b
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 30 161c-d; CH xvi, SECT 8 167c; CH xvn
167d-174a passim, csp SECT 9 170a-b; CH
xxix, SECT 16, 237b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 127
438c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 136a~b / Judgement,
498b-d; 499d-500a
*>b. The infinite divisibility of continuous
quantities: the infinitesimal; the method
of exhaustion and the theory of limits
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK HI, CH i [20obi5-i9J
278a; CH 4 [203bi5-i8] 281c; CH 6 [2o6a8-b33]
284b-285b; CH 7 285d-286c passim; BK v,
CH 3 [227*2 1-34] 308a-b; BK vi, CH i-2312b,d-
315d; CH 10 [24ob8-24ia26] 324c-325b /
Heavens, BK i, CH i [268*6-11] 359a; CH 5
[27ib8-i2] 362d / Generation and Corruption,
BK i, CH 2 [317*3-13] 412d-413a / Metaphysics,
BK in, CH 4 [iooib7-i9] 520b-c; BK vf CH 13
[1020*9-14] 541b; [1020*26-33] 541c
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK v, DEFINITIONS, 4 81a;
BK x, PROP i 191b-192a; BK xii, PROP 2
339a-340b; PROP 5 345b-346b; PROP 10-12
351b-359a; PROP 18 367a-368b
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK i,
ASSUMPTIONS, 5 404b; PROP 13-14 411a-414a;
PROP 33-34 424b-427a; PROP 42 431b-432b;
PROP 44 433a-b / Measurement of a Circle
447a-451b passim / Conoids and Spheroids,
PROP 4 459a-460b; PROP 21-22 470a-471b;
PROP 25-30 473a-479b / Spirals, 484b; PROP
18-20 492b-495b, PROP 24-27 496b-500a /
Equilibrium of Planes, BK i, PROP 6-7 503 b-
504b; PROP 9 505a-b; PROP 13 507a-508b;
BK n, PROP 4 512b 513a / Quadrature of the
Parabola 527a-537b csp 527a-b, PROP 16
533b-534a, PROP 24 537a-b / Method 569a-
592a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 811d-812a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK v, 973a-975a; 979b-
983b passim
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7,
A 3, REP 3 32c-33c; Q 53, A i, ANS and REP i
280d-282a; A 2, ANS and REP i 282a*283b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 84, A 3, CONTRARY 985 d -989 b
28 GALII EO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
139c-153a passim; SECOND DAY, 193b-194d;
THIRD DAY, 201a-202a; 205b-d; 224b-c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 112b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 15, SCHOL,
361b-c
33 PASCAL: Equilibrium of Liquids, 395a-b /
Geometrical Demonstration, 434b-439b
34 NEWTON, Principles, BK i, LEMMA i-n and
SCHOL 25a-32a csp LEMMA i 25a, LEMMA n,
SCHOL 30b-32a; PROP 73, SCHOL 133b-134a;
BK n, LEMMA 2 and SCHOL 168a-170a / Optics,
BK in, 542b-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 9 164b-d; CH xvi, SECT 4 166a-b; CH
xvn, SECT 12 170d; SECT 18 172c-d; CH xxix,
SECT 16 237b-238a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 98 432a;
SECT 123-132 437c-439c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
124 506a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 70c-d; 161d-163a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat 169a-251b passim,
esp 172b, 177a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 469a-d;
EPILOGUE n, 695b-c
3c. The infinity of asymptotes and parallels
11 EUCLID: Elements, BK i, DEFINITIONS, 23 2a;
POSTULATES, 5 2a
11 APOLLONIUS: Conies, BK H, PROP 14-15 691 b-
692b; PROP 17 693b-694a
31 DESCARTES: Geometry, BK n, 306b-307a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK i, LEMMA 18, SCHOL
57a-b; LEMMA 22, 65b; PROP 27, SCHOL,
69b-70a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
120d-121c
828
(3. The infinit* in quantity.)
3</. The infinite extent of space
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK in, CH 5 [205*10-
206*8] 283b-284b; BK iv, CH 5 [2i2bn-2i]
292a / Heavens, BK i, CH 5-7 362c-367b /
Metaphysics, BK xi, CH 10 [io66b22-io67*38]
595b-596a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [951*-!! 13]
12d-14d csp [951-1007] 12d*13b; BK n [89-94]
16a-b; [294-307] 18d-19a; [1048-1066] 28b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 5 324d-
325c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23,
A 7, ANS 138d-140a; Q 46, A i, REP 8 250a-
252d; Q 66, A 4, REP 5 348d-349d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; PART n,
162b-c; PART iv, 271b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 HOd-
llla
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 112b
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 121 195a; 205-206 211a /
Geometrical Demonstration, 434b-439b passim
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 8b-
lla / Optics, BK in, 542b-543a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xin,
SECT 4 149b; SECT 21 152d-153b; CH xiv,
SECT 26 160c-d; CH xv 162b-165c passim;
CH xvi, SECT 8 167c; CH xvn 167d-174a
passim, csp SECT 3-4 168b-d, SECT n 170c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 117 436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 24c-d; 28d-29c; 135a-
137a,c; 152a-d; 160b-163a /Judgement, 501a-b
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693c-
694a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 631 a
)0. The infinite duration of time and motion
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Ttmaeus, 450c-
451a; 460c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH n [io4bi3~i8]
148a-b / Physics, BK in, CH 7 [207b2i-27] 286b;
CH 8 [208*20-23] 286d; BK iv, CH 13 [222*29-
32] 302b; BK vi, CH 2 [233*i3~bi6] 315a-c; CH
10 [24ia26-b2o] 325b-d; BK vm, CH 1-2 334a-
337b; CH 6 344b-346b passim; CH 8-9 348b-
353b / Heavens, BK i, CH 2 [269b2-io] 360c-d;
CH3 [27obi-24] 361c-362a; BK i, CH 9 [279*1 2]-
BK n, CH i [284b6] 370b-376a passim; BK n,
CH 6 379c-380c / Generation and Corruption,
BK n, CH lo-n 437d-441a,c / Meteorology,
BK i, CH 14 [353*15-19] 459c / Metaphysics,
BK ix, CH 8 [1050*20-28] 576c-d; BK xi, CH
10 [1067*33-38] 596a; BK xn, CH 6 [1071^3]-
CH 7 [io72bi4] 601b-602d; CH 7 [1073*5-11]
603b; CH 8 [1073*24-34] 603c
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 6 [700*29-
701*7] 236a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i {215-264]
3d-4b; [483-634] 7a-8d; [988-1051! 13b-14a;
BK u [80-141] 16a-d; [294-307] 18d-19a;
[560-580] 22b; [1048-1066] 28b-c; [1105-1147]
THE GREAT IDEAS
3d tola
29a-c; BK v [170-194] 63b-c; [376-379] 66a;
[416-431] 66c-d; [1204-1217] 76d-77a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 13 271b;
SECT 23 272b; BK vi, SECT 15 275a-b; BK ix,
SECT 28 293d-294a; BK x, SECT 7 297b-c;
SECT 27 299d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK xin, 429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b-891a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR i, CH 1-5 35a-
37c / Third Ennead, TR vn 119b-129a passim
/ Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 8 161d-162d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 21 49d-
50a; BK xi, par 12-17 92b-93c; par 40 98d-
99a/ City of God, BK xi, CH 4-6 324a-325d;
BK xii, CH 12-20 349b-357a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 10,
A 2, REP 2 41d-42c; A 4, ANS 43b-44b; A 5,
ANS 44b-45c; Q 14, A 12, ANS 85d-86d; Q 46
250a-255d; Q 61, A 2 315c-316a; Q 66, A 4
348d-349d; Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-379c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 77, A 2, ANS and REP i 945a-946b; Q 91, A 2
1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [73-81]
107a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 293d-294a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 llOd-
llla; BK n, APH 35, 163a-b; APH 48, 186b-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xin, 27b-c
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 121 195a; 205-206 21 la; 231-
232 213b / Geometrical Demonstration, 434b-
439b passim
34 NEWTON: Principles, DBF in 5b; DEFINITIONS,
SCHOL, 8b; LAW i 14a / Optics, BK in, 540a-
541 b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xiv,
SECT 26-31 160c-162a; CH xv, SECT 3-5 162d-
163c; SECT 11-12 165a-c; CH xvi, SECT 8
167c; CH xvn 167d-174a passim, csp SECT 5
168d-169a, SECT 10 170b-c, SECT 16 172a-
b; CH xxix, SECT 15 237a; SECT 16, 237d-
238a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 292a-293b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 26d; 27b-c; 130b-133c;
135a-137a,c; 152c; 160b-161d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693c-
694a
53 JAMES : Psychology, 882a
4. The infinity of matter
4a. The infinite quantity or extent of mat*
ter: the problem of an actually infinite
body
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 4 [i87bi4~22]
262d; BK nt, CH 4 [203^5-29] 281c~d; CH 5
[204*35-206^8] 282 b- 284 b / Heavens, BK i,
CH 5-7 362c-367b / Metaphysics, BK xii, CH 7
[1073*3-13] 603«-b
4£ to 5b
CHAPTER 40: INFINITY
829
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1008-1051]
13c-14a; [1094-1113] 14c-d; BK n [478-568]
21a-22b; [1048-1089] 28b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7, 52b-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A 3
32c-33c; Q 47, A 3, REP 2 258c-259a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 13 359c-d;
PROP 14, COROL 2 360a; PROP 15, SCHOL 360b-
361d; PART n, PROP 2 374a
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 21-22 152d-153c; CH xxm, SECT 27
211a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 47 421c-
422a
4b. The infinite divisibility of matter: the issue
concerning atoms
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK in, CH 6-7 284b-
286c; BK vi, CH 4 316d-318a / Heavens, BK HI,
CH 6 [304b23~305*9] 396a-b; BK iv, CH 6
[31 3b6-22] 405a,c / Generation and Corruption,
BK i, CH 2 hi5b25-3i7*i7] 411b-413a; CH 8
423b-425d; CH 9 [327*1-23] 426a-c; CH 10
(327b34-328ai8] 427b-c / Metaphysics, BK vn,
CH 13 [1039*2-11] 562d; BK x, CH i [1053*21-
24] 579d / Sense and the Sensible, CH 6 [445b4~
446*20] 683b-684c; CH 7 [449*21-30] 688d-
689a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [483-634]
7a-8d
16 COPERNICUS- Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK i, 517a-b
17 PLOIINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 7 52a-c
/ Fourth Ennead, TR n, CH i, 139d
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
i, ANS 14b-15b; Q 7, \ 3, REP 3 32c-33c; A 4,
ANS and REP i 33d-34c; Q 50, A 2, ANS 270a-
272a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
147d-148b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 8 140b
31 DESCARTES' Objections and Replies, 112b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK m, RULE HI 270b-
271a / Optics, BK in, 541b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH xvn,
SECT 12 170d; CH xxm, SFCT 31 212b-c; CH
xxix, SECT 16, 237b-d, BK iv, CH x, SECT 10,
351d-352a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 47 421c-
422a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, lOOc-d; 131c; 137a-140c;
152a-d, 161d-163a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103d
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 850b,d-
855a,c
4c. The infinite potentiality of matter: the con-
ception of prime or formless matter
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 455c-458b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK i, CH 7 [191*7-12]
266d; CH 9 [192*25-33] 268c / Generation
and Corruption, BK n, CH i
24] 428b,d-429a; CH 5 [332*19-26] 432c-d
/ Soul, BK in, CH 5 [430*10- 7] 662c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 1-3
50a-d; CH 6 51d-52a / Third Ennead, TR vi,
CH 7-19 110d-119a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XH, par 3-6 99d-
lOOc; par 9, lOlc; par 14-16 102b-103a; par 22
104a-b; par 24-26 104c-105b; par 28-31 105c-
107a; par 40 109b-110a; BK xni, par 48 124a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, A i,
ANS and REP 2 31a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 3
31d-32c, A 3, REP 4 32c-33c, A 4, ANS 33d-34c,
Q 66, AA 1-2 343d-347b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 494a-b
5. Infinity in the world
5a. The infinite number of things and the in-
finite number of kinds
7 PLATO: Sophist, 573a-b
8 ARISTOTLE Sophistical Refutations, CHI [165*5-
13] 227b-c / Physics, BK i, CH 2 [i84bi5-24]
259b-c; CH 4 [187*25-188*18] 262b-263c; CH 6
[189*11-20] 264c, BK in, CH 4 [203^5-29]
281c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [984*11-17]
502b; BK in, en 4 [999*24-29] 518a
9 ARISIOTLE Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i
[7i5b2-i7] 255c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2
12 LUCRETIUS' Nature of Things, BK i [1008-
1051] 13c-14a; BK 11 [478-568] 21a-22b; [1048-
1089] 28b-d
17 PLOTINUS Sixth Ennead, TR i, CH i 252a-c
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, P\RT i, Q 7, A 4
33d-34c; Q 23, A 7 138d-140a; Q 46, A 2, REP 8
253a-255a; Q 50, A 3 272a-273b
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PARI i, PROP 16 362a; PROP
21-23 364a-365a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 121 195a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 193a-200c esp 197b-198a
53 JAMES Psychology, 873a-b
5b. The number of causes
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH i 326a-327b /
Generation and Corruption, BK n, CH 1 1 [3 37b26-
29] 440a / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2 512b-
513b; BK vn, CH 6 [iO3ib28-io32*4] 554d;
CH 8 [io33b2~5] 556c / Soul, BK in, CH 2 [425**
11-17] 657d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A 3,
ANS 12c-14a, Q 75, A i, REP i 378b-379c;
PART i-ii, Q i, A 4, ANS and RLP 2-3 612a-613a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 43a-d /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 48 llOd-llla
31 DESCARTES Meditations, HI, 87c-88a / Objec-
tions and Replies, llla-d; 213c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX, 370c-371b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 130b-133c; 140b,d-143a;
152a-153a, 164a-171a / Judgement, 556b-c;
577c-578a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 693c-
694a
130
THE GREAT IDEAS
6to6b
>. The finite and the infinite in the nature of
man
u*. The infinity of desire and will: the limits
of human capacity
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 42; 63— (D) Psalms,
41; 62 / Proverbs, 27:20 / Ecclesiastes, 4:7-8;
5:10-12; 6:7— (D) Ecclesiastes, 4:7-8; 5.9-11;
6:7 / Isaiah, 14:12-14— (D) Isaias, 14:12-14 /
Habatyul^ 2:5— (D) Habacuc, 2:5
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 10:9; 11:10; 14:9;
23:16-17; 31:1-11— (D) OT, Ecclesiaticus,
10:10; ino; 149; 23:21-24; 31-1-11 / Bar-
uch, 3.16-19— (D) OT, Baruch, 3 -16-19
NEW TESTAMENT :/oAfl, 4:13-14 / / Timothy, 6:10
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [499-525]
382b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: P/w/w* [143-197) 630d-631b
7 PLATO: Gorgtas, 275d-277b / Republic,
BK VIH, 41 2a / Philebus 609a-639a,c / Laws,
BK vin, 733 b-d; BK ix, 751 b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2 [994b9~
16] 512d-513a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 [1094*18-22]
339b;sK in, CH 12 [ni9b6-i2]366c/Po////r^,
BK i, CH 8 [i2«56b26]-cH 9 [1258^8] 450c-
452b; BK n, CH 7 [i267*42-b5J 463b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-93]
30d-31b; [931-977] 42a-c; [1003-1010] 43a;
[1076-1084] 44a; BK iv [1097-1120] 58c-d;
BK v [1405-1435] 79b-d; BK vi [1-34] 80a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 9 184c-
185d; BK iv, CH 4-5 225a-230b; CH 9 237d-
238d
14 PLUTARCH: Pyrrhus, 319b-321a / Caius Ma<
rius, 353d-354a,c / Pompey, 525a-b; 533a-c /
Caesar, 599b-c / Cicero, 706b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 1-6 la-2c;
par 19 5d; BK n, par 2-4 9b-d; BK iv, par
15-19 23a-24b; BK vi, par 26 42d-43a; BK xi,
par 1-4 89b-90b; BK xn, par 10 lOlc
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 63,
A 3 327b-328b; PART i-n, Q i, A 4 612a-613a;
Q 2, A i, REP 3 615d-616c; Q 30, A 4 751c-
752b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q
27, A 6 524c-525c; Q 28, A 3 528d-529c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
58-66 8b-9b / Wife of Bath's Prologue [5953-
5960] 262a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 123d; 149b-d; 224d-
225a; 350d-354b; 429a-b; 489 b-c; 503b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc i
[10-34] 574c-d; ACT in, sc n 583c-586c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT i, sc
in [109-124] 109b; ACT in, sc n [65-107] 120d-
121b / Macbeth, ACTI, sc v 288a-d; sc vn
289b-290b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv 89a-93a passim,
esp 90b-91b
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 109 193b-194a; 125-183
195b-204b; 425 2 43 b- 244 b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 45 189b-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 236b-238a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 71b-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256c-257c / Practical Reason, 298d-300a /
Judgement, 584d-585c; 586d-587a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 5-10
13a-15a; par 13-14 15c-16a; par 22-27 17c-18d;
PART i, par 35 21a-b; PART n, par 105 40a;
ADDITIONS, 6 117a-b; n 118a; 17 119a; 22
120c-d; 26 121a-b; 118 136a-b
47 GOFTHE- Faust esp PART i [3217-3250] 79a-b,
PART n [11,239-258] 273b-274a
50 MARX- Capital, 62a-b; 71d-72c; 292c-295a
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 671d-
672a; FPILOGUE n, 692c-694d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 800d-
801a
6b. The infinity of the intellect: man's knowl-
edge of the infinite
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:12-33 /Job, 11:7-
9; 26:14; 28; 36:26; 38-41 / Proverbs, 20.24;
25-37 Ecclesiastes, 3 u, 8 17; n 5
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:13-16— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 9*13-16 / Ecclesiasti-
cus, i 2; 18.4-7— (&) OT, Ecclesiasticus, i 2;
18-2-6
NEW TESTAMENT -John, 1-18 / Romans, 11:33-34
/ / Corinthians, 2:16 // Timothy, 6:15-16
7 PLATO: Philebus, 610d-613a
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK i, CH 4 [i87b7~i4]
262d; CH 6 [189*11-19] 264c; BK in, CH 6
[207*21-31] 285c-d/ Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2
[994bi7-3o] 513a-b; BK in, CH 4 [999*24-29]
518a, BK xii, CH 7 [io72bi4~29l 602d-603a;
BK XIII, CH 10 [1087*10-25] 619C / Soul, BK I,
CH 3 [407*22-30] 636d-637a; BK ui, CH 4
[429*19-28] 661c; CH 5 [430*10-17] 662c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i356b28-35J
596b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1080a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 3,
312a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 20 32d-
33a; BK vn, par 20-21 49d-50a; BK xn, par
3-6 99d-100c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i
3b-4a; Q 7, A 2, REP 2 31d-32c; QQ 12-13 50b-
75b; Q 14, A i, ANS 7Sd-76c; A 12 8Sd-86d;
Q 28, A 4, REP 2 160c-161d; Q 32, A i 175d-
178a; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 79, A 2,
ANS 414d-416a; Q 86, A 2 462a-463a; Q 87, A 3,
REP 2 467b-468a; Q 88, A i, ANS 469a-471c;
A 3 472c-473a; Q 91, A 3, REP 2 486b-487d;
Q 94, A i, ANS 501d-503a; PART i-n, Q 2, A 6,
7 tola
CHAWER 40: INFINITY
831
ANS 619d-620d; Q 30, A 4, ANS and REP *
751c-752b
20 AQUINAS : Suntma Theologies PART i-n, Q 68,
A 2, ANS 89c-90c; PART in, Q 10, A 3 769d-
771b; PART in SUPPL, o 92 1025b-1037c esp
A i, ANS and REP 6,12 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [37-
45] 56b; PARADISE, iv [ii5]-v [12] llld-112b;
xix [22-99] 135b-136a; xxi [73-102] 139a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; PART n,
162c-d; PART iv, 262b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 238c-239b; 251c-257d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 494a-b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 72a-b; in, 86b-87a;
iv 89a-93a passim / Objections and Replies,
112a-d; 121d-122b; 169a; 211c-d; 212c-213a;
213d-214a
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART i, PROP 30 366c-d
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 72 181a-184b; 231-233 213b-
216a / Geometrical Demonstration, 435a-b
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xin,
SECT 4 149b; CH xiv, SECT 26-31 160c-162a;
CH xv, SECT 2-3 162c-d; SECT 12 165b-c; CH
xvi, SECT 8 167c; CH xvn 167d-174a esp SECT
15 171b-172a; CH xxn, SECT 9 202c-203a;
CH xxin, SECT 31 212b-c; SECT 33-37 212d-
214b passim; CH xxix, SECT 15-16 237a-238a;
BK iv, CH x, SECT 19, 354b-c
35 BERKELEY- Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
2405b
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 308d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 291a-292a / Judge-
ment, 495a-498b, 501a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 13-14
15c-16a; PART in, par 185 64b-d; par 358 113c
/ Philosophy of History, INTRO, 186a; PART n,
270d-271c, 278a c, PART in, 304c-306b
47 GOETHE Faust, PART i [1810-1815] 43a; PART
n [11,441-452] 278b
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK i, 50b-c, BK in,
156d; 162b-164a,c; BK xv, 631a c; EPILOGUE
n, 693c-694d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 392a; 631a
7. The infinity of God
17 PLOTINUS : Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 8, 146b-c;
TR iv, CH 9 162d-163a / Fifth Ennead, TR v,
CH lo-n 233b-234a / Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 4
306d-307a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 1-6 la-2c;
BK vi, par 4 36a-b; BK vn, par i 43b-c; par 7
45a-d; BK xni, par 12 113b-d / City of God,
BK v, CH 9-10 213b-216c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7
31a-34c; Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; PART i-n,
Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [37-
45] 56b; PARADISE, xxxni 156b-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; PART n,
162ad
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 251c-257d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv, 52b-d /
Meditations, in, 86a / Objections and Replies,
122a-b; 123c-d; DEF vm 130d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 6 355b, PROP 10-
ii 358a-359b; PROP 13 359c-d; PROP 16 362a;
PART n, PROP 7 375a-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [372-415] 143b-
144b; BK vin [411-421] 241a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 231-233 213b-216a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvn,
stcr 1 167d-168a; CH xxin,shCT 34-35 213a-c;
BK in, CH vi, SECT 11-12 271b-272b passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 230a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 188c; 192c-d / Practical
Reason, 344b-c / Judgement, 590b-d; 592a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xv, 631a-c
la. The infinite being or essence of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 3:14 / / King*, 8.27—
(D) /// Kings, 8:27 / Job, 11:7-9 / Psalms,
9:7; 45:6; 48.8-14; 102:12; 136; 139.7 10 —
(D) Psalms, 9:8, 447; 47.9-15, 101 13; 135;
138:7-10 / Isaiah, 41:4; 43:10-11; 44:6; 48.12
— (D) Isaias, 41:4; 43:10-11; 44:6; 48:12 /
Daniel, 4-34— (D) Daniel, 4 31
NEW TEST \MENT John, 8:58
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 10 3b-c;
BK vn, par 20-21 49d-50a; BK xin, par 4
lllc / City of God, BK xn, CH 2 343c-d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 32 633c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, o 7, AA
1-2 31a-32c; Q 14, A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 3 77d-
78b, Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 75, A 5, REP
4 382a-383b; Q 79, A 2, ANS 414d-416a; o 86,
A 2, REP i 462a-463a
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PARI in, Q 2,
A i, ANS 710a-711c; PART in SUPPL, o 92, A i,
REP 6,12 1025c-1032b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 293d-294a
31 DESCARTES* Discourse, PART iv, 52a d /
Meditations, 72a-b; in, 86a / Objections and
Replies, 108b-114c passim
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i 355a-372d esp DBF i
355a, DEF 3,6 355b, AXIOM 1-2 355c d, PROP
1-17 355d-363c, PROP 20-21 363d-364c, PROP
23 364d-365a, PROP 25 365b, PROP 29-31
366b-367a; PART n, PROP i 373d-374a
33 PASCAL. PensSes, 469 256a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
SECT 2-4 162c-163b; SECT 12 165b-c; CH xvn,
SECT i 167d-168a; SECT 16-17 172a-c; SECT 20
172d-173c; CH xxin, SECT 33-35 212d-213c;
BK in, CH vi, SECT ii-i2 27lb-272b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 117
436a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 201b-c; 205a-b
40 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
160b; 165a-b; PART in, 305c-306c
832
(1. The infinity of God.}
lb. The infinite power of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 18:14 / Exodus, 15:18
/ Deuteronomy, 10*14; 32:39 / / Samuel, 2:6-8
— (D) I Kings, 2.6-8 /Job, 12:14-15; 38-41 /
Psalms, 62-11, 114; 148— (D) Psalms, 61:12;
1 13 'i-8, 148 / Isaiah, 40 22-31; 44 '24-46 "13
— (D) Isaias, 40.22-31 ; 44:24-46:12 /Jeremiah,
32:27— (D) Jeremias, 32 27 / Daniel, 4:34-35
—(D) Darnel, 4.31-32
APOCRYPHA. Judith, 16 13-17 — (D) OT, Judith,
16:15-21 / /to/ of Esther, 13 9-11— (Z>) OT,
E/Mer, 13:9-11 / Wisdom of Solomon, 11.17-26;
!2:i2-i8-(Z)) OT, #oo/( o/ Wisdom, 11:18-
27; 12:12-18 / Ecclesiasticus, 18 1-7— (D) OT,
Ecdesiasticus, 18 1-6 / // Maccabees, 8 18—
(D)OT, UMachabees, 8:18
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3*9; 19:26 / Mart(,
10:27 / L/%, 1.37 / Revelation, 19.6— (D)
Apocalypse, 19 6
8 ARIS roi Lh Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7 [1073*3-
n] 603a-b
17 PLOHNUS: Fi/fcA Ennead, TR v, CH 10 233b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 12 4a; BK
v, par 20 32d-33a, BK VH, par 6-7 44d-45d /
City of God, BK v, CH 10 215c-216c, BK vn,
CH 30 261b-d; BK xiv, CH 27 396c-397a; BK
xxi, CH 5-8 563d-568d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 25,
AA 2-3 144c-147a, Q 45, A 5, REP 3 245c-247a;
Q 65, A 3, REP 3 341c-342b; Q 92, A 2, REP
2 489d-490c; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-
613a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q
113, A 9 368d-369c, PART n-n, Q 23, A 2,
REP 3 483d-484d; PART in, Q 10, A 3, REP 3
769d-771b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 86a / Objections
and Replies, 229c-d
31 SPINOZA. Ethics, PART i, DEF 3-6 355b; DBF 8
355c, PROP 1-8 355d-3S7d; PROP 11-17 358b-
363c; PROP 20-25 363d-365b; PROP 32-35
367a-369a; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART 11,
PROP 3 374a-c
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK n [119-225] 113b-
116a; BK in [372-415] 143b-144b / Samson
Agonhtes [300-329] 346a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 654 292b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
370a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH xv,
SECT 12 165b-c, CH xvn, SECT i 167d-168a;
CH xxin, SECT 34-35 213a-c passim; BK in,
CH vi, SECT n-i2 271b-272b passim
35 BtRKELEv: Human Knowledge, SECT 152
443c-d
36 STFRNE. Tristram Shandy, 334a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 180b-c; 181b; 192c-d;
201 b-c / Practical Reason, 3S2a-c / Judgement,
502d-503a; 504b-d; 592a-c; 600d-601c
THE GREAT IDEAS
7 If to Id
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
160b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 684b-d
7c. God's infinite goodness and love
OLD TESTAMENT. Isaiah, 43:1-4; 46:3-4; 49:14-
15; 63-8-9— (D) Isaias, 43 1-4; 46:3-4;
49:14-15; 63-8-9 / Jeremiah, 31 csp 31:3—
(D) Jeremias, 31 esp 31-3
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 11:23-26;
16.20-29— (D) OT, Boo{ of Wisdom, 11:24-
27; 16-20-29
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19-16-17 / John,
3:16; 13:31-17:26 / Romans, 8:35-39 / Gala-
tians, 2 20 / Ephesians, 3-14-21 / I John, 3:1
17 PLOTINUS- Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 10-11 233b-
234a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 20 32d-
33a; BK xin, par 2-5 llla-d / City of God,
BK xi, CH 10 327d-328d; BK xn, CH 1-3
342b,d-344b
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2,
A 3, REP i 12c-14a; Q 4, A i 20d-21b; Q 6, AA
1-3 28b-30b; Q 11, A 3, ANS 49a-c; Q 54, A 2,
ANS 285d-286c; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP i
612a-613a, Q 5, A 2, REP 3 637c-638a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 64,
A 4, REP 3 69b-70a; PART n-ii, Q 23, A 2, REP
3 483d-484d; PART in, Q i, A i 701d-703a
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv
[40-81] 75d-76a, PARADISE, xxix [127-145]
151c-d
31 DFSCARFLS- Objections and Replies, 229c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 35-36 460d-
461c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [139-173] 220a-
221a
33 PASCAL- Pens&s, 580 276b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xvn, SECT i 167d-168a; BK in, CH vi, SECT
11-12 271b-272b p?ssim
37 FIELDING- Tom Jones, 186c-d
42 KANT- Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals,
263a-b / Practical Reason, 325d-326a, 345a-c;
351b-352c / Judgement, 592a-c
44 Bos WELL. Johnson, 539d-540a
52 DOSTOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 24a-c
Id. God's infinite knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: / Samuel, 2:3 — (D) I Kings,
2,3 / Job, 11.5-11; 34:21-25; 36:4; 37.16 /
Psalms, 94 7-12; 100:5, 117.2; 119:142,160;
139; 146.6, i47'5-(D) Psalms, 937-12; 99.5;
116:2; n8'i42,i6o; 138; 145:6-7; 146:5 /
Proverbs, 15:3,11 / Isaiah, 29:15-16; 40:28—
(D) Isaias, 29:15-16; 40:28
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 13:12— (D) OT,
Esther, 13:12 / Ecclesiasticus, 15:18-19; 16:17-
20; 17:15,17,19-20; 23-18-20; 39-19-21; 42:18-
21— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:19-20; 16:16-
20; 17:13-17; 23:25~29; 39:24-25; 42;i8-22 /
Susanna, 42-43— (£>) OT, Daniel, 13:42-43
7d CHAPTER 40: INFINITY 833
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 11:33-36 / / Corin- [12] llld-112b; xix [22-99] 135b-136a; xxi
thians, i -17-2:16 / Ephesians, 3:10 / Colossians, [73-i°5] 139a-b
2:2-3 / Hebrews, 4:13 / I John, 3:20 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 98d-99b
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 21 279b- 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 122a-b
280a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 21 364a-c;
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10 15b-d; PART n, PROP i 373d-374a; PROP 3-4 374a-c
BK v, par 5 28b-c / City of God, BK v, CH 9-10 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [188-193] 115b;
213b-216c; BKXI,CH io,328c-d;cH2i333a-d; BK m [56-134] 136b-138a; BK vn [109-130]
BK XH, CH 17-18 353a-354d / Christian Doc- 219b-220a; BK vm [412-436] 241a-b
trine, BK i, CH 8 626c-627a 35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv,
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14, SECT 12 165b-c; CH xvn, SECT i 167d-168a;
A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 3 77d-78b; A 12 85d-86d; CH xxm, SECT 34-35 213a-c passim; BK in,
Q 16, A 5, ANS 97c-98b; Q 18, A 4 107d-108c; CH vi, SECT 11-12 271b-272b passim
Q 54, A 2, ANS 285d-286c; Q 79, A 2, ANS 414d- 42 KANT: Practical Reason, 303b-304a; 325d-
416a; PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP i 612a-613a 326a; 344a-348a; 351b-352c / Judgement,
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [ii5]-v 590b-d; 592a-c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The distinction between the potential and actual infinite, and the infinite of division and
addition, see QUANTITY 7.
Other discussions of the infinity of space, time, and motion, see ASTRONOMY 8c(i); CHANGE
13; ETERNITY 2; SPACE 33; TIME 20; WORLD 43; and for the conception of eternity as
infinite time, see ETERNITY i ; TIME 2.
The issue concerning the existence of atoms or the infinite divisibility of matter, see ELE-
MENT 5b; ONE AND MANY 33(3).
The problem of an infinite regression in causes, see CAUSE ib, 7b; CHANGE 14; PRINCIPLE ib;
and for the related problem of infinite regression in definition and reasoning, see DEFINI-
TION ic; PRINCIPLE 3a(3); REASONING 5b(i).
The treatment of the infinite and the infinitesimal in mathematics, #v MATHEMATICS 4d;
QUANTITY 2, 33, 30, 4c, 7.
The special logical sense in which judgments are called "infinite," see JUDGMENT 6b.
The conception of the human intellect and of prime matter as having comparable types of
infinity, see MIND 2b.
Another discussion of the finite and the infinite in relation to human nature, see MAN lod,
'3-
The special consideration of infinity in relation to human desire, see DESIRE 7-73(3); and for
the special consideration of the limits of human knowledge, see KNOWLEDGE 53-53(6).
The problem of our knowledge of the infinite, see KNOWLEDGE 53(4).
The infinity of God, and of God's knowledge, power, and goodness, see BEING 7b(4); GOD
4e~4f, 50, 5f; GOOD AND EVIL 2; KNOWLEDGE 73; LIBERTY 5d; MIND lof; NATURE ib;
TRUTH 2d; WILL 4b; WORLD 33.
834
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups.
I. Works by authors represented in this collection
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART i,
26-27
SPINOZA. Correspondence, xii
NEWTON. The Method of Fluxions and Infinite
Series
BERKELEY. The Analyst
. A Defence of Free Thinking in Mathematics
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART 11,
SECT i- n
KANT. De Mundi Sensibihs (Inaugural Dissertation)
. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic, par
50-54
HEGEL. Science of Logic, VOL i, BK i, SECT i, CH 2
(B,C) ; SECT n, CH 2 (c)
W. JAMES. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 10-11
II.
PROCLUS. The Elements of Theology, (j)
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY. Monologium
. Proslogium
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART i,
CH73
DUNS SCOTUS. Opus Oxoniense, BK i, DIST 13
. Reportata Pansiensia
CRESCAS. Or Adonai, PROPOSITIONS 1-3
NICOLAS OF CUSA. De Docta Ignorantia
BRUNO. De I'mfinito, unwerso e mondi
. De Immenso et Innumerabilibus
DONNE. Lovers Infimtenesse
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, xxvm, xxx
(2), xxxv (3), XLI (5)
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK n, CH 17
. Correspondence with Clarke
VOLTAIRE. "Infinity," in A Philosophical Dictionary
. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 1 8
BOLZANO. Paradoxien des Unendhchen
WIILWELL. On the Philosophy of Discovery, CH 26
STALLO. Concepts and Theories of Modern Physics,
CH 13
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, Terminal Essays,
VI
FULLERTON. The Conception of the Infinite, and the
Solution of the Mathematical Antinomies
BOSANQUET. LoglC, VOL I, CH 4
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL vi, par 112-126
COUTURAT De I'tnfim mathematique
CANTOR. Contributions to the Founding of the Theory
of Transfmite Numbers
ROYCE. The World and the Individual, SERIES i; Sup-
plementary Essay (4)
PEANO. Formulaire de mathematique
E. W. HOBSON. The Theory of Functions of a Real
Variable and the Theory of Fourier's Series
POINCARE Science and Method, BK n, CH 3
WHITEHEAD and RUSSELL. Pnncipia Mathematica,
PART III, SECT C; PART V, SECT E
B. RUSSELL. Principles of Mathematics, CH 13, 17, 23,
37-43
. Our Knowledge of the External World, v-vn
. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, CH 3,
9. '3
SITTER. Kosmos (The Expanding Universe)
WEYL. The Open World, LECT HI
INTRODUCTION
THE word "judgment" has a range of mean-
ings which includes three principal van-
ants referring to (i) a quality of the mind,
(2) a faculty of the mind, and (3) an act of the
mind. Of these three meanings, it is the third
which is extensively considered in this chapter;
and it is this meaning of "judgment" which
many writers use the word "proposition" to ex-
press. They sometimes substitute the one word
entirely for the other; sometimes they use both
words, not as strict synonyms, but to express
distinct yet closely related aspects of the same
fundamental phenomenon.
The sense in which judgment is a quality of
the mind is the sense in which we ordinarily
speak of a person as having sound judgment or
poor judgment. "We credit the same people,"
Aristotle says, "with possessing judgment and
having reached years of reason and with having
practical wisdom and understanding." To be
"a man of understanding and of good or sympa-
thetic judgment," he continues, is to be "able
to judge about the things with which practical
wisdom is concerned."
The capacity to judge well concerning what
is to be done is often connected with the capac-
ity to deliberate about the advantages and dis-
advantages or other circumstances relevant to
the action in question. It may or may not be
accompanied by a capacity to resolve thought
into action, to carry into execution the decision
which judgment has formed. These three qual-
ities of mind— dehberateness, judgment, and
decisiveness— are conceived by Aristotle and
Aquinas as belonging together as parts of the in-
tellectual virtue they call "prudence" or "prac-
tical wisdom." The qualities may occur sepa-
rately, but the prudent man will possess all three.
This meaning of "judgment" is reserved for
discussion in the chapter on PRUDENCE; and in
the chapter on LAW will be found the consider-
ation of the judgment which a court renders—
the judgment which is the decision of a judge
when he applies the law to the particular case.
In the legal sense of a judicial decision, judg-
ment reflects not so much the quality of the
judge's mind as his duty and authority to dis-
pose of the case and to have his decision exe-
cuted by the appropriate officers of the law.
The legal significance of judgment is not pri-
marily psychological or logical; and, just as the
moral consideration of judgment falls under
prudence, the legal consideration is also more
appropriately developed in the context of other
ideas.
We are left with the meanings which belong
to psychology, logic, and the theory of knowl-
edge. The sense in which "judgment" desig-
nates a faculty or function of the mind — a dis-
tinct sphere of mental operation— is much
more special than the sense in which "judg-
ment" or "proposition" signifies a particular act
of the mind in the process of knowing or in the
verbal expression of that process. Many au-
thors discuss the kinds of judgment which the
mind makes, and the kinds of propositions it
forms and asserts or denies, but only a few —
notably Locke and Kant — use the word "judg-
ment" to name a mental faculty.
Locke, for example, says that "the mind has
two faculties conversant about truth and false-
hood." One is the faculty of knowing; the
other of judging. "The faculty which God has
given man to supply the want of clear and cer-
tain knowledge, in cases where that cannot be
had, is judgment: whereby the mind takes its
ideas to agree and disagree, or, which is the
same, any proposition to be true or false, with-
out perceiving a demonstrative evidence in the
proofs." The way in which Locke distinguishes
between knowing and judging and the fact that
he relates this distinction to the difference be-
835
836
THE GREAT IDEAS
tween certainty and probability suggest the
parallel distinction between knowledge and
opinion. The faculty of judgment for Locke is
the equivalent of what other writers treat as
the forming of opinions.
Kant also makes judgment a faculty. Along
with understanding and reason, judgment is one
of the three faculties of cognition. It has a dis-
tinct function of its own and is coordinate with
the other two. As the laws of nature are the
work of the understanding in the sphere of
speculative reason; as the rules of the moral law
are the work of the reason in the practical
sphere, wherein it is related to the faculty of
desire; so the purposiveness of nature comes
under the faculty of judgment which operates
in relation to the faculty of pleasure and pain.
Kant divides all the faculties of the soul into
"three which cannot be any further derived
from one common ground : the faculty oftyowl-
edge, the feeling of pleasure and pain and the
faculty of desire" He sees each of the three cog-
nitive functions (of understanding, judgment,
and reason) as standing in a peculiar relation to
these three primary faculties. The faculty of
judgment functions with respect to pleasure
and pain, which is connected with the faculty of
desire. Yet the aesthetic judgment of beauty
and the theological judgment of purposiveness
in nature are of a speculative rather than a
practical character. Because of these two re-
lated facts, Kant holds that "the judgement
in the order of our cognitive faculties, forms a
mediating link between Understanding and
Reason."
Kant, perhaps more than any other thinker,
makes judgment — both as a faculty and as an
act— one of the central terms in his philosophy.
It is pivotal in each of the three critiques, but
it is the Critique of Judgement which serves to
connect the Critique of Pure Reason and the
Critique of Practical Reason. "The Understand-
ing legislates a priori for nature as an object of
sense — for theoretical knowledge of it in a pos-
sible experience. Reason legislates a priori for
freedom and its peculiar causality; as the super-
sensible in the subject, for an unconditioned
practical knowledge. The realm of the natural
concept under one legislation, and that of the
concept of freedom under the other, are entire-
ly removed from all mutual influence which
they might have upon one another (each ac-
cording to its fundamental laws) by the great
gulf that separates the supersensible from phe-
nomena." It is the judgment, according to
Kant, which "furnishes the mediating concept
between the concept of nature and that of
freedom."
KANT'S THEORY of the faculties of understand-
ing, judgment, and reason is so complex a doc-
trine that it cannot be readily compared with
other analyses of the capacities or functions of
mind. His threefold division bears a superficial
—perhaps only a verbal— resemblance to Aqui-
nas' division of mental acts into conception,
judgment, and reasoning.
According to Aquinas, judgment is the sec-
ond of the three acts of a single cognitive facul-
ty variously called "mind" or "intellect" or
"reason." This faculty, he writes, "first appre-
hends something about a thing, such as its es-
sence, and this is its first and proper object; and
then it understands the properties, accidents,
and various dispositions affecting the essence.
Thus it necessarily relates one thing with an-
other by composition or division; and from one
composition and division it necessarily proceeds
to another, and this is reasoning."
The first act of the mind is conception, i.e.,
the simple apprehension of the essence and
properties of a thing. Judgment, the second act,
unites or separates concepts by affirming or
denying one of another. As in the Kantian anal-
ysis, judgment is a kind of mediating link; for
after the judgment is formed by what Aquinas
calls the "composition or division" of concepts,
it in turn serves as the unit of the mind's third
act, which is reasoning. Reasoning is the process
of going from judgment to judgment.
The act of judgment is that act of the
mind, and the only act, which can have the
quality of truth or falsity. "Truth," Aquinas
writes, "resides m the intellect composing and
dividing"; for when the intellect "judges that
a thing corresponds to the form which it ap-
prehends about that thing, then it first knows
and expresses truth. ... In every proposition,"
the mind "either applies to* or removes from,
the thing signified by the subject some form
signified by the predicate." Moreover, the
judgment involves assertion or denial as the
CHAPTER 41: JUDGMENT
837
concept docs not. Whatever truth there is
implicitly in concepts must be explicated in
judgments and the truth of the conclusion in
reasoning depends upon the truth of the judg-
ments which are the premises. The judgment,
therefore, is the basic unit of knowledge.
On this last point Kant seems to be in agree-
ment with earlier writers. It is possible, there-
fore, to compare Kant's classification of judg-
ments or propositions with the classifications of
Aristotle, Descartes, or Locke. But it is neces-
sary, first, to consider the relation between
judgment and proposition. After that we can
examine the difference between theoretic and
practical judgments. With respect to the theo-
retic judgment (or proposition), we shall be
able to state opposite views of the nature of the
judgment and diverse views of the formal struc-
ture of judgments, their material content, their
relation to one another and to the whole proc-
ess of knowing.
THE SENTENCE "all men are mortal" can be
interpreted as expressing a judgment or a prop-
osition. From certain points of view, the choice
of interpretation makes no difference; for ex-
ample, it does not matter whether, in a consid-
eration of "all men are mortal" and "some men
are not mortal," the comparison is expressed in
terms of universal and particular, affirmative
and negative, judgments or propositions, or
whether it is said that these are contradictory
judgments or contradictory propositions. The
basic problems of logic seem to be conceived in
the same way by writers like Aristotle and
Locke, who tend to use "proposition" in place
of "judgment," and by writers like Aquinas,
Descartes, and Kant, who tend to use both
words with some difference in meaning.
What is the difference ? It is sometimes un-
derstood as a difference between an act of the
mind, asserting or denying, and the subject mat-
ter being asserted or denied. The proposition is
that which may be either asserted or denied ; or
m the third alternative stressed by Descartes,
the mind may suspend judgment and merely
entertain the proposition. It may decline to
judge it true or false, and so refuse to assert or
deny it. The fact that the proposition is itself
either affirmative or negative does not signify
its assertion or denial by a judgment of the
mind, for an affirmative proposition can be de-
nied and a negative can be affirmed.
Judgment adds to the proposition in ques-
tion the mind's decision with respect to its
truth or falsity. That decision may be right
or wrong. A proposition which is in fact true
may be denied. The truth of the proposition
is unaffected by the falsity of the judgment,
or if the mind suspends judgment on a propo-
sition which is true, the truth of the proposi-
tion has failed to elicit a judgment. This seems
to confirm the separation between the proposi-
tion and the judgment.
Sometimes the difference between the judg-
ment and the proposition is found in the differ-
ence between the mind's act of "composing" or
"dividing" concepts and the formulation of
that act in words. On this view, the proposi-
tion is related to the judgment as the term to
the concept, as the physical to I he mental
word, as language to thought. In consequence,
there is no separation for either the judgment
or the proposition between that which can be
asserted or denied and the assertion or denial of
it. The affirmative judgment ts an assertion,
the negative a denial; and the same holds for
the affirmative and the negative proposition.
But on either theory of the difference, it is
thought necessary to distinguish between the
sentence and the proposition, especially when
the proposition is also regarded as a verbal for-
mulation— a statement of thought in words.
This is particularly important in a logical trea-
tise like Aristotle's, which analyzes terms, prop-
ositions^ and syllogisms rather than concepts,
judgments, and reasonings.
In both the Categories, which deals with
terms, and the treatise On Interpretation, which
deals with propositions, Aristotle differentiates
between a grammatical and a logical handling
of the units of language. His distinction, for ex-
ample, between simple and composite expres-
sions (words and phrases on the one hand, and
sentences on the other) is related to, but it is
not identical with, his distinction between terms
and propositions. Not every simple expression
can be used as a term. For example, preposi-
tions and conjunctions cannot be used as terms,
as nouns and verbs can be. Nor can every sen-
tence be used as a proposition.
"A sentence is a significant portion of speech,"
838
THE GREAT IDEAS
Aristotle writes, "some parts of which have an
independent meaning, that is to say, as an ut-
terance, though not as the expression of any
positive judgment. . . . Every sentence has
meaning," he goes on, "by convention. Yet
every sentence is not a proposition; only such
arc propositions as have in them truth or falsity.
Thus a prayer is a sentence, but is neither true
nor false. Let us therefore dismiss all other
types of sentence but the proposition, for this
last concerns our present inquiry, whereas the
investigation of the others belongs rather to the
study of rhetoric or of poetry."
It seems possible to relate the two separate
distinctions we have been considering— that
between sentence and proposition and that be-
tween proposition and judgment. As the prop-
osition can be regarded as a sentence logically
(rather than grammatically) construed, so it
can also be regarded as the linguistic expression
of a judgment of the mind. The proposition
thus appears to be a kind of middle ground be-
tween language and thought, for when a sen-
tence is used for the purpose of stating a prop-
osition it can also express a judgment. When a
judgment is expressed in words, the verbal
statement is also a proposition. The proposition
is thus the logical aspect of a sentence and the
verbal aspect of a judgment. A similar consider-
ation of terms in relation to words and concepts
occurs in the chapter on IDEA.
WHAT is PERHAPS the most fundamental divi-
sion in the sphere of judgments— the separation
of the practical from the theoretic or specula-
tive—can be initially explained by reference to
the forms of language. Aristotle 's remark about
sentences and propositions tends to identify
propositions with declarative sentences. Sen-
tences in the subjunctive mood state prayers or
wishes, not propositions. An interrogative sen-
tence asks a question to which the answers may
be propositions, or they may be hopes and de-
sires. The imperative sentence issues a com-
mand to act in a certain way, whether the com-
mand is a direction for others or a decision for
:>nc's self. This last type of sentence represents
the practical mood of thought as well as speech
—thought concerned with actions to be done
>r not done, rather than with what does or does
lot exist.
The imperative sentence is not the only kind
of practical statement. It is merely the most
terse and emphatic. It is also the expression of
that type of practical judgment which most
immediately precedes action itself, or the exe-
cution of a command. There are other sen-
tences which, because they are apparently de-
clarative in form, conceal their imperative
mood. Yet upon examination their essentially
practical rather than theoretic significance can
be discovered.
Sentences which contain the words "ought"
or "should" are of this sort, e.g., "Men ought to
seek the truth," "You should work for peace,"
"I ought to make this clear." By omitting
"should" or "ought," these sentences can be
changed into the strictly declarative mood of
theoretic propositions, e.g., "Men do seek the
truth," "You will work for peace," "I shall
make this clear." They can also be made plainly
imperative, e.g., "Seek the truth," etc. The
chief difference between the blunt form of the
imperative and its indicative expression using
"ought" or "should" is that the latter indicates
the person to whom the command is addressed.
The contrast in significance between a de-
clarative and an imperative statement does,
therefore, convey the distinction between a
theoretic and a practical proposition or judg-
ment. Kant's further division of practical judg-
ments into the hypothetical and the categorical
simply differentiates commands or "oughts"
which involve no preamble from those which
propose that action be taken to achieve a cer-
tain end, or which base a direction to employ
this or that means on the supposition that a
certain end is desired or sought. Examples of
hypothetical or conditional imperatives would
be such judgments as "If you want to be happy,
seek the truth" or "Seek the truth in order to
be happy."
The distinction between theoretic and prac-
tical judgments is currently made in terms of
the contrast between statements of fact and
statements of value or, as in judicial procedure,
between statements of fact and rules of law. A
rule of law has the form of a general practical
statement, usually a conditional rather than a
categorical imperative; whereas the decision of
a court applying the rule to a case is a particular
practical judgment.
CHAPTER 41 : JUDGMENT
839
Beginning with Francis Bacon, the distinc-
tion between the theoretic and the practical
is also made in terms of the difference between
the pure sciences and their applications in tech-
nology. Technical judgments, prescribing the
way to make something or produce a certain
effect, are traditionally associated, under the
head of the practical, with moral judgments
concerning the good to be sought and the ways
of seeking it. Both are prescriptive of conduct
rather than descriptive of existence or nature
in the manner of theoretical statements.
Thinkers like Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kant,
who divide science or philosophy into the the-
oretical disciplines (e.g., physics, mathematics,
metaphysics) and the practical or moral dis-
ciplines (e.g., ethics, economics, politics), place
the discussion of the difference between theo-
retical and practical judgments in the context
of other distinctions; as, for example, between
the speculative and the practical reason, or be-
tween theoretic and practical knowledge; or
in the context of considering the kinds of
truth appropriate to each, and the modes of
inference or demonstration in each. These
related distinctions and considerations are
treated in the chapters on KNOWLEDGE,
MIND, REASONING, and TRUTH.
For the most part, however, the great books
in the tradition of logic itself do not give an
analysis of practical judgments or reasoning in
any way comparable to their treatment oi the
theoretic forms of thought and statement. The
logical problems concerning propositions or
judgments, now to be considered, apply only
to the theoretic forms.
Two BASIC ISSUES in the theory of propositions
or judgments have their origin in the tradition
of the great books, but for their explicit and
full development other works must be con-
sulted—the special treatises on logic, of relative-
ly recent date, listed in the Additional Read-
ings. One of these two issues has already been
briefly commented on, but for the full implica-
tions of the distinction between propositions
and judgments one must go to such writers as
Hegel, Bradley, Bosanquet, Cook Wilson, W. E.
Johnson, and John Dewey, who make this dis-
tinction the crux of a controversy over the
scope of formal logic.
The other basic issue lies in the opposition
between what has come to be called "subject-
predicate logic" and "relational logic." Here
one side is fully represented by the Organon of
Aristotle and by the later books which adopt
the Aristotelian logic of predication. The other
logical theory is intimated but not fully de-
veloped by such writers as Locke, Hume, Kant,
and William James who, though they some-
times employ the subject-predicate formulation,
tend to construct the unit of knowledge — the
proposition or judgment — as a relation be-
tween ideas or concepts.
The fact that Kant places substance and ac-
cident under the category of relation can be
taken as exemplifying this tendency, as can
Locke's emphasis on the connection of, and
agreement or disagreement between, our ideas.
Nevertheless, these are at most intimations of
the theory that the proposition is a relation of
two or more terms, not the application of a
predicate to a subject. As indicated in the chap-
ter on LOGIC, the relational theory does not re-
ceive an adequate exposition until the modern
development of symbolic or mathematical logic,
beginning with the writings of Boole, Jevons,
and Venn, and culminating in such works as the
Pnnapia Mathematica of Russell and White-
head.
In the Aristotelian logic, simple propositions
consist of a subject and a predicate —what is be-
ing talked about and what is said of it. The cop-
ula "is" is the sign of predication; it also signi-
fies an affirmation of the unity of subject and
predicate. For example, in "Socrates is a man'1
the predicate man is applied to the subject
Socrates, and the unity of being Socrates and
being a man is affirmed. All the terms of dis-
course can be classified according to their char-
acter as subjects and predicates; so, too, can
propositions be classified by reference to the
type of subject- term and the type of predicate-
term which comprise them. The formal struc-
ture not only of the proposition, but also of the
syllogism, is determined by the order of sub-
jects and predicates. "When one term is predi-
cated of another," Aristotle writes, "any term
which is predicable of the predicate will also be
predicable of its subject."
According to the theory of the proposition
as a relation of terms or of classes, predication
840
THE GREAT IDEAS
represents merely one type of relationship — the
membership of an individual in a class, or the
inclusion of one class in another. There are
many other types of relation which, it is held,
cannot be reduced to class- membership or
class-inclusion; as, for example, the relationship
stated by the proposition "John hit James/' or
the proposition "January comes before Febru-
ary." Propositions can be classified according to
the number of terms involved in a single rela-
tionship, or by reference to the type of relation
ivhich organizes them, whether it is symmetri-
:al or asymmetrical, transitive or intransitive,
reflexive or irreflexive. In this theory it is the
:haracter of the relationship, not the character
)f the terms, which is the fundamental element
n logical analysis, and this determines the for-
mal structure of inference as well as of proposi-
lons.
It has been claimed for each of these logical
heories that it is the more general analysis and
hat it is able to reduce the formulations of the
>pposite theory to its own terms or subsume
hem as a special case. Certainly it is verbally
possible to convert all predications into state-
ncnts of relationship, or all relational state-
nents into subject-predicate propositions. But
his by itself does not seem to resolve the issue
o the satisfaction of either theory; each side
ontends that such reductions violate its funda-
nental principles. Stated in its most drastic
brm, the unresolved question is whether there
s one logic or two— or perhaps more.
VITHIN THE tradition of Aristotelian logic,
here are divergent schemes for classifying
>ropositions or judgments. So far as the great
>ooks are concerned, this can be best illustrated
>y mentioning Kant's departures in analysis.
Aristotle distinguishes between simple and
omposite propositions, the former consisting
>f a single subject and predicate, the latter
'compounded of several propositions." For ex-
mple, since the two predicates in the proposi-
ion "This man is good and a shoemaker" do
lot form a unity, the sentence expresses a con-
unction of two simple propositions: "This man
5 good" and "This man is a shoemaker." Other
ypes of compound propositions are the hypo-
hetical and the disjunctive, e.g., "If Socrates is
man, Socrates is mortal," and "Either all men
are mortal or no men are mortal." Kant treats
these distinctions under the head of relation. He
calls the proposition which is a "relation of the
predicate to the subject, categorical" and he
regards the hypothetical or disjunctive judg-
ment (based on relations of cause and effect or
of the parts of a whole) as concerned with prop-
ositions "in relation to each other."
Aristotle classifies simple propositions by ref-
erence to their quantity and quality. In regard
to quantity he distinguishes between the uni-
versal (e.g., "All men are mortal") and the par-
ticular (e.g., "Some men are mortal"). To these
he adds the indefinite proposition which leaves
the quantity (all or some) undetermined. Under
the head of quantity, Kant makes a threefold
division according to unity, plurality, and total-
ity. He adds the singular proposition "Socrates
is mortal" to Aristotle's particular and univer-
sal. The difference between the singular on the
one hand, and the particular and the universal
on the other, seems to be represented in Aristo-
tle's thought by the distinction between prop-
ositions about an individual subject and prop-
ositions about a universal subject.
The quality of categorical propositions, ac-
cording to Aristotle, is either affirmative (i.e.,
positive) or negative, e.g., "All men are mortal"
and "Some men arc not mortal." To these two
Kant adds a third type of judgment under the
head of quality— the infinite judgment which
affirms a negative predicate of a subject, e.g.,
"The soul is non-mortal." Though Aristotle
recognizes the special character of a term like
"non-mortal," since it is both negative and
indefinite, he does not seem to think that the
use of such terms affects the quality of a prop-
osition.
Finally, Aristotle divides propositions ac-
cording to whether they are simple assertions of
fact or are assertions qualified by the notions of
necessity or contingency (i.e., possibility). Ev-
ery proposition, he says, "states that something
either is or must be or may be the attribute of
something else." The distinction between the
necessary and contingent modes of statement
has come to be called a difference in "modal-
ity," and statements which have one or another
modality are called "modal propositions."
It is sometimes thought that the Aristotelian
classification treats only necessary and contin-
CHAPTER 41 JUDGMENT
841
gent propositions, with their Several opposites,
as modal propositions, and separates the simple
or pure assertion from them as non-modal. In
contrast to this, Kant makes a threefold divi-
sion of judgments under the head of modality:
the "problematical" (i.e., the possible, what
may be), the "assertoric" (i.e., the existent,
what is), and the "apodictic" (i.e., the neces-
sary, what must be).
THE CLASSIFICATION of the types of judgment
or proposition is usually preliminary in logical
analysis to a consideration of their order and
connection.
The formal pattern of what is traditionally
called "the square of opposition" is determined
by the quality and quantity of the simple
propositions which are therein related as con-
tradictory, contrary, and sub-contrary. Two
propositions are contradictory if they are op-
posite in both quality and quantity (e.g., "All
men are mortal" is contradicted by "Some
men are not mortal"). Two universal proposi-
tions are contrary if one is affirmative and the
other negative (e.g., "All men are mortal" is
contrary to "No men are mortal"); and an af-
firmative and a negative particular proposition
are related as sub-contraries (e.g., "Some men
are mortal" and "Some men are not mortal").
The significance of these three basic relation-
ships for the truth and falsity of the opposed
propositions is discussed in the chapter on
OPPOSITION; and in the chapter on NECESSITY
AND CONTINGENCY the special problems of op-
position among modal propositions are ex-
amined.
Other than their opposition, the only formal
relationship of propositions or judgments oc-
curs in the structure of inference or reasoning.
According to the traditional analysis, the impli-
cation of one proposition by another— insofar
as that is determined by the form of each— is
immediate inference. In contrast, the pattern
of mediated inference or reasoning always in-
volves at least three propositions, ordered not
only with respect to the sequence from premis-
es to conclusion, but also by the relation of the
premises to one another. These matters are dis-
cussed in the chapter on REASONING.
With respect to their origin, status, or im-
port, judgments or propositions are subject to
further distinctions in type* The certainty or
probability with which propositions are as-
serted or judgments are made is connected by
some writers with the distinction between
knowledge and opinion, by others with the
difference between science and dialectic, and
by others with the difference between knowing
the relation of ideas and knowing matters of
fact or real existence. Propositions which ex-
press certain knowledge are, furthermore, di-
vided by some analysts into those which are
axiomatic, self-evident, or immediate and those
which are known only by mediated inference,
reasoning, or demonstration, not by intuition
or induction. The former are also sometimes
called "principles," the latter "conclusions."
Locke's distinction between "trifling" and
"instructive"propositions, like Kant's dis-
tinction between "analytic" and "synthetic"
judgments, is made in the general context of an
examination of how we learn or know.
Trifling propositions, according to Locke,
"are universal propositions which, though they
be certainly true, yet they add no light to our
understanding; bring no increase to our knowl-
edge," All "purely identical propositions" are
of this sort — propositions such as "body is
body" or "a vacuum is a vacuum." Such propo-
sitions "teach nothing but what every one who
is capable of discourse knows without being
told, viz., that the same term is the same term,
and the same idea the same idea." They are all
instances of the law of identity ; or, as Locke ex-
presses it, they are all "equivalent to this propo-
sition, viz., what is, is" If the trifling proposi-
tion, the analytical judgment, or what in our
day is called a "tautology," goes beyond the
statement of an identity between subject and
predicate, it goes no further than the explica-
tion of a definition. It predicates, Locke says,
"a part of the definition of the word defined,'*
as, for example, in the proposition "Lead is a
metal."
Analytical or explicative judgments, Kant
says in the Prolegomena, "express nothing in the
predicate but what has already been actually
thought in the concept of the subject . . . When
I say, 'all bodies are extended,' I have not am-
plified in the least my concept of body, but
have only analyzed it ... On the contrary, this
judgment, 'All bodies have weight,' contains in
842
THE GREAT IDEAS
its predicate something not actually thought
in the general concept of body; it amplifies
my knowledge, by adding something to my
concept, and must therefore be called syn-
thetical."
For Locke not all axioms or self-evident
propositions are trifling or tautological, for
some go beyond statements of identity or the
explication of definitions, as, for example, that
the whole is greater than the part. Nor are they
all useless. Some which Locke distinguishes
'from the rest by calling them "maxims," are of
u$e, he maintains, "in the ordinary methods of
teaching sciences as far as they are advanced,
but of little or none in advancing them further.
They are of use in disputes, for the silencing of
obstinate wranglers, and bringing those con-
tests to some conclusion."
For Kant there is a further division of judg-
ments into the a posteriori and the a priori, ac-
cording as their truth is or is not grounded in
the data of experience. The former are empiri-
cal in origin, the latter transcendental, that is,
they have a foundation which transcends ex-
perience. These two types of judgment express
two corresponding types of knowledge— a
priori knowledge by which Kant understands
"not such as is independent of this or that kind
of experience, but such as is absolutely so of all
experience. Opposed to this is empirical knowl-
edge, or that which is possible only a posteriori,
that is, through experience."
In Kant's view, there is no problem about
the truth of analytic judgments, for these have
an a priori foundation in the principle of con-
tradiction. (The contradictory of an analytic
judgment is always self-contradictory.) Nor do
synthetic judgments which are empirical or a
posteriori raise any special difficulties. The cen-
tral question in the theory of knowledge con-
cerns the possibility and validity of synthetic
judgments a priori.
"If I go out of and beyond the conception A,
in order to recognize another, B, as connected
with it, what foundation have I to rest on,"
Kant asks, "whereby to render the synthesis
possible? I have here no longer the advantage
of looking out in the sphere of experience for
what I want. Let us take, for example, the
proposition, 'everything that happens has a
cause/ In the conception of something that hap-
pens, I indeed think an existence which a cer-
tain time aiitecedes, and from this I can de-
rive analytical judgments. But the conception
of a cause lies quite outside the above concep-
tion, and indicates something entirely different
from 'that which happens,' and is consequent-
ly not contained in that conception. How then
am I able to assert concerning the general con-
ception— 'that which happens'— -something en-
tirely different from that conception, and to
recognize the conception of cause although not
contained in it, yet as belonging to it, and even
necessarily ? What is here the unknown X, upon
which the understanding rests when it believes
it has found, outside the conception A, a foreign
predicate B, which it nevertheless considers to
be connected with it?" It is the discovery and
solution of this problem which Kant believes to
be the signal contribution of his transcendental
logic of the judgment.
It may be wondered whether this problem
can be stated in terms other than those peculiar
to Kant's analytical vocabulary. Other writers
admit that propositions which are particular
and contingent have "existential import."
Their truth concerns real existences, and so
whether they are true or not can and must be
learned from experience. These are like Kant's
synthetic judgments a posteriori. Universal
and necessary propositions, on the other hand,
are sometimes interpreted as having no exis-
tential significance. Instead of being read as
asserting that anything exists, they are taken
simply as statements of the relation between
our own ideas. These, for Locke and Hume,
are like Kant's a priori analytic judgments.
What remains is to discover a parallel for
Kant's synthetic judgments a priori. In terms
other than Kant's, the most likely parallel
seems to be the universal and necessary propo-
sition conceived as a statement about reality
rather than about relations in the realm of our
own concepts. When universal propositions are
so interpreted, two questions arise. How do we
establish that the subjects of such propositions
really exist? What is the ultimate ground for
the truth of such propositions, the unlimited
universality of which outruns experience? In
these two questions we find a problem which is
at least analogous to Kant's problem of the
possibility of synthetic judgments a priori*
CHAPTER 41 : JUDGMENT 843
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PACB
1. Judgment as an act or faculty of the mind: its contrast with the act of conception or
with the faculties of understanding and reason 844
2. The division of judgments in terms of the distinction between the theoretic and the
practical
3. The analysis of practical or moral judgments: judgments of good and evil, means and
ends; categorical and hypothetical imperatives 845
4. The distinction between the aesthetic and the teleological judgment
5. The nature of theoretic judgments
50. The linguistic expression of judgments: sentences and propositions
5^. The judgment as a predication: the classification of subjects and predicates
5^. The judgment as relational: types of relation 846
6. The division of theoretic judgments according to formal criteria
6a. The division of judgments according to quantity: universal, particular, singular,
and indefinite propositions
6& The division of judgments according to quality: positive, negative, and infinite
propositions
6c. The division of judgments according to modality: necessary and contingent
propositions; problematic, assertonc, and apodictic judgments
6d. The classification of judgments by reference to relation: simple and composite
propositions; categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive judgments
7. The order and connection of judgments
70. The formal opposition of judgments: the square of opposition
7& The conversion of propositions: the problem of immediate inference
jc. Reasoning as a sequence of judgments: the chain of reasoning
8. The differentiation of judgments according to origin, ground, or import 847
80. Self-evident and demonstrable propositions: immediate and mediated, intuitive
and reasoned judgments
8£. Analytic and synthetic judgments: trifling and instructive propositions
8<r. A priori and a posteriori^ non-existential and existential judgments; the problem
of a priori synthetic judgments
8d. The division of judgments into the determinant and the reflective: judgments
as constitutive or as regulative
9. Degrees of assent: certainty and probability
10. The truth and falsity of judgments 848
844 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK H [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS' When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesof the right-hand sideof
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in thelowerhalf
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., lhad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES • The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows, e.g., OID TESIA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— -(D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style, for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx-,
1. Judgment as an act or faculty of the mind: SECT 5 179c.d; BK IV< CH v> SECT 5_6 32gdl
its contrast with the act of conception or 330b; CH xiv 364b-365a
with the faculties of understanding and 42 KANT- Pure Reason, 16d-19a; 34a-45b esp
reason 39a-c, 41c-42c; 51d-52b; 59c-64a esp 60a-c;
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 4 [2*4-10! &» / 64d-66d; 99a-101b; 108a-112d esp llOd-lllc;
Interpretation, CH i [16*9-18] 25a-b / Meta- 166c-171a; 193a-200c; 240b-243c / Fund,
physics, BK vi, CH 4 [i027bi8-28] 550a,c; Prtn. Metaphysic of Morals, 282b-c / Judge-
BK ix, CH 10 577c-578a>c / Soul, BK in, CH 6 ment, 461a-475d esp 465c-467d, 474b-475d;
662d-663c 550a-5Sla,c; 558a; 572b-575b
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK vn, par 23 50b-c; 53 JAMES: Psychology, 178a-179a; 213b 214a;
BK x, par 10 73d-74a / City of God, BK vni, 313b; 638a-b; 859a; 861b
CH 6, 269b-c «,,,... , . %
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 4, 2- The division of judgments in terms of the
REP 2 16d-17c; Q 13, A 12, ANS 74c-75b; Q 14, distinction between the theoretic and
A 14 88d-89b; Q 16, A 2 95c-96b; Q 17, A 3 tne Practical
102d-103c; Q 58, A 2, ANS 301b-d; A 4, ANS 8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK in, CH 7 [306*14-18]
302d-303c; Q 85, A 5, ANS and REP 3 457d- 397b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i 499a-500b;
458d; A 6 458d-459c BK iv, CH 4 [1008^-32] 527d-528b / Soul,
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q i, BK in, CH 7 [43ib2-i2] 664a-b; CH 9 [432^6-
A 2 381a-c 433*9] 665c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 66c-67a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 339d-340b; CH
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59c-61d esp 7 [1098*25-35] 343d; BK n, CH 2 [no3b26-
59c-60a; 64a-b 1104*9] 349b-c; BK vi, CH 2 [1139*21-31] 387d-
31 DESCARTES . Rules, xn, 21d-22a / Meditations, 388a; CH 5 [i i40bi 1-19] 389b-c; CH 8 [i 142*13-
* xi, 81a; iv 89a-93a esp 89c-90a / Objections 19] 39 Ib
and Replies i 124b-c; 141a; 215d-216c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 48-49 391a- A 16 90b-91b; Q 79, AA 11-13 424d-427a;
394d PART i-u, Q 13, A 6, REP 2 676c-677b
3/o
CHAPTER 41: JUDGMENT
845
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 5, REP 3 39a-40a; Q 90, A i, REP 2 205b-
206b; A 2, REP 3 206b-207a; Q 94, A 4, ANS
223d-224d; PART in, Q n, A i, REP 3 772b-
773a; Q 13, A i, REP 3 780a-781b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 44a-c / Objec-
tions and Replies, 126a-b; 237b-c; 243c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT i 103d-104a
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 190c-191a / Fund Prm.
Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261b; 271a-c /
Practical Reason, 297a-c, 300d [fn i]; 310a-b;
319c-321b; 329a-330c esp 329a-d; 343a-d /
Judgement, 461a-475d esp 463a-467a, 474b-
475d
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 445c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREP, 5c-6a;
PART in, par 227 74b-d
53 JAMES Psychology, 186a
3. The analysis of practical or moral judgments:
judgments of good and evil, means and
ends; categorical and hypothetical im-
peratives
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH 1-4 162a-166b
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH i 499a-500b; BK iv,
CH 4 [ioo8b2-32] 527d-528b
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK i, CH 3 339d-340b, BK
n, CH 2 [no3b27-no4a9] 349b-c passim; BK
vi, CH 2 [1139*21-31] 387d-388a; CH 5 [ii40b
11-19] 389b-c; CH 8 [1142*13-19] 391b, CH
lo-n 392b-393b, BK vn, CH 3 396c-398a /
Politics, BK HI, CH n [i28ib39-i282a23] 479d-
480a / RJietonc, BK i, CH 7 604c-607d
17 PLOTINUS Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 1 106b-107a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 13 16c-d,
BK vn, par 23 50b-c / City of God, BK vm,
CH 8 270a-d; BK xix, CH 1-14 507a-520d /
Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 10, 661d-662a
19 AQUINAS.: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59,
A 3, ANS and REP i 308b-309a; Q 79, AA 11-13
424d-427a; Q 83, A i, ANS 436d-438a, A 2,
ANS and REP i 438a-d; A 3, ANS and REP 2
438d-439c; PART i-n, Q 17, A i 686d-687c
20 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 6, ANS and RFP 2-3 40a 41a
22 CHAUCLR: Tale of Mehbeus 401a-432a esp
par 7-13 402b-405a, par 17-36 407b-417b,
par 59-78 427a-432a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53a-54a, 60d;
61d-62a; 65b-c; 66c-67d; 68b-c; 96a; PART
n, 149b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 51a-55d esp 52c-53c;
136b-139b; 520b-522a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc n 113c-115d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 86c-95b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 49a-b / Ob-
jections and Replies, 126a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 4 172b; 98 190b; 375-385
237b-239a; 456-457 254a; 505 261a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV 36,
465a-d [fn i]
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 190c-d; 236d-
237a / Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 260a-
261d; 266a-267d; 268c-271a; 272a-b / Prac-
tical Reason, 318c-321b esp 320c-321b; 327d-
329a; 357c-360d / Pref Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics, 367c; 368d; 369b-c; 373d; 377c-d /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-d; 387 b,
387d-388a; 390b,d-391c; 392b-393a / Science
of Right, 397b-398a; 416b-417b / Judgement,
477b-c; 557d [fni); 586a-b; 595a-d; 596c-
598b; 605d-606b [fn 2]
43 FLDERALIST: NUMBER i, 29d
43 MILL- Liberty, 275a-278c passim, esp 276b-
277b, 287b-c / Utilitarianism, 446d-447a;
455c-457b passim; 461c-462a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 140
49b-54a; PART in, par 191-192 66b-c /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165a-166b;
PART iv, 362d
53 JAMES. Psychology, 202b; 794a-798b; 886b-
888a
54 FREUD. Civilization and Its Discontents, 792b-c;
801d
4. The distinction between the aesthetic and
the teleological judgment
42 KANT: Judgement, 471b-473a; 476a-483d;
485b-489a; 492b-493b; 513b-516b; 516d-
517c; 528b-c; 548c-549d, 550c-551a,c; 558a-b;
559c-560c; 562a-564c, 567c-570a; 572b-578a
5. The nature of theoretic judgments
5*. The linguistic expression of judgments:
sentences and propositions
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 85d-86b; 109a-b / Sophist,
574d-577b
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 4-5 26a-c /
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24ai6-bi5] 39a-c /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2 [72*7-14] 98c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13,
A 12 74c-75b, Q 85, A 2, REP 3 453d-455b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q i,
A 2 381a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 60a; PART iv,
270a-c
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 433 a- b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxin, SECT 19 251c-d; BK in, CH vn, SECT i
283a-b; BK iv, CH v 329a-331b passim; CH vi,
SECT 1-3 331b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b-342c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144a-b
56. The judgment as a predication: the classi-
fication of subjects and predicates
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2-3 5b-d; CH 5
[2an-3b24] 6a-8a / Interpretation, CH 4-8 26a-
28a, CH n 31c-32c / Prior Analytics, BK i, CH
27 [43*25-44] 60c-d / Posterior Analytics, BK i,
846
THE GREAT IDEAS
5c to 7c
(5. The nature of theoretic judgments. 5b. The
judgment as a predication; the classifica-
tion of subjects and predicates.)
BK i, CH 4-9 144b-147b / Physics, BK i, CH 3
[186*22-187*10] 261b 262a; CH 6 {189*28-33]
264d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
ANS 10d-lld; Q 3, A 4, REP 2 16d-17c, Q 13, A 5
66b-67d; A 12, ANS 74c-75b; Q 16, A 2 95c-
96b; A 6, ANS 98b-d; Q 58, A 2 301b-d; A 4
302d-303c; Q 76, A 3, ANS 391a-393a; Q 85,
A 5, REP 3 457d-4S8d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 270a-c
31 DESCARTES; Objections and Replies, DEF IK
130d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 51d-52b; 180c-182b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144a-b; 313a-b; 638b;
861b; 870b-873a
c. The judgment as relational: types of rela-
tion
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK iv, CH i,
SECT 1-7 307a-308a; CH xn, SECT 6-8 360a-c
35 HUME- Human Understanding, stcr iv, DIV 20
458ab
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39c-41c csp 40c-d; 51d-
52b
53lAMEs: Psychology, 174b-176a; 302b-304b;
638b; 869a-873a esp 870b-871a, 872b; 878a-
879b; 889a-b
6. The division of theoretic judgments accord-
ing to formal criteria
6a. The division of judgments according to
quantity: universal, particular, singular,
and indefinite propositions
8 ARISTOTLE. Categories, CH 2 5b-c / Interpreta-
tion, CH 7 [17*37-16! 26d-27a / Prior Analytics,
BK i, CH i [24*16-21] 39a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55b*56a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH v,
SECT 10 331a; CH vi 331b-336d passim; CH ix,
SECT i 349a; en xi, SECT 13-14 357d-358c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39c-41c esp 39d-40a
66. The division of judgments according to
quality: positive, negative, and infinite
propositions
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 10 [i2b6-i5] 17d-
18a / Interpretation, CH 5 [17*8-9] 26b; CH 6
26c-d; CH 10 29d-31c / Prior Analytics, BK i,
CH 3 [25bi9-26] 40c; CH 46 70b-71d / Posterior
Analytics, BK i, CH 25 [86b3o-38] 118d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 13,
A 12, ANS 74c-75b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK 11, APH 33
161b-d
35 LOCKE; Human Understanding, BK HI, CH VH,
SECT i 283a-b; BK iv, CH v, SECT 5-6 329d-
330b passim
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39c-41c esp 40a-c;
210c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 53
25c-d
6c. The division of judgments according to
modality: necessary and contingent
propositions; problematic, assertoric,
and apodictic judgments
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 12-13 32d*35c
/ Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 3 40a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, REP 2 86d-88c; Q 19, A 3, ANS HOb-lllc;
A 8, REP 1,3 116a-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xn, 22a-b; 23a-c
42 KANT Pure Reason, 14c-l5c; 39c-41c esp 40d-
41c; 179c-180c, 193a-200c esp 194b-d; 217c-d
/ Judgement, 491c-49Sa,c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 851a
6d. The classification of judgments by refer-
ence to relation: simple and composite
propositions; categorical, hypothetical,
and disjunctive judgments
SARISTOILE: Interpretation, CH 5 [17*20-24]
26c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 13, REP 2 86d-88c; Q 19, A 8, REP 1,3 116a-d
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 39c-41c esp 40c-d, 44a-b;
HOd-lllc esp lllb; 194b-c/ Fund. Pnn. Meta-
physic of Morals, 265c-266d / Practical Reason,
297a-298a / Judgement, 483d-491c
53 JAMES • Psychology, 859b
7. The order and connection of judgments
la. The formal opposition of judgments: the
square of opposition
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 10 [i3bi~35] 19a-c
/ Interpretation, CH 6-7 26c-27d; CH 10 29d-
31c; CH 12-14 32d-36d / Posterior Analytics,
BK i, CH 2 [72*13] 98c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 64,
A 3, REP 3 68b-69b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 64d-65c; 156d-157b;
174b-d
lb. The conversion of propositions: the prob-
lem of immediate inference
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 7 [i7b23~37]
27b-c; CH 10 [20*16-37] 30d-31b/ Prior Ana-
lytics, BK i, CH 2-3 39d-40c; BK n, CH 8-10
79b-81b; CH 22 [67b2o-68*24] 89b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 17d-18a; 109d-lllc csp
109d410a, HOd lllc
7c. Reasoning as a sequence of judgments: the
chain of reasoning
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 3 [ibio-i6] 5c-d /
Prior Analytics, BK i» CH 1-3 39a-40c; CH 23
[4ob3o-4i*7] 57c-d / Posterior Analytics, BK i,
CH 1-2 97a-99a
CHAPTER 41: JUDGMENT
847
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thtologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 7, ANS 81d-82b; Q 58, A 3 301d-302d; A 4,
ANS 302d-303c; Q 79, AA 8-9 421c-423d; Q 85,
A 5, ANS 457d-458d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58a-c; 60a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59c-60a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xiv, 28b-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH n,
SECT 2-8 309d-311a; CH xv, SECT i 365a-c;
CH xvii, SECT 4, 373a-375a passim; SECT 15-
17 378d-379c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 110d-112d; 115d-119a /
Practical Reason, 329a~d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 313b; 666b-674b esp 667b-
668a, 672b; 868b-879b csp 870b-873a, 878a
8. The differentiation of judgments according
to origin, ground, or import
8a. Self-evident and demonstrable proposi-
tions: immediate and mediated, intuitive
and reasoned judgments
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
97a-d, CH 3 99b-100a; CH 15 109a-b; CH 19-22
lllc-115b; CH 23 [84bi9-85Ri] 115c-116a; CH
31 [88*5-17] 120b-c; BK n, CH 9 128a b; CH 19
136a-137a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 [ii39b25-34]
388c, CH 6 389d, CH 8 [1142*25-29] 391b-c;
CH ii [H43a32-b5] 392d-393a / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 2 [1356^6-27] 596b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A
i lOd-lld; Q 14, A i, REP 2 75d-76c; A 7,
ANS 81d 82b; Q 17, A 3, REP 2 102d-103c;
Q 79, A 12, ANS 425c-426b; Q 84, A 3, REP 3
443d-444d, Q 85, A 6, ANS 458d-459c, Q 117,
A i 595d-597c; PART I-H, Q i, A 4, REP 2 612a-
613a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 2 36a-37b; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a; A 4,
ANS 223d-224d; PART n-ii, Q i, A 4, ANS 382c-
383b; Q 8, A i, REP 2 417a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 259d-261a; 272a*d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59c-d;
97a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4a-d; xn, 20d 25a /
Objections and Replies, 123a-b; 125a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, i 171a-172a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15-16 98d-99c; SECT 18 99d-100b; SECT
23 101b-102a; CH n, SECT i 103d-104a; SECT 4
104d-106a; CH in, SECT 23 119b-120a; BK iv,
CH i, SECT 9 308c-309b passim, csp 309b; CH
n 309b-313a; CH in, SECT 2-4 313a-c; CH VH,
SECT i-n 337a-342d passim; CH ix, SECT 2-3
349a-c; CH xv, SECT i 365a-c; CH xvii, SECT
2-3 371d-372b; SECT 14-17 378c-379c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39a-c; 99a-c; HOd-lllc;
211c-218d / Judgement, 542d-543a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-d; NUMBER
83, 244b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 446a-447a
86. Analytic and synthetic judgments: trifling
and instructive propositions
35 LOCKE* Human Understanding, BK iv, CH v,
SECT 6, 330b; CH viu 345a-348d
42 KANT: Pure Reason , 16d-19a; 31a-d; 64d-66d;
179c-182b / Practical Reason, 339a; 351c /
Science of Right, 405b-c / Judgement, 516b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 879b-880b [fn 2]
8c. A priori and a posteriori, non-existential and
existential judgments: the problem of
a priori synthetic judgments
35 LOCKE : Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15-16 98d-99c; SECT 23 101b-102a; BK
iv, CH i, SECT 1-7 307a-308a; CH in, SECT
7-21 315b-319c; CH ix, SECT i 349a; CH
xi, SECT 13-14 357d-358c; CH xvn, SECT 2,
371d
35 HUME. Human Understanding, SECT iv 458a-
463d passim, esp DIV 20-21 458a-c, DIV 30,
462a; SECT v, DIV 34-38, 464b-466c; SECT x,
DIV 89 490b-c; SECT xn, DIV 131-132 508d-
509d passim
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 5a-8b; 14a-108a,c esp 14a-
20c, 23a-24a, 25b-26b, 27b-28b, 29d-33d,
35b-36a, 41c-42b, 46a-48d, 57d-59b, 64b-
66d, 85d-88a; 108b-d; 110a-113b; 134c-d;
146a; 179c-182b; 192a-b; 211c-218d; 224a-
227a / Fund. Prtn Metaphysic of Morals,
268b-d; 280a-b; 283b / Practical Reason,
309b-d; 329d-330c; 351c / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 367d-368a / Science of
Right, 405b-407a esp 405b-d / Judgement,
467a-475d; 570b-572d; 603a-b
43 MILL- Utilitarianism, 445d-446d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
158a; 182d 183c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 639a-641a esp 640b;
659a-660a; 851a-890a esp 851a-852a, 859a-
861b, 867a-869a, 879b, 880b-881a, 884b-
885a, 889b 890a; 897a-b
8d. The division of judgments into the deter-
minant and the reflective: judgments as
constitutive or as regulative
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 72c-74b; 193a-200c csp
193c-d, 194b-c; 201d-202a; 206a-207b /
Judgement, 461a-475d esp 471b-474b; 550a-
551a,q; 558a, 559a-560c; 562a-d; 564a-c;
567b-568c; 570b-572c; 577b; 584d-585a;
S88c; 597b-599b; 601d
9. Degrees of assent: certainty and probability
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 9 28a-29d /
Topics, BK v, CH 3 [i3ibi9-3o] 182b-c /
Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 8 [1074*14-16] 604c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [1094** 11-28]
339d-340a; CH 7 [1098*25-35] 343d; BK 11,
CH 2 [ii03b27~i 104*9] 349b-c / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 2 [i357*23-b24] 596d-597c; BK n, CH 25
3-i 403*1) 652b-d
848
THE GREAT IDEAS
(9. Degrees of assent: certainty an4 probability.)
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologies PART i, Q 14,
A 13 86d-88c; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a;
Q 58, Ay, REP 3 305c-306b; Q 86, A 4,
ANS 463d-464d; PART i-n, Q 17, A 6, ANS
690b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 3 14b-15a; Q 67, A 3, ANS 83b-84d; PART
n-ii, Q i, AA 4-5 382c-384b; Q 4, A 8 409a-
d; Q 9, A i, ANS and REP i 423c-424b, A 2,
ANS 424b-425a; Q 18, A 4 464c-465a; PART
HI, Q 7, A 3, REP 3 747b-748a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PARI i, 65b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 240c-242a; 272a-d;
292a-d; 499c-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i~n la-3b, XH, 23a-c /
Discourse, PART iv, 53c-d, PART vi, 63c-64d
/ Meditations, 74a,c, iv, 92c-93a / Objections
and Replies, 125b-126b
35 LocKt Human Understanding, INTRO, SFCT
2-6 93b-95a; BK iv, CH vi 331b-336d passim,
esp SFCT 13 33Sc-d; CH xi, SECT 3 355a-b;
SECT 8-12 356b-357d; CH xiv-xvi 364b-
371c; CH xvn, SECT 2 371d-372b; SECT 14-17
378c-379c; en xix, SECT i 384c-d
35 HUME Human Understanding, SECT vi 469d-
470d, SECT x, DIV 86-91 488d-491c passim,
esp DIV 87 489b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 194b-c; 228c-d; 240b-
243c / Judgement, 600d-604b passim
43 MILL. Liberty, 275a-277b
53 JAMFS. Psychology, 636a 638b, 659a-660b
54 FREUD* General Introduction, 463d / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 661c-662a / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 818c-819b
10. The truth and falsity of judgments
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 71c-74a / Cratylus, 85d-
86d; 109a-b / Theaetetus, 541a-544a / Sophist,
561d-577b esp 575a-577b
8 ARISTOTLE. Categories, CH 4 [2*4-10] 6a; CH 5
[4ftio-bi9] 8b-9a / Interpretation, CH i [16*9-
18] 25a-b; CH 4-14 26a-36d passim, esp ci
[17*1-4! 26b, CH 7 26d-27d, CH 9 28a-2
CH 14 35c-36d / Metaphysics, BK iv, ci
[ionb25-29] 531c; [1012*1-17] 531d-53
CH 8 [ioi2a29-b22] 532 b-d; BK vi, CH
550a,c, BK ix, CH 10 [io5ift34-bi8] 577
/ Soul, BK in, CH 3 (427bi5-25J 660a; ci
662d-663c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 7 [1107*27-
352d-353a; BK vi, CH 2 [1139*21-31] 38'
388a; CH 3 [11^14-18] 388b
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK iv [353-5
48d-51a esp [469-521] 50b-51a
18 AUGUSTINE City of God, BK vm, CH
269b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 31
651d-653b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3
4, REP 2 16d-17c; Q 13, A 12 74c-75b; Q
A 15, REP 3 89b-90b; Q 16, A 2 95c-96b; A
ANS and REP 4 99a-d, A 8, REP 3-4 99d-10<
Q 17, AA 3-4 102d-104b, Q 58, A 4, REI
302d-303c, A 5 303c-304c, Q 85, A i, RE
451c453c; A 5, REP 3 457d-458d, A 6 451
459c; Q 94, A 4 505a 506a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PARI i-ii, Q
A 5, REP 3 39a-40a
23 HOB BBS Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 57c; 5
60a; 65b-c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 240c-242a, 259d-26
271b-272c; 292a-d
31 DLSCARTFS- Rules, xn 18b-25a passim
Discourse, PART iv, 52a / Meditations, in, 8
85c, iv 89a-93a esp 90b-91b / Objections c
Replies, 124b-c; 125b-126b; Dhb ix 13(
141a, 156d-158a, 168b-d; 215d-216c, 22<
230d
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART n, PROP 49 3910-39^
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK ir, CH xx
243c-248b passim, esp SECT 1-3 243c-24
SECT 19-26 247a-248b; BK in, CH vn, si-c
283a-b, BK iv, CH v 329a-331b; en vi, SEC
331c-d; SECT 16 336d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 99a-100a, 108a-d; 193s
240b-243c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 460a-469b esp 462b-46
468b-469a; 508a; 638a-b; 879a-881a
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The comparison of judgment with other acts of the mind, see IDEA 2g, 53; KNOWLEDGE 6b(,
REASONING i ; and for the relation of judgment to other faculties of the mind, see Mi
Discussions relevant to the distinction between theoretic and practical judgments,
KNOWLEDGE 6e(i); PHILOSOPHY 2a; PRUDENCE 2a; REASONING 5e-5e(i); THEOLOGY *.
TRUTH 2c; WISDOM ib.
Other considerations of practical or moral judgments, and of judgment in relation to pj
dence, see GOOD AND EVIL 50-5^ KNOWLEDGE 6e(2); PRUDENCE 53; and for the theory
the categorical imperative, see DUTY 5; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 53(2).
Other treatments of language in relation to thought, see IDEA 43 ; LANGUAGE 7.
CHAPTER 41 : JUDGMENT 843
For: The theory of predication and the analysis of subjects and predicates, see IDEA 5a; UNIVERSAI
AND PARTICULAR 5c.
The relational theory of propositions v see RELATION 40.
Other discussions bearing on the quantity, quality, and modality of propositions, see INFIN-
ITY 2b; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 4e(i); UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 5c~5d; and foi
other considerations of the distinction between the categorical and the hypothetical ir
judgment and reasoning, see HYPOTHESIS 5; REASONING ab.
Another treatment of the square of opposition, see OPPOSITION id(i)-id(2).
The relation of judgments to one anothet in immediate inference or in reasoning, see REASON
ING 43; RELATION 4b.
The distinction between self-evident and demonstrable judgments, see INDUCTION 3; KNOWL
EDGE 6c(2); PRINCIPLE 2b(2); and for other treatments of the a priori and the a posteriori
#v EXPERIENCE 2d; KNOWLEDGE 6c(4); REASONING 5^3).
A discussion relevant to the distinction between existential and non-existential judgments
see KNOWLEDGE 63(3).
The problem of the truth and falsity of judgments, or their certainty and probability, set
KNOWLEDGE 6d(i)-6d(2); OPINION 3a~3b; TRUTH 2e, 3b(2)~3c, ya.
Another consideration of the aesthetic judgment, see BEAUTY 5; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAI
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas*
SlGWART. LoglC, PART I-II
JEVONS. Pure Logic, CH 2, 7, 10, 12
AQUINAS. De Propositionibus Modalibus - . Studies in Deductive Logic, CH 3-6
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART i, CH 3 LOTZE. Logic, BK i, CH 2
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Mctaphysic, par - . Outlines of Logic, i, CH 2
2-3 BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic, BK i; Tcrmina
HEGEL. Science of Logic, VOL n, SECT i, CH 2 Essays, n-in, vi
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK i, CH 4-6 J. N. KEYNES. Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic
PART II
**• BOSANQUET. Logic, VOL I, CH I~9
CICERO. Academics, n (xlvii) VENN. Symbolic Logic, CH 6-8
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Logicians - . Principles of Empirical or Inductive LogU
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogtcon CH 8-10
SuAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, vm-ix J. C. WILSON. Statement and Inference, PART n
JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho* WHITEHEAD and RUSSELL. Pnncipia Mathematics
misticus, Ars Logica, PART i, QQ 5-7 PART i, SECT c, D; PART n, SECT B, c, D, E; PAR
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART n iv-v
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under- ROYCE. The Principles of Logic
standing, BK iv, CH 5 W. E. JOHNSON. Logic, PART i, CH 1-5, 9-10
T. REID. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, vi MARITAIN. An Introduction to Logic, CH 2
W. HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logtc, WHITEHEAD. Process and Reality, PART n, CH 9
VOL ii (13-14) DEWEY et al. Studies in Logical Theory, i-iv
BOOLE. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, CH DEWEY. Essays in Experimental Logic, n-vi, xn-xr
21 - . Reconstruction in Philosophy, CH 6
J. H. NEWMAN. An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of - . Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 6-14
Assent M. R. COHEN. A Preface to Logic, n-in
Chapter 4x JUSTICE
INTRODUCTION
discussion of justice is the central
JL theme in two dialogues of Plato — the
Republic and the Gorgtas. The dispute between
Socrates and Thrasymachus in the one and be-
:ween Socrates and Calhcles in the other is of
;uch universal scope and fundamental character
:hat it recurs again and again in the great
x>oks with little change except in the person-
ilities and vocabularies of the disputants.
It is a conflict of such polar opposites that all
)ther differences of opinion about justice be-
ame arguable only after one or the other of the
wo extreme positions is abandoned. It is, the
•onflict between the exponents of might and
he exponents of right— between those who
hink that might maizes right and that justice
s expediency, and those who think that power
'an be wrongly as well as rightly exercised and
hat justice, the measure of men and states,
•annot be measured by utility.
Though Plato gives us the first full-fashioned
tatement of this issue, he does not fashion it
>ut of whole cloth. The issue runs through the
abric of Greek life and thought in the age of
he imperialistic city-states which played the
;ame of power politics culminating in the Pel-
ponnesian War. In his history of that war,
fhucydides highlights the Melian episode by
Iramatically constructing a conversation be-
ween the Athenian envoys and the representa-
ives of Melos, a little island colony of Sparta
vhich had refused to knuckle under to Athe-
tian aggression.
Recognizing the superior force of the aggres-
ors, the Mehans enter the conference with a
ensc of its futility, for, as they point out, if
hey insist upon their rights and refuse to sub-
nit, they can expect nothing from these nego-
iations except war and, in the end, slavery. The
Athenians reply with a frankness that is seldom
Dund in the diplomatic exchanges of our own
day, though in their real contentions the con-
ferences which have preceded or followed the
world wars of our century repeat what hap-
pened, if not what was said, at Melos.
The Athenians tell the Mehans that they will
not waste time with specious pretences "either
of how we have a right to our empire ... or arc
now attacking you because of a wrong you have
done us." Why make a long speech, they say,
which would not be believed? Instead they
come directly to the point and put the matter
simply or, as we now say, realistically. "You
know as well as we do," they tell the Mehans,
"that right, as the world goes, is only in ques-
tion between equals in power, whereas the
stronger do whatever they can and the weaker
surfer whatever they must." There is nothing
left for the Mehans except an appeal to expe-
diency. "You debar us from talking about jus-
tice and invite us to obey your interest," they
reply to the Athenians, before trying to per-
suade them that their policy will end in disaster
for Athens.
The language of Thrasymachus in the Repub-
lic resembles that of the Athenian envoys. "I
proclaim," he says, "that justice is nothing else
than the interest of the stronger. . . . The differ-
ent forms of government make laws democrati-
cal, anstocratical, tyrannical, with a view to
their several interests; and these laws, which
are made by them for their own interests, are
the justice which they deliver to their subjects,
and him who transgresses them they punish as
a breaker of the law, and unjust. And this is
what I mean when I say that in all states there
is the same principle of justice which is the in-
terest of the government; and as the govern-
ment must be supposed to have power, the only
reasonable conclusion is that everywhere there
is one principle of justice which is the interest
of the stronger.'1
850
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
851
The thesis seems to have two applications.
7or the stronger, it means that they have the
ight, as far as they have the might, to exact
rom the weaker whatever serves their interests.
Their laws or demands cannot be unjust. They
annot do injustice. They can only fail to exert
ufficient might to hold on to the power which
an secure them, not from the charge of in-
ustice, but from reprisals by those whom they
lave oppressed or injured.
The thesis also means, for the weaker, that
hey can only do injustice but not suffer it. In-
ustice on their part consists in disobeying the
aw of their rulers. Hence for them, too, justice
5 expediency, only now in the sense that they
re likely to suffer if they try to follow their
>wn interests rather than the interests of the
tronger.
This thesis appears to be repeated in some-
/hat different language by Hobbes and Spi-
ioza. To men living in a purely natural condi-
ion, the notions of justice and injustice do not
pply. They apply only to men living in civil
ociety. "Where there is no Commonwealth,"
lobbes writes, "there is nothing unjust. So that
he nature of justice consists in the keeping of
alid covenants; but the validity of covenants
icgms not but with the constitution of a civil
»ower sufficient to compel men to keep them."
lie breach of civil laws or covenants "may be
ailed injustice, and the observance of them
iistice."
It is Spinoza's opinion that "everything has
iy nature as much right as it has power to exist
nd operate." It follows, therefore, that "in a
atural state there is nothing which can be
ailed just or unjust, but only in a civil state."
lere as before justice consists in obedience, m-
ustice in disobedience, to whatever laws the
tate has the power to enforce, the laws them-
*lves being formulated not by reference to
jstice, but to the interests of the state which
lust seek its own preservation and has the right
o do so, so long as it has the power.
^HOSE WHO TAKE the opposite view agree that
jstice is political in the sense that the state, in
rgamzation and operation, is a work of justice.
Visdom is the virtue of the rulers in the
\epubltCy but justice is the organizing principle
f Plato's ideal state.
Aristotle maintains that man is a political
animal, whereas other animals are merely gre-
garious. He cites the fact that man alone has a
power of speech able to communicate opinions
about the expedient and the just. " Justice is the
bond of men in states, for the administration of
justice, which is the determination of what is
just, is the principle of order in political so-
ciety." Aristotle describes man "when sepa-
rated from law and justice" as the worst of ani-
mals. Augustine describes the state without jus-
tice as "no better than a band of robber thieves."
Those who agree that political institutions
involve justice are confronted by these alterna-
tives: either the principle of justice is antecedent
to the state, its constitution, covenants, and
laws, or the determination of what is just and
unjust is entirely relative to the constitution of
a state, dependent upon its power, and conse-
quent to its laws.
When the second alternative is chosen, the
proposition that justice is political is seriously
qualified. It is merely political. There is no natu-
ral justice, no justice apart from man-made
laws, nothing that is just or unjust in the very
nature of the case and without reference to civil
institutions. On this theory, only the individual
who is subject to government can be judged
just or unjust. The government itself cannot be
so judged, nor can its constitution, its laws, or
its acts; for, since these determine what is just
and unjust, they cannot themselves be judged
for their justice.
The opposite answer conceives political jus-
tice as a determination of natural justice. "Po-
litical justice," Aristotle remarks, "is partly
natural and partly conventional or legal." The
fact that there is a sense in which just action on
the part of a citizen consists in law-abiding con-
duct, does not exclude another sense in which
the laws themselves can be called just or unjust,
not only the laws, but the constitution of the
state itself. Though the justice of civil laws is
partly relative to the constitution under which
they are made and administered, there are some
enactments which, since they violate natural
justice, cannot be justified under any constitu-
tion. The constitution, moreover, cannot be
regarded as the ultimate standard of justice by
those who compare the justice of different forms
of government or diverse constitutions. On
852
THE GREAT IDEAS
their view, the ultimate measure of justice in
all human institutions and acts, as well as in the
characters of men, is not itself a man-made
standard, but rather a natural principle of jus-
tice, holding for all men at all times everywhere.
THE ISSUE JOINED BY these two theories of
justice extends by implication into many re-
lated matters. The opposition, for example, be-
tween those who affirm the reality of natural
la was the source of legality in all civil regula-
tions and those who derive the legality of
positive laws from the will of the sovereign
alone, is considered in the chapter on LAW, but
its parallelism with the issue of natural and
conventional justice should be noted here.
Those who deny natural justice and natural
law also tend to deny natural rights, which, un-
like civil rights, are not conferred on the indi-
vidual by the state, but are inherent in his hu-
man personality, They are, according to the
Declaration of Independence, "unahenable" in
the sense that the state cannot rescind them.
What the state does not create, it cannot de-
stroy. If a government transgresses natural
rights, it negates its own reason for being,
since it is "to secure these rights [that] govern-
ments are instituted among men."
Those who deny natural rights, among which
the right to liberty is usually included, do not
have a standard for judging when governments
violate the rights and invade the liberties of
men. When men are thought to have no rights
except those granted by their rulers, the abso-
lute power which the rulers exercise cannot be
criticized as tyrannical or despotic.
Considering the situation of men in what he
:alls "a state of perfect freedom"— apart from
government and civil institutions— Locke says
:>f this state of nature that it "has a law of na-
ture to govern it, which obliges everyone; and
reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind
ivho will but consult it, that, being all equal
md independent, no one ought to harm another
in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. . . . Ev-
eryone, as he is bound to preserve himself, and
not quit his station willfully, so, by the like rea-
;on, when his own preservation comes not in
:ompetition, ought he, as much .as he can, to
^reserve the rest of mankind, and not, unless it
x to do justice on an offender, take away or
impair the life, or what tends to the preserva-
tion of the life, the liberty, health, limb, or
goods of another." Since this law of nature, and
its implied principle of just dealing between
men, is not abolished when men associate in the
common life of a civil society, natural justice
and natural rights remain, according to Locke
and others, to limit the powers of government
and to measure the justice of its laws.
The principle of natural justice is sometimes
not accompanied by a doctrine of natural law
and natural rights, as for example in Greek
thought. Their connection first seems to occur
in Roman jurisprudence and mediaeval theory.
Not all the opponents of natural justice avoid
the use of the words "natural law" and "natu-
ral rights." Using these words in a different
sense, Hobbes, for example, speaks of men liv-
ing under natural law in a state of nature, which
is "a condition of war of every one against
every one," and "in such condition every man
has a right to everything, even to another's
body." Only when men abandon this unlimited
right in order to form a commonwealth, do
they acquire in recompense certain civil rights
or, as Hobbes says, "proprieties." Then, and
only then, can there be any meaning to justice,
conceived according to the ancient maxim which
Hobbes accepts, that justice is "the constant
will to render to each man what is his due."
Both Spinoza and Hume make the same
point. Where there is no recognized tjtle to
property, or legally established right, there can
be no justice — no respecting of what is a man's
own or giving him what belongs to him. The
difference between Locke and these others seems
to lie in his conception of property as the natural
right which a man has to the preservation of his
life, liberty, and estate. There can be justice,
therefore, between men in a state of nature, for
even then each has some property that the
others are bound to respect.
THE MEANING of natural justice can be ex-
amined apart from these different interpreta-
tions of the so-called "state of nature." Those
who, like Aristotle and Aquinas, do not con-
ceive the origin of political society as a transi-
tion from the "state of nature" do, neverthe-
less, appeal to a principle of natural justice. For
Aquinas, this principle seems to be an integral
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
853
part of the natural law. Sometimes the state-
ment of the first precept of the natural law is
"Seek the good; avoid evil." Sometimes it is
"Do good to others, injure no one, and render
to every man his own." In this second formula-
tion, the natural law seems to be identical with
the precept of justice. The essential content of
this precept seems to be present — separate from
any doctrine of natural law — in Aristotle's
analysis of the nature of justice both as a virtue
and as a quality of human acts.
"The just," Aristotle says, "is the lawful and
the fair." What he means by the word "lawful"
in this context does not seem to be simply the
law-abiding, in the sense of conforming to the
actual laws of a particular society. He thinks of
law as aiming "at the common advantage. . . .
We call those acts just," he writes, "that rend
to produce and preserve happiness and its com-
ponents for the political society." Lawful (or
just) actions thus are those which are for the
common good or the good of others; unlawful
(or unjust) actions, those which do injury to
others or despoil the society.
It is in this sense of justice that both Plato
and Aristotle lay down the primary criterion
for differentiating between good and bad gov-
ernments. Those which are lawful and serve
the common good are just; those which are
lawless and serve the private interests of the
rulers are unjust. This meaning of justice ap-
plies as readily to all citizens — to all members
of a society — as it does to those who have the
special duties or occupy the special offices of
government.
Whether it is stated in terms of the good of
other individuals or in terms of the common
good of a community (domestic or political),
this understanding of justice seems to consider
the actions of a man as they affect the well-
being, not of himself, but of others. "Justice,
alone of the virtues," says Aristotle, "is thought
to be 'another's good,' because it is related to
our neighbor." Concerned with what is due
another, justice involves the element of duty
or obligation. "To each one," Aquinas writes,
"is due what is his own," and "it evidently per-
tains to justice," he adds, "that a man give
another his due." That is why "justice alone, of
all the virtues, implies the notion of duty." Do-
ing good to others or not injuring them, when
undertaken as a matter of strict justice, goes no
further than to discharge the debt which each
man owes every other.
In consequence, a difference of opinion arises
concerning the adequacy of justice to establish
the peace and harmony of a society. Some writ-
ers, like Kant, seem to think that if perfect jus-
tice obtained, a multitude of individual wills
would be perfectly harmonized in free action.
Others, like Aquinas, think justice necessary
but insufficient precisely because it is a matter
of duty and debt. "Peace," he writes, "is the
wor\ of justice indirectly, in so far as justice re-
moves the obstacles to peace; but it is the «/or^
of chanty directly, since charity, according to
its very nature, causes peace; for love is a umttvc
force" The bonds of love and friendship unite
men where justice merely governs their inter-
action. What men do for one another out of the
generosity of love far exceeds the commands of
justice. That is why mercy and chanty are
called upon to qualify justice or even to set it
aside. "Earthly power," Portia declares in the
Merchant of Venice, "doth then show hkest
God's when mercy seasons justice."
THE PRECEPT "to render unto others what is
their due" is read in a different light when the
other aspect of justice is considered. When the
just is conceived as the fair, the fairness which
is due ourselves or others applies, not to benefit
and injury generally, but to the exchange and
distribution of goods or burdens. What is the
principle of a fair exchange or a fair distribu-
tion? Aristotle's answer to this question is in
terms of equality.
In the transactions of commerce, fairness
seems to tequire the exchange of things equiva-
lent in value. The rule of an eye for an eye, a
tooth for a tooth, is another expression of the
principle of equality as the criterion of a fair
penalty or a just compensation. If honors or re-
wards are to be distributed, equals should in
fairness be treated equally, and those who are
unequal in merit should receive unequal shares.
For all to share alike is not a just distribution of
deserts if all do not deserve alike. "Awards
should be 'according to merit,1 " Aristotle
writes. He claims that "all men agree" with
this, "though they do not all specify the same
sort of merit, but democrats identify it with
854
THE GREAT IDEAS
the status of freeman, supporters of oligarchy
with wealth or with noble birth, and supporters
of aristocracy with excellence." The unequal
treatment of unequals, however, still derives
its fairness from the principle of equality, for
there is an equivalence of ratios in the propor-
tion of giving more to the more deserving and
less to the less.
Aristotle employs the distinction between
these modes of equality —arithmetic and geo-
metric, or simple and proportional, equality —
to define the difference between fairness in ex-
change and fairness in distribution. The one is
the type of justice which is traditionally called
"commutative," "corrective," or "remedial,"
the other "distributive."
The type of justice "which plays a rectifying
part in transactions between man and man,"
Aristotle further divides into two kinds. "Of
transactions," he writes, "(i) some are volun-
tary and (2) others involuntary — voluntary such
transactions as sale, purchase, loan for consump-
tion, pledging, loan for use, depositing, letting
. . . while of the involuntary (a) some are clan-
destine, such as theft, adultery, poisoning, pro-
curing, enticement of slaves, assassination, false
witness, and (b) others are violent, such as as-
sault, imprisonment, murder, robbery with vio-
lence, mutilation, abuse, insult." The sphere
which Aristotle assigns to commutative or cor-
rective justice thus appears to cover both crim-
inal acts and civil injuries. But, as applied to
civil injuries, the principle of fairness in ex-
change usually involves a payment for dam-
ages, restitution, or compensation in kind;
whereas the principle of commutative justice
as applied to criminal wrongdoing usually calls
for a punishment somehow equalized in se-
venty to the gravity of the offense. This last is
the principle of the lex tahonis — an eye for an
eye, a life for a life. The problems of justice
which it raises are considered in the chapter on
PUNISHMENT.
JUSTICE is SOMETIMES divided into economic
and political according as, on the one hand, fair-
ness or equalization concerns the kind of goods
which originate with the expenditure of labor,
or as, on the other hand, it involves the status
of men in the state. The difference between
these two modes of justice seems to be largely
dependent upon the kind of transaction to
which the principle of justice is applied. The
forms of justice— the two modes of equality
or fairness— appear to remain the same. The
special problems of economic justice are more
fully examined in the chapters on LABOR and
WEALTH, as the special problems of political
justice are treated in greater detail in all the
chapters dealing with the state, government,
and the several forms of government. Here we
shall consider only the generalities, and es-
pecially those which touch the mam issues in
the theory of justice.
Though Karl Marx does not engage in the
controversy over natural justice, he seems to
take the side which looks upon justice as a uni-
versal standard that does not derive from, but
rather measures, human institutions. Some-
thing like 'from each according to his ability,
to each according to his needs' — or, in another
variant of the maxim, 'to each according to his
deserts'—seems to be for Marx the maxim of a
just economy, stated without argument as if a
principle self-evident in the very nature of the
case. So, too, in his consideration of the exploi-
tation of labor in its various historic forms-
chattel slavery, feudal serfdom or agrarian pe-
onage, and what he calls "wage slavery" under
industrial capitalism — Marx assumes that a
clear and unquestionable principle of justice is
being violated when the goods produced by the
labor of one man enrich another dispropor-
tionately to that other's contribution or desert.
Such basic words in Capitals "expropriation,"
"exploitation," and "unearned increment"
seem never to be simply terms of description,
but of evaluation. Each implies a specific in-
justice.
The labor theory of value, the origin of which
he attributes to Adam Smith, Marx conceives
as solving a problem in justice which Aristotle
stated but did not solve. He refers to the chap-
ter in the book on justice in Aristotle's Ethics,
in which Aristotle discusses money as a medium
to facilitate the exchange of commodities.
Money permits so many units of one commod-
ity to be equated with so many units of another.
But the problem is how to determine equiva-
lents in the exchange of unlike things, appar-
ently incommensurable in value. How can the
value of a house be commensurated with the
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
855
value of a bed, so that an equality in value can
be set up between a house and a certain number
of beds? Abstracting entirely from considera-
tions of supply and demand, the determination
of a just exchange or a fair price requires an
equation of comparable quantities.
Aristotle tells us, Marx points out, why he
found the problem insoluble. "It was the ab-
sence of any concept of value. What is that
equal something, that common substance, which
admits of the value of beds being expressed by
a house ? Such a thing, in truth, cannot exist,
says Aristotle. And why not ? Compared with
beds, the house does represent something equal
to them, in so far as it represents what is really
equal, both in the beds and the house. And that
is— human labor. . . . The brilliancy of Aris-
totle's genius is shown by this alone, that he
discovered, in the expression of the value of
commodities, a relation of equality. The pecu-
liar conditions of the society in which he lived
alone prevented him from discovering what,
'in truth,' was at the bottom of this equality."
We cannot help noting the character of the
labor theory of value as an analysis not only of
justice in exchange, but also of just compensa-
tion to labor for its productivity. The principle
of justice here employed seems to be the same
as that underlying the mediaeval condemnation
of interest as unjust or usurious, or the later
effort to discriminate between just and unjust
interest rates. The principle even seems to be
implicitly involved in Adam Smith's distinction
between real or natural price and the market
price which fluctuates with variations in supply
and demand.
When the economic problem is one of dis-
tribution rather than exchange, another stand-
ard of fairness— the proportional equality of
distributive justice — becomes relevant.
The assumption of a primitive possession of
all things in common, especially land and its re-
sources, is the background against which such
thinkers as Aquinas and Hobbes, Locke and
Rousseau, Montesquieu and Hegel, Adam Smith
and Karl Marx consider the origin or justifica-
tion of private property. Insofar as the question
is one of justification, rather than of actual his-
toric origin, the division of common holdings
into privately held shares is a matter of justice
in distribution. In the opinion of many, a just
distribution would recognize that labor alone
entitles a man to claim possession of the raw
materials improved by his work and of the fin-
ished products of that work.
The other face of the problem assumes an ex-
isting inequitable distribution. It is then asked
how this can be rectified by some method of re-
distributing wealth more justly; or it is pro-
posed that the whole system of private property
be reformed in the direction of public owner-
ship of the means of production, as the basis for
a just distribution of the fruits of human pro-
ductivity.
THE CONNECTION which has become evident
between justice and both liberty and equality
does not imply that these three basic notions
are simply coordinate with one another. On the
contrary, equality seems to be the root of jus-
tice, at least insofar as it is identified with fair-
ness in exchange or distribution; and justice in
turn seems to be the foundation, not the conse-
quence of liberty.
The condemnation of slavery confirms this
observation. If slavery were not unjust, the
slave would have no right to be free. The injus-
tice of treating a man as a chattel ultimately
rests on the equality between him and his mas-
ter as human beings. His right to the same lib-
erty which his master enjoys stems from that
equality. The justice of equal treatment for
equals recognizes that right and sets him free.
Aristotle's theory of natural slavery is based on
a supposition of natural inequality which is
thought to justify the enslavement of some
men and the freedom of others. Whenever
slavery is justified or a criminal is justly im-
prisoned, neither the slave nor the criminal is
regarded as deprived of any liberty to which he
has a right.
It would seem to follow that if a man is justly
treated, he has all the liberty which he de-
serves. From the opposite angle, Mill argues
that a man is entitled to all the liberty that he
can use justly, that is, use without injuring his
fellow man or the common good. More liberty
than this would be license. When one man en-
croaches on the rights of others, or inflicts on
them "any loss or damage not justified by his
own rights," he is overstepping the bounds of
liberty and is, according to Mill, a fit object "of
856
THE GREAT IDEAS
moral reprobation, and, in grave cases, of moral
retribution and punishment."
The various relations of liberty to justice,
and of both to law, are considered in the chap-
ters on LIBERTY and LAW. All the writers who
make the distinction between government by
law and government by men fundamental in
their political theory also plainly express a
preference for the former on grounds both of
justice and liberty.
Absolute government, which violates the
equality of men, unjustly subjects them, even
when it does not through tyranny enslave them.
The benevolence of the despot ruling for the
common good has one aspect of justice, but
there are other aspects of political justice which
can be achieved, as Mill points out, only if "des-
potism consents not to be despotism . . . and
allows the general business of government to go
on as if the people really governed themselves."
The greater justice of constitutional govern-
ment consists in its granting to men who de-
serve the equal freedom of equals, the equality
of citizenship— an equality under the law which
levels those citizens who happen to hold public
office with those in private life.
The major controversy over the several forms
of constitutional government turns on a third
point of justice. The defenders of democracy
and oligarchy each contend that equalities or
inequalities in birth or wealth justify a broader
or a narrower franchise. It is Mill again who in-
sists that nothing less than universal suffrage
provides a just distribution of the political sta-
tus of citizenship, and that "it is a personal in-
justice to withhold from anyone, unless for the
prevention of greater evils, the ordinary privi-
lege of having his voice reckoned in the dispos-
al of affairs in which he has the same interest
as other people."
Of the three points of justice which seem to
be involved in the comparison of forms of gov-
ernment, only the first (concerned with whether
political power is exercised for the common
good or the ruler's private interests) is not rec-
ognizable as a matter of distributive justice.
Yet even here the requirement that the ruler
should treat the ruled as ends rather than as
means derives from a fundamental equality be-
tween ruler and ruled. The injustice of tyr-
anny lies in a violation of this equality.
ONE MEANING of justice remains to be con-
sidered. It is related to all the foregoing consid-
erations of economic and political justice, of
just constitutions, just laws, and just acts. It is
that meaning of justice in which a man is said
to be just— to possess a just will, to be just in
character, to have the virtue of justice. Here
difference in theory reflects the difference be-
tween those moralists for whom virtue is the
basic conception, and those who, like Kant,
emphasize duty or who, like Mill, reduce the
propensity for justice to a moral sentiment.
But even among those who treat justice as a
virtue, there seems to be a profound difference
in analysis.
For Aristotle, the virtue of justice, like other
moral virtues, is a habit of conduct. It differs
from courage and temperance in that it is a
habit of action, not of the passions. It is not a
rationally moderated tendency of the emotions
with regard to things pleasant and painful. It is
that settled inclination of the will "in virtue of
which the just man is said to be a doer, by
choice, of that which is just, and one who will
distribute either between himself and another
or between two others not so as to give more of
what is desirable to himself and less to his neigh-
bor (and conversely \\ith what is harmful), but
so as to give what is equal in accordance with
proportion."
Another difference bet ween "justice and the
other moral virtues is that courageous and tem-
perate acts arc performed only by courageous
and temperate men, whereas an act which is
outwardly just can be done by an unjust man
as well as by a just one.
Fair dealing in the exchange or distribution
of goods, determined by objective relations of
equality, is the substance of justice as a special
virtue; but there is in addition what Aristotle
calls "general" as opposed to "special" justice.
Aristotle calls the general virtue of justice
"complete virtue," because "he who possesses it
can exercise rus virtue not only in himself but
towards his neighbor also." It embraces ail the
moral virtues insofar as their acts are directed
to the good of others.
"Justice in this sense," he goes on to say, "is
not a part of virtue, but virtue entire"; whereas
special justice — the justice of distributions and
exchanges — is merely a part of moral virtue,
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
857
merely one particular virtue. Yet special jus-
tice, no less than general justice, is a social vir-
tue. The difference between the way each di-
rects actions toward the good of others seems to
be like the difference between the lawful and
the fair, or the difference between the common
good of society as a whole and the good of other
individuals.
The thoroughly social conception of justice
in Aristotle may have some parallel in the mean-
ing of justice in Plato's Gorgtas (where the
question is whether it is better to suffer than to
do injustice), but the definition of justice as a
virtue in the Republic does not express or de-
velop the social reference. In the state as in the
soul, justice is a fitting disposition or harmoni-
ous order— of the several classes of men in the
state, of the several virtues in the soul. The
just state is not described as acting justly to-
ward other states, nor is the just man pictured
as a doer of good deeds. Rather the picture of
the soul in which justice resides is one of in-
terior peace or spiritual health— the well-being
of happiness.
"Justice," Socrates declares, is concerned
"not with the outward man, but with the in-
ward, which is the true self and concernment of
man: for the just man does not permit the sev-
eral elements within him to interfere with one
another, or any of them to do the work of oth-
ers— he sets in order his own inner life, and is
his own master and his own law, and at peace
with himself." His is "one entirely temperate
and perfectly adjusted nature."
This conception of justice bears a certain re-
semblance to what the Christian theologians
mean by "original justice." The perfect dis-
position of Adam's soul in a state of supernatu-
ral grace consisted, according to Aquinas, in
"his reason being subject to God, the lower
powers to reason, and the body to the soul—
the first subjection being the cause of both the
second and the third, since while reason was
subject to God, the lower powers remained sub-
ject to reason." The justice of man's obedience
to God seems to be inseparable from the injus-
tice internal to his own members.
The way in which justice is discussed in the
Gorgias may similarly be inseparable from the
way it is defined in the Republic. Certainly Cal-
licles will never understand why it is always
better to suffer injustice than to do it, unless
Socrates succeeds in explaining to him that the
man who is wronged suffers injury in body or in
external things, while the man who does wrong
injures his own soul by destroying what, to Soc-
rates, is its greatest good — that equable temper
from which all fitting actions flow.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. Diverse conceptions of justice
i a. Justice as the interest of the stronger or conformity to the will of the sovereign
ib. Justice as harmony or right order in the soul: original justice
ic. Justice as a moral virtue directing activity in relation to others and to the com-
munity: the distinction between the just man and the just act
id. Justice as the whole of virtue and as a particular virtue: the distinction between
the lawful and the fair
ic. Justice as an act of will or duty fulfilling obligations to the common good: the
harmonious action of individual wills under a universal law of freedom
i/. Justice as a custom or moral sentiment based on considerations of utility
2. The precepts of justice: doing good, harming no one, rendering to each his own,
treating equals equally
3. The duties of justice compared with the generosity of love and friendship
4. The comparison of justice and expediency: the choice between doing and suffering
injustice; the relation of justice to happiness
PAGE
859
860
861
8ft
858 THE GREAT IDEAS
PACB
5. Justice and equality: the kinds of justice in relation to the measure and modes of
equality and inequality 862
6. Justice and liberty: the theory of human rights 863
6a. The relation of natural rights to natural law and natural justice
6b. The relation between natural and positive rights, innate and acquired rights, pri-
vate and public rights: their correlative duties
6V. The inalienability of natural rights: their violation by tyranny and despotism 864
6d. Justice as the basis for the distinction between liberty and license
6e. Justice and natural rights as the source of civil liberty
7. Domestic justice: the problems of right and duty in the family 865
8. Economic justice: justice in production, distribution, and exchange 866
80. Private and public property: the just distribution of economic goods
Sb. Fair wages and prices: the just exchange of goods and services 867
8*-. Justice in the organization of production 868
(1) Economic exploitation: chattel slavery and wage slavery
(2) Profit and unearned increment
Sd. Justice and the use of money: usury and interest rates
9. Political justice: justice in government 869
90. The natural and the conventional in political justice: natural law and the
general will
9^. Justice as the moral principle of political organization: the bond of men in states
gc. The criteria of justice in various forms of government and diverse constitutions 870
gd. The relation of ruler and ruled: the justice of the prince or statesman and of the
subject or citizen
9*. The just distribution of honors, ranks, offices, suffrage 871
o/. Justice between states: the problem of right and might in the making of war
and peace 872
9£. The tempering of political justice by clemency: amnesty, asylum, and pardon 873
0. Justice and law
loa. The measure of justice in laws made by the state: natural and constitutional
standards
wb. The legality of unjust laws: the extent of obedience required of the just man
in the unjust society 874
IQC. The justice of punishment for unjust acts: the distinction between retribution
and vengeance
lod. The correction of legal justice: equity in the application of human law 875
1, Divine justice: the relation of God or the gods to man 876
u a. The divine government of man: the justice and mercy of God or the gods
lib. Man's debt to God or the gods: the religious acts of piety and worship 877
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE 859
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PACE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology ', 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand sideof the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. Forexample, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends m the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases, e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7*45 — (Z)) // Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Diverse conceptions of justice 28a-b; CH in 28d-29d; CH VH, SECT 90-94
, , . 44d-46c; CH xvi 65d-70c passim / Human
la. Justice as the interest of the stronger or Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT 5 105a-b
conformity to the will of the sovereign 38 ROUSSEAU; Inequality, 333c-d; 347b-d; 353c-
5 SOPHOCLES Antigone [631-765] 136c-137d / 355d passim; 361c-362a / Political Economy,
Ajax [1047-1393] 152a-155a,c 368d-369b / Social Contract, BK i, 388d-389a;
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK v, 504c- 393b-c
508a,c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 219
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 271b-275d / Republic, BK 72d-73a; par 258, 81c-82d [fni]; ADDITIONS,
i-n, 300b-315c / Laws., BK iv, 681d-682c; 155 142a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
BK x, 760c 171c-172b; PART i, 207b-c; PART n, 277d-
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 6 [1255*3-20] 278a; PART in, 299a-c; PART iv, 327d-330b
448c-d; BK in, CH 13 [i283b23-26] 481d; BK esp 328c-d,.330b; 344a-c
vi, CH 3 [i3i8bi~5] 521d-522a; BK vn, CH 2 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,171-188] 272a-b
[i324b22-4i] 528d-529a 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 292a-297a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 2c-d / Camillus, 108b-c 50 MARX-£NQELS: Communist Manifesto, WSb-d.
/ Alexander, 566a-b 51 TOLSTOY • War and Peace, BK xii, 547a-549d
18 AUGUSTINE: Ctty of God, BK xix, CH 21 524a- esp 547c; EPILOGUE i, 647b-649d
525a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents,
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 86b; 91a-b; PART 780 b-d
n, 99b; 101a-102c; 103a; 124d-125a; 130c;
132a; 140b; 149b-c; 157b Injustice as harmony or right order in the
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 281a-282a; 519c-520b soul: original justice
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 99d-100c / Gorgias, 282c-
435b-436a 285a esp 282c-283a / Republic, BK i, 309b-
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 291-338 225a-233a; 878 310b; BK iv, 346a-355a; BK ix, 425c-427b /
345a-b Statesman, 586d-589c / Laws, BK iv, 681b-d;
35 LOCK«E: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 13 BK ix, 748b-c
860
THE GREAT IDEAS
\cto2
(1. Diverse conceptions of justice. \b. Justice as
harmony or right order in the soul: original
justice.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH n [ii38b5~i3]
387a,c
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv 14a-15b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 2,
107a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 10-11
385b-387a; CH 19 391c-392a; CH 26, 395d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ 95-
96 506b-513c; 0 100 520d-522b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
81-83 162d-174b; Q 85, A i, ANS 178b-179b;
Q 91, A 6, ANS 212c-213c; Q 100, A 2, REP 2
252b-253a; Q 113, A i, ANS and REP i 360d-
361d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [288-294] 158b;
BK XH [63-110] 320b-321b
Ic. Justice as a moral virtue directing activity
in relation to others and to the com-
munity: the distinction between the just
man and the just act
7 PLAIO: Cnto, 216d-219a,c / Republic, BK iv
342a-356a csp 348d-350a
8 ARISTOTLE Topics, BK i, CH 15 [106*2-8]
149d; BK in, CH i [ii6bn-i3] 163a; BK iv,
CH 2 [i2ib24-}o] 169d; BK vi, CH 5 [143*15-19]
196c-d; CH 7 [i45b34~M6a3] *99d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29b25~
1130*13] 377b-c; CH 5 [ii33bi6-23J 381b-c;
[ii33b3o-ii34ai5] 381c-d; en 8-9 383a-385c;
BK vi, CH 12 [1144*11-20] 393d; BK x, CH 8
[1178*8-22] 432d / Politics, BK HI, CH 12
[i282bi5-22] 480c; CH 13 [1283*37-40] 481c;
BK vii, CH 2 [1324^2-40] 528d-529a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 6 [i$62bio-28] 603b-c; CH
9 (1366*33-1367*"] 608d-609d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; SECT 6 261a-c; BK iv, SECT 10 264c;
BK v, SECT 6 269b~d; SECT 34 273c; BK vi,
SECT 2 274a; SKCT 22-23 276a-b; SECT 26
276b-c; BK vn,SECT44 282 b-c; BK vin, SECT
32 287d-288a; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; BK x,
SECT ii 298b-c; BK xi, SECT 10 303b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Anstides, 265c-d / Agesilaus,
491a-b / Cato the Younger, 636d-637c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 13-15
16e-17b/CityofGod, BK n, cH2i 161b-162d;
BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A i 124b-125b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 59,
AA 4-5 48c-49d; Q 60, AA 2-3 50d-52b; Q 99,
A 5, REP i 249a-250a; Q 100, A 2, REP 2 252b-
253a; A 3, REP 3 253a-d; A 12 264d-265d; Q
113, A i 360d-361d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 92c-93c; 96a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 272a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-216d
\d. Justice as the whole of virtue and as a par-
ticular virtue: the distinction between the
lawful and the fair
7 PLATO: Meno, 178c-179a / Republic, BK iv,
349a-350a / Laws, BK i, 642d-643b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 13 [150*1-15]
204c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [i 129*3 I]-CH 2
[1131*9] 376d-378c / Politics, BK in, CH 13
[1283*37-40] 481c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9
[1366*33-1367*22] 608d-609d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 10 303b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 55,
A 4, REP 4 28c-29d; Q 57, A 3, REP 2 37b-38a;
Q 60, A 3 51c-52b; Q 66, A 4 78c-79b; Q 99,
A 5, REP i 249a-250a; Q 100, A 2, REP 2 252b-
253a; A 12, ANS 264d-265d; Q 113, A i, ANS
and REP 2 360d-361d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 301d-302b
42 KANT- Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
368c-d; 377a-d
43 MILL : Utilitarianism, 468b-469b
le. Justice as an act of will or duty fulfilling
obligations to the common good: the
harmonious action of individual wills
under a universal law of freedom
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114d-115a / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 366d-367a; 368b-
369a; 371b-372a / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals
383a-394a,c csp 383a-d, 386b-387a,c, 389a-
390a,c, 391a-c, 392d-393c / Science of Right,
397a-402a,ccsp397c-399c,435a-b;438d-439a
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 29
19a-b; PART in, par 219 72d-73a; par 261
83a-d; par 278 92c-93a; ADDITIONS, 177
147d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 199b-c;
PART i, 207b-c; PART n, 272a-d; PART iv,
333c-d; 363c-d; 365b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 886b-888a
I/. Justice as a custom or moral sentiment based
on considerations of utility
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 310c-315c / Theaetc-
tus, 528b-c; 531a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-47c; 281a-283c
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 309 228b; 312 229a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 2 104a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 300d-301a / Utilitarianism,
464d-476a,c esp 476a,c
2. The precepts of justice: doing good, harm-
ing no one, rendering to each his own,
treating equals equally
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:1-17; 21:1-23:9 /
Leviticus, 19:9-18,32-37 / Deuteronomy, 5:6-
21 ; 15:7-18; 16:18-20; 19:11-21; 20:10-
12; 21:15-17; 22:1-4,13-29; 23:15-16,24-25;
24:6,10-22; 25:1-3,13-16 / / Kings, 3:16-28
— (D) III Kings, 3:16-28 / Proverbs, 3:27-30;
2to3
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
861
20:22; 24:23-25,29; 25:21 / Isaiah, 1:10-20
esp 1:16-17; 56.1-2— (D) Isaias, 1:10-20
esp 1:16-17; 56:1-2 / Jeremiah, 5:21-29 esp
5:26-28— (D) Jeremias, 5:21-29 esp 5.26-28
/ Ezetyel, 45:9-11— (D) Ezechiel, 45:9-11 /
Hosea, 4:1-3— (D) Osee, 4:1-3 / Amos, 5:7-27
/ Micah, 6:8— (D) Micheas, 6:8 / Zechanah,
7:8-i4-(Z)) Zachanas, 7:8-14 / Malachi,
2-9— (D) Malachias, 2:9
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-48; 19:16-24
/ Luke, 6:27-38; 18:18-27 / Romans, 12:17-21;
15:1-2/77 Corinthians, 8:9-15
5 AESCHYLUS : Suppliant Maidens [338-394] 5a-d
/ Eumemdes [544-565] 87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [863-910] 107b-c
/ Ajax [1047-1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [286-380] 260d-261c;
[513-584] 262d-263c / Helen [865-1031] 306c-
308a / Hecuba [239-331] 354d-355c / Phoeni-
cian Maidens [528-585] 382c-383a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [676-718] 463a-c
/ Wasps [725-726] 516d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 201d-202c
7 PLATO: Crito, 216a-d / Republic, BK i, 297b-
300b; BK iv, 349a-350a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi9-24]
377a; CH 5 [ii33b30-i 134*14] 381c-d; CH n
[1138*4-13] 386b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9
[I366a33-bn] 608d-609a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 16, 158c-d;
CH 22 167d-170a; BK iv, CH i, 220c-223d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT i 256b,d;
BK iv, SECT 10 264c; BK v, SECT 6 269b d;
BK vn, SECT 44 282b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92,
A 2 214d-215a,c; Q 94, A 2 221d-223a; Q 99,
A 4 248a-d; QQ 104-105 304a-321a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n,
STANZA 50 28a / Reeve's Tale 225a-232a esp
[4311-4322] 231b-232a / Tale of Melibeus,
par 30-31, 413b-414a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 86d-87b; 91b;
PART n, 155b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sc n [552-558]
46a / Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n [163-
188] 115b-c / Macbeth, ACT i, sc vn [1-28]
289b-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 145d;
PART n, 332d-333b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 878-879 345a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 5-6
26a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 257a-263a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 264b
[fni] / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
375d-376b / Science of Right, 400b,d-401b
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative
Government, 414a-b / Utilitarianism, 464d-
476a,c passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 36
21b-c; par 49 24c-25a; par 85 35a-b; ADDI-
TIONS, 29 121c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 202d; 214c-
216d; BK vm, 304c-305a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK in,
73a; BK v, 123c-127b; BK vi, 166c-167a;
168c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 211a-b; 886b-888a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 686a-b
3. The duties of justice compared with the
generosity of love and friendship
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 23:4-5 / Leviticus,
19:17-18 / Deuteronomy, 13:6-11; 21:18-21 /
Judges, 11.28-40 / Proverbs, 20:22; 24:29;
25:21 / Zechariah, 13:3— (D) Zachanas, 13:3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-48 / Luke,
6 27-38 / Romans, 12:17-21 / I Peter, 3:8-18
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK n, 83d-84a
8 ARISTOTLE- Topics, BK in, CH i [116*31-39]
162d;cH 2 [i 18*1-7] 164d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 6 373d-374b
passim; BK vm, CH i [1155*22-28] 406d; CH 7
[H58bi2-ii59»i3] 410c-411a; CH 9411d-412c;
CH n 413b-d; CH 12 [1162*29-33] 414d;cn 13
[n62bi7-n63*23] 415b-d; BK ix, CH 2 417c-
418b; CH 6 420c-421a esp [n67b5-i5] 420d-
421a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n
262a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [333-387] 176a-177b
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 278d-279c / Agesi-
laus, 482b-c; 486c / Marcus Brutus, 816c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, P\RF i, Q 23,
A 5, REP 3 135d-137d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 66,
A 4, REP i 78c-79b; Q 114, A 4 373a-d; PART
n-ii, Q 23, A 3, REP i 485a-d; Q 29, A 3 531d-
532c; Q 31, A i, REP 3 536d-537c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [85-
114] 76b-c
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,830-928] 364b-
366a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 86a-d; 467b-470a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 71b-c;
108c-109b; 177a-b; PART n, 332d-333b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 24b
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 27b*30a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphy sic of Morals, 259a
/ Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368c*d;
371b-372a; 375d-376b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 466c-467a; 468b-469b;
474b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 392b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 23
120d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 271d; BK
XH, 548d-549c; EPILOGUE i, 655b-c
862
THE GREAT IDEAS
4/o 5
4. The comparison of justice and expediency:
the choice between doing and suffering
injustice; the relation of justice to hap-
piness
OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 19:17-18 / Proverbs,
20:22; 24*29; 25:21
APOCRYPHA- Susanna— (D) OT, Daniel, 13
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-48 / Luke,
6:27-38 / Romans, 12:17-21 / / Corinthians,
4:10-14; 6:i-n/ I Peter, 2: 19-21; 3:8-18
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [944-1093]
50b-51d / Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [631-765] 136c-137d
5 EURIPIDES : Medea 212a-224a,c / Alcestis 237a-
247a,c / Helen [998-1031] 307d-308a / Hecuba
[239-331] 354d-355c / Iphigema at Auhs 425a-
439d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [886-1104] 499b-
502a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 105c-d; BK vn,
218a-b; 238c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK v, 504d-
508a passim
7 PLATO: Apology, 206d / Cnto 213a-219a,c /
Gorgias, 263d-267c / Republic 295a-441a,c
csp BK i-ii, 300b-315a, BK x, 436c-437c /
Laws, BK ii, 656d-658b; BK ix, 746a-747c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 3 [141*15-18]
194b / Sophistical Refutations, CH 25 [i8ob2i-
32] 249a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 8-9 383a-385c
csp CH 9 [ii36*io-bi4] 384a-d; CH n 386b-
387a,c esp [ii38*28-b4] 386d-387a / Politics,
BK i, CH 2 [1253*14-15] 446c; BK v, CH 8
[1308*2-17] 510a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 7
[i364b2i-24] 606c; BK 11, CH 23 [1397*19-22]
645b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 22 127c-128c;
BK n, CH 10, 149c-150a; BK in, CH 18 192a-c;
BK iv, CH i, 222c-223d; CH 5 228a-230b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 10 264c;
BK vii, SECT 36 282b
14 PLUTARCH- Themistocles, 96c-d / Camillus,
106b-107a / Ansttdes, 265c-d; 274d-275a /
Pyrrhus, 319b-d / Lysander, 357a-b / Sertonus,
468b-469a / Agesilaus, 490d-491b / Cato the
Younger, 636d-637c / Dion, 784d-785a /
Marcus Brutus, 816c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XH, CH 3 343d-
344b / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 36 634d-
635b
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMclibcus, par 30-31, 413b-
414a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86b; 91b-92b;
95d; PART n, 140b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 301d-302b; 519a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry Vl> ACT in, sc i
[223-237] 49c / King John, ACT n, sc i [561-
598] 385c-386a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 37a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 387b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 464d-476a,c esp 473c-
476a,c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 261c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 9c-10d; 40b-
41a; BK in, 123d-124a; BK v, 216b-d; BK vin,
304d-305a; BK xiv, 598d-599a; EPILOGUE i,
656d-657a
5. Justice and equality: the kinds of justice in
relation to the measure and modes of
equality and inequality
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [528-558]
382c-d
6 THUCYDIDES • Peloponnesian War, BK v, 505b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 411d-413a / Laws,
BK vi, 699d-700b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 5 [143*15-19]
196c-d, CH 7 [i45b33-i46*3] 199d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [i 130^*30-34]
378b; CH 3-5 378c-381d; CH 6 [ii34*25-bi7J
382a-c; CH 9 [1136^5-1 137*4] 384d-385a; BK
vm, CH 7 [ii58bi2-33] 410c-d; CH n 413b-d /
Politics, BK i, CH 12-13 453d-455a,c; BK n, CH
2 [i26i*23-b6] 456a-b; cii7461d-463c; BKIII,
CH 9 477c-478d esp [1280*8-31] 477c-d; CH
12-13 480c-483a, CH 16 [1287*10-23] 485c; BK
iv, CH 4 [i29ib3o-i292*7] 491a-b; BK v, CH j
[i30i*25~b4] 502b-c; [i30ib29-i302*8] 503a-b;
CH 8 [1308*2-17] 510a-b; CH 9 [1310*25-36]
512c; BK vi, CH 2 520d-521b esp [i3i7*40-bi6]
520d, [1318*4-10] 521b, CH 3 521c-522a; BK
vii, CH 14 537b-538d esp [i332bi3-4i] 537b-d
/ Athenian Constitution, CH 12 557b-558a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Pophcola- Solon, 87a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A i, ANS and REP 3 124b-125b; Q 65, A 2, REP
3 340b-341b
20 AQUINAS . Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A 3, ANS 51c-52b; Q 64, A 2 67d-68b, Q 114,
A i, ANS 370c-371c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 93b-c; 94b-95c;
PART n, 156b-157a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
134b-c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n 25d-28c; CH
vi, SECT 54 36c; CH vn, SECT 90-94 44d-46c
38 MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK vin, 52a-b;
BK xi, 71d; BK xin, 96a-b
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 333a-d; 359c-d; 360b,d
[fni]; 361c-362a; 362d-363a,c / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 397a-398a; 405 b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 284d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 617c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 401b-c; 419c-420a;
431a-432c; 433c-d; 435c-437c esp 436d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-15] la-b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36] 5b-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. : ARTICLE iv, SECT
2 [5X9~52l] 16a; AMENDMENTS, XIII, SECT I-
xiv, SECT i 18c-d; xv 19b; xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 80, 236a<b
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
863
43 MILL: Representative Government, 370a-339b
passim / Utilitarianism, 460a-461a; 467a-b;
472d-473a; 474d-476a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 49
24c-25a; PART m, par 200 67c-68a; par 209
69d; ADDITIONS, 29 121c; 177 147d / Philos-
ophy of History, PART iv, 362d-363a
SO MARX: Capital, 25a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
104b-107a
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 685d-686c / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 787d-788b [fn 3]
6. Justice and liberty: the theory of human
rights
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [441-525] 134d-135c;
[891-943] 138d-139a / Ajax [1047-1421] 152a-
155a,c
5 EURIPIDES Suppliants [513-565] 262d-263b
/' Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c / Phoenician
Maidens [1625-1682] 392b-d / Orestes [491-
604] 399a-400a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vni, 411d-413a / Laws,
BK iv, 682a-683d
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[i73a7-3'l 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34ft24-bi7]
382a-c / Politics, BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36] 512c;
BK vi, CH 2 520d-521b esp [i3i7a4o-bi6]
520d/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [i368b7-io]611d;
CH 13 [i373br-i7] 617c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c;
BK iv, SECT 4 264a; BK vn, SECT 55 283b-c
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 271b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b/
City of God, BK iv, CH 4 190d; BK xix, CH 21
524a-525a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 112d-117b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 71b-c;
108c-109b; 177a-b
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, vin
447d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government 25a-81d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-3a;
BK vi, 34b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 356b-358d; 361c-362a
/ Political Economy, 370b-d / Social Contract,
BK i 387b,d-394d csp 388d-390d, 393b-394d;
BK n, 398b-399a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61b; BK n,
140b; BK iv, 228a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 237c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a; 222b-c /
Science of Right, 400b,d-402a; 421c-422d /
Judgement, 586a-587a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-28] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
i-ix 17a-18a; xin, SECT i-xiv, SECT r 18c-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 51, 164a~165a; NUMBER
84, 251a-253d
43 MILL: Liberty 267a-323a,c esp 271c-273b /
Utilitarianism, 464d-476a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 44
23c; PART HI, par 230 75c; par 261 83a-d;
ADDITIONS, 81 128d-129a / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 199b-c; PART iv, 345a-b,
362d-363a; 364a-365c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf(, 292a-297a
50 MARX: Capital, 83d-84a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780c-
781a
6a. The relation of natural rights to natural
law and natural justice
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [441-525] 134d-135c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i7]
617c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a;
BK vii, SECT 55 283b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 21 524a-
525a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96,
A i 510b-511b; A 4 512d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 2 208d-209d; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a;
Q 95, A 2 227c-228c; A 4 229b-230c
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87d; PART n,
131a-c; 138c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT n,
sc ii [163-188] 115b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; APPENDIX, vin 447d
32 MILTON: Samson Agomstes [888-902] 359a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n-ix 25d-54d
passim; CH xi, SECT 135-137 55d-57b; CH xv,
SECT 171-172 65a-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-331b; 333c-d;
342c-347d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61 b; BK n,
140b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 86d-87a
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392 b /
Science of Right, 397a-b; 400b,d-402a; 421c-
422d; 429a-c; 430a-432c; 434a; 435a-457b esp
436c, 437c-d, 447b-450b, 451c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-28] la-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-273b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171c-
172b
6b. The relation between natural and positive
rights, innate and acquired rights, pri-
vate and public rights: their correlative
duties
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [441-525] 134d-135c;
[891-943] 138d-139a / Ajar [1047-1 421] 152a-
155a,c
864
THE GREAT IDEAS
6cto 6e
(6*. Justice and liberty: the theory of human rights.
6b. The relation between natural and posi-
tive rights, innate and acquired rights,
private and public rights: their correlative
duties.)
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [513-565] 262d-263b
/ Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c / Phoenician
Maidens [1625-1682] 392b-d / Orestes [491-
604] 399a<400a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 682a-683d
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[173*7-31] 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, en 10 [i368b7-io]
611d; CH 13 [i373bi-iy] 617c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 13-15
16c-17b; par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK xix,
CH 17 522b-523a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
ioo, A i 251b-252a
23 HOBBTS Lm0//w«, pARni,113c-116c;131a-c;
136d-137b; 138c; 151a-c
25 MONTAIGNE • Essays, 281a-283c; 519a-520b
27 SHAKESPFMIE: King l^ear, ACT i, sc n [1-22]
247d-248a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, lOOd
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n 25d-28c
passim, en iv, SECT 21 29d; CH v, SECT 45
34d-35a; CH vi, SECT 56-63 36d-38c; CH vn,
SFCT 87-89 44a-d; SECT 91 45a-c; CH vin,
SECT 95-99 46c-47c; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi
55b-58b / Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 13 107d-108c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-3a;
BK vin, 52a*b; BK xxvi, 215b-216c, 217b;
221c-d
38 ROUSSFAU- Inequality, 333a-d; 342c-347d;
362d-363a,c / Political Economy, 370b-d /
Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c, BK n, 396d-
398b; 399b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b-83c; 86d-89b
passim; 404a
42 KANT* Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392b /
Science of Right 397a-458a,c esp 401b-402a,c,
410d-415d, 418c-422d, 429a-433c, 435c-436b,
436d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-28]
la-b
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 221d-224a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 38
21d; par 40 21d-22c; PART in, par 155 57c;
par 210-228 69d-75besp par 210-211 69d-70c,
par 217 72b-c; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d
Sc. The inalienability of natural rights: their
violation by tyranny and despotism
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 271b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
AA 5-6 224d-226b; Q 96, A 6 235a-d; Q 97
235d-239b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 87c-d; 90a-b;
94b-d; PART n, 115a-116a; 142b-c
35 LOCKE. Toleration, 20d-21a / Civil Govern'
ment, CH n, SECT 10-11 27b-d; CH HI, SECT
16-19 28d-29c; CH iv 29d-30b; CH vn, SECT
87-94 44a-46c; CH ix, SECT 131 54d; CH xi,
SECT 135-140 55d-58a; CH xiv, SECT 168
64b-c; CH xv, SECT 171-172 65a-c; CH xvi-
xix 65d-81d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv, 109a-
HOa
38 ROUSSEAU : Social Contract, BK i, 388a-c ; 389a-
390d, BK n, 396d-398b
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61 b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 33c-34a,c
42 KANT: Science of 'Right, 401b-402a, 421c-422d;
445c-446a, 451d-452a, 454d-455c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, ix
17d-18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 28, 97c; NUMBER 84,
251d-252a
43 MILL: Liberty, 270d; 316b-d
44 Bos WELL Johnson, 363c-364a
46 HEGLL- Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 57
26b-27a; par 66 29a-c / Philosophy of History,
PART HI, 310d-311a
6d. Justice as the basis for the distinction be-
tween liberty and license
6 THUCYDIDES : PeloponnesianWar, BK n, 396c-d
7 PLATO- Laws, BK in, 674d-676c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v, CH 9 [i3ioR25-36]
512c; BK vi, CH 4 [i3i8b33~i3i9a4] 522b-c;
[i3I9b27-32]523b
12 EPICICIUS: Discourses, BK i, en 12, 119a-b
15 TACIIUS- Annals, BK in, 57b-58d
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologjca, PART ii-n, Q
183, A 4, ANS 627d-628d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 114c-115b
27 SIIAKESPCARL Measure for Measure, ACT i,
sc in 177b-d
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xn 65a-b / Areopagitica
381a-412b
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH n, SECT 4-6
25d-26c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, lOa;
BK vin, 51a-52c; BK xi, 69a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 32^a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 393b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 622d-623c; 653a
43 MILL: Liberty, 271c-273b; 302d-323a,c pas-
sim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 319
105b-106c / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
342b-d
6e. Justice and natural rights as the source of
civil liberty
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96,
A 4 512d-513c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 138c
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
865
32 MILTON: Areopagttica, 381a-382a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government* CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vi, SECT 57-63 36d-38c passim; CH ix
53c-54d; CH xi, SECT 135-138 5Sd-57c; CH
xv, SECT 171 65a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Soctal Contract, BK i, 393b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fa//, 96a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
398c-399c; 400b,d-402a,c; 450d-452a / Judg-
ment, 586a~587a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE- [1-28] la-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 44, 144d-145a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 270
84d-89c passim / Philosophy of History, PARF
iv, 345a-b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780c-
781a
7. Domestic justice: the problems of right and
duty in the family
OLD TESTAMENT- Exodus, 20:12; 21:1-11,26-
27,32 / Leviticus, 19 20-22, 25 39-55 / Deuter-
onomy, 5-16; 15-12-18; 21:15-21 / Proverbs,
28-24; 30>I7 / Zechanah, 13:3— (D) Zacha-
rias, 13:3
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasttcus, 3.2-18; 4 130; 7:20-21;
33 '30~3 l — (D) OT, Ecdesiasticus, 3 :2-i8 , 4 135 ;
7 -22-23 ; 33 '3 1-3?
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:4 / MarJ(, 7:10 /
I Corinthians, 7 / // Corinthians, 12.14 /
Ephesians, 61-9 / Colossians, 3:18-4:1 /
I Timothy, 587 Titus, 2:9-11 / / Peter, 3-1-7
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c / Agamemnon [1372-1673] 66d-69d
5 SOPHOCLES- Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c
esp [311-460] 117a-118b, [1181-1417] 125a-
127b / Antigone 131a-142d esp [1-99] 131a-
132a, [631-765] 136c-137d / Electra [516-633]
160a-161a
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c / Alcestis
237a-247a,c esp [614-733] 242c-243c / Ores-
tes [356-724] 397b-401b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [1321-1452] 504c-506b
/ Birds [1337-1371] 558d-559b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 356b-368c / Laws,
BK iv, 683b-d; BK vn, 722b-723d; BK vni,
736d-737a; BK xi, 779b-781c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34b7-i7]
382b-c; CH n [ii38b5~i3] 387a,c; BK VIH,
CH 9 [ii59b35-n6oa6] 412a-b; CH 10 [n6ob
23] CH ii [n6ibn] 413a-d; BK ix, CH 2
417c-418b / Politics, BK i, CH 12-13 453d-
455a,c; BK in, CH 6 [i 278^ 7-1 279*8] 476b;
BK vn, CH 14 [1332^6-41] 537c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Fabius, 152b-d / Coriolanus,
189d-191d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 17 5b-c;
BK ii, par 3-8 9b-10d / City of God, BK xix,
CH 14-16, 520c-522a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 92,
A i, REP 2 488d-489d; A 2 489d-490c; Q 96,
A 4 5l2d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4 318b-321a
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Man of Law [4694-4707]
239a / Wife of Bath's Prologue [5697-6404]
258a-269b / Tale of Wife of Bath 270a-277a
esp [6619-^627] 273a-b, [6839-6846] 277a /
Summons's Tale [7563-7582] 289b-290a /
Clerks Tale 296a-318a / Franklin's Tah
[11,041-117] 351b-352b / Physician's Talc
[12,006-036] 367b-368a / Parson's Tale, par
79-80 541a-542a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 109c-lllb; 121a,
155b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 83a-84b; 183c-192d;
410a-422b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors, ACT ii, sc i
[6-43] 152a-c; sc n [112-148] 154c-d / Titus
Andronicus, ACT v, sc in [35-64] 196d-197a
/ Taming of the Shrew 199a-228a,c esp ACT v,
sc n [136-180] 227d-228a,c / Romeo and
Juliet, ACT in, sc v [127-215] 308c-309c /
Midsummer-Night's Dream, ACT i, sc i [1-121]
352a-353c / Merchant of Venice, ACT i, sc n
[24-36] 408c / 1st Henry IV, ACT n, sc in
443b-444b; ACT in, sc n [1-161] 452d-454c
/ Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc i [234-309]
577ac
27 SHAKESPEARE- Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [22-91]
37a-d; ACT in, sc iv [106-135] 55d-56a / Trot-
lus and Cressida, ACT n, sc n [163-188] 115b-c
/ Othello, ACT i, sc in [175-189] 210d-211a;
ACT iv, sc in [63-108] 236c-237a / King Uar
244a-283a,c / Cymbehne, ACT i, sc i [125-158]
451a-c
29CERVANTFS: Don Quixote, PART H, 251b;
261c-262a
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 75c / New
Atlantis, 207c-209d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VIH [452-594]
242a-245a; BK x [144-156] 277b; [182-196]
278b; [867-936] 293b-294b / Samson Ago-
mstes [871-902] 358b-359a; [1010-1060] 361b-
362b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi 36a-42a;
CH vii, SECT 82-83 43b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 29b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 410a-411a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 100b-102a; 108c-110c;
126d 127b; 136a-c; 217d-219c; 235b-238d;
283c-d; 310b-313b; 359b-362c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxin,
187d-188c; BK xxvi, 216a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357a-b; 365a-b /
Political Economy, 367a-368c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b-86d passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 404d; 418c-422d
43 MILL: Liberty, 305d-306b; 316d-319d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 160a-b; 247c-d; 301d-
302a; 429d-430a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 171
60d-61a; par 174-180 61b-63c / Philosophy of
History, PART in, 288c-289b
866
THE GREAT IDEAS
8/08*7
(7. Domestic justice: the problems of right and
duty in the family)
50MARx:G#M 241a-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 38d-41a; 45 b-
47b; EPILOGUE i, 654a*662a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, la-
lla; BK n, 34d-36b; BK xn, 370b-371c; 395a-
398a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 876c
8. Economic justice: justice in production, dis-
tribution, and exchange
OLD TESTAMENT. Exodus, 20:15,17 / Leviticus,
19:11, 35-36; 25.35-37 /Deuteronomy, 5.19,21;
24:10-15; 25:13-16; 27:17 / // Samuel, 12:1-
6-(D) II Kings, 12. 1-6 / / Kings, 21 —
(D) III Kings, 21 / // Kings, 5'2O-27-(O)
IV Kings, 5.20-27 / Nehemiah, 5:1-12— (D)
II Esdras, 5:1-12 / Job, 24 / Proverbs, 1:10-
19; 6:30-31; 11:1; 14:31; 16:11; 20:10; 21:6-
7; 22:16,22-23; 23:10-11; 28 §8, 24; 30-8-9 /
Isaiah, 3:14-15; 10:1-2— (D) Isaias, 3:14-15;
10:1-2 /Jeremiah, ij\\i — (D)Jeremias, 17:11
/ Ezcfyel, 22.12-13,25-29; 45:9-12— (D)
Ezechiel, 22:12-13,25-29; 45*9-12 / Amos,
2:6-7; 5:11-12, 8.1-7 CSP 8.4-6 / Micah,
6.9-12— (D) Micheas, 6:9-12 / Zechanah, 5 3
— (D) Zachanas, 5:3
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 5*8,14, 20.25, 2^ 295
27:2; 29:19; 34 18-22— (D) OT, Ecclesiasti-
cus, 5.10,16-17; 20 27; 26.28, 27 2, 29 25;
34:21-27
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 19:18 / Mart(, 10-19
/ Luke, 3-12-13; 18-20 / Acts, 2:44-47; 431"
5:11 / Romans, 13*9 / / Corinthians, 6 10 /
Ephesians, 4:28 /// Thessalonians, 3-10
5 EURIPIDES: //?/<?/? [903-908] 306d~307a /
Phoenician Maidens [528-567] 382c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus 629a-642d esp [76-111]
630a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 87a-b; BK vi,
201d-202c; BK vn, 245b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 297a-c; BK n, 316a-
319b; BK m-iv, 340c-343a; BK v, 364c-365d
/ Laws, BK v 686d-697a passim; BK vni,
738c-743a / Seventh Letter, 814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [1130*1 3~bi7]
377c-378a; BK vni, CH 13-14 414d-416d pas-
sim / Politics, BK i, CH 3-11 446d-453d passim;
BK n, CH 5 458a-460a; CH 7 461d-463c; BK v,
CH i [i3oi*25-b2] 502b-c / Athenian Constitu-
tion, CH 12 557b-558a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vni, SECT 33 288a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Solon, 68d-
70c / Pophcola-Solon, 87a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A i 124b-125b; Q 98, A i, REP 3 516d-517c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi 15a-16b
passim
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMehbeus, par 49-51 422a-
424a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 93b-c; PART n,
124d-126a; 156c-157a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
133b-134d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 42a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i 351a-
354d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 86b-c
33 PASCAL- Provincial Letters, 91a-94a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a pas-
sim
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a-d;
23a-25a; 29c; BK xm 96a-102a,c; BK xvm,
128b; BK xx, 146b-d; BK xxm, 199b-200a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b; 354a-355b;
360b-361a; 365b-366a / Political Economy,
377b-385a,c / Social Contiact, BK HI, 415b-
41 7c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 20b-23b
passim, esp 21a-c, 27b-37b csp 33c; BK v,
309a-311c
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 22c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 443b-d; 446a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 2
[17-29] lib; SECT 9 [273-275] 13d; ARTICLE
VI [578-582] 16d; AMENDMENTS, V [645-648]
17c; vn 17d; xiv, SECT i [748-750] 18d;
SECT 4 19a; xvi 19b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 73, 218d-219b; NUM-
BER 79, 233c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 322c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 335a-b; 366c-367a / Utilitarianism,
470c-471b passim; 472d-473c
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 125b-c
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 49
24c-25a, PARTIII, par 241 76d-77a, ADDITIONS,
29 121c; 148 140c-d / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 353b-c
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dic\, 292a-297a
50 MARX: Capital la-383d esp 19c-25d, 37d-
38b [fn 5], 42b-47a, 79a-84a,c, 89a-94a, 112c-
113c, 150a-151a,c, 161b-162d, 261d-262a,
264a-275c, 280c-286a, 327b, 354b-c, 377c-
378d
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto 415a-
434d esp 420b-423a, 425d-426d, 428d-429c,
434c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 197b-c;
211a-213a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-166a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents^ 787d-
788a
8a. Private and public property: the just dis-
tribution of economic goods
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:15,17 / Leviticus,
19:11 / Deuteronomy, 5:19,21; 27:17 / // Sam-
uel, 12:1-6— (D) II Kings, 12:1-6/7 Kings, 21
— (D) /// Kings, 21 / Job, 24 / Proverbs, 6:30-
Sa to §b
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
367
31; 21-6-7; 23:i°J 245 30:8-9 / Jeremiah,
17:11— (D) Jeremias, 17:11
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:187 MarJ^, 10:19
/ L*%, 3:12-13; 18:20 / /fctt, 2:44-47; 4:31-
5:11 / Romans, 13-9 / Ephesians, 4-28
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [528-567]
382c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Eccksiazusae 615a-628d esp
[554-1111] 621b-628a / P/w/w* 629a-642d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK in, 341c-d; BK v, 364c-
365d / Laws, BK v 686d-697a passim; BK vin,
738c-742a / Seventh Letter, 8l4b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, en 4 [i 13^27-33]
379b-c; en 9 [ii36bi 5-1 137*4] 384d-385a;
BK vin, CH 9 411d-412c; CH 13-14 414d-
416d passim / Politics, BK n, CH i [1260^6-
1261*7] 455b,d; CH 3 [i26ibi6-38] 456c-d, CH
5 458a-460a; CH 6 [i265ft28-bi7J 460c-461a;
CH 7 461d-463c; BK in, CH 10 [1281*11-28]
478d-479a; BK v, CH 8 [i3o8bio-i309a}2J
510d-511c; CH 9 [i309bi8-i3ioai2] 511d-512b;
BK vi, CH 4 [1319*6-19] 522c-d, BK vn, CH 9
[i 32 9ft 18-26] 533c; CH 10 [i 329^5-1 330*3]
534b-c / Athenian Constitution, en 12 55 7b-
558a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-b / Solon, 68d-70c
/ Pophcola-Solon, 87a / Agts 648b,d-656d /
Tiberius Gracchus, 674c-681a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 31a-b; 32b-d /
Histories, BK n, 236d-237a; BK iv, 286c-
287a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 98,
A i, REP 3 516d-517c
20 AQUINAS . Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 5, RFP 3 224d-225d; Q 105, A 2, ANS and
REP 1-6 309d-316a; PART II-H, Q 32, AA 5-6
544a-546b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 94d-95a; PART n,
124d-125d; 156b-157a
27 SHAKESPEARE- King Lear, ACT HI, sc iv [26-
36] 264c; ACT iv, sc i [66-73] 270a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 391b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xvn
448d
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a; 97b-98b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a
36 SWIFT* Gulliver, PART iv, 154b>155b
36 STERNE- Tristram Shandy, 310a-311b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a-21d
passim; 23a-25a; 29c; BK xxvi, 221c-222b
38 Rouss EAU • Inequality, 353a ; 360b-361a ; 362d-
363a,c / Political Economy, 375b-d; 377b-
385a,c / Social Contract, BK in, 415b-417c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b esp
33c; 52b-62a esp 52b-c; BK iv, 225d-228a;
239c-240a; BK v, 309a-311c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22b-c; 127a-c;
251d-255d passim; 501b-502b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-89d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 403a-410d; 411c-
415d; 422b,d-42Sb; 426b-428a; 431a-432c;
441d-443d; 446a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, v
17b-c; xiv, SECT i 18d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 35-36 112a-117d pas-
sim; NUMBER 73, 218d-219b; NUMBER 79,
233c-d
43 MILL- Liberty, 309a-c; 322c-d / Representative
Government, 335a-b; 366c-367a / Utilitarian-
ism, 467b; 472d-473a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 125b c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 46
23d-24a; par 49 24c-25a; par 64 28c-d; par 68
29d-30a; PART HI, par 237 76c; par 241
76d-77a; par 244-245 77c-d; ADDITIONS, 27
121b; 29 121c; 145 140b; 148-149 140c-141a
/ Philosophy of History, PART n, 275b-276a;
277b-c; PART in, 287d-288b; 289a-b; PART
iv, 353b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 292a-297a
50 MARX: Capital, 34d-35c; 61c-62b; 89a-b;
174d-175c; 218d-219a; 286a-296a esp 288b-d,
292d-295d; 302d-383d esp 303b-305a, 308d-
309b, 317c-321b, 325d-326a, 354a-355d,
369c-371c, 377c-378d, 383d
50 MARX-£NGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425c-
427b; 428d-429a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK v, 197b-c; BK x,
414c-416c
54 FRFUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-
788b
Sb. Fair wages and prices: the just exchange of
goods and services
OLD TES TAMEN r : Leviticus, 19-11,1 3,35-36; 25 35-
37 / Deuteronomy, 24-10-15; 25:13-16 /
/ Kings, 21 -(D) HI Kings, 21 / II Kings,
5:20-27— (/)) IV Kings, 5:20-27 / Nehemiah,
5.1-12— (D) II Esdras, 5-1-12 / Proverbs,
6 30-31; n i; 16 n; 20 10; 22:22-23; 2^:^ /
Jeremiah, 22 i^— (D)Jeremias, 22-13 / Ezefyel,
22:12-13; 45:9-12— (D) Ezechiel, 22:12-13;
45:9-12 / Amos, 8:4-6 / Micah, 6:9-12— (D)
Micheas, 6:9-12
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:14— (D) OT, Tobias, 4:15
/ Ecclesiasticus, 26.29; 27-25 34:20-22— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 26-28; 27:2; 34 24-27
NEW TESTAMENT Matthew, 10:10 / Lufa 10:7
/ / Timothy, 5-18 / // Timothy, 2-6
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK iv, 158b-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vin, 740d-743a; BK xi,
772d-775d esp 775a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 4 [ii32bn]-cH 5
[ii33b29] 380b-381c; BK vin, CH 9 411d-412c;
CH 13-14 414d-416d passim; BK ix, CH i
* 416b,d-417c / Politics, BK i, CH 9-10 450d-452d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 22 33b-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP
3-6 309d-316a'
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi 15a-16b
passim
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 126a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 42a-b
$68
THE GREAT IDEAS
SctoM
(8. Economic justice: justice in production, distri-
bution, and exchange. St. Fair wages and
prices: the just exchange of goods and serv-
ices.)
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [1-167]
351a353a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30c~d
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvm,
128b; BK xx, 146b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353b; 365d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 13a-16a;
20b-23b esp 20c, 21c; 27b-37b esp 33c; 42a-
62a passim, esp 52b-c, 56b-57a, 61c-d; 106c-
107a; BK iv, 225d-228a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 22c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 424b-425a; 446a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S. : AMENDMENTS, vn
17d
43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c; 322c-d / Representative
Government, 366d-367a / Utilitarianism, 467b,
470c-d; 472d-473a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HZ, par 236
76a-c; ADDITIONS, 145 140b / Philosophy of
History, PART iv, 353 b-c
48 MELVILLE. Moby Did{, 292a~297a
50 MARX: Capital, 13a-50a esp 13d-18a, 19d-20b,
24c-25d, 27a-c, 31b-33b, 37c-39c, 42b-44c;
69a-84a,c esp 74c-78a, 79c-84a; 89d-102b
passim, esp93b-96a, lOOa-lOla; 171a-c; 256b-
260c esp 258b c; 264a-275c; 296c-298a; 305c-
307c; 324a-327b esp 327b; 366a-368a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 423c-d;
425d-427b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 572d-573b
Ic. Justice in the organization of production
50 MARX: Capital, 33d-36c esp 34d-35a; 37d-38b
[fn5]; 85a-263d esp lllc-115c, 160d-164a,
171d-180d, 192d-209a, 215a-217b, 226d-227d,
261c-262a; 279d-286a esp 285c-286a; 311c-
321b; 354a-355d; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENCELS: Communist Manifesto, 419d-
425b esp 421a-422c; 426a-427b
Economic exploitation: chattel slavery
and wage slavery
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34b7-i7]
382b-c; BK vin, CH n [ii6i*3o-bio] 413c-d
/ Politics, BK i, CH 3-7 446d-449c; CH n
[i25g*i8]-cH 13 [i26ob7] 453c-455a; BK in,
CH 6 [i278b32-37] 476a-b / Athenian Consti-
tution, CH 2 553a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46c-47a / Marcus Cato,
278d-279c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4 318b-321a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [1-51] 339b-340b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a; 353c-355b;
365b-366a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 28a-d; 61c-d;
109d-110d; BK in, 165b-170c; BK iv, 253c-
254a; 287c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 144b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 45b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 421c-422d; 445c-
446a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT 9
[260-266] 13d; ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [529-535]
16b| AMENDMENTS, XIII 18C
43 MILL: Representative Government, 339d-340c
44 Bos WELL '.Johnson, 363c-364a
46 HEGEL Philosophy of History, PART iv, 335b-
336c
50 MARX: Capital la-383d esp 102b-105c, 112c-
115c, 127c-131a, 150a-c, 176a-178d, 193a-209a,
264a-275c, 282d-286a, 296c-301b, 354a-355d,
366a-368b, 376c-377a, 379a-383d
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto, 420c-d ;
422c-423a; 424b-425a; 426b-428a
51 TOLSTOV: War and Peace, BK v, 211a-213a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-c
8c(2) Profit and unearned increment
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 287c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 20b-23b pas-
sim, esp 21a-c; 27b-28a; 109d-110d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 243
77b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 71d-72c; 85a-263d esp 92c-
94a, lOOa-lOlb, 104b-105c, 112c, 154d-156d,
198c-199b, 254c-255a, 263c-d; 267b; 267d-
275c passim, esp 271b-c; 286a-301b passim,
esp 288b-289c, 295a-d, 301a-b, 327b
8d. Justice and the use of money: usury and in-
terest rates
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 22:25 / Leviticus^
25 ^35-37 / Deuteronomy, 23 .19-20 ; 24 110-13 /
Nehemiah, 5— (D) II Esdras, 5 / Psalms, 15:5
— (D) Psalms, 14 5 / Proverbs, 28:87 Jeremiah,
15:10— (D) Jeremias, 15:10 / Ezetyel, 18:4-21
esp 18:8, 18 13, 18 17, 22:12— (D) Ezechiel,
18:4-21 esp 18:8, 18-13, I8:i7; 22:12
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin, 408c-d / Laws,
BK v, 694c-d; BK xi, 775c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [ii3ofti3-b8]
377c-378a; CH 5 [ii33a5-b29] 380d-381c;
BK ix, CH 2 [i 1 64^0-1 165*11] 417d-418a /
Politics, BK i, CH 9-10 450d-452d esp CH 10
[i258»38-b8] 452d / Athenian Constitution,
CH 12, par 4 557d-558a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Catot 287c-d / Lucuttus,
409b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 90a-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q
105, A 2, REP 4 309d-316a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [91-111]
16a-b; xvn [31-75] 24a-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
133b-140b
9/09*
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
869
26 SHAKESPEARE : Merchant of Venice, ACT i,
sc in 409c-411b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 55a*57a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 29c; BK
xn, 92d-93c; BK xxi, 169a-170b; BK xxii,
175d-176a; 184b-187a,c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 37b-41d;
BK ii, 140b; 154c-155a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 498c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90d-91a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 424a-425b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 304b-c, 409a-b
46 HEGEL Philosophy of History, PART iv, 353b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 77c-78b; 252b; 293a-d [fn i];
371c-372c
9. Political justice: justice in government
6 HCRODOTUS* History, BK i, 23b-d
6 THUCYDIDES Peloponnesian War, BK ir, 396c-d
7 PLAIO: Cnto 213a-219a,c / Republic 295a-
441a,c esp BK m-iv, 340c-343a, BK iv, 348d-
350a / Laws, BK in, 670c-671a; 672c-676c;
BK vi, 699d-700b; BK xn, 795a-797c
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi.j-i9]
377a; CH 2 [ii30bi7-29] 378a-b; CH 6
[ii34a24]-cH 7 [1135*14] 382a-383a / Politics,
BK i, CH 2 [1253*8-18] 446b-c; [1253*29-39]
446d; BK in, OH 6 475d-476c esp [1279*17-22]
476c; CH 9 477c-478d; CH 12-13 480c-483a /
Athenian Constitution, CH 12 557b-558a
12 AURCLIUS. Meditations, BK i, SFCT 14 254b-c
14 PLUTARCH. Lycurgus, 46c-47a
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK i, CH 21 142d-
143a, BK n, CH 21 161b-162d, BK iv, CH 4
190d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a; CH 24
528b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 96,
A 4 233a-d; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a
23 HOB BBS. leviathan, PART i, 86b; 91a-b, PART
n, 132a
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Ctvtl Government, CH ix 53c-54d;
CH xi 55b-58b, CH xin-xiv 59b-64c; CH xv,
SECT 171 65a-b, CH xvi-xix 65d-81d passim
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 28a-b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 353b-362b passim /
Political Economy 367a-385a,c passim / Social
Contract 387a-439d passim
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-311c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 433c-434d; 43Sc-437c;
438d-439a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50d-51a; NUMBER
51, 164c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 369d-370a
/ Utilitarianism, 464d-476a,c passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
210-228 69d-75b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [4772-4811] 118b-
119b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428d-
429c
9a. The natural and the conventional in polit-
ical justice: natural law and the general
will
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 271b-275d / Republic 295a-
441a,c esp BK n-iv 310c-356a / Theaetetus,
528b-c; 531a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 382c-383a /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i8] 617c-d;
CH 15 [i375ft25-b25] 619d-620b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 13-15
16c-17b; par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK n,
CH 21 161b-162d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a;
CH 24 528b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 3, ANS 209d-210c; Q 95, AA 2-4 227c-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86b; 91a-b; PART
n, 131a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 281a-283c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
33 PASCAL- Penstes, 291-338 225a-233a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 7-13
26c-28b; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi 55b-58b
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK i, lc-d,3b-c
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 333a-d; 362d-363a,c
/ Political Economy, 368d-369b; 370b-d /
Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c; BK n, 396d-
398b; 399b-400c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 397a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 430a-431a; 435a-b;
448b-d, 450a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465d-466b
46 HEGEL* Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 210-
228 69d-75b esp par 217 72b-c / Philosophy of
History, PART 11, 272a~d
9&> Justice as the moral principle of political
organization: the bond of men in states
5 SOPHOCLES: 4ntigone [352-372] 134a-b
5 EURIPIDFS Suppliants [304-313] 261a / Phoe-
nician Maidens [528-558] 382c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VH, 225d-226b
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43d-45b / Cnto 213a-
219a,c / Republic, BK i, 308b-309b; BK iv,
346a-350a / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws,
BK xn, 786b-d
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics^ BK v, CH 6 [ii34*24-bi5]
382a-c; BK vni, CH i [1155*22-28] 406d; CH 9
411d-412c; CH n 413b-d; BK ix, CH 6 420c-
421a esp [ii67b5-i5] 420d-421a / Politics,
BK i, CH 2 [1253*8-18] 446b-c; [i253a29-39]
446d; BK in, CH 9 477c-478d esp [i28oa8-3i]
477c-d; CH 12 [i282bi5-2o] 480c; [i283a
18-20] 481b; CH 13 [1283*37-40] 481c; BK VH,
CH 14 [i332b27~32] 537c
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 59d-60b /
Lycurgus-Numat 61b,d-62c / Dion, 784d-
785a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK n, CH 21 161b-
162d; BK iv, CH 4 190d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-
525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c
870
THE GREAT IDEAS
9cto9d
(9. Political justice; justice in government, 9b. Jus-
tice as the moral principle of political organ-
ization: the bond of men in states.)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q
100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a; Q 105, A 2, ANS 309d-
316a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XVHI [52]-
xx [148] 134a-138b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 91a-92b
27 SHAKESPEARE' Troilus and Cressida, ACT i,
sc in [98-124] 109a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PARI iv, APPENDIX, xv-xvi
448c-d
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a / Civil Government,
CH n, SECT 13 28a-b; CH vn, SECT 90-94
44d-46c; CH xi, SECT 135-139 55d-58a; CH
xix, SECT 219 75b-c / Human Understanding,
BK i, CH ii, SECT 2 104a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369a-b /
Social Contract, BK n, 396d-398b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 51, 164c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative
Government, 422b / Utilitarianism, 460a-461c;
464d-476a,c passim, esp 470a-471b, 473d-
474b
46 HEGEL Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 141
139c; 155 142a-b; 160 142d-143a / Philosophy
of History, PART n, 272a-d; PART iv, 321a;
334b-c
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 685c-686c / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 780b-781a
9c. The criteria of justice in various forms of
government and diverse constitutions
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 107c-108c
6 THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK in,
396c-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm 401d-416a / States-
man, 598b-604b / Laws, BK in, 670c-671a;
672c-676c; BK iv, 681d-682c
9ARISTOILE: Ethics* BK v, CH 3 [1131*24-29]
378d; CH 7 [i 134^6-1 135b4] 382d-383c; BK
vm, CH n 413b-d / Politics, BK in, CH 6 475d-
476c esp [1279*17-22] 476c; CH 9-13 477c-
483a; CH 15-17 484b-487a; BK iv, CH i
[1289*13-20] 488a; BK v, CH i [1301*25-39]
502 b-c; CH 9 [1310*25-36] 512c; BK vi, CH 2
520d-521b esp [i3i7*40-bi6] 520d, [1318*4-10!
521b; CH 3 521c-522a; BK vn, CH 14 537b-
538d esp [i333b5-i334*io] 538b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a;
Q 105, A i 307d-309d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, 12b-
13c; BK vi, 33a-35a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369a-d / Social
Contract, BK n, 405a-406a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 6164-61 7d passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94c-95c; 403b;
575d-577b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 450a-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 343b-344d;
350b-355b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 271 d-
272d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428d-
429c
9</. The relation of ruler and ruled: the justice
of the prince or statesman and of the
subject or citizen
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 22*28 / / Samuel,
8.10-20— (D) I Kings, 8-10-20 / // Samuel,
23:3- (D) II Kings, 23:3 / // Chronicles, 1:7-
12— (D) // Parahpomenon, 1:7-12 / Proverbs,
16.12; 17.7; 20.28, 24 21; 28.15-16; 29:14 /
Ecclesiastes, io'2o / Isaiah, yi^—(D) Isaias,
3:14
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22:16-22 / Acts,
23:5 / Romans, 13 1-77 Titus, 3:1
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [365-401] 5c-
6a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c-d; [631-
765] 136c-137d
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [342-358] 261b c /
Helen [1627-1641] 313c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK 11, 84b-c, BK in,
107c-d; 120b-c; BK vii, 223c-d; 245b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 301b 306b; BK iv,
346a-350a / Laws, BK i, 642d-643b; BK in,
670c-671a; 672c-676c; BK iv, 681b-682c; BK
vm, 733d-734a / Seventh Letter, 806d-807b;
814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK v, CH i [1130*1-5] 377b;
CH 6 [1134*25^17] 382a-c; CH n [1138*4-13]
386b-c, [113^5-13] 387a,c; BK vm, CH n
413b-d / Politics, BK i, CH 12-13 453d-455a,c;
BK in, CH 4 [i277bi6-2o] 474d; CH 6 475d-
476c esp [ 1 278b30-i 279*22] 476a-c; CH 10
478d-479a; CH 13 481b-483a; BK vn, CH 14
[I332bi3-i333*i6] 537b-538a
12 EPICTETUS. Discourses, BK in, CH 7 182b-
184 a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK vi, SECT 30 276d-
277a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [847-853] 233b-234a
14 PLUTARCH. Lycurgus, 48a / Numa Pompilius,
59d-60b / Lycurgus-Numa, 61b,d-62c / Arts-
tides 262b,d-276a,c esp 263d-266b, 273d-275c
/ Agesilaus, 490d-491b; 494a-c / Agesilaus-
Pompey, 539a / Alexander, 566a-b / Phocion,
604b,d-605d / Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c
esp 636d-637c / Demetrius, 742c-743b / Dion,
784d-785a; 798b-d
15 TACITUS : Histories, BK iv, 290a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 28
397a-d; BK xix, CH 15-16 521a-522a; CH 21
524a-525a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologies PART i, Q 96
510a-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, AA 1-3 307d-318b
9e
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
871
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xvm [52]-
xx [148] 134a-138b passim
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xv-xix 22b-30a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 101a-102c;
104b-d; 112d-117b; 147b-c; 154b-158a; CON-
CLUSION, 279d-282c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7a-d; 50b-51a; 382b-
383d; 386b-d; 437b-438a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT v, sc in [237-
270] 146b-c / Richard II, ACT iv, sc i [114-157]
342c-343a / Henry V, ACT iv, sc i [95-297]
552c-554c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure 174a-
204d esp ACT n, sc n 181d-184a / Conolanus
351a-392a,c
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 94b-95b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [445-456] 121a;
BK v [800-845] 192b-193b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 90-94
44d-46c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b-7c;
BK in, lOc-lla; 12b-13c, BK iv, 14d-15c;
16a-b; BK v, 18d-19d; 23a-25a; BK vin,
51a-56a; BK XH, 93d-94a; 94c-96a,c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 361c-362a, 366c-d /
Political Economy, 370d-372b
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 284d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 50a,61d-62d; 127d;
284b-c; 288b-289a; 339d-343c esp 343b-c
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 39b-40a; 173b-d;
575d-577b passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 434a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 334b-c;
366a-370a; 413d-414d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 215
71c-d; par 293 98b; par 302 lOla-c; par 304
102a / Philosophy of History, PART i, 242 d-
243b; PART n, 271d-272d; PART in, 301c-303c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 9c-10d;
EPILOGUE ii, 680b-684a
9e. The just distribution of honors, ranks,
offices, suffrage
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i 3a-9a,c; BK ix [89-655]
58a-63c
5 AESCHYLUS. Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c d / Ajax
143a-155a,c esp [430-480] 146d-147b, [1047-
1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [239-331] 354d-355c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [1333-1383] 486c-
487a / Lysistrata [572-586] 590c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 70c-d; 83d-84a;
BK vin, 275c-d
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d
7 PLATO- Apology, 209b-d / Republic, BK in,
340c 341a; BK iv, 349c-350a / Laws, BK in,
672c-676c; BK vi, 699d-700b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i
377a; CH 2 [ii30b30-34] 378b; CH 3 378c-
379b esp [1131*24-29] 378d; CH 6 [i 134^-7]
382b; CH 9 [ii36bi5-i 137*4] 384d-385a; BK
vni, CH 14 [n63b5-i3] 416a-c; BK ix, CH 6
[ii67b5~i5] 420d-421a / Politics, BK i, CH 12
[i259b5~8] 454a; BK n, CH 2 [1261*2 }-b6]
456a-b; CH 7 [1266^6-1267*2] 462c; [1267*
37-41] 463b; CH 9 [i27obi8-25] 466d-467a;
CH ii [i273*32-b7] 469d-470a; BK in, CH 5
475a-d; CH 6 [1279*8-17] 476b-c; CH 10-13
478d-483a; CH 16 [1287*10-23] 485c; BK v,
CH 2 [i302*i6]-cH 3 [i302b2o] 503b-504a;
CH 8 [I3o8bio-i309*i5] 510d-511b, CH 12
[i3i6b2i-24] 519d; BK vi, CH 2 [1317*40]-^ 4
[1319*6] S20d-522c; BK vn, CH 13 [1332*13-
41] 536d-537a / Athenian Constitution, CH 12,
par i 557b-c
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 45c-46a / Numa Pom-
pihus, 50a / Pompey, 505a-c / Cato the Younger,
636d-637c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 105d-107b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxi, 32d-33a
23 HOB BBS: leviathan, PART i, 74b-c; PART u,
103c-d; 104b; 146d; 147d-148b, 156c; 158a-b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 181d-183c; 519d-520a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [445-456] 121a /
Areopagtnca, 383a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 305 228a
36 SWIFT: Gullwer, PART i, 15b-16b; 28b-29a;
PART in, 114a
38 MoNrESQuiLu- Spirit of Laws, BK ii, 4a-6b;
7c-8c passim; BK in, llc<12b; BK v, 23a-25c;
31a-32c; BK xi, 71d-72a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 358c; 360a-361a esp
360b,d [fni] / Social Contract, BK HI, 408d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17a-b, 240c-244c
esp 240c-d, 242a-c; 245d-247a passim; SOlc
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 39d; 73b; 317b-
318b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c; 444c-
446a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36] 5b-
c; vi [87-93] 6b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
2 [11-40] llb-d; SECT 3 [67-72] 12a; [88-95]
12b; SECT 6 [143-151] 12c-d; SECT 9 [289]-
SECT 10 [303] 14a; ARTICLE n, SECT i [327-
382] 14b-d; ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [519-521]
16a; AMENDMENTS, xii 18a-c; xiv, SECT i
18d; xv 19b; xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 68, 206b-c; NUMBER 80,
236a-b; NUMBER 84, 252a
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative
Government, 380c-389b passim / Utilitarianism,
466c-467b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125d; 127b-c; 141a;
197c; 479a-d; 498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 206
68d-69b; par 291-293 97d-98b / Philosophy
of History, PART i, 222a-224a; PART in, 295d-
296c; PART iv, 356c-357a
872
THE GREAT IDEAS
(9. Political justice: justice in government. 9e. The
just distribution of honors, ranks, offices,
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [10,849-976] 264a-
267a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK HI, 131c-135c;
BK v, 205a-b, 228c-229a; 232a-234a; BK vi,
241c-242b
9f* Justice between states: the problem of right
and might in the making of war and
peace
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 20 esp 20:10-14
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [897-959]
122d-123b
5 EURIPIDES- Suppliants 258a-269a,c
5 ARISIOPIIANES: Peace [601-692] 532d-534a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, la-2b; BK in,
93c-d; BK iv, 144c-d; BK vi, 202c-203c;
212a-c; BK vn, 218a-b; 237d-239a; 241c-246c;
BK vin, 287a-c; BK ix, 289a-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i 349a-
386d csp 358b-360c, 368b-d, 378a-380a,
384b-386d; BK n, 402c-d, 404d-405b; BK in,
418d-420c; 424d-428d; 429b-434c; BK iv,
461b-463a; 469d-470b; BK v, 504c-508a,c,
BK vi, 511c-516b, 529b-533a esp 531b-c; BK
vn, 542b-c, 556d-557a
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 274a / Republic, BK i, 308b-
309b; BK v, 367b-368c / Laws, BK i, 640a-
643b
9 ARISTOTLE 'Ethics, BKX,CH7[ii77b8-n]432b
/ Politics, BK i, CH 8 [1256^20-26] 450c; BK
in, CH 9 [i28ott34-bi2] 478a-b; BK vn, CH 2
[i324b2-i325fti3] 528c-529a; CH 14 [1333*18-
I334*n]538a-d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [847-853] 233b-234a;
BK xi [243-444] 334b-340a; BK xn [175-213]
358b-359b
14 Pm i ARCH: Romulus, 26b-27a / Numa Pom-
piling, 55c-56a/ Themistocles, 96c-d / Camillus,
106b-107a; 108b-109a / Marcellus, 254c-255d
/ Aristides, 273b-275a / Pyrrhus, 319b-d /
Lysander, 357a-b / Cimon, 398a-d / Nicias,
426a / Crassus-Nicias, 456d-457c / Sertonus,
468b-469a / Agesilaus, 484a-b; 491a-b; 497c-
498a / Pompey, 503a-d; 518a-b / Alexander,
549d-550c; 569a-b / Cato the Younger, 639d-
640a / Demetrius, 727d-728b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 15b; BK xi, 106b d /
Histories, BK iv, 272b*c; 290a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, CH 1-7 129d-
133a; CH 21 142d-143a; BK iv, CH 14-15
196b-197a; BK xix, CH 7 515a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 3 316a-318b; PART 11-11, Q 10, A 8 432b-
433b; Q 29, A i 530b-531a; Q 40 577d-
581d
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMelibeus, par 12-13 404a-
405a; par 30-38 413b-418a; par 53-60 425b-
427b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxi, 32a-d; CH
xxvi, 36b-37a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 95a; PART n, 147c;
159c; CONCLUSION, 279d-282c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
36a-38a; 54a-55a; 58a-59d; BK in, 131b,d-
133b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, llb-13c; 95a-97b; 381a-
b; 387c-388c; 440b-442d
26 SHAKESPEARE* Richard III, ACT v, sc in
[237-270] 146b-c / King John, ACT n, sc i
[561-598] 385c-386a; ACT in, sc i [255-347]
388d-389d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT iv, sc i 487b-
489d; sc n [52-123] 490b-491b / Henry V,
ACT i, sc n [1-233] 534a-536b; ACT iv, sc vn
[1-68] 558d-559b
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 290c-d
30 BACON- Novum Organum, BK i, APH 129 134d-
135d
32 MILTON Paradise Lost, BK xi [638-714] 313a-
314b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 291-294 225a-226b; 296 226b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ix, SECT 131 54d;
CH xi, SECT 139 57c-58a; CH xv, SECT 172
65b-c; CH xvi 65d-70c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 23a-25b; PART n,
75a-b; 76b 78b; PARI iv, 149b-151a
38 MONIESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3a-b;
BK x, 61b,d-64a; BK xv, 109b-c; BK xxiv,
201b-c; BK xxvi, 223c-224a; BK xxix, 265d-
266a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369a-b / Social
Contract, BK i, 389d-390d, BK n, 395d
40 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 4a-b; 84d-85a;
402b-404b; 504d-507c; 509b-c; 535d-536c;
543b-c; 549d-550b
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 5d-6a; 7d-8a;
17d-18c; 27b csp 604c [n 107]; 130b-c; 373d-
374d; 383c-384b; 445a; 532d-533a
42 KAN i. • Science of Right, 413d, 452b-458a,c
csp 454a-b, 454d-455b, 457a-458a,c / Judge-
ment, 504a-b; 586c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la 3b pas-
sim
43 ARIICLES OF CONFEDERATION- 5a-9d passim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE US.- ARTICLE i, SECT
8 [220-225] 13o» SECT I0 [SH-S20! l^b;
ARTICLE III, SECT 2 [469-492] ISc-dj AMEND-
MENTS, xi 18a
43 FHDERALIST: NUMBER 3-7 33b-44c passim;
NUMBER II, 54c; NUMBER 43, 140d-144a| NUM-
BER 80, 235b-236c; NUMBER 83, 248b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 434c-435c
passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 326
107d-108a; par 330-340 108d-110c esp par 333
109b-c, par 336 109d, par 338 HOa-b; par 351
112a-b; ADDITIONS, 193-194 150c-d / Phi-
losophy of History, PART in, 299a-c; PART iv,
3S7c-358b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 292a-295a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428a-b
9gto
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
873
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 346a-355c;
UK x, 442c-443b; BK XH, 547a-551c; BK xiv,
589a-c
54 FREUD: JF<w<w^D<wM,755a-757desp757b'C;
761a-c
9g. The tempering of political justice by clem-
ency: amnesty, asylum, and pardon
OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 35:6,11-15,28-33 /
Deuteronomy, 4:41-43; 19 -1-13 /Joshua, 21—
(D) Josue, 21
5 ARISTOPHANES* Frogs [686-705] 572a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20b-d; 36b-c;
BK n, 71b 72a; BK vi, 212a-c; BK VH, 251a b
6 THUCYDIDES : Pcloponnesian War, BK in, 424d-
429a; 433d-434a; BK iv, 451d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK iv, CH 5 228a-
230b
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK xi [IOQ-III] 330b-331a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 37b-c / Solon, 68a /
Anstides, 275c / Agesilaus, 494a-c / Pompey,
503a-d / Caesar, 599a-b / Dion, 798b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 39b-c; BK in, 59d;
BK xn, 113d-114a, BK xiv, 151d-152c / His-
tories, BK i, 208b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK i, CH 1-7 129d-
133a; BK ix, CH 5 288b-289a
21 DANTE' Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, x [70-
93] 68a-b; xv [85-114] 76b-c
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMehbeus, par 77-78, 431a-
432a / Parson's Tale, par 68 533b-534a
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART i, 94a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 3a-5a; 51a-53c
26 SHAKESPEARE:. Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i [182-205] 427c-d / 1st Henry IV, ACT v,
sc v 466a~d / Henry V, ACT n, sc n [39-83]
539c-540a
27 SHAKESPFARE: Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc n [25-162] 182 b- 183d / Cymbehne, ACT v,
sc v [286-422] 486c-488d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 7lb-d;
108c-109b; 177a-b; PART n, 332d-333b
30 BACON : New Atlantis, 205a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xiv, SECT 159
62b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 36a-b;
43c-d; BK xxv, 209 b-d; BK xxix, 264b-c
40 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 176a; 302d; 449d-
451a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 449c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE n,
SECT 2 [417-420] 15a
4J FEDERALIST: NUMBER 69, 208c-d; NUMBER
74, 221d-222d
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 335c; 344a~b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
282' 95d-96a; ADDITIONS, 74 127d-128a; 173
146d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 230b-232a;
BK xii, 548d-549b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xn,
39Sa-d
10k Justice and law
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvm [497-508] 135b
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 261b-d / Republic, BK 11,
311b-c / Laws, BK iv, 681b-683d; BK ix 743a-
757d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [i 129^2-24]
377a; CH 6 [ii34»25-b8] 382a-b; CH 7 382c-
383a / Politics, BK in, CH 16 [1287*10^25]
485c-486b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*16-
'355*31 593b-594a
13 VIRGIL. Aeneid, BK i [507-508] U7a; BK vi
[847-853l 233b-234a
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c /
Solon, 66a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 13-17
16c-18a / City of God, BK n, CH 21 161 b-
162d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-S25a; CH 24 528b-
c / Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 18 686d-
687d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A 2 125c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 91,
A 5, ANS 211c-212c; Q 94, A 4 223d-224d; Q 95,
AA 1-3 226b-229b esp A i, REP 2-3 226c-227c,
Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86b; PART n,
131a-c; 157b
33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 291-338 225a-233a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ix 53c-54d; CH
xvni 71a-73c passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
BK xxvi 214b,d-225a,c passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 370b-37lc /
Social Contract, BK n, 399b-400c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 96a-d
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392a /
Science of Right, 400b-d; 432c-433a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50d-51b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465c-466b; 467c-468a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
212-213 70d-71a; par 215 71c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XH, 553a
lOa. The measure of justice in laws made
by the state: natural and constitutional
standards
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 52b / Gorgias, 271b*274c
/ Republic, BK n, 316a-319b csp 318a; BK
iv, 349a-350a / Statesman, 598b-604b /
Laws, BK iv, 680c-683b; BK ix, 74 7c; BK x,
760c
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[173*7-19] 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi2-24]
377a; CH 7 382c-383a; CH 9 [ii36b32-35]
385a; CH n [1138*4-13] 386b-c / Politics, BK i,
CH 6 [1255*3-^4] 448c-449a; BK HI, CH 11
i-i4] 480b-c; CH 16 [i287*28-b5] 485d-
J74
THE GREAT IDEAS
10* to'lfa
[10. Justice and law. lOa. The measure of justice
in laws made by the state: natural and con-
stitutional standards.)
486a; BK iv, CH i [1289*13-20] 488a / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 10 [i368b7~io] 611d; CH 13 [i373bi-
17] 617c-d; CH 15 [i375825-b25] 619d-620b;
[1376-33^31] <>21a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b;
par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK n, CH 21
161b-162d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a; CH 24
528b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 18 686d-
687d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 3 209d-210c; 0 93, A 3 217b-218a; Q 94, A 4
223d-224d; Q 95, A 2 227c-228c; Q 96, A 4,
ANS 233a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 91a-b; PART 11,
113d; 116a-b; 131a-c; 132a-b; 134b-135b;
156b-c; 157b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47c-48a; 281a-283c;
384b~c; 519a-520b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
32 MILTON • Samson Agonistes [888-902] 359a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 291-338 225a-233a; 878-879
345a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, llb-12c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH ii, SECT 12 27d-28a; CH ix 53c-54d;
CH xi 55b-58b; CH xvm 71a-73c passim;
CH XIX, SECT 221-222 75d-76cj SECT 240-242
81b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
3c-d; BK vi, 39b, BK vin, 54b; BK xii, 85c-
86d; BK xix, 136a; 138a-c; BK xxvi 214b,d-
225a,c passim, esp 214b,d; BK xxix, 262a;
265d
38 ROUSSEAU- Political Economy, 369c-d;370b-d
/ Social Contract, BK n, 397b~c; 399b-400c;
405a-406a; BK iv, 426b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61b; BK 11,
140b; BK iv, 228a; 232b; 284d; BK v,
397a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 525d-526c; 617a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 76d-77b; 89d-94b
passim; 403 b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
429a-c; 434a; 435a-436a; 450d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE i, SECT 8-io 13a-14b; ARTICLE vi
[583-590] 16d; AMENDMENTS, i-x 17a-18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33, 108b-c; NUMBER 44,
145c-147a; NUMBER 78, 230d-232d; NUMBER
81, 237d-238b
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-323a,c passim / Utilitar-
ianism, 465d-466b; 467c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 203d-204a; 205b; 363c-
364a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
212-213 70d-71a; ADDITIONS, 134 138b-c /
Philosophy of History, PART iv, 364b
10£. The legality of unjust laws: the extent of
obedience required of the just man in
the unjust society
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [43-99]
131c-132a, [441-496] 134d-135b, [631-765]
136c-137d, [891-943] 138d-139a
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [1625-1670]
392bd
7 PLATO: Apology 200a-212a,c / Crito 213a-
219a,c / Republic, BK vi, 379d-380b / Laws,
BK vi, 706b-c / Seventh Letter, 800c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH n [i282bi-
14] 480b-c; CH 13 [1284*3-37] 482a-c / Rhet-
oric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i2] 617c-d; CH 15
[i375a25-b25] 619d-620b, [i376b5-28] 621b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xv, 172c-173c; BK xvi,
180d-184a,c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 17 17d-
18a / City of God, BK xix, CH 17 522b-523a
20 AQUINAS: Summa 'Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92,
A i, REP 4 213c-214c; Q 93, A 3, REP 2 217b-
218a; Q 94, A 6, REP 3 225d-226b, Q 95, A 2
227c-228c; A 4 229b-230c; Q 96, A 4, ANS and
REP 2-3 233a-d; Q 97, A 2 236d-237b; PART
ii-n, Q 42, A 2, REP 3 584b-d
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART n, 102b-c; 104b-d;
112b-d; 113d-114b; 115a-116a; 134b-135b;
157b; PART in, 238b-c
25 MONTAIGNL: Essays, 7a-d; 47a-51a; 319a-b;
381a-388c esp 383c-d, 384d-385a, 388a-c;
463a-465c; 480b 482b; 504c-506a; 519a-520b
32 MILION: Samson Agomstes [888-902] 359a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 114b / Pensees, 326
231a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16d-17b / Civil Govern-
ment, CH xin, SKCI 155 60d-61a, CH xiv,
SECT 168 64b-c, CH xvi-xix 65d-81d
38 ROUSSEAU' Inequality, 366b-d / Political
Economy, 369c-d / Social Contract, BK i,
388d-389a; BK iv, 426b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 397a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439a-441d; 451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 FEDERALIST NUMBER 16, 68b-c; NUMBER 28,
97c-d; NUMBER 33, 108b-109a; NUMBER 78,
230d-232d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465d-466b
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK vi, 244d-245d;
EPILOGUE i, 668a-669c; 670d-671a
lOc. The justice of punishment for unjust acts:
the distinction between retribution and
vengeance
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:6 / Exodus, 21 : 12-29
esp 21:23-25 / Leviticus, 24:16-21 / Deuteron-
omy, 19:11-13,21
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 13:2-4
5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [306-
314] 73a-b, [400-404] 74a / Eumemdes 81a
91 d esp [490-565] 86b-87a
IfetolM
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
875
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra 156a-169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c csp [764-819]
218d-219b / Electra 327a-339a,c csp [907-
noo] 335b-337a / Orestes [470-629] 398d-400b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 99c-100a; BK vn,
237d-239a; BK vm, 278c-279a; BK ix, 306c-
307a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnestan War, BK in, 424d-
429a; 429c-434c; BK vn, 556d-557a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d / Euthyphro, 194c-d
/ Republic, BK ix, 426d / Laws, »K ix, 743a-d;
746a-748d; BK x, 769d-770c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 5 [ni3b2i-
ni4a2] 359d~360a; BK v, CH 4 379b-380b esp
("32*3-30] 379c-380a; CH 5 [ii32b2i-29]
380b-c; CH n [1138*7-10] 386b; [1138*20-23]
386c; BK x, CH 9 [1180*5-13] 434d / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 10 [i}69bi2-i4] 612d
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 4a-b / Solon, 70d; 71b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 3, 344b;
BK xiv, CH 15 388d-390a; BK xix, CH 13
519a-520a; CH 15 521a-c; BK xxi, CH 11-12
570b-571c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART I, Q 19, A
9, ANS 116d-117d; Q 21, A 4, REP 3 126c-127c;
Q 49, A 2, \NS 266a-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i-ii, Q 87
185c-192d; Q 95, A i 226c-227c; Q 105, A 2,
ANS and REP 9-12 309d-316a; Q 108, A 3, REP
2 334a-336b; PART n-n, Q 25, A 6, REP 2
504d-505d; PART in SUPPL, Q 89, A 6, ANS
and REP i 1009d-1010c; A 7 IQlOd-lOllb; A 8,
ANS 1011b-1012a, Q 99 1078b-1085a,c
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xix [70-
145] 82b-83a
22 CHAUCER: Tale ofMehbeus 401a-432a esp par
55, 426b, par 63-65 428a-b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 94a; PART n,
145a-d; 147b-c; 157d-158a
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 23b-24a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Titus Andronicus, ACT iv, sc
in-iv 189d-192b / Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i 425c-430b / 2nd Henry IV, ACT v, sc n
[73-145] 498d-499b / Henry V, ACT n, sc n
539a-541a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure 174a-
204d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 68 b- 73 a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 51, SCHOL
439d; PROP 63, SCHOL 444a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH 11, SECT 7-12
26c-28a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 27b-30a; 399c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 37d-
43c; BK xii, 85c-86d; BK xix, 138c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 351b-d; 360b,d [fni]
/ Political Economy, 371a-c / Social Contract,
BK n, 398b-399a; 406c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175d-176a; 617b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91a-93c passim
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306b-c / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 391d-394a,c / Science
of Right, 400b-d; 446a-449c esp 446b-447c,
448b-d; 450a
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S. : ARTICLE HI,
SECT 2 [493J-SECT 3 [511] 15d-16a; ARTICLE
iv, SECT 2 [522-528] 16a-b; AMENDMENTS, v-
vi 17b-d; vin I7d; xin 18c
43 MILL: Liberty, 272b-d; 302d-312a passim, esp
304c-305b; 312a-323a,c passim /Utilitarianism,
467d-468c; 469c-470d; 471d-472d; 474b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 96
36c-37a; par 99-100 37b-38a; par 103 39b;
PART in, par 218 72c-d; par 220 73a-b; par
319, 106a; ADDITIONS, 60 125d; 62-65 126a-c;
74 127d-128a; 138 139a-b; 173 146d/ Philoso-
phy of History, PART i, 214d-216a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 30b-
32a; BK v, 123c-124a; BK xn, 384c-d; 398 b-d
IQd. The correction of legal justice: equity in
the application of human law
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK i, 32b-c; BK vi, 211d-
212a
7 PLATO: Laws, BK ix, 754a-d; BK xi, 777d-
778b; BK xn, 785c-786a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BKvi,cH3 [141*15-18] 194b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 10 385c-386b /
Politics, BK in, CH 15 [1286*10-37] 484b-d; CH
16 [i287a23-28] 485d; [i287bij-25] 486a-b /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i 374*17-^24] 618c-619a;
CH 15 [i375a25-b25] 619d-620b; [i376bi9-2i]
621b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Fabius, 150c-151a / Agesilaus,
494a-c / Agesilaus-Pompey, 539a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 96,
A 6 235a-d; Q 97, A 4 238b 239b; Q 100, A 8,
ANS and REP i 2 59 d- 261 a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 94d; PART n,
132d; 134b-135d; 136b; 142a-144d; 156b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 50b-51a; 519a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i 425c-430b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, ACT in, sc
v 406d-408a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 68b-73a;
PARTii,333a-b;340d-343a;353b-356d;361a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xiv 62b-64c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 152b-154a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 8c-10c; 12b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU : Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 35d-36a;
39b; 40a-b; 42a-c; BK xn, 85c-86d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 397a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d-74b; 77d-78a;
91b-c
42 KANT: Science ofRjght, 399c-400a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 78, 232c-d; NUMBER 80,
237a-b; NUMBER 83, 248d-249a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 223-
229 73c-75b
THE GREAT IDEAS
11/011*
I. Divine justice: the relation of God or the
gods to man
[a. The divine government of man: the justice
and mercy of God or the gods
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3; 6:5-8:22 esp 8:20-
22; 18:20-19.29 / Exodus, 20 / Leviticus, 26
I Numbers, 13-14 esp 14:11-20; 25 / Deuter-
onomy, 32 / // Samuel, 24— (D) II Kings, 24 /
// Chronicles, 6; 12— -(D) II Paralipomenon,
6; 12 / Nehemiah, 9.5-38- (D) // Etdras,
9:5-38 / Job I Psalms, 5-7; 28; 37; 59-60;
73; 76; 81; 83; 89:14; 146— (D) Psalms,
5-7; 27; 36; 58-59; 72; 75; 80; 82; 88:15;
145 / Proverbs, 14.32 / Ecclesiastes, 12.14 /
Isaiah, r; 30-31; 42 esp 42-1-7; 45:21-25;
59— (D) Isatas, i; 30-31; 42 esp 42:1-7;
45:21-26; 59 / Jeremiah, 15; 24; 29-31; 34
— (D) Jeremtas, 15; 24; 29-31; 34 / Lamen-
tations I Ezetiiel, ji; 14; 18; 33-34— (D)
Ezechiel, n; 14; 18; 33-34 / Daniel, 4*4-37
— (D) Daniel, 4 / Joel, 3 / Amos / Obadiah
—(D) Abdias f Jonah -(D) Jonas / Micah,
1-3— (D) Mtcfieas, 1-3 / Nahum / Malachi,
3-4— (D) Malaccas, 3-4
(\POCRYPH A: Tobit, 3— (7?) OT, Tobias, 3 /
Wisdom of Solomon, 1-6 passim; 12 — (D)
OT, Boot{ of Wisdom, 1-6 passim; 12 / EC-
clesiasticus, 16; 35— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
16; 35 / // Maccabees, 6:12-17— (7)) OT»
// Machabees, 6:12-17
VEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:22,29-30; 11.20-
24; 12:36-37; 13:24-30,36-43; 18:7-9,11-14;
19:16-20-16; 23 / Marl(, 9:43-48; 10:17-31;
16:16— (D) Mari(, 9-42-47; 10.17-31; 16:16 /
Lu{e, 1:46-55, 6:36-38; 7:36-50; 10.25-28;
14:7-14; 15; 16:19-26; 18:1-8; 23-34,39-43 /
John, 5-30; 8.1-11 / Romans, 1:16-2-16, 6:28
/ Galatians, 6:7-8 / Ephesians, 2/77 Thessalo-
mans, 2:10-12— (D) 77 Thcssalomans, 2:10-11
/ 77 Timothy, 4:8-9— (D) II Timothy, 4:8 /
Hebrews, 10.26-31 / 7 Peter, 3:18 / 77 Peter, 2
/ 7 John, 1 19 / Jude / Revelation passim, esp
17-20— (D) Apocalypse passim, esp 17-20
4 HOMER. Iliad, BK xxiv [513-551] 176d-177a
/ Odyssey, BK i [11-95] 183a-184a
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [1-175] la-3a
/ Prometheus Bound 40a-51d / Agamemnon
[636-781] 58d-60b; [1560-1566] 68c / Cho-
ephoroe [772-780] 77c / Eumenidcs 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [279-289] 133c / Ajax
143a-155a,c esp [430-459] 146d-147a, [748-
783] 149c-d / Electra [173-179] 157c / Tra-
chmiae [1264-1278] 181c / Philoctetes [446-452]
186a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [598-617] 263c-d /
Helen [191-305] 300a-d; [711-721] 304d-305a
/ Hecuba [1023-1033] 361od / Heracles Mad
[772-316] 371c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [86-92] 630a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20b-22a; BK n,
77a-b; BK iv, I59d; BK vi, 199c-d; 201d-202c;
203ab; 212c-213a; BK vn, 237d-239d; BK
viii, 278d-279a; 283d; BK ix, 308a-c
6 TaucYDiDE&'.PeloponnestanWar, BK v, 506 b-c;
BK VH, 560a-b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 437c-441a,c / Theacte-
tus, 530b-531a / IMWS, BK iv, 682d-683b;
BK ix, 757a; BK x 757d-771b / Seventh Letter,
806a
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK i [8-33] 103a-104a; [223-
296] 109a-llla; BK xn [791-843] 375a-376b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 26b-27a / Camillus,
108b-c / Anstides, 265c-d / Phocion, 605b-d
/ Cato the Younger, 639d-640a / Dion, 784d-
785a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 284b-c
17 PLOTINUS : Third Ennead, TR n, CH 13 88d-89b
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK i, par 4 2a; BK n,
par 15 12b-c; BK HI, par 13-15 16c-17b; par 17
17d-18a; BK v, par 1-2 27a-c; BK vn, par 5
44c-d; BK ix, par 34-36 70c-71a / City of God,
BK i, CH 21 142d-143a; BK v, CH 9-11 213b-
216d; CH 15-16 220d-221b; CH 21 226a-c; BK
xi, CH 23 334c-335c; BK xn, CH 3 343d-344b;
BK xin, CH 1-8 360a-363c; CH 12-16 365d-
367d; CH 21 371a-c; BK xiv, CH i 376b,d-
377a; CH 15 388d-390a; BK xv, CH 24-25
418d-419b; BK xvi, CH 4 425b<426a; BK xix,
CH 11-17 S16d-523a; CH 21 524a-525a; BK xx,
CH i 530a-531a; BK xxi, CH 11-12 570b-571c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c; CH 32
633c-d; BK n, CH 23 648a-c
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 6, ANS and REP i 113c-114d; A 9, ANS 116d-
117d; Q 21 124b-127c; Q 22, A 2, REP 4 128d-
130d; Q 65, A 2, RLP 3 340b-341b; Q 96, A 3,
REP 3 512a-c; Q 103, A 5, REP 2-3 531b-532b;
A 8, RLP i 533d-534b; Q 105, A 6, REP 2 543b-
544a; PART I-H, Q 5, A 7 642a-d; Q 21, A 4
719d-720a,c, Q 39, A 2, REP 3 790d-791b; Q
47, A i, REP i £19c-820b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 72,
A 5 115a-116b; Q 73, A 9, REP 3 126d-128a; A
io> REP 2 128a-d; Q 79, AA 3-4 158a-159c, Q
81, A 2, REP 1 164d-165c; Q 87 185c-192d; Q 91,
AA 4-6 210c-213c, Q 94, A 5, REP 2 224d-225d;
QQ 98-108 239b-337d, PART ii-n, Q 19, A i,
REP 2 465a-d, Q 24, A 12 499c-500d; PART in
SUPPL, QQ 97-99 1066a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy esp HELL, n [I]-HI
[18] 2c-4b, xi 15a-16b, PURGATORY, nf [103-
145] 57a-c, vi [25-48] 61 a- b, xvi [52-81]
77b-c, xvin [40-75] 80b-c, xix [115-126] 82d,
xxx-xxxi 99b-102b, PARADISE, in [i]-v [87]
109b-113a, vii [19-120] 115b-116b, xvin [52]-
xx [148] 134a-138b, xxxn [37-84] 155a-c
22 CHAUCER': Tale ofMelibeus, par 77-78, 431a-
432a / Parson's Tale. 495a*550a esp par 10
498b-502a, par 56 527b-528b, par 68 533b-
534a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 88c-89a; PART n,
160c-161a; 163d-l64a; PART ni, 197d-198a;
240c-d; 245b-c; PART iv, 254a-b; 276d-277a
\\b
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
877
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 152d-153a; 250a-251c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i [184-202] 427c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [9-22]
37a / Measure for Measure, ACT n, sc n [73-
79] 182d / Cymbehne, ACT v, sc iv [9-28]
481a-b
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART i, 71c-d
31 DESCARTES' Meditations, 69b
32 MILTON- Chnsts Nativity la-7b / T^ Passion
10b-12a / Paradise Lost, BK i [1-26] 93b 94a;
BK in [80-166] 137a-139a esp [131-154] 138a;
[372-415] 143b-144b csp [397-411] 144a-b;
BK x 274a-298b esp [1-16] 274b, [162-223]
278a-279a, [1046-1104] 297a-298b, BK xi
[22-44] 299b-300a; BK xn [223-248] 324a<b;
[285-484] 325b-329b / Samson Agomstes
339a-378a esp [293-299] 346a, [667-709] 354a-
355a, [1156-1177] 364b-365a, [1669-1707]
376a-b
33 PASCAL: Pcnsbs, 430 245a-247b; 497 259b-
260a; 584 276b-277a
35 LOCKE Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 5-6 105a-c; SECT 12-13 107b-108c; CH
III, SECT 5 113C| BK II, CH XXI, SECT 62
194c-d; CH xxvni, SECT 8 230a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
108-109 500b-501a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 20a-21a; 75c-d
42 ^fM-r: Judgement, 592a-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 482a-d; 539d-540a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 30a~36b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 272a-b; BK
xiv, 606a-607a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127c-d; BK vi, 151a-152a; BK xi, 341c-342c
lib. Man's debt to God or the gods: the reli-
gious acts of piety and worship
OLD TESTAMENT. Genesis, 22; 28 18-22 / Exo-
dus, 20; 32-34 / Leviticus, 18 1-5; 26 / Deuter-
onomy, 4 1-40; 5-6; 8, 10-12; 23 21-23 /
Joshua, 22 i-6— (D) Josue, 22-1-6 / Job,
9 2-21 / Psalms passim, esp 5*7-8, 22 22-31,
27-1-14, 292, 408, 78-5-8, 89-1-52, 95-6,
96-8-9, 99'i-9, 132:7, 138.1-2— (D) Psalms
passim, esp 5:8-9, 21:23-32, 26:1-14, 28:2,
39:9, 77:5-8, 88.1-53, 94-6, 95-8-9. 98:'-9.
131:7, 137:1-2 / Proverbs, 21:3 / Ecclesiastes,
5:4-5; 12:13 — (D) Ecdesiastes, 5.3-4; 12:13
/ Micah, 6:8-(D) Micheas, 6.8
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 2:15-18; 18:22-24;
35— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 2:18-23; 18.22-
24; 35 / 1 Maccabees, 2:20-28; 4:36-61 — (D)
OT, I Machabees, 2:20-28; 4:36-61
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 18:23-35; 22.21 /
Mar{, 12:17 / Luke, 10:25-27; 17.7-10; 20:25
/ John, 4:21-24 / Romans, 3:19-28; 4:1-8;
5:8-21; 8:1-17 / Galatians, 3:10-13; 5:1-5
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i 3a-9a,c; BK n [394-431]
14a-b; BK ix [485-526] 62a-b / Odyssey, BK in
[i-68J 193a-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c /
Persians [800-842] 23d-24b / Seven Against
Thebes [1011-1084] 38b-39a,c / Agamemnon
[351-402] 55d-56b
5 SOPHOCLES : Oedtpus the King [863-910] 107 b-c
/ Oedtpus at Colonus [461-509] 118b-d / An-
tigone 131a-142d esp [1-99] 131a-132a, [446-
470] 134d-135a / Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [666-
677] 148d, [748-783] 149c-d, [1316-1421] 154b-
155a,c / Electra [1060-1097] 164d-165a /
Philoctetes [1440-1444] 195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Ion 282a-297d esp [82-183] 282d-
283c, [585-647] 287d-288b / Helen [865-1031]
306c-308a / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c esp [977-
1023] 348b-c / Hecuba [786-805] 359c-d /
Phoenician Maidens [1625-1670] 392b-d
7 PLATO: Euthyphro, 196c-198a / Apology 200a-
212a,c passim / Republic, BK i, 297a-b / Laws,
BK iv, 682d-683b; BK x, 768d-771b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH n [105*2-6]
148c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH i2347a-b; BK iv,
CH 2 [i i22bi8-23] 369c; BK vin, CH 9 [i 160*19-
29] 412b-c / Politics, BK VH, CH 9 [1329*26-
34] 533d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, en 16, 122c-d;
BK u, CH 16, 158b-d; BK HI, CH 24, 208d-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 17 255d-
256d; BK n, SECT 13 258c; BK in, SECT 13
262c; BK ix, SECT i 291a-c; SECT 40 295b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK n [687-720] 143b-144b;
BK iv [331-361] 176a-177a; BK v [42-60]
188a-b; BK xn [176-211] 358b-359b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 2 27b-c;
BK ix, par 36 71a / City of God, BK i CH 15
138c-139c; BK VH, CH 27-31 259c-262a; BK x,
CH 1-7 298b,d-303a; CH 16 308b-309c; CH 19
310d-311b; BK xix, CH 19 523b-d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 10 627b; CH 22-23 629b-
630c; CH 26-27 631b-d; CH 29-30 632a-633b;
CH 35 634c-d
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 60,
A 3, ANS 51c-52b; Q 99, A 3 247a-248a; Q 100,
A 8 259d-261a; QQ 101-103 265d-304a, PART
in, Q 25 839c-845a; PART HI SUPPL, Q 99, A 4
1083a-1084a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxx-
xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, in [i]-v [87] 109b-
113a; vii [19-120] 115b-116b; xx [16-148]
136d-138b; xxvi [1-81] 145d-146c
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale 463b-471b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 161b-163d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 152b-156d; 233a-b; 242d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL i
434d-435b
32 MILTON. Sonnets, xiv 66a / Paradise Lost, BK
iv [720-735] 168a-b; BK v [153-208] 178b-179b
/ Samson Agomstes [1334-1379] 368b-369b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 78b-80b / Penstes,
470 256a; 476 256b-257a; 482 258a; 489,491
259a; 531 264b; 539 265b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, Ib; 16c
THE GREAT IDEAS lib
„ . . . , . . -_ , , .
L. Divine justice; the relation of God or the gods / ]udgemfnt
to i»*». 1 1 b. Man's debt to God or the gods: 44 BOSWELL: /oA^ow, 84b-c; 262b
the religious acts of piety and worship.) 45 HEGEL. PMosophy of History, PART i, 225b;
'5 BERKELEY- Human Knowledge, SECT 155-156 PART m, 290d-291c; 311b-d
444b-d 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 30a-36b
7 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 187d-188a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 122b-c;
1 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 259b-260a BK vi, 271c-d
OSS-REFERENCES
': Matters relevant to the conception of justice as a virtue and as it relates to the other
virtues and to happiness, see COURAGE 4; GOOD AND EVIL 36; HAPPINESS 5-50; TEMPER-
ANCE la; VIRTUE AND VICE 2a(i), 3b; WILL 8c; and for the theological doctrine of original
justice, see SIN 33.
The relation of justice and duty, see DUTY 7; WILL 8e.
The comparison of justice with love and friendship, see LOVE 3C, 40.
Other considerations of natural rights and civil liberties, see LAW 46, yc; LIBERTY le-ig;
SLAVERY 3d; TYRANNY 53.
Problems of economic justice, see DEMOCRACY 43(2); LABOR 7a-7b, 7c(2), 7d~7f; LIBERTY
2d; SLAVERY 43-4^ 5a~5b; WEALTH 5e, 6d(2), lod.
Problems of justice in government and law, see ARISTOCRACY la-ib; CONSTITUTION 53;
DEMOCRACY 43-43(1), 4b; HONOR 4b; LAW 5c, 6c; LIBERTY if; MONARCHY 13(2), 46(3),
5a~5b; OLIGARCHY 4, 53; SLAVERY 5a~5b, 6d; STATE 30; TYRANNY la-ib, 4b, 6; and for
the special problem of the distinction between justice and equity, see LAW 5h; UNIVER-
SAL AND PARTICULAR 6c.
Justice in the relation of states to one another and in the issues of war and peace, see LAW
4g; STATE pc; WAR AND PEACE 3a~3b, ub.
The issue concerning the justice of punishment as a political instrument, see LAw6e(3);
PUNISHMENT ib, 2, 4c~4d.
The justice of divine punishment snd the relation of God's mercy to God's justice, see GOD
5i; PUNISHMENT 56 ; SIN 6a-6b.
The justice involved in man's debt to God, see DUTY n; GOD 3d; RELIGION 2.
CHAPTER 42: JUSTICE
879
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings, which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Delays in Divine Justice," in Moralia
AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-n, QQ 57-80,
108-113, 120-122
DANTE. On World-Government or DC Monarchia,
BK I, CH II J BK II, CH 6
F. BACON. "Of Usury," in Essays
SPINOZA. Tractatus Poltticus (Political Treatise), CH 2
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK in, PART n,
SFCT I-VI
FIELDING. Amelia
A. SMITH, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, PART n
. Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms
KANT. Lectures on Ethics, pp 191-253
HEGEL. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT n, SUB-SECT c,
(BB, b, c)
DOSTOEVSKY, The House of the Dead
TOLSTOY. Resurrection
II.
CICERO. De Fmibus (On the Supreme Good')
. De Officns (On Duties), n (ix)
SLNLCA. De Beneficiis (On Benefits)
SAADIA GAON. The Bool( of Beliefs and Opinions,
TREATISE IV-V, IX
Njalssaga
LANGLAND. Piers Plowman
SOTO. Libri Decem de Justitia et Jure
SPENSER. The Paerie Queene, BK v
HOOKER. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
GROTIUS, The Rights of War and Peace
H. MORE. An Account of Virtue (Enchiridion Ethi-
cum), BK ii
LEIBNITZ. Philosophical Worty, CH 8 (On the Notions
of Right and Justice)
VOLTAIRE. Essay on Toleration
. "Equality," "Justice," "Rights," "Tolera-
tion," in A Philosophical Dictionary
VOLTAIRE. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 32
BENTHAM. Defence of Usury
PAINE. Rights of Man
GODWIN. An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice
LIBBER. Manual of Political Ethics
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK n, CH 21-
22; BK iv
PROUDHON. De la justice dans la resolution et dans
Veglise
BAKUNIN, God and the State
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK HI,
CH 5
GEORGE. Progress and Poverty
T, H. HUXLEY. Methods and Results, vin
T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obligation,
(H,I,O)
O. W. HOLMES JR. The Common Law
RITCHIE. Natural Rights
ZOLA. Letter to M. Felix Paure (J' accuse)
WILLOUGHBY. Social Justice
VECCHIO. The Formal Bases of Law
CROCE. The Philosophy of the Practical
G. DICKINSON. Justice and Liberty
STAMMLER. The Theory of Justice
KAFKA. The Trial
HOBHOUSE. The Elements of Social Justice
HOCKING. Present Status of the Philosophy of Law and
of Rights
J. DICKINSON. Administrative Justice and the Suprem-
acy of Law in the United States
BERDYAYEV. Christianity and the Class War
M. R, COHEN. Reason and 'Nature, BK in, CH 4
TAWNEY. The Acquisitive Society
. Equality
MOUNIER. A Personalist Manifesto
MICHEL. Christian Social Reconstruction
MARITAIN. Ransoming the Time, CH i
. The Rights of Man and Natural Law
KELSEN. Society and Nature
Chapter & KNOWLEDGE
INTRODUCTION
l^NOWLEDGE, like being, is a term of
1^ comprehensive scope. Its comprehensive-
ness is, in a way, correlative with that of being.
The only thing which cannot be an object of
knowledge or opinion, which cannot be
thought about in any way except negatively, is
that which has no being of any sort— in short,
nothing. Not all things may be knowable to
us, but even the skeptic who severely limits or
completely doubts man's power to know is usu-
ally willing to admit that things beyond
man's knowledge are in themselves know-
able. Everyone except Berkeley would agree
that the surfaces of bodies which we cannot
see are not, for that reason, in themselves in-
visible.
The consideration of knowledge extends,
therefore, to all things knowable, to all kinds of
knowers, to all the modes of knowledge, and all
the methods of knowing. So extensive an array
of topics exceeds the possibility of treatment in
a single chapter and requires this chapter to be
related to many others.
The Cross-References which follow the Ref-
erences indicate the other chapters which deal
with particulars we cannot consider here. For
example, the nature of history, science, philos-
ophy, and theology, and their distinction from
one another, are treated in the chapters de-
voted to those subjects. So, too, the chapters on
metaphysics, mathematics, physics, mechanics,
and medicine deal with the characteristics and
relations of these special sciences. The psycho-
logical factors in knowing — the faculties of
sense and mind, of memory and imagination,
the nature of experience and reasoning— also
have their own chapters. Still other chapters
deal with the logical elements of knowledge,
such as idea and judgment, definition, hypoth-
esis, principle, induction, and reasoning, logic
and dialectic.
THE PROGRAM which Locke sets himself in his
Essay Concerning Human Understanding is often
taken to include the basic questions about
knowledge. His purpose, he tells us, is "to in-
quire into the original, certainty, and extent of
human knowledge, together with the grounds
and degrees of belief, opinion, and assent." Two
other matters, not explicitly mentioned by
Locke in his opening pages, assume central im-
portance in the fourth book of his essay. One is
the question about the nature of knowledge it-
self. The other concerns the kinds of knowledge.
It may be thought that certain questions are
prior to these and all others. Is knowledge pos-
sible? Can we know anything? The man the
skeptic challenges is one who thinks that knowl-
edge is attainable and who may even claim to
possess knowledge of some sort. But the issue
between the skeptic and his adversaries cannot
be simply formulated. Its formulation depends
in part upon the meaning given knowledge and
the various things with which it is sometimes
contrasted, such as belief and opinion, or igno-
rance and error. It also depends in part on the
meaning of truth and probability. It would seem,
therefore, that some consideration of the nature
of knowledge should precede the examination
of the claims concerning knowledge which pro-
voke skeptical denials.
The theory of knowledge is a field of many
disputes. Most of the major varieties of doc-
trine or analysis are represented in the tradition
of the great books. But the fact that knowledge
involves a relationship between a knower and a
known seems to go unquestioned. William James
expresses this insight, perhaps more dogmatic-
ally than some would allow, in the statement
that knowledge "is a thoroughgoing dualism.
It supposes two elements, mind knowing and
thing known . . . Neither gets out of itself or
into the other, neither in any way w the other,
CHAPTER 43; KNOWLEDGE
881
neither ma fas the other. They just stand face to
face in a common world, and one simply knows,
or is known unto, its counterpart," This re-
mains true even when attention is turned to the
special case of knowledge about knowledge or
the knower knowing himself. The mind's ex-
amination of itself simply makes the mind an
object to be known as well as a knower.
This suggests a second point about the na-
ture of knowledge which seems to be undis-
puted. If knowledge relates a knower to a known,
then what is somehow possessed when a person
claims to have knowledge, is the object known.
It does not seem possible for anyone to say that
he knows something without meaning that he
has that thing in mind. "Some sort of signal,"
James writes, "must be given by the thing to
the mind's brain, or the knowing will not oc-
cur—we find as a matter of fact that the mere
existence of a thing outside the brain is not a
sufficient cause for our knowing it : it must strike
the brain in some way, as well as be there, to be
known." What is not in any way present to or
represented in the mind is not known in any of
the various senses of the word "know." What
the mind cannot reach to and somehow grasp
cannot be known. The words which are com-
mon synonyms for knowing — "apprehending"
and "comprehending" — convey this sense that
knowledge somehow takes hold of and surrounds
its object.
That knowledge is a kind of possession occa-
sions the comparisons which have been made
between knowledge and love. The ancients ob-
served that likeness and union are involved in
both. Plato, for example, suggests in the Sym-
posium that both the knower and the lover
strive to become one with their object. "Love
is also a philosopher," Diotima tells Socrates,
and, as "a lover of wisdom," the philosopher
is also a lover.
With regard to some objects, love and knowl-
edge are almost inseparable. To know them is to
love them. But this does not hold for all ob-
jects, nor does the inseparability of knowledge
and love in certain cases prevent their analyti-
cal distinction in all. Like is known by like, but
unlikes attract each other. Furthermore, ac-
cording to one theory of knowledge, expounded
by Aquinas, the knower is satisfied to possess
an image of the thing to be known. This image
provides the likeness through which knowledge
occurs; and thus, Aquinas writes, "the idea of
the thing understood is in the one who under-
stands." The lover, on the other hand, is "in-
clined to the thing itself, as existing in itself."
He seeks to be united with it directly. The no-
bility or baseness of the object known does not
affect the knower as the character of the object
loved affects the lover. This understanding of
the difference between knowledge and love leads
Aquinas to say that "to love God is better than
to know God; but, on the contrary, to know
corporeal things is better than to love them."
The principle of likeness between knower and
known does not go undisputed. On the con-
trary, the opposite views here form one of the
basic issues about the nature of knowledge. The
issue is whether the thing known is actually
present to the knower, existing in the mind or
consciousness exactly as it exists in itself; or
whether the thing is represented in the mind
by a likeness of itself, through which the mind
knows it. In this view, the mode of existence of
the thing outside the mind is different from the
way in which its representative exists in the
mind.
Berkeley, at one extreme, identifies being and
being known. "As to what is said of the absolute
existence of unthinking things without any re-
lation to their being perceived, that seems per-
fectly unintelligible," he writes. "Their esse is
percipi, nor is it possible they should have any
existence, out of the minds or thinking things
which perceive them."
At the other extreme are those like Kant for
whom the thing in itself is unknowable pre-
cisely because there can be no resemblance be-
tween the phenomenal order of objects repre-
sented under the conditions of experience and
the noumenal order of the unconditioned. "AH
conceptions of things in themselves," he writes,
"must be referred to intuitions, and with us
men these can never be other than sensible, and
hence can never enable us to know objects as
things in themselves but only as appearances.
. . . The unconditioned," he adds, "can never
be found in this chain of appearances."
In between these extremes there are those
who agree that things exist apart from being
known without ceasing to be knowable, but
who nevertheless differ with respect to whether
882
THE GREAT IDEAS
the thing exists in reality in the same way that
it exists in the mind. The several forms of ideal-
ism and realism, distinguished in the chapter on
IDEA, mark the range of traditional differences
in the discussion of this difficult problem.
FOR ANY THEORY of what knowledge is there is
a distinction between knowledge and ignorance
—between having or not having something in
mind. Nor does anyone confuse ignorance and
error. The mind in error claims to know that of
which, in fact, it is ignorant. This, as Socrates
points out in the Meno, makes it easier to teach
a person aware of his ignorance than a person in
error; for the latter, supposing himself to know,
resists the teacher. Hence getting a person to
acknowledge ignorance is often the indispens-
able first step in teaching.
But though the difference between knowl-
edge and ignorance and that between ignorance
and error seems to be commonly understood,
it does not follow that everybody similarly agrees
upon the difference between knowledge and er-
ror. This much is agreed, that to know is to
possess the truth about something, whereas to
err is to be deceived by falsity mistaken for
truth. The disagreement of the philosophers be-
gins, however, when the meaning of truth and
falsity is examined.
Truth is one thing for those who insist upon
some similarity between the thing known and
that by which it is known or represented in the
mind. It is another for those who think that
knowledge can be gained without the mediation
of images or representations. In the first case,
truth will consist in some kind of correspond-
ence between what the mind thinks or under-
stands and the reality it tries to know. In the
other, truth will be equivalent to consistency
among the mind's own ideas.
The examination of this fundamental dis-
agreement is reserved for the chapter on TRUTH.
Here the identification of knowing with having
the truth calls for the consideration of another
distinction, first made by Plato, In his language,
as in that of Aristotle and others, it is the differ-
ence between knowledge and opinion. Some-
times, as with Locke, a similar distinction is
made in terms of knowledge and judgment;
sometimes it is made in terms of knowledge and
belief; sometimes in terms of adequate and
inadequate, or certain and probable, knowl-
edge.
The difference between these opposites, un-
like that between knowledge and error, is not a
matter of truth and falsity. There is such a thing
as "right opinion," according to Socrates, and
it is "not less useful than knowledge." Con-
sidering the truth so far as it affects action,
Socrates claims that the man with right opinion
"will be just as good a guide if he thinks the
truth, as he who knows the truth." The differ-
ence between right opinion and knowledge is
here expressed by the contrast be t ween the words
"thinks" and "knows." It does not consist in
the truth of the conclusion, but in the way that
conclusion has been reached or is held by the
mind.
The trouble with right opinion as compared
with knowledge, Socrates explains, is that it
lacks stability and permanence. Right opinions
are useful "while they abide with us ... but
they run away out of the human soul and
do not remain long, and therefore they are
not of much value until they are fastened by
the tie of the cause"— or, in other words, un-
til they are fixed in the mind by the reasons
on which they are grounded. "When they
are bound," Socrates declares, "they have the
nature of knowledge and . . . they are abid-
ing."
At this point in his conversation with Meno,
Socrates makes the unusual confession that "there
are not many things which I profess to know,
but this is most certainly one of them," namely,
that "knowledge differs from true opinion." It
may be that Socrates claims to know so little
because he regards knowledge as involving so
much more than simply having the truth, as
the man of right opinion has it. In addition to
having the truth, knowledge consists in seeing
the reason why it is true.
This criterion can be interpreted to mean that
a proposition which is neither self-evident nor
demonstrated expresses opinion rather than
knowledge. Even when it happens to be true,
the opinion is qualified by some degree of doubt
or some estimate of probability and counter-
probability. In contrast, when the mind has ade-
quate grounds for its judgment, when it knows
that it knows and why, it has the certainty of
knowledge.
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
833
For some writers, such as Plato, certitude is
as inseparable from knowledge as truth is. To
speak of "a false knowledge as well as a true"
seems to him impossible; and "uncertain knowl-
edge" is as self-contradictory a phrase as "false
knowledge."
Others use the word "knowledge" more loose-
ly to cover both adequate and inadequate
knowledge, the probable as well as the certain.
They make a distinction within the sphere of
knowledge that is equivalent to the distinction
between knowledge and opinion.
Spinoza, for example, distinguishes three
kinds of knowledge. He groups the perception
of individual things through the bodily senses,
which he calls "knowledge from vague experi-
ence," with knowledge "from signs" which de-
pends on ideas formed by the memory and im-
agination. "These two ways of looking at
things," he writes, "I shall hereafter call knowl-
edge of the first kind— opinion or imagination."
In contrast, that which is derived "from our
possessing common notions and adequate ideas
of the properties of things," he calls "reason
and knowledge of the second kind."
The third kind, which he calls "intuitive sci-
ence," is that sort of knowing which "advances
from an adequate idea of certain attributes of
God to the adequate knowledge of the essence
of things." Knowledge of the second and third
kinds, he maintains, "is necessarily true." That
there can be falsity in the first kind, and only
there, indicates that it is not genuinely knowl-
edge at all, but what other writers would insist
upon calling "opinion."
The several meanings of the word "belief
are determined by these distinctions. Sometimes
belief is associated with opinion, sometimes with
knowledge, and sometimes it is regarded as an
intermediate state of mind. But in any of these
meanings belief stands in contrast to make-be-
lieve, and this contrast has a bearing on knowl-
edge and opinion as well. To know or to opine
puts the mind in some relation to the real or
actual rather than the merely possible, and sub-
jects it to the criteria of truth and falsity. The
fanciful or imaginary belongs to the realm of
the possible (or even the impossible) and the
mind in imagining is fancy-free—free from
the restraints and restrictions of truth and
reality.
SKEPTICISM in its most extreme form takes
the position that there is nothing true or false.
But even those who, like Montaigne, deny cer-
titude with respect to everything except mat-
ters of religious faith, do not go this far.
In his Apology for Raimond de Scbondc he
concedes that if opinions arc weighed as more
or less probable, their truth or falsity is implied
— at least as being the limit which an increasing
probability or improbability approaches. Refer-
ring to ancient skeptics of the Academic school,
he comments on the fact that they acknowl-
edged "some things to be more likely than oth-
ers"— as, for example, that snow is white rather
than black. The more extreme skeptics, the
Pyrrhonians, he points out, were bolder and
also more consistent. They refused to incline
toward one proposition more than toward an-
other, for to do so, Montaigne declares, is to
recognize "some more apparent truth in this
than in that." How can men "suffer themselves,"
he asks, "to incline to and be swayed by proba-
bility, if they know not the truth itself? How
should they know the similitude of that whereof
they do not know the essence?"
In this respect Montaigne's own skepticism
tends to be of the more moderate variety, since,
in the realm of action at least, he would admit
the need for judgments of probability. But in
all other respects, he takes a firm skeptical stand
that nothing is self-evident, nothing has been
proved. The contradictory of everything has
been asserted or argued by someone, "Men can
have no principles," he writes, "if not revealed
to them by the Divinity; of all the rest, the be-
ginning, the middle, and the end are nothing
but dream and vapor. . . . Every human presup-
position and every declaration has as much au-
thority, one as another. . . . The persuasion of
certainty is a certain testimony of folly and ex-
treme uncertainty,"
The skeptical extreme is represented in the
great books only through references to it for
the purpose of refutation. Aristotle in the Meta*
physics, for example, reports the position of those
who say that all propositions are true or that all
propositions are false, and who therefore deny
the principle of contradiction and with it the
distinction between true and false. But if all
propositions are true, then the proposition
"Some propositions are false" is also true; if
884
THE GREAT IDEAS
ail propositions arc false, the proposition "All
propositions are false" is also false. The skeptic
may reply, of course, that he is not checked by
arguments which try to make him contradict
himself, for he does not mind contradicting him-
self. To this there is only one answer, which is
not to argue with the skeptic any further.
From the skeptic's point of view his position
is irrefutable so long as he does not allow him-
self to accept any of the standards by which
refutation can be effected. From his opponent's
point of view complete skepticism is self-refut-
ing because if the skeptic says anything definite
at all, he appears to have some knowledge or at
least to hold one opinion in preference to an-
other. His only choice is to remain silent. If he
insists upon making statements in defiance of
self-contradiction, his opponent can do nothing
but walk away.
"It may seem a very extravagant attempt of
the skeptics to destroy reason by argument and
ratiocination," Hume writes, "yet this is the
grand scope of all their enquiries and disputes."
He has in mind the excessive skepticism, or Pyr-
rhonism, from which he tries to distinguish a
mitigated and beneficial form of skepticism. Re-
ferring to Berkeley's arguments against the in-
dependent reality of matter or bodies, Hume
says their effect is skeptical, despite Berkeley's
professed intention to the contrary. That his
arguments are skeptical "appears from this,
that they admit of no answer and produce no con-
viction. Their only effect is to cause that momen-
tary amazement and irresolution and confu-
sion, which is the result of skepticism."
Here and elsewhere, as in his comment on
Descartes' skeptical method of doubting every-
thing which can be doubted, Hume does not
seem to think that excessive skepticism is refut-
able or even false. But it is impractical. "The
great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive
principles of skepticism," he says, "is action,
and employment, and the occupations of life."
Extreme skepticism becomes untenable in
thought the moment thought must face the
choices of life and take some responsibility for
action.
There is, however, "a more mitigated skepti-
cism or academical philosophy which may be
both durable and useful." This, according to
Hume, consists in becoming "sensible of the
strange infirmities of human understanding,"
and consequently in "the limitation of our en-
quiries to such subjects as are best adapted to
the narrow capacity of human understanding."
His own view of the extent and certainty of
human knowledge seems to him to exemplify
such mitigated skepticism in operation. The
only objects with respect to which demonstra-
tion is possible are quantity and number. Math-
ematics has the certitude of knowledge, but it
deals only with relations between ideas, not
with what Hume calls "matters of fact and ex-
istence." Such matters "are evidently incapa-
ble of demonstration." This is the sphere of
"moral certainty," which is not a genuine cer-
tainty, but only a degree of probability suf-
ficient for action. Probabilities are the best that
experimental reasoning or inquiry about mat-
ters of fact can achieve. If probability is char-
acteristic of opinion rather than knowledge,
then we can have nothing better than opinion
concerning real existences.
THE DIAMETRICAL opposite to the extreme of
skepticism would have to be a dogmatism which
placed no objects beyond the reach of human
knowledge, which made no distinction between
degrees of knowabihty and admitted equal cer-
titude in all matters. Like excessive skepticism
this extreme is not a position actually held in
the great books. All the great thinkers who have
considered the problem of human knowledge
have set limits to man's capacity for knowledge.
They have placed certain objects beyond man's
power to apprehend at all, or have distinguished
between those which he can apprehend in some
inadequate fashion, but cannot comprehend.
They have indicated other objects concerning
which his grasp is adequate and certain.
They all adopt a "mitigated skepticism"— to
use Hume's phrase — if this can be taken to mean
avoiding the extremes of saying that nothing is
knowable at all and that everything is equally
knowable. But they differ in the criteria they
employ to set the limits of knowledge and to
distinguish between the areas of certainty and
probability. Consequently they differ in their
determination of the knowability of certain
types of objects, such as God or the infinite,
substance or cause, matter or spirit, the real or
the ideal, the self or the thing in itself.
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
885
For example, Plato and Aristotle agree that
knowledge must be separated from opinion and
even appeal to certain common principles in
making that separation; but they do not define
the scope of knowledge in the same way, as is
indicated by their disagreement about the know-
ability of sensible things. Nor do Descartes
and Locke, Bacon and Spinoza, Hume and
Kant agree about the knowabihty of God or of
the soul or about the conditions any object
must meet in order to be knowable. All alike
proceed from a desire to be critical. Each criti-
cizes what other men have proposed as knowl-
edge and each proposes a new method by which
the pursuit of knowledge will be safeguarded
from illusory hopes or endless controversy.
In this last respect the moderns depart most
radically from their mediaeval and ancient pred-
ecessors. At all times men have been interested
in examining knowledge itself as well as in ex-
ercising their powers to know. But in the earlier
phase of the tradition knowledge about knowl-
edge does not seem to take precedence over all
other inquiries or to be prerequisite to them.
On the contrary, the ancients proceed as if the
study of knowledge necessarily presupposed the
existence of knowledge. With them the exam-
ination takes place because the mind is essen-
tially reflexive rather than for reasons of self-
cnticism. But beginning with Descartes' Dis-
course on the Method, in which a method of uni-
versal doubt is proposed to clear the ground be-
fore the foundations of the sciences can be laid,
the consideration of knowing is put before any
attempt to know.
Sometimes, as with Descartes and Bacon, the
emphasis is upon a new method which will at
last establish knowledge on a firm footing or ad-
vance learning. Sometimes, as with Locke and
Hume, attention is given first of all to the facul-
ty of understanding itself.
"If we can find out," says Locke, "how far
the understanding can extend its views, how
far it has faculties to attain certainty, and in
what cases it can only judge and guess, we may
learn to content ourselves with what is attain-
able by us in this state When we know our
own strength, we shall the better know what to
undertake with hopes of success; and when we
have well surveyed the powers of our own minds,
and made some estimate of what we may expect
from them, we shall not be inclined either to sit
still, and not set our thoughts to work at all, in
despair of knowing anything; nor, on the oth-
er side, question everything, and disclaim all
knowledge, because some things are not to be
understood."
Hume also proposes that a study of human un-
derstanding precede everything else, to "show
from an exact analysis of its powers and capac-
ity" what subjects it is or is not fitted to in-
vestigate. "There is a truth and falsehood in all
propositions on this subject which he not be-
yond the compass of human understanding."
No one can doubt that a science of the mind-
er knowledge about knowing — is possible un-
less he entertains "such a skepticism as is entirely
subversive of all speculations, and even action.'*
Disagreeing with the principles of Locke and
Hume, as well as with their conclusions, Kant
does approve the priority they give to the ques-
tion of the possibility of knowing certain ob-
jects. To proceed otherwise, as Kant charges
most other philosophers with doing, is dogma-
tism. The use of the word "critique" in the title
of Kant's three major works signifies his inten-
tion to construct a critical philosophy which
does not presume that "it is possible to achieve
anything in metaphysic without a previous crit-
icism of pure reason." He does not object to
what he calls "the dogmatical procedure of rea-
son" in the development of science, but only
after reason's self-criticism has determined just
how far reason can go. For Kant, as for Bacon,
dogmatism and skepticism are the opposite ex-
cesses which only a critical method can avoid.
THESE TWO different approaches to the theory
of knowledge seem to result in different con-
clusions concerning the nature and scope of hu-
man knowledge. Those who begin with the es-
tablished sciences and merely inquire into their
foundations and methods, appear to end with
unqualified confidence in man's ability to know.
Those who make the inquiry into the founda-
tions and methods of science a necessary prepa-
ration for the development of the sciences, tend
for the most part to set narrower boundaries to
the area of valid knowledge. The two approaches
also affect the way in which the various kinds of
knowledge are distinguished and compared.
There are two sorts of comparison involved
886
THE GREAT IDEAS
in the classification of kinds of knowledge. One
is a comparison of human knowledge with divine,
or with angelic knowledge and the knowledge
of brute animals. The other is a comparison of
the parts or modes of human knowledge accord-
ing to such criteria as the objects to be known,
the faculties engaged in the process of knowing,
and the manner of their operation. Though
made separately, those two comparisons are sel-
dom independent of one another. As the nature
of man is conceived in relation to other beings,
superior or inferior to himself, his faculties will
be rated accordingly, and his power as a knower
will suggest the methods or means available to
him for knowing.
Aquinas, for example, attributes to man the
kind of knowledge appropriate to his station in
the hierarchy of beings. Man is superior to the
brutes because he has a faculty of reason in ad-
dition to the faculties of sense and imagination
which he shares with them. Man is inferior to
purely spiritual beings— the angels and God —
because, since he is corporeal, his intellect can-
not function independently of his bodily senses
and imagination. Unlike the angels and God, he
is not a purely intellectual being.
Accordingly, the essential characteristics of
human knowledge are, first, that it is always
both sensitive and intellectual, never merely
sense-perception as with the brutes or pure in-
tellectual intuition as with the angels; second,
that its appropriate object is the physical world
ofsensible, material things, with respect to which
the senses enable man to know the existence of
individuals, while the intellect apprehends their
universal natures; and, finally, that the way in
which the human mind knows the natures of
things is abstractive and discursive, for the in-
tellect draws its concepts from sense and imagi-
nation and proceeds therefrom by means of judg-
ment and reasoning.
This analysis denies innate ideas. It denies
man's power to apprehend ideas intuitively or
to use them intuitively in the apprehension of
things. It can find no place for a distinction be-
tween a priori and a posteriori knowledge, since
sense-perception and rational activity contrib-
ute elements to every act of knowing. It affirms
that knowledge is primarily of real existence,
not of the relations between ideas; but it does
not limit human knowledge to the changing
temporal things of the material universe. Though
these arc the objects man is able to know with
greatest adequacy, he can also know something
of the existence and nature of immaterial and
eternal beings.
Yet, according to Aquinas, even when man's
knowledge rises above the realm of experience-
able things, it is obtained by the same natural
processes and involves the cooperation of the
senses with reason. The theologian does, how-
ever, distinguish sharply between knowledge
gained through man's own efforts and knowl-
edge received through divine revelation. In ad-
dition to all knowledge acquired by the natural
exercise of his faculties, man may be elevated
by the supernatural gift of knowledge— the wis-
dom of a faith surpassing reason.
The foregoing summary illustrates, in the case
of one great doctrine, the connection between
an analysis of the kinds of knowledge and a
theory of the nature and faculties of man in re-
lation to all other things. There is no point in
this analysis which is not disputed by someone
—by Plato or Augustine, Descartes, Spinoza,
or Locke, by Hume, Kant, or William James.
There are many points on which others agree —
not only Aristotle and Bacon, but even Augus-
tine, Descartes, and Locke.
These agreements or disagreements about the
kmdsof knowledge, or the scopeof human knowl-
edge, its faculties, and its methods, seldom oc-
cur or are intelligible except in the wider con-
text of agreements and disagreements in theol-
ogy and metaphysics, psychology and logic.
Hence most of the matters considered under the
heading "kinds of knowledge" receive special
consideration in other chapters. The Cross-
References should enable the reader to examine
the presuppositions or context of the materials
assembled here.
THE CULT OF IGNORANCE receives little or no at-
tention in the tradition of the great books. Even
those who, like Rousseau, glorify the innocence
of the primitives, or who satirize the folly so
often admixed with human wisdom and the foi-
bles attending the advance of learning, do not
seriously question the ancient saying that all
men by nature desire to know. Nor is it gener-
ally doubted that knowledge is good; that its
possession contributes to the happiness of men
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
887
and the welfare of the state; that its pursuit by
the individual and its dissemination in a soci-
ety should be facilitated by education, by the
support and freedom of scholars and scientists,
and by every device which can assist men in
communicating what they know to one an-
other.
But knowledge is not valued by all for the
same reason. That knowledge is useful to the
productive artist, to the statesman, to the legis-
lator, and to the individual in the conduct of
his life, seems to be assumed in discussions of
the applications of science in the various arts,
in the consideration of statecraft, and in the
analysis of virtue. In this last connection, the
problem is not whether knowledge is morally
useful, but whether knowledge of good and evil
is identical with virtue so that sin and vice re-
sult from error or ignorance.
If there is a negative opinion here, it consists
in saying that knowledge is not enough. To
know is not to do. Something more than knowl-
edge is required for acting well.
The more radical dispute about the value of
knowledge concerns the goodness of knowledge
for its own sake, without any regard to its tech-
nical or moral utility. Is the contemplation of
the truth an ultimate end, or does the goodness
of knowledge always consist in its power to ef-
fect results in the mastery of nature and the
guidance of conduct ? The utility of knowledge
is seldom denied by those who make speculative
wisdom and theoretic science good in them-
selves, even the highest goods, quite apart from
any use to which they may be put. The con-
trary position, however, docs not admit the
special value of contemplation or the separation
of truth from utility. To those who say that
"the contemplation of truth is more dignified
and exalted than any utility or extent of ef-
fects," Francis Bacon replies that "truth and
utility are perfectly identical, and the effects
are more of value as pledges of truth than from
the benefit they confer on men."
How knowledge and action are related is one
question; how knowledge itself is divided into
the speculative and practical is quite another.
Bacon, for example, insists upon the necessity
of distinguishing the speculative and practical
branchesof natural philosophy— concerned with
"the search after causes and the production of
effects." Unlike Aristotle and Kant he does not
use the word "practical" for the kind of knowl-
edge which is contained in such sciences as ethics
or politics, but only for the applied sciences or
technology. Ethics and politics fall under what
he calls "civil philosophy."
Despite these differences in language, the way
in which Bacon divides the whole sphere of
knowledge closely resembles Aristotle's tripar-
tite classification of the sciences as theoretic,
productive (or technical), and practical (or
moral); and, no less, a similar threefold division
by Kant. But Kant and Aristotle (and, it should
be added, Aquinas) give a more elaborate analy-
sis of these three types of knowledge, especially
with regard to the principles appropriate to
each, the nature of the judgments and reasoning
by which they are developed, and the character
and criteria of their truth.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The nature of knowledge: the relation between knower and known; the issue concerning
the representative or intentional character of knowledge 890
2. Man's natural desire and power to know 891
3. Principles of knowledge 892
4. Knowledge in relation to other states of mind
40. Knowledge and truth: the differentiation of knowledge, error, and ignorance
4^. Knowledge, belief, and opinion: their relation or distinction 893
4r. The distinction between knowledge and fancy or imagination 894
40*. Knowledge and love
888 THE GREAT IDEAS
PACE
5. The extent or limits of human knowledge 895
50. The knowable, the unknowable, and the unknown: the knowability of certain
objects
(1) God as an object of knowledge
(2) Matter and the immaterial as objects of knowledge 896
(3) Cause and substance as objects of knowledge 897
(4) The infinite and the individual as objects of knowledge
(5) The past and the future as objects of knowledge 898
(6) The self and the thing in itself as objects of knowledge
5& The distinction between what is more knowable in itself and what is more
knowable to us 899
y. Dogmatism, skepticism, and the critical attitude with respect to the extent,
certainty, and finality of human knowledge
$d. The method of universal doubt as prerequisite to knowledge: God's goodness
as the assurance of the veracity of our faculties 900
5*. Knowledge about knowledge as the source of criteria for evaluating claims to
knowledge
6. The kinds of knowledge
6a. The classification of knowledge according to diversity of objects
(1) Being and becoming, the intelligible and the sensible, the necessary and
the contingent, the eternal and the temporal, the immaterial and the
material as objects of knowledge
(2) Knowledge of natures or kinds distinguished from knowledge of individuals 901
(3) Knowledge of matters of fact or real existence distinguished from knowl-
edge of our ideas or of the relations between them 902
(4) Knowledge in relation to the distinction between the phenomenal and the
noumenal, the sensible and supra-sensible
6£. The classification of knowledge according to the faculties involved in knowing
(1) Sensitive knowledge: sense-perception as knowledge; judgments of percep-
tion and judgments of experience
(2) Memory as knowledge 903
(3) Rational or intellectual knowledge 904
(4) Knowledge in relation to the faculties of understanding, judgment, and
reason; and to the work of intuition, imagination, and understanding
6c. The classification of knowledge according to the methods or means of knowing
(1) Vision, contemplation, or intuitive knowledge distinguished from discursive
knowledge
(2) The distinction between immediate and mediated judgments: induction and
reasoning, principles and conclusions 905
(3) The doctrine of knowledge as reminiscence: the distinction between innate
and acquired knowledge
(4) The distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge: the tran-
scendental, or speculative, and the empirical 906
(5) The distinction between natural and supernatural knowledge: knowledge
based on sense or reason distinguished from knowledge by faith or
through grace and inspiration
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE 889
PAGE
6d. The classification of knowledge according to the degrees of assent 907
(1) The distinction between certain and probable knowledge
(2) The types of certainty and the degrees of probability 908
(3) The distinction between adequate and inadequate, or perfect and im-
perfect knowledge
6V. The classification of knowledge according to the end or aim of the knowing
(1) The distinction between theoretic and practical knowledge: knowing for
the sake of knowledge and for the sake of action or production
(2) The types of practical knowledge: the use of knowledge in production and
in the direction of conduct; technical and moral knowledge 909
7. Comparison of human with other kinds of knowledge
ja. Human and divine knowledge
7^. Human and angelic knowledge 910
•jc. Knowledge in this life compared with knowledge in the state of innocence and
knowledge hereafter
yd. The knowledge of men and brutes 91 1
8. The use and value of knowledge
80. The technical use of knowledge in the sphere of production: the applications of
science in art
8£. The moral use of knowledge and the moral value of knowledge 912
(1) The knowledge of good and evil: the relation of knowledge to virtue and sin
(2) Knowledge as a condition of voluntanness in conduct 913
(3) Knowledge in relation to prudence and continence 914
(4) The possession or pursuit of knowledge as a good or satisfaction: its relation
to pleasure and pain; its contribution to happiness
8c. The political use of knowledge: the knowledge requisite for the statesman,
legislator, or citizen 915
9. The communication of knowledge 916
90. The means and methods of communicating knowledge
9^. The value of the dissemination of knowledge: freedom of discussion 917
10. The growth of human knowledge: the history of man's progress and failures in the
pursuit of knowledge
890
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page, For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand sideof the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference, "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature of knowledge: the relation be-
tween knower and known; the issue con-
cerning the representative or intentional
character of knowledge
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 124c-
126c esp 126a-c / Meno, 179d-183a esp 180a-b,
182c-183a; 188d-189b / Phaedo, 228a-230d;
231b-232b / Republic, BK m, 333b-d; BK v,
371b-373c; BK vi-vn, 383d-398c esp BK vn,
397a-398c / Timacus, 476b / Theaetetus, 51 5d-
517b; 521d-522b; 538d-541a / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 7 [6bi-6] lla; [7b
22-8ai2] 12c-13a; CH 8 [11*20-39] 16b-c /
Interpretation, CH i [16*4-9] 25a / Topics, BK
iv, CH i [121*1-6] 168d; CH 4 [124^5-19] 173c;
[i24b27~34] 173c-d; BK vi, CH 5 [143*9-12]
196c; CH 6 [145*12-18] 198d; CH 8 [i46*37-b9J
200b-c; CH 12 [i49b3-2}J 203d-204a / Physics,
BK vn, CH 3 [247bi-248*6] 330b-d / Meta-
physics, BK v, CH 15 [io2i*27-b3] 542c-d; BK ix,
CH 6 [i048bi8~34] 574a-c; CH 9 [1051*22-34]
577b-c; BK x, CH i [io53*32-b3] 580a; BK xn,
CH 7 [io72bi4~29] 602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d;
BK XIII, CH 10 [1087*10-25] 619C / Soul, BK I,
CH 5 [409bi 8-4 11*7] 639c-641a; BK n, CH 2
[414*4-14] 644a-b; CH 5 [4I6b32-4i7*2] 647b;
[417*17-21] 647d; [418*2-6] 648c-d; BK in,
CH 2 [425bi7-26] 657d-658a; CH 3 [427*1 6-b6]
659c-d; CH 4 661b-662c; CH 5 [430*14-16] 662c;
[430*20-22] 662d, en 7 [431*1-8] 663c; CH 8
664b-d / Memory and Reminiscence, CH i
[450*25-451*19] 691a-692b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH i [1139*6-11]
387c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [26-109]
44b-45c; [722-817] 53d-54d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH 7 3d-4a /
Third Ennead, TR vni, CH 6, 132a; CH 8, 132d-
133b; CH 9, 134a-b / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 4,
210b-c; TR m, CH 4-5 217b-218c; CH 10-13
221b-224b; TR v, CH 1-2 228b-229d; TR ix,
CH 7 249b-c / Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 36-41
339c-342c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 11-38
74a-81a esp par 17 75c-d, par 19 76a-b,
par 22-24 76d-77c, par 27-28 78b-d / City of
God, BK vin, CH 6, 269b / Christian Doctrine,
BK n, CH 38, 654c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 3,
REP i 16a-d; Q 5, A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 8, A 3,
REP 3 36b-37c; Q 12, A i, REP 4 50c-51c; A 2
51c-52c; A 4, ANS and REP i 53b-54c; AA 9-10
58b-59d; Q 13, A 7, ANS and REP 6 68d-70d;
Q 14, A i, ANS and REP 3 75d-76c; A 2 76d-77d;
1402
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
891
AA 5-6 79a-81c csp A 5, REP 2-3 79a-£0a, A 6,
REP 1,3 80a-81c; A 8 82c-83b; A 9, REP 2
83b-d; A 12, ANS 85d-86d; A 15, REP i 89b-
90b; Q 15, A i, ANS 91b-92a; Q 16, A 2 95c-
96b; Q 17, A 3, ANS 102d-103c; Q 18, A 4, ANS
and REP 2 107d-108c; Q 19, A 3, REP 6 HOb-
lllc; Q 27, A i, ANS and REP 2 153b-154b; A 2,
ANS and REP 2 154c-155b; A 3, ANS 155c-156a;
A 4, ANS and REP 2 156b-d; Q 28, A 4, REP i
160c-161d; Q 34, A i, REP 2-3 185b-187b; A 2,
REP i 187b-188a; A 3, ANS 188b-189a; Q 54,
A i, REP 3 285a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 2 285d-
286c; QQ 55-57 288d-300b; Q 58, A 2 301b-d;
Q 59, A 2 307c-308b; Q 60, A 2, ANS 311a d; Q
75, A i, REP 2 378b-379c; Q 78, A i, ANS and
REP 3 407b-409a; A 3, ANS 410a-411d; A 4,
ANS and REP 2 411d-413d, Q 82, A 3, ANS and
REP i 433c-434c; Q 84 440b-451brQ 85, A i,
REP 3 451c-453c; A 2 453d-455b; A 3, REP 1,4
455b-457a; A 4 457a-d; A 5, REP 3 457d-458d;
A 8, REP 3 460b-461b; Q 86, A i, ANS 461c-
462a; Q 87, A i 465a-466c; Q 88, A r, REP 2
469a-471c; Q 89, A 2, ANS and REP 2 475a-d;
A 6, ANS and REP 2 478b-d; PART i-n, Q 28,
A i, REP 3 740b-741a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Tkeohgtca, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 5, REP i lOb-d; Q 51, A i, REP 2 12b-13c;
PART in SUPPL, Q 82, A 3 971a-972d; Q 92, A i
1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 49a-d; PART n,
162c; PART iv, 261a; 262a-b
28 HARVEY On Animal Generation, 332b-333c
31 Di:se \RTES: Rules, xn 18b-25a passim, esp
24a-c; xiv, 29b-c; 30c-d / Meditations, in,
82b-87a passim; vi, 99a b / Objections and
Replies, 108b-109d, AXIOM v 131d-132a, 137a;
219b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, AXIOM 4,6 355d;
PROP 30-31 366c-367a; PART n, PROP 7
375a-c; PROP 11-13 377b-378c; PROP 17,
SCHOL 381b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxx,
SECT 2 238b-c, CH xxxi, SECT 2 239b-d, CH
xxxn, SECT 8 244d; SECT 14-16 245c-246b;
BK iv, CH i 307a-309b; CH iv, SECT 1-12
323d-326d; SECT 18 328d-329a; CH xin 363c-
364b, CH xvn, SECT 2 371d-372b, SECT 8
377b-d
35 BERKLLEY Human Knowledge, SECT 1-91
413a 431a esp SECT 2-4 413b-414a, SECT 8-9
414c-d, SECT 25-33 417d-419a, SFCT 48 49
422a-b, SLCT 56 423c-d, SECT 86-91 429c-
431a; SLCI 135-142 440a-441c; SECT 147 148
442b-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
118, 504d
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 7b-d; 12c-d [fn i]; 14a-b;
15d-16c; 22a,c; 23a-24a; 34a-35b; 55a-56c;
88b-91d; 99a-101b; 101d-102a; 109d-110d;
115b-c; 121a-123b; 125b [fn i] / Practical Rea-
son, 292d [fn ij; 307d-310c / Judgement, 550a-
551a,c; 604b-c; 612c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right* PART HI, par
146-147 55c-56«; par 343 HOd-llla / Philoso-
phy of History >, INTRO, 160c-161a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 128a-l29a; 140b-143b;
153b-154a; 176a-184a csp 176a-178a, 179b-
180a; 194b-196b csp 196a-b; 213a-239« passim,
csp 213b-214a, 219a-b, 223a-b, 228a-b, 232b-
238b; 258b-2S9b; 307a-311a esp 307a-308a,
309a; 325a-327a csp 326a-b [fn i]; 450a-451b;
454a-455a; 469a-b; 851b-852a
2. Man's natural desire and power to know
7 PLATO: Phacdrus, 125b-c / Theactetus, 535b-c
/ Sophist, 557c-d / Seventh Letter, 810b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [247^-248*
9] 330b-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-
28] 499a / Soul, BK in, CH 4 [429*18-20] 661c;
CH 5 [430*14-15] 662c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1355*14-17]
594b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic^ BK i, 811a-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [921-934]
12b-c; BK iv [1-9] 44a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 2, 106d
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 10 73d-74a
/ City of God, BK xi, CH 27, 337d-338a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 12,
A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 2, ANS and REP i 51c-52c;
AA 3-6 52c-56a; A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; A u,
ANS and REP 3 59d-60d; A 12 60d-61c; Q 14,
A 2, REP 3 76d-77d; A 10, REP i 83d~84c; Q 18,
A 2, ANS and REP i 105c-106b; Q 26, A 2, ANS
150c-151a; Q 54, A 4 287b-288a; Q 60, A 2,
ANS 311a-d; o 61, A 2, REP 3 315c-316a; Q 62,
A i, ANS 3l7d-318c; Q 75, A 2, ANS 379c-380c;
Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 3 407b-409a; Q 79 413d-
427a; Q 84, AA 1-3 440d-444d; Q 88, A i, REP 2
469a-471c; Q 117, A i 595d-597c; PART i-n,
Q 3, A 8, ANS 628d-629c, g 22, A i, RLP i 720d-
721c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i -11, Q 50,
A 3, RLP 3 8b-9a; PART in, Q 10, A 4, REP i
77lb-772a; Q n, A i, ANS and RHP i 772b-
773a, PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS and REP
2,15 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE- Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvi [112-120]
39b; PURGATORY, xvni [49-60] 80b c; xx
[124] xxi [75] 84c-85d; PARADISE, iv [115]-
v [12] llld-112b
23 HOBBES* Leviathan, PART i, 63a, 77a; 78d-80a
25 MONTAIGNE; Essays, 244d-246a; 503b-d;517b-
51 9a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 124b-125b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, DFF 3 373b; AXIOM 2
373d; PART iv, PROP 26-28 431a-c; PART v,
PROP 25-26 458d-459a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 7 139a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 3
405b-c; SECT 105 433 b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 236b-238a
892
THE GREAT IDEAS
3/04*
(2. Man's natural desire and power to know.)
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 130b; ISld
46 HEOEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157b-
158a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [354-517] lla-14b;
[522-601] 15a-16b; [1765-1784] 42b
48 MELVILLE : Moby Dicf(, 4b-5a
53 IAMES: Psychology, 522b-52Sa csp 524b-525a;
711b-712b; 729a-730a; 851b-852a
54 FREUD* Ongtn and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 16b
3. Principles of knowledge
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 228a-230c / Republic, BK HI,
333b-d; BK iv, 350d-351b; BK vi-vn, 383d-
398c / Theaetetus, 544d-547c / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
136a-137a,c / Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 5
[i88b26-i89*9] 264b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH
i 499a-500b; BK v, CH i [1013*14-23] 533b;
CH 6 [ioi6bi8-25] 537b / Soul, BK n, CH 2
[413*11-13] 643a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 [ii39b25~34]
388c; CH 6 389d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [690-700]
9c; BK iv [469-521] 50b 51a
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK i, par i la-b; BK
iv, par 25 25c; BK v, par 4 27d-28a; BK x, par
65 87d-88a; BK xm, par 46 123a-c / City of
God, BK vin, CH 4-7 266d-269d; CH 9-10
270d-271d; BK x, CH 2 299d-300a; BK xi,
CH 7 326a-c; CH 24-25 335c-336d; CH 27-29
337b-339b; BK xrx, CH 18 523a-b / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 37-40 635b-636a,c; BK n,
CH 7 638d-639c; BK in, CH 37, 674a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 2, A i,
ANS and REP i,} lOd-lld; Q 15 91b-94a passim,
csp A 3, ANS 93b-94a; Q 18, A 2, ANS 105c-106b;
Q 84, AA 4-6 444d-449a; Q 85, A 3 455b-457a;
Q 88, A 3, REP i 472c-473a; Q 105, A 3 540c-
541b; PART I-H, Q i, A 4, REP 2 612a-613a;
A 5, ANS 613a-614a
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 50,
A 3, REP 3 8b-9a; Q 51, A i, ANS 12b 13c;
PART in, Q n, A 6, REP 3 775d-776b
21 DANTE: Dwinc Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
[49-60] 80b-c; PARADISE, iv [28-48] Ilia
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 285c-286a
28 HARVEY : On Animal Generation, 332a-335c
esp 333d-334d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 39d-40a;
58b / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 14 107d-
108a; APH 39-40 109c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a; iv, 5c-d; 6d; vi,
8d-9a; vni, 13c-d / Discourse, PART iv 51b-
54b / Meditations, n 77d-81d / Objections and
Replies, 224b,d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 37-40 386b-
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding* BK i, CH in,
SECT 23, 120a; BK n, CH i 121a-127d passim,
csp SECT 1-8 121a-123a, SECT 22-25 127a-d;
CH vii, SECT 10 133a~b; CH ix, SECT i5-cn x,
SECT 2 141a-c; CH x, SECT 8 142d-143a; CH
xii 147b-148d; CH xiv, SECT 2 155b-c; CH
XVH, SECT 22-CH xvm, SECT i 173d-174a;
CH xvm, SECT 6 174c-d; CH XXH, SECT 9
202c-203a; CH xxv, SECT 9 216d; SECT n
217a; BK HI, CH i, SECT 5 252b-c; CH xi, SECT
23 305a-b; BK iv, CH i, SECT 9~cn n, SECT i
308c-309d; CH n, SECT 7-8 310d-311a; CH in,
SECT 1-2 313a; CH vii 337a-344d csp SECT i
337a, SECT lo-n, 339b-340a; CH xii, SECT 1-6
358c-360a; SECT 15 363a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
4 405c-d; SECT 25 412a,c; SECT 1-2 413a-b;
SECT 25-33 417d-419a; SECT 89 430b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n 455b-
457b csp DIV 13-14 455d-456b; SECT vii, DIV
49 471c-d; DIV 61, 477c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-339b
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 34a-35b; 66d-72c esp
67d-68a / Practical Reason, 343a / Judgement,
492c-d; 517d [fnij; 550a-551a,c; 562a-d;
570b-572b; 577b, 578a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 2 9b-
lOa
53 JAMES: Psychology, 213b-214a; 299a-300a;
315a-319a esp 317b-318a; 360a; 453a-459b
csp 453b-454a, 455a-457a; 859a-860b
54 FREUD: Ego and Id, 700a-701d
4. Knowledge in relation to other states of
mind
4a. Knowledge and truth: the differentiation
of knowledge, error, and ignorance
7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b / Meno, 179b-183a
csp 180d, 181d, 182c-d; 188c-189b / Apology,
201d-202d / Gorgias, 256b / Republic, BK v,
368c-373c; BK vi-vii, 383d-398c / Timaeus,
447b-d; 450b-c; 457c-d / Parmemdes, 490b-d
/ Theaetetus, 535c-536a; 542a-544a / Sophist,
557c-558b / Laws, BK ix, 748a
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 21 87d-
89b / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 6 [75*12-
18] 103a; CH 16-18 109b-lllc / Topics, BK vi,
CH 9 [i47»i6-2i] 201a-b; [i47b2 6-148*9] 201d-
202a; CH 14 [15 1*32^3] 206b-c / Metaphysics,
BK n, CH i 511b,d-512b; BK iv, CH 7 [ionb
25-29] 531c; [1012*1-17] 531d-532a; BK v,
CH 29 [io24b27-38] 546d-547a; BK vi, CH 4
550a,c; BK ix, CH 10 577c-578a,c; BK xii,
CH 10 [io75b2o-24] 606c / Soul, BK in, CH 3
[427*i6-b6] 659c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 9 [ii42b7~i2]
391d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1355*21-39]
594c-d
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK i, 403 b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [469-521)
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
893
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 5 HOb-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 10 73d-
74a; par 19 76a-b; BK xn, par 5 lOOa-b /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 36 634d-635b;
BK n, CH 38, 654c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i, Q i, A i,
REP 1-2 3b-4a; Q 2, A i, ANS and REP 1,3 lOd-
lld; Q 13, A 12, REP 3 74c-75b; Q 14, A 8,
REP 3 82c-83b; A 9, REP i 83b-d; A 12, ANS
and REP 3 85d-86d; A 15, REP 3 89b-90b;
QQ 16-17 94b-104b; Q 54, A 2, ANS and REP 2
285d-286c, A 5 288a-d, Q 57, A i, REP 2
295a-d; Q 58, A 5 303c-304c; Q 59, A 2, REP 3
307c-308b; Q 60, A i, REP 3 310b-311a; Q 79,
A 9, REP 3-4 422b-423d; Q 84, A 6, REP i
447c-449a; A 7, REP 3 449b-450b; Q 85, A i,
REP i 451c-453c; A 2, ANS 453d-455b, A 6
458d-459c; A 7, ANS 459c-460b; Q 88, A 3,
REP i 472c-473a, Q 89, A 5, ANS 477a-478b;
Q 94, A 4 505a-506a; Q 101, A i, REP 2 522c-
523a, Q 117, A i, ANS 595d-597c; PART i-n,
Q 22, A 2, ANS 721C-722C
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A 2, ANS 216c-217b, PART III SUPPL, Q 92, A 3,
REP 8 1034b-1037c
21 DANTE* Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [115]-
v [12] llld-112b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-d; 58d-60a;
78a-d
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 150d-151a; 238c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 39-45
109c-110b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i-n la-3b; xn, 24a-c /
Discourse, PART iv, 52a / Meditations, i 75a-
77c, iv 89a-93a / Objections and Replies,
126a-b, 168b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 43, SCHOL
388d-389b
33 PASCAL Pensees, 263 221a-b; 327 231a-b /
Vacuum, 358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH v
329a-331b esp SECT 8-9 330d-331a; CH vi,
sicr 16 336d, CH xx, SECT i, 388d
42 K\NT. Pure Reason, 224a-c
46 Hi GEL. Philosophy of Right, PREF, 7a; INTRO,
par i 9a, PART n, par 140, 52c-54a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 141a-142a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 560c-561a /
New Introductory Lectures, 879c-d
4b. Knowledge, belief, and opinion: their re-
lation or distinction
6 THUCYDIDES. Peloponnesian War, BK i, 353d-
354b
7 PLATO. Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 125a-
126c / Symposium, 163b / Meno, 188b-189a /
Gorgias, 256b-257a / Republic, BK iv, 354d-
355a; BK v, 370c-373c; BK vi-vn, 383d-398c;
BK x, 430d-431d / Timaeus, 447b-d; 450b-c;
457c-d / Thcaetetus, 531a-532a; 534a; 536b-
549d / Sophist, 559c-561d / Philcbus, 632d-
635a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 7 [8*35-bi4] 13b-c
/ Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32b4~23] 48b-d/
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2 [7ib8-i6] 97d-
98a; CH 33 121b-122a,c / Topics, BK iv, CH i
[121*20-26] 169a-b / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH
4 [ioo8b27-32] 528b, BK VH, CH 15 [i(>39b3i-
I040a8] 563d-564a; BK ix, CH 10 577c-578a,c
/ Soul, BK in, CH 3 [427ai6-428b9] 659c-660d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics^ BK i, CH 3 [109^12-28]
339d-340a; BK in, CH 2 [1112*7-8] 357d; BK
vi, CH 3 [ii39bi4-i8] 388b; CH 5 [n 40*3 ^4]
389b; [1140^25-28] 389c, CH 9 [ii42R32-bi6]
391c-d passim; CH 10 392b-c; BK vn, CH 3
[ii46b23-34] 396d-397a / Rhetoric, BK n, CH
25 [I402bi3-i40}fti7] 652b-653a
10 HIPPOCRATES: The Law, par 4 144d
11 NICOMACHUS' Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-d
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR ix, CH 7 249b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b; BK
vi, par 5-8 36b*37c / City of God, BK XXH,
CH 4-5 588b-590a; CH 7 591c-d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 40 636a,c; BK n, CH 7
638d-639c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 8,
REP 2 7c-8d, Q 12, A 7, ANS and REP 2-3 56a-
57b; A 13, REP 3 61c-62b; Q 14, A 15, REP 3
89b-90b; Q 16, A 8 99d-100d; Q 57, A 3, ANS
297b-298a; Q 79, A 9, REP 3-4 422b-423d;
Q 108, A 7, REP 2 560b-561a; PART i-n, Q 17,
A 6, ANS 690b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa T/ieologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 3 14b-15a; Q 53, A i, ANS 19d-21a; Q 57, A 2,
REP 3 36a-37b; Q 67, A 3 83b-84d; Q 77, A 2,
REP 3 145d-147c, PART ii-n, Q i, AA 4-5 382c-
384b; Q 2 390d-400b, Q 4, A i 402a-403d;
PART in, Q 9, \ 3, RLP 2 765b-766b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xx [67-
148] 137b-138b csp [88-93] *37c
22 CHAUCER: Troilusand Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
2992b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58d-59a; 65b-
66c; PART in, 241c-242a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-82b; 98b-99a; 150c-
151a; 238c-239c; 240c-246a; 258c-261c, 267c-
268a; 271b-273b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333c-d;
335a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16a-b; 95d
96a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n-ni 2a-5a / Discourse
PART vi, 64a-d / Meditations, 72b,d, i 75a
77c; v, 95b-96a / Objections and Replies
123a-d; 167a-d, 218c-d; 226d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, APPENDIX 369b
372d; PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 2 388a-b;
PROP 49, SCHOL 391d-394d
32 MILTON. Areopagitica, 406a-b
33 PASCAL: Pense'es, 99 191a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
2-5 93b-94d; BK i, CH HI, SECT 23-25 119b-
120d; BK iv, CH i, SECT 2 307a, CH n, SECT 14,
312b; CH vi, SECT 13 335c-d; CH xiv-xv
894
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Knowledge in relation to other states of mind.
46. Knowledge, belief, and opinion: their
relation or distinction.)
364b-366c esp CHXV, SECT 1-3 365a-d; CH xvi,
SECT 14 371b-c; CH xvn, SECT 2 371d-372b;
SECT 14-24 378c-380d passim; CH XVIH-XIX
380d-388d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv 458a-
463d passim, csp DIV 20-21 458a-c, DIV 30
461d-462b, SECT vi, 469d [fn rj
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART iv, 165a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335d-336a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 2a-4a,c; 228c-d; 240b-
243c / Judgement, 601d-607c csp 601d-602a,
603a-b, 603d-604b, 604d-606d
43 MILL. Liberty, 274b-293b passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF la-7d pas-
sim; INTRO, par i 9a; PART n, par 132, 46b-c;
PART in, par 147 55d-56a; par 316 104c; ADDI-
TIONS, i 115a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, lla-b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 636a-638b passim
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 661c-
662a / New Introductory Lectures, 881d-882b
4c. The distinction between knowledge and
fancy or imagination
7 PLATO: Ion, 142a-148a,c / Republic, BK vi-
vn, 383d-389c; BK x, 427c-431d esp 430b-
431b / Sophist, 577a-b / Laws, BK iv, 684b-c
/ Seventh Letter, 809b-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 3 659c-661b
14 PLUTARCH: Conolanus, 191d-192b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10-11 15b-
16a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART r, Q 12,
A 3, ANS and REP 3 52c-53b; A n, REP i 59d-
60d; A 13, ANS and REP 2 61c-62b; Q 17, A 2,
REP 2 102a-d; Q 54, A 5 288a d; Q 57, A i,
REP 2 295a-d; Q 78, A 4, ANS 411d-413d; Q 84,
A 2, REP i 442b-443c; A 6, REP 1-2 447c-449a;
A 7, REP 2 449b-450b; A 8, REP 2 450b-451b;
Q 93, A 6, REP 4 496b-498a; PART i-n, Q 17,
A 7, REP 3 690d-692a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART HI SUPPL,
Q 70, A 2, REP 3 896a-897d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[13-45] 78c-79a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 335a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 189d-
193c; PART n, 205a-209d; 273c-278a; 326c-
331a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d; 33c-d;
38d-39b; 55a-d / Novum Organum, BK i, APH
15 108a; APH 60 112c-113a / New Atlantis, 203a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4a-b; vin, 13a; 14b;
xiv, 29b-31c / Discourse, PART iv, 53b; 54a-b
/ Meditations, i, 75d-76c; n, 79a-81d; m,
82d-86a; vi 96b-103d passim, esp 96b-d /
Objections and Replies, 122c-d; 136d-137a;
212a; 218c d; 219b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 17, COROL 381a;
PROP 17, SCHOL-PROP 18 381 b 382 b; PROP 26
384a-b; PROP 40, SCHOL i 387b-388a; PROP 44
389b-390a; PROP 49, SCHOL 391d-394d passim;
PART v, PROP 34 460c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [95-128] 177b-
178a; BK vin [179-197] 236a-b
33 PASCAL- Pensfes, 82-86 186b-l89a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxx
238a-239b; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 1-12 323d-
326d passim, esp SECT 1-3 323d-324c; SECT 18
328d-329a; CH v, SECT 7-8 330b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 29-30
418c; SECT 33 419a; SECT 36 419c-d; SECT 82
428d-429a; SECT 84 429b-c; SECT 86 429c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT v, DIV
39-40 466c-467c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 345c
42 KANT Pure Reason, 173b-174a / Judgement,
528c-529c; 532b-d; 575b-c
46 HEGEL* Philosophy of History, PART i, 220c-
221a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 639a-641a; 646b-655a;
659a-660b
4d. Knowledge and love
7 PLATO. Phaedrus, 126a-129d / Symposium,
164d-165b, 167a-d
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR in, CH 2 lOd /
Third Ennead, TR v, CH 3, 102a-b; CH 7, 104a-c
/ Sixth Ennead, TR vn, CH 34-35 338b-339c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 1-6 la-2c;
BK x, par 33-35 79d-80c; par 38 8la; BK xi,
par 3 89d-90a / City of God, BK vin, CH 4-5,
267c-268b; CH 8-10 270a-271d; BK x, CH 3
300b-301a; BK xi, CH 7 326a-c; CH 25-29
336b-339b; BK xiv, CH 28 397a-d / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 36-40 634d-636a,c; BK n,
CH 7 638d-639c; CH 38, 654c; CH 41-42
656a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 6,
REP 3 6b-7a; A 8, REP 2 7c-8d; Q 8, A 3, REP 3
36b-37c; Q 12, A 6, ANS 55b-56a; A 7, REP i
56a-57b; Q 14, A 15, REP i 89b-90b; Q 16, A i,
ANS 94b-95c; A 4 esp ANS and REP 1-2 97a-c,
Q 23, A 4 135a-d; Q 27, AA 3-5 155c-157c; Q 28,
A 4, ANS 160c-161d; Q 30, A 2, REP 2 168a-
169b; Q 35, A 2, ANS 189d-190d; Q 36, A 2,
ANS and REP 4-5 192a-194c; Q 37 197c-200c;
Q 59, A 2 307c-308b; Q 60, A i, REP 3 310b-
311a; A 2 311a-d; A 3, ANS and REP 3 311d-
312b; A 5, REP 5 313b-314c; Q 64, A i, ANS
334a-335c; Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 3 407b-
409a; Q 82, A 3, ANS and REP 3 433c-434c; Q
87, A i, REP i 465a-466c; Q 93, AA 7-8 498a-
500c; PART i-ix, Q i, A 8 615a-c; Q 3, A 4 625a-
626b; Q 22, A 2, ANS 721c-722c; Q 27, A 2
737d-738c; Q 28, A i esp REP 3 740b-741a;
A 2, ANS and REP 2 741a-742a; A 3, ANS and
REP i 742a~d; A 4, REP 2 742d-743c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 5, REP i lOb-d; Q 66, A 6, REP i 80c-81b;
5 to 5a(l)
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
895
Q 86, A it REP 2 184a-d; PART n-n, Q 23, A 6,
REP i 487a-d; Q 27, A 4 523c-524a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy \ PURGATORY, xvn
[1-75] 78c-79b; PARADISE, iv [n5]-v [12]
llld-112b; xxvi [25-36] 146a; xxvm [88-
114] 149c-150a
26 SHAKESPEARE. Love's Labour's Lost, ACT iv,
sc in [289-365] 271c-272a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 227b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 3 373d;
PROP 48-49 391a-394d; PART v, PROP 24-3}
458d-460c, PROP 34, COROL 460d; PROP 35-37
460d-461c; PROP 42 463b-d
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 440a
5. The extent or limits of human knowledge
5a. The knowable, the unknowable, and the
unknown: the knowabihty of certain
objects
7 PLATO: Meno, 179d-183a esp 180a / Parmen-
ides, 489d-491a; 492a-504c esp 495b-c, 504c;
507c-d; 509d-510b esp 510b; 511c-d / Theaete-
tus, 544c-547c / Sophist, 560a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 3 [i6bi9-26]
25d-26a / Physics, BK H, CH 4 [i97V7] 273a
/ Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982a3o-b3J 500c-d;
BK. vi, CH 2 548c-549c; BK vn, CH 10 [1036*
9-12] 559c; CH 15 563c-564c
9 ARISTOTLE. Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5 [644b
21-645*5] 168c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK 11, CH 20 164c-
166c
iTPLoriNus: Fifth Ennead, TR in 215d-226c
esp CH 13 223d-224b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 1-6 la-2c
/ City of God, BK xi, CH 2 323a-c; BK xn, CH 7
346c-d, BK xxi, CH 5 563d-564d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A 4,
REP 2 16d-17c; Q 5, A 2, ANS 24b-25a; Q 12,
A i 50c-51c; Q 14, A 3, ANS 77d-78b; A 10,
ANS and REP 4 83d-84c; Q 16, A 3 96b-d; Q 50,
A 2, ANS 270a-272a; Q 55, A i, REP 2 289a-d;
Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 79, A 3 416a-
417a; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c; Q 87 464d-
468d passim
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 10,
A 3 769d-771b; PART HI SUPPL, Q 92, A i
1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, in [16-45] 56a-b; PARA-
DISE, xix [22-99] 135b-136a; xxi [73-102]
139a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-82b; 98b-99a; 238c-
23 9c; 246a-261c passim; 271b-273a, 291b-
294b; 439c-440a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc i [56-88]
47c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 363d-364a;
389b; 492c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c;
96d-97b / Novum Organum, BK i, APH i 107a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n 2a-3b; vin, 12a-14a;
xu, 22b-c / Meditations, iv, 90a-b / Objections
and Replies, 112a-d; 215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 30 366c-d;
APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART H, AXIOM 5 373d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [544-576]
187a-b; BK vn [109-130] 219b-220a; BK vin
[114-130] 234b-235a; [179-214] 236a-b/ Sam-
son Agonistes [60-67] 340b-341a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72 181a-184b; 26} 221a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
3-7 93d-95c; BK n, CH i, SECT 1-8 121a 123a;
SECT 2 j 127b-c; CH n, SECT 3 128b-c; CH vn,
SECT 10 133a-b; CH xiv, SECT 26 160c-d; CH xv,
SECT n 165a-b; CH xxn, SECT 9 202c*203a;
CH xxin 204a<214b passim; CH xxxi, SECT
6-13 240d-243b; CH xxxn, SECT 24 247c-d;
BK in, CH in, SECT 15-18 258b-259c; CH vi
268b-283a passim; BK iv, CH HI 313a-323d;
CH vi, SECT 4-16 33 Id -33 6d passim; CH vin,
SECT 9 347d-348a; CH x, SECT 19 354a-c;
CH xu, SECT 7-13 360b*362d; CH xvi, SECT
12 370b-371a; CH xvxi, SECT 9-10 377d-378a;
SFCT 23 380b-c; CH xvm, SECT 7 383b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
2-3 405b-c; SECT 81 428c-d; SECT 89 430b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV
7-10 453c-455b; SECT iv, DIV 26 460b-c;
SECT vni, DIV 62, 478c; SECT ix, DIV 84,
488b [fn i]; SECT xu 503c-509d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 159a-c; 308c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 19d-20c; 117b-
118a; 120c-121a; 175b [fn i]; 215d-216c;
224a-c / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
281c-282d; 285a-287d / Practical Reason,
292a-c; 296a-d; 309b; 337a-c; 354d-355d
/ Judgement, 465a-c; 564a-c; 599d-600d;
604a-b
47 GOKTHE: Faust, PART i [672-675] 18a; PART n
[11,441-452] 278b
48 MtLviLLt: Moby Dicf(, 366a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b esp 117b, 119b;
122b; 223b-224a; 656b-657a; 822b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 383 b-c
God as an object of knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:12-23 / Deuteron-
omy, 34:10 / / Chronicles, 28:9— (D) I Parali-
pomenon, 28:9 / Job, 11:7-9; 26:14; 36:26;
38:1-42:67 Psalms, 19:1-4; 46:10; 83:18; 100:3
— (D) Psalms, 18:1-5; 45:11; 82:19; 99:3 /
Proverbs, 2:5 / Ecclesiastes, 3:11; 8:16-17; Ii:5
/ Isaiah, 11:9; 49:22-26; 60: 1 6— (D) Isaias,
11:9; 49:22-26; 60:16 / Jeremiah, 24:7; 31:34
— (D) Jeremias, 24.7; 31:34 / Ezefycl, 6:9-
10,13-14; 28:22-26— (D) Ezechiel, 6:9-10,13-
14; 28:22-26 / Hosea, 2:20; 6:2-3,6— (D)
Osec, 2:20; 6:3,6
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 8:1-4; 9:I3~
16; i3:i-9-(D) OT, Boo f( of Wisdom, 8:1-4;
9:13-16; 13:1-9 / // Maccabees, 7:28-— (D)
OT, // Machabees, 7:28
896
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5a. The knowable, the unknowable, and the un-
known: the knowability of certain objects.
5<z( I) God as an object of knowledge.)
NEW TESTAMENT* John, 1:1-5,18; 14:7-11; 17:25-
26 / Acts, 17 '22-31 / Romans, 1:18-21; 11:33-
36/7 Corinthians, 2:16; 8:1-7; X5:34 / "
Corinthians, 4.6 / Ephesians, 1:17; 3:2-5 /
Colossians, 1:9-15 / / Timothy, 6:14-16 /
Hebrews, 8-n; 11:3 / I John, 4:7-21
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [86-103] 2a-b
5 EURIPIDES: /fefai [1137-1150] 309a
7 PLATO' Timaeus, 447c
8 ARISTOTLE" Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982*28-
983*11] 501a-b; BK xn, CH 8 [i074bi-i4] 604d-
605a
14 PLUTARCH- Numa Pomptlius, 53b-c / Cortola-
nus, 191d-192b
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR vin, CH 9, 133d-
134b / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH i 208a-c; TR in,
CH 13-14, 224a-c; TR v, CH 6 231 bd
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 7-38
73a-81a; par 65 87d-88a; BK xin, par 17-19
115a d / City of God, BK vm, CH 10 271a-d,
BK xi, CH 2 323a-c; BK xxn, CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i
3b-4a; A 7, REP i 7a-c; Q 2, AA 1-2 10d-12c;
Q 3, A 3, REP i 16a-d; A 4, REP 2 16d-17c; A 5
17c-18b; QQ 12-13 50b-75b; Q 32 175d-180d;
Q 42, A 2, REP 1,4 225d-227a; Q 50, A 2, ANS
270a-272a; Q 56, A 3 294a-d; Q 57, A 5 299b-
300b; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c; A 7, REP 3 449b-
450b, Q 86, A 2, REP i 462a-463a; Q 88, A 2,
REP 4 471c-472c; A 3 472c-473a; Q 89, A 2,
REP 3 475a-d
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A 2 216c-217b; PART in, Q 9, A 3, REP 3 765b-
766b; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i 1025c-1032b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, HI [16-
45] 56a-b, PARADISE, ii [37-45] 108a, iv [28-
48] Ilia; xix [22-99] 135b-136a, xx [130-148]
138a-b; xxi [73-102] 139a-b; xxxm [46-145]
156c-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; 78d-79a;
79d-80b; PART n, 162a-163b; PART iv, 271b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a; 208c-209c;
212a-d; 238c-239c; 246a-257d passim
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c; 17b-
20a; 38a; 45a-46a; 95d-101d esp 96d-97b,
99c-100a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b pas-
sim / Meditations, 69b-d; 74a,c; in 81d-89a;
iv, 89b; v 93a-96a / Objections and Replies,
108a-114c; 120c-d; 121a-123a; 127b-c; POSTU-
LATE v 131 b-c; PROP i-in 132b-133a; 211c-
212a; 213a; 213d-214a; 215b-c; 227b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP n, SCHOL 358d-
359b; PART ii, PROP 1-2 373d-374a; PROP 47
390c-391a; PART v, PROP 24-32 458d-460b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [109-130] 219b-
220a; BK vin [114-130] 234b-235a / Samson
Agonistes [60-62] 340b-341a; [293-325] 346a-b
5a(l) to 5*(2)
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 184-241 205a-217b passim,
esp 233-241 213b-217b
34 NEWTON- Principles, BK HI, GENERAL SCHOL,
370b-371a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 12, 107c-d; CH HI, SECT 7-18 113d-117c;
BK n, CH xvn, SECT i 167d-168a; SECT 17
172b-c; CH xxin, SECT 33-37 212d-214b
passim; BK HI, CH vi, SECT ii 271b-d; BK iv,
CH x 349c-354c passim
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, PREF, 404a;
SECT 146-156 442a-444d
35 HUME- Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV 14
456b; SECT xi 497b-503c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 308b-309a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 143a-145c; 152a-
153c; 177b-179c; 186d-187a; 190a-192d; 218d-
223d; 239a-c; 241d-242c / Practical Reason,
291a-292c; 348b-352c / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 384a,c / Judgement, 575b-577a; 588d-
589c; 603b-607c esp 606d-607c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
160b; PART iv, 349b-350a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b-197b;
BK xv, 630d-631c
5a(2) Matter and the immaterial as objects of
knowledge
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 456a-458a
8 ARISTOTLE. Physics, BK i, CH 7 [191*8-12] 266d
/ Meteorology, BK iv, CH 12 493d-494d /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [991*8-11] 509b, BK
vn, CH 10 [1036*2-12] 559b-c; BK ix, CH 2
[i046b7~i5] 571c-d / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*
25-bi9] 632b-d
12 LUCRETIUS Nature of Things, BK i [265-328]
4b-5a, [ 118-448] 6b-c
17 PLOTINUS • First Ennead, TR vin, CH 9 31c 32a
/ Second Ennead, TR iv, CH 10 53b-d; CH 12
54c-55b, IR v, CH 4-5 59c-60c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi-xn 89b-110d
/ City of God, BK xi, CH 3 323d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 9
8d-9c, Q 12, A i, REP 2 50c-51c; A 2, ANS
51c-52c; Q 13, A 12, REP 3 74c-75b; Q 14,
A ii 84c-85c; Q 15, A 3, REP 3-4 93b-94a, Q 16,
A 5, REP 3 97c-98b; Q 29, A 2, REP 3 163b-164b;
Q 54, A 4, ANS and REP 2 287b-288a; Q 56
291d-294d; Q 57, AA 1-2 295a-297a; Q 76, A 2,
REP 3 388c-391a; Q 84, A 7, ANS and REP 3
449b-450b; Q 85, A i 451c-453c; Q 86, A i,
ANS and REP 3-4 461c-462a; A 2, REP i 462a-
463a; A 3 463b-d; Q 87, A i, ANS 465a-466c;
Q 88 468d-473a; Q 89, A 2 475a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in, Q n,
A i, REP 2 772b-773a; Q 12, A i, REP 3 776c-
777b; PART in SUPPL, Q 92, A i, ANS and REP
12 1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES Leviathan, PART in, 172a-d; PART iv,
269c-270c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 41d-42a;
43d-44c
CHAPTER 43s KNOWLEDGE
897
31 DESCARTBS; Meditations, 74a,c; i-n 75a-81d
csp ii, 81b-c / Objections and Replies, 120b-c;
122c; POSTULATE ii J31a; 152b,d-155d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72, 184a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK ii, CH xv,
SECT ii 165a-b; CH xxm 204a-214b passim,
esp SECT 5 205a-b, SECT 15 208c-d, SECT 29
211d-212a; BK HI, CH vi, SECT 11-12 27lb-
272b; CH xi, SECT 23 305a-b; BK iv, CH in,
SECT 6 313c-315b; SECT 9-17 315c-317c pas-
sim, esp SECT 17 31 7c; SECT 23-27 320a-322a;
CH vi, SECT 14 335d-336b; CH x, SECT 19
354a-c; CH xi, SECT 12 357c-d; CH xvi, SECT
12 370b-371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 16-20
416a-417a; SECT 25-27 417d-418b; SECT 86-89
429c-430c esp SECT 89 430b-c; SECT 135-148
440a-442d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
123 506a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336b-c
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 186b-d / Practical Reason,
319c-321b / Judgement, 603a-d
5*(3) Cause and substance as objects of knowl-
edge
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 4 [196^-7]
273a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [983*5-10] 501b;
BK in, CH 2 [996ai8-b26] 514d-515b; CH 4
[999*24-29] 518a; CH 6 [ioo3a5-i7] 521d-
522a,c; BK vn, CH 15 563c-564c; BK xi, CH 2
[io6ob20-23] 588d; BK xn, CH 10 618c-619a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK n, CH
6 [742bi7-35] 283d-284a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [526-
533] 67d-68a; BK vi [703-711] 89c-d
16 COPERNICUS ; Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH u 348b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A 8, ANS 57b-58b; Q 19, A 5, REP 2 112d-113c;
Q 29, A i, REP 1,3 162a-163b; Q 56, A i, REP 2
292a-d; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 77, A i,
REP 7 399c-401b; Q 84, A 7, ANS 449b-450b;
Q 86, A i, ANS 461c-462a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 49,
A 2, REP 3 2b-4a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, in [24-
45] 56a-b; xvni [49-60] 80b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78a-80c; PART iv,
271c-272c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 271b-272c; 497d~498a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 45a-46a /
Novum Organum> BK n, APH 2 137b-c / New
Atlantis, 21 Od
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv, 90a-b / 0£/<?o
tions and Replies, IW*-1\2*\ 209c-210b; 211b-c;
215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 3-4 355b; AXIOM
4 355d; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PROP 10
358a-b; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART iv, PREF,
422b,d-423b
33 PASCAL: Pcnstcs, 184-241 205a-217b passim,
Csp 233-241 2I3b-217b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
371b-372a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 19 117c-d; BK II, CH XIII, SECT 17-20
152a-d,cHxxi, SECT 1-6 178b-180a; CHXXIII
204a-2l4b passim, esp SECT 2 204b-c, SECT 5
205a-b, SECT 15 208c-d, SECT 28-29 21lb-
212a; CH xxv, SECT II-CH xxvi, SECT 2
217a-d; CH xxxi, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; CH
xxxii, SECT 24 247c-d; BK m, CH in, SECT
15-18 258b-259c; CH vi 268b-283a passim,
esp SECT 7-10 270b-271b; CH ix, SECT 11-17
287d-290a; CH xi, SECT 19-25 304b-306c esp
SECT 22 305a; BK iv, CH in, SECT 9-17 315c-
317c; SECT 24-29 320c-323a esp SECT 29 322c-
323a; CH iv, SECT 12 326c-d; CH vi, SECT 4-16
331d-336d; CH vni, SECT 9 347d-348a; CH xn,
SECT 9-12 360d-362c; CH xvi, SECT 12, 370b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 101-102
432c-433a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT in, DIV
i8-SECT vm, DIV 74 457c-484c passim;
SECT xi, DIV 105 498d-499a; DIV 115 503b-c;
SECT xii, DIV 127 507b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 17c-d; 46d-47c;
57c-d; 58d^59b; 63d-64a; 76c-83b csp 81b-
83b; 86c-d; 95a-dj 99a-100d esp lOOc-d; HOb;
133a; 140b,d-14Sc; 171a-172c; 214b,d [fn i] /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 267d-268a;
285c-286a / Practical Reason, 294c-295d;
302a-d; 313b-314d / judgement, 550a-55la,c;
556b-c; 557c-558bf 564a-c; 574a-b; 584c-d;
611d-613a,c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, BK xni, 563a-b;
EPILOGUE i, 646c-647b passim; 650b-c; EPI-
LOGUE n, 693c; 694d-695c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 89b-90a; 885b-886a
5 a (4) The infinite and the individual as objects
of knowledge
7 PLATO: Phikbus, 610d-617d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [2^-37] 6c-7a /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 31 120a-c /
Physics, BK i, CH 4 [i87b7-i4] 262d; CH 5
[189*5-7] 264b-c; CH 6 [189*11-19] 264c; BK
in, CH 6 [207*21-31] 285c-d; BK vn, CH 3
[247*3-7] 330b / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2
[994bi7-3o] 5l3a-b; BK in, CH 4 [999*24-29]
518a; CH 6 [1003*5-17] 521d-522a,c; BK vn,
CH 10 [1036*2-7] 559b-c; CH 15 563c-564c;
BK XI, CH 2 [lo6ob20-23] 588dj BK XIII, CH
10 618c-619a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2
596b-c
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812a
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vi, CH 3 31 Ic-
312b
ISAucusTiN?: Confessions, BK vn, par 20-21
49d-50a; BK xn, par 3-6 99d-100c
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5 a. The knowable, the unknowable, and the un-
known: the knowability of certain objects.
5a(4) The infinite and the individual as
objects of knowledge.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART I, Q 3,
A 3, ANS 16a~d; Q 12, A i, REP 2 50c-51c; A 7,
ANS 56a-57b; A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; Q 14, AA
11-12 84c-86d; Q 15, A 3, REP 4 93b-94a; Q 22,
A 2, ANS and REP i 128d-130d; Q 29, A i, REP i
162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-164b; Q 30, A 4
170c-171b; o 32 175d-180d; Q 56, A i, REP 2
292a-d; Q 57, A 2 295d-297a; Q 84, A 7, ANS
and REP i 449b-450b; Q 86, AA 1-3 461c-463d;
Q 89, A 4, ANS 476c-477a; PART i-n, Q 14, A 6,
REP 3 680c-681a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 10,
A 3 769d-771b; Q n, A i, REP 3 772b-773a;
Q 12, A i, REP 3 776c-777b; PART m SUPPL,
Q 92, A i, REP 12 1025c-1032b
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 54b-c; PART iv,
262b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-333b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, in, 86a-d; 88c-89a
/ Objections and Replies, 112a-d; 121d-122b;
169a; 211c-d; 212c-213a; 213d-214a
31 SPINOZA* Ethics, PART 11, PROP 10, SCHOL
376d-377a; PROP 30-31 385a-c
33 PASCAL- Penstes, 72 181a-184b; 233 213b-
21 6a / Geometrical Demonstration, 435a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 4 149b; CH xiv, SECT 26-31 160c-162a
passim; CH xv, SECT 2-3 162c-d; SECT 12
165b-c; CH xvi, SECT 8 167c; CH xvn 167d-
174a csp SECT 15 171b-172a; CH xxin, SECT
31 212b-c; SECT 53-34 212d-213b; CH xxix,
SECT 15-16 237a-238a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 2
405b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 278a*b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1810-1815] 43a
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK xv, 631a-c;
EPILOGUE n, 693c-694d
53 JAMES- Psychology, 31 2a; 631a
5a(5) The past and the future as objects of
knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 27:1 / Ecclesiastes,
6:12; 8:6-7; 9:11-12; 11:2,6— (D) Ecclesiastes,
7:1; 8:6-7; 9:11-1^1 11.2,6
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 8:8-(D) OT,
Boo^of Wisdom, 8:8
NEW TESTAMENT: James, 4:13-14— (D) James,
4:i3-i5
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [86-103] 2a-b
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [463-512]
103c-d; [1524-1530] 113c / Ajax [1419-1421]
155c
S EURIPIDES: Medea [1415-1419] 224c / Afastis
[1159-1163] 247c / Helen [1688-1692] 314c /
Andromache [1284-1288] 326c / Bacchantes
[1388-1392] 352a,c
5a(5) to 5a(6]
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponncsian War, BK i, 349b
354a-c
7 PLATO: Crttias, 479d / Theaetetus, 531a-532a
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, cH928a-29d/M?m
ory and Reminiscence, CH i [449^-29] 690a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK n, CH 19 [i392bi4
1393*8] 640b-c
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par i 19a-b ,
Epidemics, BK in, SECT HI, par 16 59b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK vi [713-755] 230a-231a
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, la-b / Pericles, 129a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 79b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 23-2,
77a-c; BK xi, par 17-41 93b-99b / Christia*
Doctrine, BK n, CH 30 6Slc-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14
A 13 86d-88c; A 15, REP 3 89b-90b; Q 57, A
297b-298a; Q 78, A 4, ANS and REP 5 411d
413d; Q 79, A 6, ANS and REP 2 419b-420d; (
86, A 4 463d-464d, Q 89, A 3, REP 3 475d-476c
A 7, REP 3 478d-479c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 12
A i, REP 3 776c-777b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STAN^
56 95b-96a; STANZA 136-154 106a-108b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53c-54a; 65b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 41c-d; 439c-440a
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 13d-14a
54c-55a
31 DESCARTES- Objections and Replies, 259a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 62, SCHOI
443c-d; PROP 66, DEMONST 444c
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xv
SECT 12 165b-c; BK iv, CH xi, SECT n 357b-i
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 4^
420d-421a; SECT 105 433b-c
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT vi 469d
470d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c / Social Con
tract, BK iv, 428a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88a-c; 96b,d
413b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 234d / Judgement, 579d
580a; 583d-584c
44 BOSWELL- Johnson, 277c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 155b-c
181b-d; 190a-b
47 GOETHE- Faust, PART i [570-585] 16a; PART i
[8591-8603] 209b
48 MELVILLE . Moby Dic\, 366b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 42a; 59d-60a
166a,c; 231d-233b csp 233a-b; 242b-243c ,
Descent of Man, 287d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKXIII, 584d-585b
EPILOGUE n, 685a
53 JAMES: Psychology, S52b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 387a,c
The self and the thing in itself as ob
jects of knowledge
8 ARISTOTLE : Soul, BK in, CH 6 [430^1 -26] 6631
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 27, 133a-b
5b to 5c
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
899
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT i, 302a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR ix, CH 3, 137c-d
/ Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 2 159d-160b /
Fifth Ennead, TR in, CH 1-8 215d-220d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 7 73a; par
21-25 76c-77d; par 41 81c-d / City of God,
BK xi, CH 26 336d-337b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A 2, REP 1,3 76d-77d; Q 56, A i 292a-d; Q 78,
A 4, REP 2 411d-413d; Q 87 464d-468d; Q 88,
A i, REP i 469a-471c; A 2, REP 3 471c-472c;
Q 89, A 2, ANS 475a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 332b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 88c-89b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, n 77d-81d esp
81b-c / Objections and Replies, POSTULATE n
131a; 209d-210a; 215b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 19-30 382b-
383c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH ix,
SECT 2-3 349a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 362c
42 KAN i : Pure Reason, la-4a,c esp Ib-d; 7d-8b;
9a-10b; 12c-d [fn i]; 32a-c; 49c-50c; 51b-c;
55a-56c, 120c-129c; 200c-204c / Fund. Prm.
Metaphysic of Morals, 281c-282d; 285a-287d
esp 285c-286a / Practical Reason, 292a-293b;
307d-310c; 311d-314d; 327d-329a; 331c-
337a,c; 337a-c / Judgement, 465a-c; 497a-
498b; 574b-577a; 594d [fn i]; 599d-600d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 35
21a-b; par 44 23c; ADDITIONS, 22 120c-d /
Philosophy of History, PART i, 257d-258a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 370b-371b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 688b-c
53IAMES: Psychology, 121a-125b; 177b-178a;
191a-197a esp 196a-197a; 213a-238b esp
213b-217a, 223b-224a, 227b-228b, 232b-
233b; 471b-472b
54 FREUD. Unconscious, 428a-430c esp 429c-430c
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 767d-768d
5b. The distinction between what is more
knowable in itself and what is more
knowable to us
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 23
[68b30~36] 90c / Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2
[7ib28~72a6] 98b-c / Topics, BK vi, CH 4
[14 1*26-142*22] 194c-195c; BK vin, CH i
[i55b35-i56*7) 2lld-212a / Physics, BK i, CH i
259a-b; CH 5 [i88b26-i89a9] 264b-c; CH 7
[i89b30~33] 265b-c / Generation and Corrup-
tion, BK i, CH 3 [3 1 8bi 3-3 1 9*2] 415b-d /
Metaphysics, BK n, CH i [993a30-bn] 511b,d;
BK vn, CH 3 [1029*35^12] 552a / Soul, BK n,
CH 2 [413*11-19] 643a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 4 [i095bi-4] 340c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 5,
REP 1-2 5c-6a; A 9 8d-9c; Q 2, A i, ANS lOd-
lld; A 2, ANS and REP 2-3 lld-12c; Q 3, A 3,
REP 1 16a-d; Q 10, A i, ANS and REP i 40d-41d;
Q 12, A i, ANS and REP 2 50c-51c; AA 7-8 56a-
58b; Q 13 62b-75b passim; Q 50, A 2, ANS 270a-
272a; Q 85, A 3 455b-457a; A 8 460b-461b;
Q 88, A i, RBP 3-4 469a-471c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART iv 51b-54b /
Meditations, 69b d; n 77d-81d passim; iv,
89b; v 93a-96a / Objections and Replies,
POSTULATE n 131a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 47, 390c-d
42 KANT: Judgement, 601d
5c. Dogmatism, skepticism, and the critical
attitude with respect to the extent, cer-
tainty, and finality of human knowledge
7 PLATO: Euthydemus 65a-84a,c / Cratylus,
86b-d / Meno, 179b-180b / Apology, 203a /
Phaedo, 236c-238a / Timaeus, 447b-d /
Theaetetus, 521d-S26b
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13
[32b4~23] 48b-d / Posterior Analytics, BK i,
CH i [7ia26]-cH 2 [72b4] 97c-99a, CH 6 102b-
103c; CH 33 121b-122a,c / Heavens, BK n,
CH 5 [287^9-288*3] 379b-c / Generation and
Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 5-6 528c-531c; BK x,
CH i [i053*3i-b3] 580a; CH 6 [1057*7-11] 584b;
BK xi, CH 6 [io62bi2-io63bi4] 590d-592a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [1094^1-27]
339d-340a; CH 7 [io98*2o-b2] 343c-d; BK n,
CH 2 [iio3b26-no4*9] 349b-c; BK vi, CH 3
388b-c
12 LUCRLTIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [469-521]
50b-51a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 17 158d-
161a; CH 20 164c-166c; BK in, CH 2, 177c-178b;
en 21 193d-195a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 19 32b-c /
City of God, BK xix, CH 18 523a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i
3b-4a; A 5, ANS and REP i 5c-6a; Q 84, A i,
ANS 440d-442a; Q 85, A 2, ANS 453d-455b;
Q 86, AA 1-3 461c-463d; Q 87, A i 465a-466c;
Q 88, A i 469a-471c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 64,
AA 3-4 68b-70a; PART II-H, Q 4, A 8 409a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 65c; PART iv,
267a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
197b-200a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-82b; 208a-294b esp
240c-246a, 253c-254a, 257d-264a, 269d-279c,
285c-294b; 308c-d; 318a-319b; 439c-440a;
497b-502c; 516b-524a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, lc-2a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267b,d-268d /
On Animal Generation, 411c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 13a-c; 15a-
17b esp 15d-16b; 47d-48d; 57d-58b / Novum
Organum, PREF 105a-106d; BK i, APH 37
109b-c; APH 67 115d-116a; APH 75 118b-d;
APH 95 126b-c; APH 126 134b
900
THE GREAT IDEAS
5cto6a(l)
(3. The extent or limits of human knowledge. 5c.
Dogmatism, skepticism, and the critical
attitude with respect to the extent^ cer-
tainty, and finality of human knowledge!)
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv, 5a-d / Discourse, PART
ii 44c-48b / Meditations, 72b,d; i 75a-77c;
in, 83b-84a / Objections and Replies, 168b-d;
272a-c
31 SPINOZA, Ethics, PART n, DBF 4 373b; PROP 37-
47 386b-391a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 381-385 238b-239a; 432
248a; 434-435 248a-251a / Vacuum, 355a-
358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO 93a-
95d esp SECT 4-7 94a-95c; BK i, CH in, SECT
24 120a-c; BK n, CH n, SECT 3 128b-c; CH xv,
SECT n 165a-b; CH xxin, SECT 12-13 207a-
208b; SECT 36 213c-d; BK in, CH vi, SECT 1-9
268b-271a esp SECT 9 270d-271a; BK iv, CH in,
SECT 22-30 319c-323c esp SECT22319c-320a;
CH vi, SECT 4-16 331d-336d passim; CH x, SECT
19 354a-c; CH xn, SECT 9-13 360d-362d; CH
xiv, SECT 1-2 364b-c; CH xvn, SECT 9-10
377d-378a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
3-4 405b-d; SECT 17 409d-410a; SECT 86-88
429c-430b; SECT 101-102 432c-433a; SECT 133
439c-440a
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV
7-10 453c-455b; SECT iv, DIV 20-21 458a-c;
DIV 26 460b-c; SECT iv, DIV 28-SECT v, DIV 38
460d-466c passim; SECT vn, DIV 60, 477a;
SECT xii 503c-509d esp DIV 129-130 508a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 15c-16c; 19a-
22a,c; 101d-102a; 129c-130a; 133c-134d;
146a-149d; 157d; 187c-188b; 193a-b; 196b-
197c; 218d-227a esp 221c-222b; 248d-250a,c
/ Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 253c-d;
277d-279d / Practical Reason, 292d-293b;
295b-d; 311d-313d; 320c-321b; 331a-332d;
335b-c; 336d-337a,c / Judgement, 492c-d;
567c-568a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103d-104a; NUMBER
37, 119b-120b
43 MILL- Liberty, 274b-293b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 121c-d; 126a-b
40 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 7a; INTRO,
par 31 19c-20a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [656-675] 17b-18a;
[1064-1067] 26b, [1810-1815] 43a; [1868-2050]
44b-48b esp [1948-1963] 46a-b, [1968-1979]
46b-47a, [2011-2022] 47b-48a; [4343-4362]
107a-b
48 MELVILLE; Moby Did(, 78a-b; 250b; 257a;
276a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 253d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 195a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 881b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 828b-c;
873d-884d passim, esp 874d-875a, 878d-880b,
883d-834a
5d. The method of universal doubt as prereq-
uisite to knowledge: God's goodness as
the assurance of the veracity Of our facul-
ties
31 DESCARTES: Rules, 11 2a-3b / Discourse 41a-
67a,c esp PART n 44c-48b, PART iv 51b-54b /
Meditations, 72b,d; i 75a-77c; HI, 82b-d;
iv, 89b-c; v, 95b-96a / Objections and Replies,
119c; 123a-d; 124b-125b; POSTULATE vn 131c;
134b-c; 142c; 143c; 162a; 167a-c; 206a-c;
207b; 2l5c-d; 226d-227a; 229c-d; 237b-
238b; 239a-240a; 242c-244c; 245c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvn, SECT 13 223b-d; BK iv, CH ix, SECT
3 349b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 3
405b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
116, 503d-504a; DIV 120 505b; DIV 129-130
508a-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 881 b
5e. Knowledge about knowledge as the source
of criteria for evaluating claims to
knowledge
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 87d; INTRO
93a-95d esp SECT 4-7 94a-95c; BK iv, CH in,
SECT 22 319c-320a
35 BERKELEY- Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 4
405c-d; SECT 17 409d-410a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 7-
10 453c-455b; SECT n, DIV 17 457a-b; SECT
vn, DIV 49-53 471c-474b esp DIV 49 471c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-12d esp Ib-d, 8c-9a,
55a-56c; 99a-101b; 121a-123b / Practical
Reason, 292d-293b; 294a-b; 307d-310c; 331a-
332d
6. The kinds of knowledge
6a . The classification of knowledge according
to diversity of objects
6a(l) Being and becoming, the intelligible and
the sensible, the necessary and the con-
tingent, the eternal and the temporal, the
immaterial and the material as objects
of knowledge
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 86b-d; 113c-114a,c / Phae-
drus, 12Sa-126c / Symposium, 167a-d / Phaedo,
223d-232d esp 223d-225a, 228b-232d / Re-
public, BK in,333b-334b;BKv,368c-373c esp
372a-373b; BK vi-vn, 383d-398c / Timaeus,
447b-d; 457b-458a / Theaetetus, 521d-522b;
534d-536b / Sophist, 565a-569a esp 568a- 569a
/ Statesman, 595a-c / Philebus, 610d-613a;
633a-635a esp 634b-635a / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 5 [4*io-bi9] 8b-9a
/ Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32*4-23] 48b-d
/ Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 2 [7ib8-i6]
97d-98a; CH 4 [73*21^30] ICOa-lOla; CH 6-8
6a(l) to 6a(2)
CHAPTBR 43: KNOWLEDGE
901
102b-104b; CH 30 119d; CH 33 121b-122a,c /
Physics, BK ii, CH 2 270a-271a; CH 7 [198*22-
31] 275b-c / Heavens, BK HI, CH i [298bi3~
24] 390a-b; CH 7 [306*10-12] 397b / Meta-
physics, BK i, CH 5 [986b25-987*i] 504d-505a;
CH 6 [987*29^18! 505b-d; CH 8 [989b2i~99o*
8] 507d-508a; BK n, CH i 511b,d-512b; CH 3
[995*15-20] 513d; BK in, CH 4 [999*24-b4]
518a-b; BK iv, CH 5-6 528c-531c; BK vi, CH i
547b,d-548c; BK VH, CH 15 [i039b3i-i040*8]
563d-564a; BK ix, CH 10 577c-578a,c; BK x,
CH i [io53*3i-b3] 580a; CH 6 [1057*7-11]
584b; BK xi, CH 2 588a-589a; CH 6 [io62bi2-
io63bi4] 590d-592a; CH 7 [io63b36]-CH 8
[1065*6] 592b-593b; BK xn, CH i [1069*30^2]
598b-c / Soul, BK i, CH i [403*25-^9] 632b-d
/ Memory and Reminiscence, CH i [449^0-
450*10] 690c-d
9 ARISTOTLE Parts of Animal* , BK i, CH 5 [644b
2i-645a5J 168c-d / Ethics, BK vi, CH i [1139*
3-13] 387b-d; CH 3 [n ^19-25] 388b-c /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i 357*1 4~b2i] 596d-597c
11 NICOMACHUS* Arithmetic, BK i, 811a-812a
14 PLUIARCH. Marcellus, 252b-c
17 PLOIINUS Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH i, 228c-
229c, IR ix, en 7 249b-c / Sixth Ennead,
TR vn, CH 36 339c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-5 27c-
28c, BK vi, par 6 36c-d; BK vn, par 23 50b-c;
BK x, par 8-1 1 73b-74b; BK XH, par 5 lOOa-b
/ City of God, BK vni, CH 6 268d-269c;
CH 10 271a-d; BK xix, CH 18 523a-b / Chris-
tian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8 626c-627a; BK n,
CH 27-39 650a-655b esp CH 27 650a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i,
REP 2 3b-4a; A 9 8d-9c; Q 2, AA 1-2 10d-12c;
Q 5, A 2, ANS 24b-25a, Q 10, A i, ANS 40d-41d;
Q 12, A 4, ANS and REP 3 53b-54c; AA 8-10 57b-
59d; Q 13, A 12, REP 3 74c-75b; Q 14, A 13,
ANS and REP 3 86d-88c; Q 16, A i, REP 2
94b-95c; Q 54, A 4, ANS and REP 2 287b-288a;
QQ 56-57 291d-300b; Q 79, A 9 422b-423d;
QQ 84-88 440b-473a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 66,
A 5 79b-80c; Q 84, A i, REP 3 174b-175a; Q 93,
A 2 216c-217b; Q 94, A 4, ANS 223d-224d;
PART II-H, Q 9, A 2 424b-425a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 291b-294b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 40a-c; 41 b-
42a; 43d-44c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n 2a-3b; xn, 21b-c / Dis-
course, PART iv, 53b / Meditations, n 77d-81d
csp 81b-c; v 93a-96a passim / Objections and
Replies, 122b-c; POSTULATE n 131a; 218c-d;
219b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 8 355c; PROP 7
356c; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PART n,
PROP 10, SCHOL 376d-377a; PROP 24-45
383c-390b
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 72, 184a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
XXIH, SECT 5 205a-b; SECT 15-37 208c-214b;
BK iv, CH HI, SECT 9-17 315c-317c passim,
csp SECT 17 31 7c; SECT 23-27 320a-322a pas-
sim; CH vi, SECT 5-16 332b-336d passim; CH
xi, SECT 1-12 354c-357d passim, esp SECT 12
357c-d; CH xvi, SECT 12 370b-371a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-27
417d-4l8b; SECT 135-142 440a-441c; SECT 148
442b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 16a-b, 113c-115a / Judge-
ment, 551a-552c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 120a-b
51 TOLSTOY War and Peace, BK ix, 365a*b
6a(2) Knowledge of natures or kinds distin-
guished from knowledge of individuals
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 24
116b-118a; CH 31 120a-c; BK u, CH 19 [100*14-
b3) 136d / Physics, BK i, CH 5 [i88b26-i89»9]
264b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98ob25~98ib
131 499b-500a; BK in, CH 4 [999*24~b4]
518a-b; CH 6 [1003*5-17] 521d-522a,c; BK vn,
CH 10 [io35b35-io36*8] 559b-c; CH 15 563c-
564c; BK xi, CH 2 [io6ob2o-23] 588d; BK xm,
CH 10 618c-619a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 6 389d; CH 7
[1141*20-34] 390a-b; [114^14-20] 390c-d; CH
n [ii43a32-b5] 392d-393a, BK x, CH 9 [n8ob
13-23] 435b-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i356b
28-35] 596b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 2,
REP 2 4a-c; Q 12, A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; Q 14,
A n 84c-85c; A 12, ANS 85d-86d; Q 15, A 3,
REP 4 93b-94a; Q 22, A 2, ANS 128d-130d; Q
29, A i, REP i 162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-
164b; Q 30, A 4 170c-171b; Q 55, A i, REP 3
289a-d; A 3, REP 2 291a-d; Q 56, A i, REP 2
292a-d; Q 57, A 2 295d-297a; Q 59, A i, REP i
306c-307b; Q 75, A 5, ANS 382a-383b; Q 76,
A 2, REP 4 388c-391a; Q 79, A 5, REP 2 418c-
419b; A 6, ANS and REP 2 419b-420d; Q 84,
A 7, ANS and REP i 449b-450b; Q 85, A i
451c-453c; A 2, REP 2 453d-455b; A 5 455b-
457a, Q 86, A i 461c-462a; AA 3-4 463b-464d;
Q 89, A 4 476c-477a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q n,
A i, REP 3 772b-773a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 1-9
137a-140c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 167c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 37-39 386b-
387a; PROP 44, COROL 2-PROP 46 390a-c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxn, SECT 6-8 244b-d; BK HI, CH in, SECT
7-9 255d-256c; CH vi, SECT 32-33 277c-278c;
BK iv, CH iv, SECT 5-8 324d-325c; CH vn,
SECT 9 338d-339b
35 HUME : Human Understanding, SECT xn, DIV
132 509a-d
902
THE GREAT IDEAS
6a(3) to
(6a . The classification of knowledge according to
diversity of object*. 6a(2) Knowledge of
natures or kind$ distinguished from knowl-
edge of individuals.)
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 211c-218d / Judgement,
572a-b; 572d-574b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 305a-312a esp 309a-312a
6a(3) Knowledge of matters o£ fact or real ex-
istence distinguished from knowledge
of our ideas or of the relations between
them
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 84,
A i, REP i 440d-442a; Q 85, A 2 453d-455b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-b; 65c; 71c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15-16 98d-99c, SECT 23 101b-102a; BK in,
CH v, SECT 12 266d-267a; SECT 14 267b-c;
CH vi, SECT 43-51 280c-283a esp SECT 43
280c-d; BK iv, CH i, SECT 1-7 307a-308a; CH
ii 309b 313a passim, esp SECT 14 312b-d; CH
in, 313a-323d esp SECT 29 322c-323a; CH iv,
SECT 1-12 323d-326d passim; SECT 18 328d-
329a, CH v, SECT 6-8 330a-d; CH vi, SECT
13 335c-d; SECT 16 336d; CH ix 349a-c; CH
xi 354c-358c esp SECT 13-14 357d-358c; CH
XH, SECT 6-13 360a-362d; CH xvn, SECT 8
377b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 18-20
416b-417a; SECT 23 417b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv 458a-
463d esp DIV 20-21 458a-c, DIV 30 461d-462b;
SECT v, DIV 34-38, 464b-466c; SECT ix 487b-
488c esp DIV 82 487b-c; SECT xn, DIV 131-132
508d-509d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PRFF, 5c-6a /
Philosophy of History, P\RT iv, 354b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 157b-161a esp 158b-159b;
301b304b passim; 453a-b; 867a-890a esp
868b-869a, 879b-882a, 886a, 889a-b
6 a (4) Knowledge in relation to the distinction
between the phenomenal and the noum-
enal, the sensible and supra-sensible
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 25c-26a; 27b-33d, 37b-d;
53b-59b; 93c-99a esp 94b-95a, 96a-97b, 97d-
98c; 101b-108a,c esp 106b-107b; 117b-118a;
120c-121d; 153a-157d; 164a-165c; 172c-173a;
193a-b; 224a-230c / Fund. Prin, Metaphysic of
Morals, 253a-d; 264d; 281c-282d; 285a-287d
/ Practical Reason, 291a-296d esp 292a-293b;
307d-314d esp 307d-308b, 310d-311d; 319c-
321b; 328a-329a; 331a-332d; 337a-c; 340a-
342d esp 340c-341c; 349b-355d / Intro, Meta-
physic of Morals, 383c-d; 390b / Judgement,
465a-c; 474b-475d esp 474d [fn i]; 497a-498b;
500c-d; 501d-502a; 506d-507a; 510b-c; 530a;
541a-542a; 543a; 543c-544c; 564a-c; 570b-
572b; 574b-577a; 578d-579a; 581a-b; 584c-d;
587d-588a; 596c-598b; 599d-600d; 603a-b;
603d-606d esp 603d-604b, 606a-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 233a-234b
6b. The classification of knowledge according
to the faculties involved in knowing
7 PLATO- Phaedo, 224a-232d esp 224a-225a,
228b-232d / Republic, BK vi-vn, 383d-398c;
BK x, 431c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[99b34-ioob3J 136b-d / Topics, BK iv, CH 4
[125*25-33] 174b / Physics, BK i, CH 5 [i88b
26-189*9] 264b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i
[98oa28-982Bi] 499a-500b; BK in, CH 4 [999*
24^5] 518a-b / Soul, BK n, en 5 [4i7bi7-28]
648b-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH 7 3d-4a /
Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 13 164d-165b; TR
vi, CH 2 189d-190b / Fifth Ennead, TR in,
CH 2-3 216b-217b; TR v, CH i, 228c-229c;
CH 7 231d-232b; TR ix, CH 7 249b-c / Sixth
Ennead, TR HI, CH 18, 291a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10-11
15b-16a; BK x, par 8-38 73b-81a / City of God,
BK viii, CH 6-7 268d-269d, BK xi, CH 2-3
323a-d; BK xix, CH 18 523a-b / Chiistian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 12 627c-d; BK n, CH 27-39
650a-655b esp CH 27 650a; BK iv, CH 5, 677b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A 3 52c-53b; A 4, ANS and REP 3 53b-54c; Q 14,
A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 2, REP i 76d-77d; Q 18,
A 2, ANS and REP i 105c-106b; A 3, ANS 106b-
107c; Q 85, A i, ANS 451c-453c
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3, REP 3 8b-9a; PART II-H, Q 8, A i, ANS
417a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-b, 71c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d, 55b-d
31 DESCARI ES : Rules, xiv, 29b-31c / Meditations,
vi 96b-103d passim / Objections and Replies,
119d-120c, 124d-125a; POSTULATP i-n 130d-
131a; AXIOM v 131d-132a; 136d-137a; 157c-d;
162d-165d; 211d-212a; 217c-d; 218c-d;
219b-c; 228c-229c; 229d-230c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART 11, PROP 10 376c-377a;
PROP 40, SCHOL 2-PROP 44 388a-390a
35 LOCKE' Human Understanding, BK iv, CH n
309b-313a passim, esp SECT 14 312b-d, CH
in, SECT 2-5 313a-c; CH ix, SECT 2 349a,
CH xi, SECT 13-14 357d-358c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT i
405a-b; SECT 18 416b-c; SECT 27 418a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 227
74bd
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144b-145a; 157b-167b esp
157b-161a, 167b; 450a-451b; 453a-457a esp
453b, 455a
Sensitive knowledge: sense-perception
as knowledge; judgments of perception
and judgments of experience
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 224a-225a; 231c-232a / Re-
public, BK vi-vn, 383d-398c esp BK vi, 386d-
387a, 387d-388a, BK vn, 389b, 392c-393a /
Ttmacus, 447b / Theaetetus, 517b-536a esp
521d-526d, 533a-536a
6b(\) to 6b(2)
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[99b20-ioob5] 136a-d / Topics, BK n, CH 8
[114*18-26] 159d-160a / Physics, BK i, CH 5
[i88b26-i89*9] 264b-c / Heavens, BK HI,
CH 7 [3<>6ai-i8] 397b-c / Metaphysics, BK i,
CH i [98o*2o-b24] 499a; [98ibio-i3] 499d-
500a; BK iv, CH 5 [ioo9bi-i7] 528d-529a;
[ioiobi-ion*2] 530a-c; BK xi, CH 6 [io62b34-
1063*9] 591a-b; CH 7 [1064*4-9] 592b / Soul,
BK ii, CH 5 647b-648d; BK in, CH 2 657d-
659c
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation of Animals, BK i, CH
23 [73ift30-b5] 271c-d / Ethics, BK i, CH 7
[i098*35-b8] 343d-344a; BK n, CH 9 [no9b20-
23] 355c; BK vi, CH 8 [1142*12-31] 391b-c, BK
vii, CH 3 [1147*25^19] 397c-398a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Surgery, par i 70b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [379-
521] 49a-51a
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK i, CH 6, HOc-lllc
14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 252b-c
17 PLOIINUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH 6-7 3c-4a /
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 23 153d-154b; CH
26, 155c; TR iv, CH 23-25 169c-171b; TR vi,
CH 1-2 189b-190b / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH i,
228c-229c; TR ix, CH 7 249b-c / Sixth En-
nead, TR in, CH 18, 291a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 10-11
15b-16a, BK iv, par 15-17 23a-c; BK x, par
8-1 1 73b-74b / Christian Doctrine, BK n,
CH 27-30 650a-651d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 12, A 4, ANS and REP 3
53b-54c; Q 14, A i, ANS 75d-76c; A 2, ANS and
REP i 76d-77d; A 6, REP i 80a-81c; A n, ANJ>
and REP 1-2 84c-85c; A 12, ANS 85d-86d, Q 16,
A 2 95c-96b; Q 17, A 2 102a-d, A 3, ANS 102d-
103c; Q 18, A 2, ANS and REP i 105c-106b, A 3,
ANS 106b-107c; Q 54, A 5 288a-d; Q 57, A i,
REP 2 295a-d; A 2, ANS 295d-297a; Q 59, A i,
REP i 306c-307b, Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 2
380c-381b; A 5, ANS 382a-383b; Q 76, A 2,
REP 4 388c-391a; Q 77, A 5, REP 3 403d-404c; Q
78, A i, ANS 407b-409a; AA 3-4 410a-413d;
Q 79, A 3, ANS and REP 1-2 416a-417a; A 6,
ANS and REP 1-2 419b-420d; Q 84, A i, ANS
and REP 2 440d-442a; A 2, ANS 442b-443c;
A 4, ANS and REP 2 444d-446b; A 6 447c-
449a; Q 85, A i, ANS and REP 1,3 451c-453c;
A 2 453d-455b; A 3, ANS 455b-457a; A 6,
ANS 458d-459c; Q 86, A i, ANS and REP 2,4
461c-462a; A 3 463b-d; Q 87, A 3, REP 3 467b-
468a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 82, AA 3-4 971a-974c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [28-
48] Ilia
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 49a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 285c-286a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 332a-335c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, APH 41 109c-d;
APH 50 lllb; BK n, APH 40 170c-173d
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
903
31 DESCARTES: Discourse^ PART iv, 53b / Medi-
tattons, i 75a-77c passim; n, 80c-81d; in,
83d-84a; vi 96 b- 103d passim / Objections and
Replies, 119d-120c; 124d-125a; POSTULATE i-
iii 130d-131a; AXIOM v 131d-132a; 162d-
165d; 211a-b; 211d-212a; 228c-230c; 231a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 4-5 373d;
PROP 11-13 377b-378c; POSTULATE 5 380b;
PROP 14-17 380c-381d; PROP 19 382b-c; PROP
22-29 383b-385a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK in, RULE in 270b-
27Ia
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 8-10 139b-140b; BK in, CH vi, SECT 9
270d~271a; BK iv, CH n, SECT 14 312b*d; CH
in, SECT 14 316b-d; SECT 21 319c; CH xi
354c-358c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT i
405a-b; SECT 18 416b-c, SECT 25-33 41 7d-
419a passim; SECT 135-142 440a-441c
42 KANT- Pure Reason, 108a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 227
74b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 450a-471a csp 453a-459b,
469a-b, 470b-471a; 502a-525a passim, esp
503a-505b, 508a; 564a-b
6b(2) Memory as knowledge
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK n, CH 4 [inb24-3i]
156d-157a; BK iv, CH 4 [i25b4~i4] 174c /
Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*28-981*1] 499a-b
/ Memory and Reminiscence, CH i (449bi]-cH 2
[452*13] 690a-693d
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 25-TR
iv, CH 9 I54d-163a passim; TR vi, CH 3 190b-
191c
18 AUGUSTINE- Confessions, BK x, par 12-38
74b-81a / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 9
640c-d; BK iv, CH 5, 677b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 54
A 5 288a*d; Q 78, A 4, ANS and REP 5 411d-
413d; Q 79, AA 6-7 419b-421c; Q 89, A 6, RLP i
478b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 3 14b-l5a; PART in SUPPL, Q 70, A 2, REP 4
896a-897d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, v [34-42]
112c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 50b-c; 53a-54a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4c-d; vii, lOb-c; xi
17b-18b; xn 18b-25a passim / Meditations, v,
95d-96a / Objections and Replies, 125a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 18, SCHOL
382a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH in,
SECT 21 118b-119a; BK n, CH x, SECT 2 141b-c;
BK iv, CH i, SECT 8-9 308b<309b; CH xi,
SECT ii 357b-c; CH xvi, SECT 1-2 366d-
367a
53 IAMES: Psychology, 145a; 421a-422a passim;
424b-427a; 450a-451b
904
THE GREAT IDEAS
(6b. The classification of knowledge according to
the faculties involved in knowing. 6b(2)
Memory as knowledge.)
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 428d / General Intro-
duction, 484c-486a
66(3) Rational or intellectual knowledge
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125a-b / Phaedo, 224a-232d
csp 224a-225a, 228b-232d / Republic, BK vi-
vii, 383d-398c csp BK vi, 387a-388a, BK vn,
389b, 393a-c / Theaetetus, 534d-536a / Laws,
BK x, 765b
8 ARISTOTLB- Physics, BK vii, CH 3 [247bi-248*
9] 330b-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98ob25-
982fti] 499b-500b
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK vi, CH i [1139*6-11]
387c; CH 3-7 388b-390d
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK iv [469-
521] 50b-51a
14 PLUTARCH: Nutna Pompilius, 53b-c / Marcel-
lus, 252b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, IR iv, CH 1 159a-d;
TR vi, CH 2 189d-190b / Fifth Ennead, TR v,
CH i, 228c-229c; TR ix, CH 7 249b-c / Sixth
Ennead, TR in, CH 18, 291a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 10 73d-
74a; par 16-19 75b-76b; par 30 79b-c; par 36
80c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 31-38
651d-654c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14,
A i, ANS 75d-76c, A 2, ANS and REP i 76d-77d;
A ii, ANS and REP 1-2 84c-85c; A 12, ANS 85d-
86d, Q 16, A 2 95c-96b, Q 17, A 3 102d-103c;
Q 18, A 2, ANS and REP i 105c-106b; A 3, ANS
106b-107c; Q 54 284d-288d passim; Q 57, A i,
REP 2 295a-d; A 2, ANS 295d-297a; Q 59, A i,
REP i 306c-307b; Q 78, A i, ANS 407b-409a;
A 4, ANS and REP 4-6 411d-413d; Q 79 413d-
427a; QQ 84-89 440b-480c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QQ
57-58 35a-45c
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 58a-61a; 65c-d;
71c; PART n, 163a; PART iv, 267a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, n 77d-81d passim;
vi 96b-103d passim / Objections and Replies,
119d-120c; 124d-125a; DEF i-n 130a-b;
AXIOM v 131d-132a; 162d-165d; 228c-230c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 37-40 386b-
388b, PROP 44, COROL 2-PROP 46 390a-c;
PART v, PROP 29 459b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH n,
SECT 1-8 309b-311a, CH in, SECT 2-4 313a-c;
CH ix, SECT 2 349a; CH xi, SECT 13-14 357d-
358c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT i
405a-b; SECT 89 430b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 227
74b-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 299a-314b esp 302b-304b,
313b314a
to 6c(l)
6b(4) Knowledge in relation to the faculties of
understanding, judgment, and reason;
and to the work of intuition, imagina-
tion, and understanding
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 23a-110d esp 25b-c, 27c,
28d-29d, 32a-c, 34a-c, 37b-39c, 41c-45b,
48c-d, 52c-55a, 57d-59b, 65d-66d, 94b-95a,
99a-101b, 109d-110d; 130b-c; 166c-171a;
193a-195a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
282b c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385a-c
/ Judgement, 461a-476c, 493c-495a,c; 518a-d;
542b-543c, 570b-572b
53 JAMES* Psychology, 232b-235a
6c. The classification of knowledge according
to the methods or means of knowing
6c(l) Vision, contemplation, or intuitive
knowledge distinguished from discur-
sive knowledge
7 Puro. Phaedrus, 125a-126c / Symposium,
150c-151a; 167a-d / Phaedo, 224a-225a /
Republic, BK vi-vn, 386d-389c / Seventh
Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK vn, CH 10 [1036*
1-8] 559b-c; BK MI, CH 7 [io72bi3-29] 602d-
603a; CH 9 [io75R5-n] 605c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [ii78b2o-32J
433b-c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1083b-
1084b
17 PLOFINUS. Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 18
ISlb-c, TR iv, CH i 159a-d / Fifth Ennead, TR
in, CH 3 216c-217b; TR v, CH 1-2 228b-229d
passim, CH 7 231d-232b
ISAuousiiNE Confessions, BK ix, par 23-25
68a-c; BK xn, par 16 102d-103a / City of God,
BK ix, CH 16, 294a-b, CH 22 296d-297a;
BK xi, CH 2 323a-c; CH 7 326a-c; CH2i
333a-d; CH 29 339a-b; BK xvi, CH 6 426c-
427a; BK xxn, CH 29, 614b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12
50b-62b esp A 10 59a-d; Q 14, A i, REP 2 75d-
76c; A 7 81d-82b; A 9, ANS 83b-d; A 12, REP
1-2 85d-86d; A 13, ANS and REP 3 86d-88c;
A 14 88d-89b; A 15, REP 2-3 89b-90b; Q 16, A
5, REP i 97c-98b; Q 19, A 5, ANS 112d-113c; Q
34, A i, REP 2 185b-187b; Q 46, A 2, REP 3
253a-255a; Q 57, A i, REP 2 295a-d; A 3, ANS
and REP 2 297b-298a; Q 58 300b-306b esp
A 4 302d-303c; Q 59, A i, REP i 306c-307b;
Q 60, A 2, ANS 311a-d; Q 78, A 4, REP 6 411d-
413d; Q 79, A 4, ANS 417a-418c; A 8 421c-
422b; Q 85, A 5 457d-458d; Q 86, A 2, ANS
462a-463a; A 4, ANS 463d-464d; PART i-n,
Q 14, A i, REP 2 677b-678a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART U-n, Q 8
416d-423b; Q 9, A i, REP i 423c-424b; Q 180,
AA 3-6 609c-614d; PART in, Q n, AA 3-4
773d-775a; PART ni SUPPL, Q 92, A 3 1034b-
1037c
CHAPTER 43; KNOWLEDGE
&(2) to 6c(S)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n [37-45)
108a; xxx [1-123] 151d-153a; xxxin [46-
145] 156c-157d
30 BACON: Novwn Organum, BK n, APH 15 149a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [469-505] 185b-
186a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 1-5 171a-173a; 277-288
222b-224b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH ix,
SECT 2-3 349a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 52c-53b / Prac-
tical Reason, 320c-321b; 337a-c; 350c-351b /
Judgement, 572d-574b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 349b-
350a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 276a-b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 874a-875a
6c(2) The distinction between immediate and
mediated judgments: induction and rea-
soning, principles and conclusions
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 1-3
97a-100a; CH 15 109a-b; CH 22 [S^i^z]
114c-115b; CH 23 [84bi9-85Bi] 115c-116a; CH
31 [88*5-17] 120b-c; CH33 [88b30-89»i] 121b-c;
[89*17-22] 121d; BK n, CH 9 128a-b; CH 13
[97b3r~39) 133c» CH r9 136a-137a,c / Topics,
BK i, CH 12 148d / Physics, BK vm, CH i [252*
i9-b5J 335d-336b / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 2
[994bi6-27J 513a-b; BK in, CH 2 [997*25-32]
515d-516a; BK iv, CH 3 [ioo5b5J-cH 4 [ioo6B
12] 524c-525b; CH 6 [iona3-i4J 530d; BK
VH, CH 17 [io4ib9-ii] 565d; BK ix, CH 10
[io5ibi8-io52tt4] 577d-578a,c; BK xi, CH i
[1059*29-34] 587b; CH 6 [io63b7-i2] 591d;
CH 7 [1064*4-9] 592b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [i098&35-b4]
343d; BK vi, CH 3 [ii39b25~34] 388c; CH 6-7
389d-390d; CH 8 [1142*23-31] 391b-c; CH u
[ii43832-b5]392d-393a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtcat PART i, Q i,
AA 7-8 7a-8d; Q 2, AA 1-2 10d-12c; Q 12, A 8,
ANS 57b-58b; Q 14, A i, REP 2 75d-76c; A 7,
ANS and REP 2-3 81d-82b; Q 17, A 3, REP 2
102d-103c; Q 19, A 5, ANS 112d-113c; Q 58,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 301d-302d; A 4, ANS 302d-
303c; Q 60, A 2, ANS 311a-d; Q 79, A 8, ANS
421c-422b; A 12, ANS 425c-426b; Q 85, A 6,
ANS 458d-459c; Q 87, A i, REP i 465a-466c;
PART i-n, Q i, A 4, REP 2 612a-613a; A 5, ANS
613a-614a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 2 36a-37b; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d*223a; PART
n-ii, Q 8, A i, REP 2 417a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58d-59a; 65c-d;
71c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 59c; 61 d;
96d-97a / Novum Organum, PREF 105a-106d;
BK i 107a-136a,c csp APH 11-26 107d-108d,
APH 69 116a-b, APH 103-106 127d-128c; BK
n, APH 5, 139a; APH 10 140c-d
905
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n, 2d-3a; in, 4a-d; VH,
10c-12a; ix, 14d; xi 17b-lSb; xn-xiv, 20d-
28b / Discourse, PART vi, 64a-b / Objections
and Replies, 123a-b; 125a-b; 224b,d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL 2-
PROP 42 388a-c; PROP 47, SCHOL 390c-391a;
PART v, PROP 28 459b
33 PASCAL: Pensces, 1-5 171a-173a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT i 103d-104a; SECT 4 104d-105a; CH in,
SECT 23 119b-120a; BK iv, CH i, SECT 9-cn
in, SECT4,309b-313c; CH vn, SECT i-ii 337a-
342d passim; CH ix, SECT 2-3 349a-c; CH xv,
SECT i 365a-c; SECT 3 365d; CH xvn, SECT
2-3 371d-372b; SECT 14-17 378c-379c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 39a-c; 66d-72c esp 67d-
68a; 99a-b; 109d-lllc; 211c-218d / Judge-
ment, 542d-543a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a; NUMBER
83, 244b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 461c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, la-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144a-b; 167b; 453a-457a
csp 453b-454a, 456a
The doctrine of knowledge as reminis-
cence: the distinction between innate
and acquired knowledge
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124a-126c / Meno, 179d-
183a; 188d-189a / Phaedo, 228a-230d /
Theaetetus, 515d-517b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
[71*26^9] 97c-d; BK n, CH 19 [99b2o~33]
136a-b / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 9 [992^4-
993*11] 51 la-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12, 173a-b
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK n, CH n 150a-151b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 4, 8b-c /
Fourth Ennead, TR HI, CH 25 154d-155c;
TR iv, CH 5 160d-161b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 10 73d-
74a; par 16-19 75b-76b; par 26-38 78a-8la /
City of God, BK vin, CH 6, 269b-c / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 9 627a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 54,
A 4, ANS and REP i 287b-288a; Q 55, A 2 289d-
290d; Q 57, A i, REP 3 295a-d; Q 58, A i 300c-
301a; Q 60, A i, REP 3 310b-311a; A 2, ANS
311a-d; Q 84, A 3 443d-444d; A 4, ANS 444d-
446b; A 6, ANS 447c-449a; Q 89, A i, REP 3
473b-475a; Q 117, A i, ANS 595d-597c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 264d-265b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 333d-334d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, Ib-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv, 5c-d; 6d; vi, 8d-9a;
VHI, 13c-d / Discourse, PART v, 54c; PART
vi, 62a / Meditations, 11 77d-81d esp 81a-d;
HI, 83b; 88c-d; vi, 96d-97a / Objections and
Replies, 120c-d; 140b-c; 215b-c; 224b,d-225a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 23, SCHOL
458c-d
906
THE GREAT IDEAS
6r(4) to
(6c, The classification of knowledge according to
the methods or means of knowing. 6c(3)
Th« doctrine of knowledge as reminiscence:
the distinction between innate and acquired
knowledge.)
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 90d-91b; BK
i 95b,d-121a,c passim; BK n, CH i, SECT 6
122 b-c; CH ix, SECT 6 139a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV 17,
457b,d [fn i]
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115a / Practical
Reason, 352c-353a / Judgement, 551a-552c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 633a-635a; 851a-862a esp
851a-852b, 856a-858a, 859a-860a; 867a-868a;
877b-878a; 879b-880a; 889a-b; 897a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 512b-513b;
526c-d; 532b; 599a-b
6c(4) The distinction between a priori and a
posteriori knowledge: the transcendental,
or speculative, and the empirical
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH iv>
SECT 6-8 325a-c; CH ix, SECT i 349a; CH xn»
SECT 6-13 360a-362d; CH xvn, SECT 2, 371d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv 458a-
463d passim, esp DIV 20-21 458a-c, DIV 30,
462a; SECT v, DIV 34-38, 464b-466c; SECT x,
DIV 89 490b-c; SECT XH, DIV 131-132 508d-
509d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-d; 14a-108a,c esp
14a-20c, 23a-24a, 25b-26b, 27b-28b, 29d-33d,
35b-36a, 41c-42b, 46a-48d, 57d-59b, 64b-
66d; 115d-120c; 121a-d; 170d-171a; 172c-
173a; 177d; 199a / Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of
Morals, 253c-254d / Practical Reason, 307d-
308b; 309b-d / Science of Right, 405b-d /
Judgement, 600d-603d esp 603a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445a-447b passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-
158a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 232b-238b passim, esp
235a; 851a-897b esp 851a-853a, 859a-862a,
865b-866a, 868b-869a, 879b-880a, 889a-b,
897a-b
6c(5) The distinction between natural and
supernatural knowledge: knowledge
based on sense or reason distinguished
from knowledge by faith or through
grace and inspiration
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 4:5-6 / / Kings,
3:3-15; 4 .-29-34 -(#) ul Kin& 3:3-'5»
4:29-34 / // Chronicles, 1 7-12 — (Z)) // Para It-
pomenon, 1:7-12 / ]ob, 28:28 / Psalms, 111:10;
119.97-104— (D) Psalms, 110:10; 118-97-104
/ Proverbs, 1:7; 2:5-6; 9:10 / Isaiah, 11:1-4—
(D) Isaias, 11:1-4 /Jeremiah, 8:8-9— (D) fa6'
mtas, 8:8-9 / Darnel, 1-2 esp 2:17-23
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6-9 passim,
esp 7:7, 7:15-21, 8:21, 9:13-1^— (D) OT,
of Wisdom, 6-9 passim, esp 7:7, 7:15-
21, 8:21, 9:13-18 / Ecclesiasticus, i; 6:32-3;
17-6-7,11; 24:23-27— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticu
i J 6:33-37; i7:5~6>9; 24:32-37
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 11:25-277 Lu%c, 8:^
18 esp 8:10; 10-21-22; 21:12-15 /John, 1:1-1!
8:31-32; 10.37-38; 12:28-30; 14:10-12; 16:12
14; 20:24-29 / Romans, 10:17 / / Corinthian
1:4-5; 1:17-2:16; 3:18-21; 8:1-2; 12. 8-1 1
// Corinthians, 1:12; 4:3-6; 12:1-6 / Ephesian
1:15-18; 3-1-12 / Colossians, 2:8/7 Thessah
nians, 2:13 / // Thtssalonians, 2:10-14 / //<
brews, 4:2; 11:1-3 /James, 1:5; 3:13-18 /
Peter, 1-19-21
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 191d-192b
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK i, par i la-t
BK iv, par 25 25c; BK vi, par 6-8 36c-37<
BK vn, par 16 48c-49a; BK vin, par 28-2
60d-61a; BK ix, par 23-25 68a-c; BK xn
par 46 123a-c / City of God, BK x, CH
299d-300a; BK xi, CH 2-4, 323a-324a; B
xix, CH 18 523a-b; BK xxi, CH 5 563d-564c
BK xxii, CH 4-5 588b-590a; CH 7 591c-d
Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 40 655b-656£
CH 42 656c-d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i 3s
lOc, Q 2, A 2, REP i lld-12c; Q 8, A 3, ANS an
REP 4 36b-37c; Q 12 50b-62b esp AA n-i
59d-62b; Q 32, A i 175d-178a; Q 46, A
253a~255a; Q 56, A 3 294a-d; Q 57, A 5 2991:
300b; Q 58, A i, ANS and REP 2 300c-301s
AA 5-7 303o306b; Q 62, A 7 322d-323b; Q 6.
A i, ANS 334a-335c; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c; Q 8(
A 2, REP i 462a-463a; Q 88, A i, ANS 469s
471c, A 3, REP i 472c-473a; Q 89, A i, REP
473b-475a; A 2, ANS and REP 3 475a-d; A :
REP 3 475d-476c; A 4, ANS 476c-477a; A
479c-480c; Q 94 501c-506a; Q 113, A i, REP
576a-d; PART i-n, Q 3, AA 3-8 624b-629c
Q 4, AA 2-3 630b-631d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 6:
A 3 61c-62b; Q 67, A 3 83b-84d; Q 100, A ^
REP i 253d-255a; Q 108, A 2, REP i 332b
333d; Q 109, A i 338b-339c; Q no, A 3, REP
350a-d; A 4, ANS 350d-351d; Q 112, A 5 359c
360c; PART ii-n, Q i, AA 4-5 382c-384b; Q 2
AA 3-4 392d-394b; A 10 399b-400b; Q 4 402a
409d; QQ 8-9 416d-426c; Q 19, A 7 469d-470c
Q 45 598c-603c; Q 188, A 5, REP 2-3 679d
681a; PART in, QQ 9-12 763b-779d; PART n
SUPPL, Q 92 1025b-1037c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, n
[16-45] 56a-b; xvn [13-45] 78c-79a; PARADISE
n [37-45] 108a; iv [124-132] 112a; v [1-12
112a-b; xix [22-66] 135b-d; xxiv [52-147
143b-l44a; xxx [1-123] 151d-153a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART i, 52a-b; 66a-c
69b; 83b; PART n, 137b-c; 149c-d; 160b-c
163a-b; PART in, 165a-166a; 172d-173a
241c-242a; PART iv, 267a-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a; 208d-209c
212a-215b; 238c-239c; 250a-b; 267c-268a
273a-b
6dto6d(l)
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning 2c-4c;
17b-c; 19b-c; 39d-40a; 41b-d; 54c-5Sd; 95d-
lOld / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 65 114b-c;
APH 89 124a-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4d-5a / Discourse,
PART i, 43c / Meditations, 69a-71a,c; m, 88d-
89a / Objections and Replies, 125c-126b; I68b-
169a; 232b; 284d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK m [1-55] 135b-
136b; BK vn [109-130] 219b-220a; BK xn
[552-587] 331a-332a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 27a; 147b; 163a-
166b passim / Pensees, 184-229 205a-213b;
233, 214a-b; 245 218b; 248 219a; 265-290
221b-225a; 425-427 243b-244b; 561-567
272b-273b; 585-588 277a-b / Geometrical
Demonstration, 440a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH ix,
SECT 23 291b-c; BK iv, CH vn, SECT n, 340b-c;
CH xvi, SECT 14 371b-c; CH xvn, SECT 23-
CH xvin, SECT ii 380b-384b; CH xix, SECT 4
385a-b; SECT 14 387d-388a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
55, 474d-475a; SECT x, DIV 86 488d-489b;
DIV 101 497a-b; SECT XH, DIV 132, 509c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 182a-c; 379c-380a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 189b-190d passim,
csp 190c-d; 307d-309d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347a; 349b-351a
/ Judgement, 579a; 588d-589c; 604d-606d
esp 606a-d; 607d-609b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 455a-c
44 Bos WELL \ Johnson, 394a-b; 395a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 349d
47 GOETHE: Paust, PART i [386-481] llb-14a;
PART ii [11,441-458] 278b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b-197b;
BK vi, 248d-249a; BK xv, 630d-631c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
lla-b; BK vi, 168b-c; BK vn, 177b-180a; BK
xi, 338a-b; BK xn, 396d-397a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 874a-d;
877d-879d passim, esp 879c-d
64. The classification of knowledge according
to the degrees of assent
64(1) The distinction between certain and
probable knowledge
8 ARISTOTLE : Interpretation, CH 9 28a-29d /
Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 13 [32b4~23] 48b-d;
BK n, CH 25 91a-b / Posterior Analytics, BK i,
CH 2 97d-99a csp [72*25^4] 98d-99a; CH 33
[89*4-10] 121c / Topics, BK i, CH i [100*25-
b23] 143a-b; BK v, CH 3 [i3ibi9~3o] 182b-c /
Meteorology, BK i, CH 7 [344*5-7] 450b /
Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 3 [1005^8-34} 524c-
525a;^ BK vi, CH i [io25bi-i6] 547b; BK'XI, CH
7 [1064*4-9] 592b; BK xn, CH 8 [1074*14-16]
604c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 [1139*14-34]
388b-c; BK vir, CH 3 [ii46b23-3oj 396d-397a
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
907
/ Rhetoric, BK i, OH i [1355*14-17] 594b; cfc 2
[i357*23-b24] 596d*597c; BK ii, CH 25 [i4O2b
i3-i403Bi7l 652b-653a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a
18 AUGUSTINE: Cky of God, BK vm, CH 3
266a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i,
A 8, ANS and REP 2 7c-8d; Q 14, A 3, ANS 77d-
78b; A 13 86d-88c; Q 32, A i, REP 2 175d-178a;
Q 47, A i, REP 3 256a*257b; Q 57, A 3, ANS
297b-298a; Q 58, A 7, REP 3 305c-306b; Q 79,
A 9, REP 3-4 422b-423d; Q 82, A 2, ANS 432d-
433c; Q 84, A i, ANS 440d-442a; Q 85, A 6,
ANS 458d-459c; Q 86, A 4, ANS 463d-464d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A 3 14b-15a; Q 57, A 2, REP 3 36a-37b; Q 94,
A 4, ANS 223d-224d; PART ii-n, Q i, AA 4-5
382c-384b; Q 4, A 8 409a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60c-61a; 65b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 240c-241b; 271b-273b;
292a-d; 499c-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK ii, APH 33
161b-d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i-n la-3b; xn, 22a-b;
23a-c / Discourse, PART i, 43d; PART n, 47a-
48a; PART HI, 49d-51a; PART iv, 51b-52a;
53c-d; PART vi, 63d / Meditations, MI 75a-
81d; in, 81d-82d; v, 95b-96a / Objections and
Replies, 119d-120c; 123b; 124b-125b; POSTU-
LATE i-in 130d-131a; POSTULATE vi-vn 131c;
168b-d; 260d-261a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, PROP u, SCHOL 358d-
359b; PART n, PROP 24-45 383c-390b esp
PROP 43, SCHOL 388d-389b; PROP 49, SCHOL
391d-394d; PART HI, PROP 17, SCHOL 401d-
402a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 27a-44a / Pensfes,
233-241 213b-217b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO 93a-95d
passim; BK iv, CH in, SECT 14 316b-d; SECT
24-29 320c-323a esp SECT 29 322c-323a;
CH iv 323d-329a passim, esp SECT 6-8 325a-c,
SECT 18 328d-329a; CH vi 331b-336d; CH ix,
SECT i 349a; CH xi, SECT 9-12 3S6d-357d;
CH xn, SECT 6-14 360a-363a passim; CH xiv,
SECT I-CH xvi, SECT 3 364b-367c; CH XVH,
SECT 2 371d-372b; SECT 14-17 378c-379c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
20-21 458a-c; DIV 30, 462a; SECT vi, 469d
[foij
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335d-336a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c; 194b-c; 211c-
218d; 228c-d; 230c-233d; 240b-243c / Prac-
tical Reason, 330d-331a / Judgement, 601d;
603a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b-293b passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART ii, par 140,
50b-c; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d; 91, 131b-c
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 463d
i THE! GREAT -IDEAS
(6d. Tbt classification of knowledge according to
the degree* of assent. ) '
64(2) The types of certainty and the degree* of
probability
8 ARISTOTLB: Prior Analytics} BK n, CH 25 91a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [1094^12-28]
339d*340a«, CH 7 [1098*25-35] 343d; BK n,
CH 2 [11-04*1-9] 349b-c; BK HI, CH 3 [1112*30-
bi2] 358b-c
-- 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART, i, Q i,
>* 5, ANS and REP i 5c-6a; Q 54, A 5 288a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q 4,
A 8 409a-d; Q 8, A 8 422c-423b; Q 9, A i 423c-
424b; A 2, ANS 424b-425a; Q 18, A 4, ANS 464c-
465a; PART 111, Q 7, A 3, REP 3 747b-748a
23 HbBBBs; Leviathan, PART i, 53c-54a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 240c-241b
30 BACON: Novum Organism, BK i, APH 126 134b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, in, 4a-5a / Discourse,
PART ii, 45a; PART in, 48b-51a / Objections
and Replies, 124d-125a; 126a-b; 206c-207a;
226d; 243c-d
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 102a-108a /
Penstcs, 907-^24 349a-352a passim
35 LOCKE: Htitttan Understanding, BK iv, CH n
309b-313» passim, esp SECT i 309 b-d, SECT
6-7 310c-311a^sECT 14 312b-d; CH xi, SECT 3
355a-b; CH xv-xvi 365a-371c; CH xvn, SECT
14-17 378c-379c; CH xix, SECT i 384c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vi 469d-
470d; SECT ix, DIV 82 487b-c; SECT x, DIV
86-91 488d-491c passim, csp DIV 87 489b^d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 408a-b
;42 K.ANT: Pure Reason, 5a-b; 66d-72c csp 67d-
68a; 202b-203c; 240b-243c / Intro. Mcta-
^physic of Morals^ 387a-d / Judgement, 542 d-
543a; 600d-603d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 463d / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle ', 661c-662b / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 818c-d
6</(3) The distinction between adequate and
inadequate, or perfect and imperfect
knowledge
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 18
523a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART i, Q 12,
AA 7-8 56a-58b; A 12 60d-61c; Q 14, A 3 77d-
78b; A 5!, ANS 79a-80a; A 6 80a-81c; Q 17, A 4,
ANS 103c-104b}>Q 56, A 3, REP 1-2 294a-d;
0 57, A 5, REP 2 299b-300b; Q 84, A 2,\ ANS
442b-443c; A 7* ANS and REP i 449b*45Qb; Q
85, A^ 4fl5b-457a; A 7 459c-460b; A 8, REP i
460b-461b; Q 8* A r,. ANS 473b-475a; A 2
475a-d; A 3, ANS and REP 2,4 475d-476c;
A 4, AN8>«nd,iftBp 4 476c-477a; Q n7,tA i,
I dn^p 4 595d-S97c; PART I-H» Q 27^ A a,tR«p 2
737d-738c
20 AQUINAS iSumrrHt Tfatilogictt, PART «-n; 0-67,
A 3^ AN^ 83b-&4d; PART itfi Q 9, A; 3, n^ 2
7«b^66b; Q 10 767b-773a
28 HARV&X; Qn Animal Gene^aiion^ 33^b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, ii-m 2ft-5ft / Objections
and ^Replies, 127b-c; POSTULATE VIT-VM,' 13Jc;
152d-153c
31 Spmo^A-: Ethics, PAI&T n, OEP 4 373b; PROP
11, COROL 377b-c; PROP 24^43 383s>389b;
P^RT iv, PRO? 64 444b ' - «•
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding* BK 11, CH
xxxi 239b-243c passim, csp SECT 6 24Qd-241d,
SECT 13 243a-b; BK ui^ CH vi, , SECT 1307731
276d-277c; SECT 37 279b; SECT 40 2$0a-b;
SECT 43^47 280c-282b passim , ?
42 KANT:P«rc#*JWfl,2b-4a,c; 125b[fni];193a c;
240br243c csp 240d-241a / Judgement, 498b-
499c; 603a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 318b-319a; 668a-671a ssp
669a-b; 67^a-677a
,54 FREUD: General Introduction, 560c-561b
6e. The classification of knowledge according
to the end or aim of the knowing r
6<?(l) The distinction between theoretic and
practical knowledge: knowing for, the
sake of knowledge and for the sake of
action or production
7 PLATO: Charmides, 7d-8a / Republic, BK vn,
391d-394d esp 393c, 394b-c / Statesman, 581a
/ Laws, BK vn, 728b-729a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 6 [145*12-18]
198d / Heavens, BK in, CH 7 [306*14-18]
397b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, cHsi-2 499a-501c
• ' csp CH 2 [982a3o-b27] 500c-501a; BK n, CH i
[99^20-2^] 512a; BK iv, CH 4 [1008^-32]
527d-528b; BK vi, CH i [i025bi8-28] 547d;
BK xi, CH 7 [io64ajo-i9] 592b-c; BK xn, CH 9
[io74b35~io75a2] 605c / Soul, BK iv CH 3
[407^2-30] 636d-637a; BK in, CH 7,663c-
664b; CH 9 [432b26-433a9] 66Sc
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3,339d-340b; CH 7
[1098*25-35] 343d; BK II, CH 2 [no3b26-no4a
9] 349b-c; CH 4 350d-351b esp [no5bi2-i8]
351a-b; BK' nr, CH 3 [1112*30^12] 358b-c;
BK vi, CH 2 [ii39fl2i-bi4] 3«f7d-388b; CH 5
389a-c; CH 7 390a-d; CH 8 [1142*13-19]
391b; CH 12 (ri43bi7-n44*5}393b-c'
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses^ BK i, cb^6 131b-132b;
BK iji, CH 6 181d-182b
14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 252a-255a
10 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK i, 5«
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VIIL, CH 4 266d-
267c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theofagica, PART i, Q i, A 4
5a-b; A 5, ANS 5a-6a; Q 14, A i, JUBP 2 75d-76c;
A 16 90b-91b; Q 15, A 3 93b-94a;NQ 34, A 3
188b-J89a; <* 79, A 9, ANS ,4,99^4^$ AA n-
, , 13 4JMd-4^7a; Q 84, A>8, ANS ^SOb^Slb;
Q 86, A i, REP 2 461c-462a; A 3, CONTRARY
, , r 4^brd; PART.I-IJ, Q i, A 6, REP 2 614a^cj Q 3,
,'/< A,s^26b-627a; Q 7, A 2
6>(2) to la
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
909
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i-ir, Q 56,
A 3, ANS 31a-32b; Q 57, A 5, REP 3 39a-40a;
A 6, ANS and REP 2-3 40a-41a; Q 94, A 4, ANS
223d-224d; PART n-ii, Q 8, A 3 418c-419a; Q 9,
A 3 425b-d; Q 45, A 3 600c-601a; Q 179, A 2,
ANS 607a-c; PART in, Q 11, A r, REP 3 772b-
773a; Q 13, A i, REP 3 780a-781b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [109-
114] 121b-c; xm [37-111] 125d-126c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-61a; PART iv,
267a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a esp 56b-57b;
63d-77d passim, esp 69d-72a; 327b-d; 520b-
522a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16d-17a;
42a-c; 46c-47c; 55b-d; 65d-66a; 69c; 86b-c
/ Novum Organum, BK i, APH 3 107b; APH 66
114d-115c; BK n, APH 1-9 137a-140c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a / Discourse, PART i,
44a-c; PART in, 48b-49b; PART vi, 60d-61c;
66d-67a / Objections and Replies, 126a-b;
162d; 206c-207a; 237b-c; 243c-d
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 102a-108a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
5-6 94b-95a; BK i, CH 11, SECT i 103d-104a;
SECT 3-4 104b-105a; BK iv, CH xi, SECT 8
356b-d; CH xxi 394d-395a,c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 2
405b; SECT 119-122 436c-437c passim; SECT
131 439b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i 451a-
455b esp DIV 1-5 451a-453b, SECT vm, DIV 65,
479b-c; SECT xi, DIV 104 498b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 190c-191a; 234c-
235a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
253a-d; 260d-261b; 266a-d; 27la-c; 283d-
284d / Practical Reason, 291a-297c; 300d [fn i];
307d-314d esp 310a-b; 329a-330c / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 388a-d; 390b,d-391a /
Judgement, 461a-475d esp 463a-467a, 474b-
475d; 515b-c; 523d-524a; 578a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 341d-342d;
346d-347a / Utilitarianism, 445c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 227,
74b-c; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d / Philosophy of
History, PART iv, 360d-361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 361d-365c
53 JAMES : Psychology, 656b
6e(2) The types of practical knowledge: the
use of knowledge in production and
in the direction of conduct; technical
and moral knowledge
7 PLATO: Charmides, 5c-6d / Lysis, 16c-18b /
Euthydemus, 70b-c; 74b-c / Statesman, 580d-
582a / Laws, BK i, 649c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics^ BK vi, CH 6 [145*12-18]
198d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-2 339a-d; BK n,
CH 4 350d-351b; BK vi, CH 2 [1139*32^5]
388a; CH 4-5 388d-389c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q aif
A 2, ANS I25c-d; Q 65, A 2, asp 3 340b-341b;
PART i-n, Q 34, A i, REP 3 768c-7$9d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
AA 3-6 37b-41a; Q 58, A 2, REP i 42a-43a; A 5,
REP 2 44d-45c; Q 65, A i, REP 4 70b-72a; Q 93,
A r, ANS 215b,d-216c; Q 97, A 2, REP i 236d-
237b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 60d-61c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 149d-150a; 234c-235a /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-255d
esp 2S3a-254b; 260d-261b; 264b-d; 266b-d;
271a-d; 283d-287d / Practical Reason, 305d-
307d; 314d-321b esp 318c-321b; 329a-330c;
354d-355d; 357c-360d / Pref. Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 367c / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 383a-d; 387b; 388a-d; 390b,d-391a
/ Judgement, 463a-467a; 515b-c; 523d-524a;
596c-598b
54 FREUD: Psycho -Analytic Therapy, 127a,c
7. Comparison of human with other kinds of
knowledge
la. Human and divine knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:1-7,22 / I Samuel,
167— (D) I Kings, 16:7 /Job, 11:1-12; 12:16-
17; 28:12-25; 38-41 / Psalms, 92:5-6; 94*11;
139— (D) Psalms, 91 :6-y ; 93 :i i ; 138 / Proverbs,
20:24 / Ecclesiastes, 3:10-11; 8:16-17; 11:1-6
/ Isaiah, 40:12-31 esp 40:28; 44:24-25; 55:8-9
— (D) Isaias, 40:12-31 esp 40:28; 44:24-25;
55:8-9 / Jeremiah, 10:7-8,12-15; 51:15-18—
(D) Jeremias, 10:7-8,12-15; 51:15-18
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:13-17— (D)
OT, Boo\of Wisdom, 9:13-17 / Ecclesiasticus,
1:1-10; 23:18-20; 24:24-29; 42:17-22— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, r:i-io; 23:25-29; 24:35-
39; 42-17-23
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 11:33-36 / I Corin-
thians, 1:17-2:16; 3:18-21
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [86-103] 2a-b
/ Prometheus Bound [526-554] 45b-c
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia Among the Tauri [570-
575] 416aV Bacchantes [386-433] 343a-b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125a-126c / Apology, 203a
/ Parmenides, 489d-490d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH 2 [982b28-
983*11] 501a-b; BK xn, CH 7 [io72bi4~29]
602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [ii78b20-23]
433 b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 3 108b-c;
CH 12, 119d-120aj CH 14 120d-121c; BK iv, CH
11, 240d-241a
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR in, CH 2-4 216b-
217d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 5 28b-c;
BK xi, par 6 90c-d; par 41 99a-b; BK xm, par
46 123a-c / City of God, BK ix, CH 22 296d-
297a; BK xi, CH 10, 328c-d; CH 21 333a-d;
BK xn, CH 18 354b-d4, BK xxn, CH 29, 614b-d
910
JHE £REAT IDEAS
(1. Comparison of human with other kind* of
knowledge, 7 a. Human and divine know I-
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH S-io 626c-627b;
CH 12-14 627c-628b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica> PART i, Q i, A 2
4a-c; A 4 5a-b; A 5, ANS 5c-6a; A 6 6b-7a; A 8,
REP 2 7c-Sd; Q 3, A i, REP i 14b-15b; A 6,
REP i 18c-19a; Q 8, A 3, ANS and REP 2-4 3j6b-
37c; Q 12, A i, REP i 50c-51c; A 4 53b-54c;
AA 7-8 56a-58b; Q 14 75c-91b; Q 16 94b-100d
passim; Q i8y AA 3-4 106b-108c; QQ 22-24
127e-143c passim; Q 27, AA 1-2 153b-155b;
Q 28, A 4, REP i-2 160c-161d, Q 34 185a-189a
passim; Q 44, A 3 240b-241a; Q 46, A 2, REP 3
353a-255a; Q 55, A i, ANS and REP 3 289a-d;
A 3, ANS 291a-d; Q 57, A i, ANS 295a-d; A 2,
ANS 295d-297a; A 3, ANS and REP i 297b-
298^; A 4, ANS 298a-299a; Q 62, A 9, ANS 324a-
325b; Q 79, A i, ANS 414a-d; A 2, ANS 414d-
4l6a; A 4, ANS and REP 1,5 417a-418c; A 10,
REP 2 423d~424d; Q 84, A 2, ANS and REI> 3
442b-443c; Q 85, A 4, ANS 457a-d; A 5, ANS
457d-458d; Q 86, A 2, REP i 462a-463a; A 4,
ANS 463d-464d; Q 87, A i, ANS 465a-466c;
A 3, ANS 4§7b-468a; Q 89, A i, ANS 473b-
475a; A 4, ANS 476c-477a; Q 93, A 4, ANS 494c-
495b; PART i-n, Q 2, A 3, ANS 617b-618a; Q 3,
A 8, REP 2 628d-629c; Q 14, A i, REP 2 677b-
678a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 91,
A 3, REP i 209d-210c; Q no, A 2, REP 2 349a-d;
A 4, ANS 350d-351d; PART n-n, Q 45, A 6,
REP 1-2 602b~603c; Q 180, A 8, REP 3 616a-d;
PART in, Q 9, A i 763b-764c; A 4, ANS 766b-
767b; Q 10 767b-772a; Q 13, A i, REP 2-3 780a-
781b; Q 15, A 3 789d-790c; A 10, ANS 795b-
796a; PART m SUPPL, Q 92, A 3 1034b-1037c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [124-
132] 112a; xix {22-66] 135b-d; xxi [73-102]
139a-b; xxvi [103-108] 146d-147a
22 CHAUCER: Trotlus and Cresstda, BK iv, STANZA
136-154 106a-108b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, Ifflc
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213a b; 238c-239c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning 17b-c, 98d-
99b / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 23 108c;
BK n, APH 15 149a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 152d-153c
31 SPWOJSA: Ethics, PART i, PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-
363c
,32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK HI [654-735] 149b-
151b; BK VH [109-130] 219b-220a; BK vin
[66-197] 233b-236b; [412-418] 241a / Samson
Agontstes [60-62] 340b-34la
33 PASCAL: Pens&s, 793, 326b
35 LOCK B: Human Understanding, BK n, GH i,
, SECT 10, 123b; CH x, SECT 9 I43a-c; CH xv,
, SECT 12 165b-c; CH xxni, SECT 34,213a-b;
IK, in, qn vi, SECT 3 268d; SECT 11-12 271b-
;^»K iv, CH x, SJBCT 5-6 350a-p ,
42 I^ANT: Pure Reason, 33a-d; 52c-53b / frac-
tical Reason, 344^-c; 3SOc-351b / Judgement,
572d-574b; 579ia;
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1765-1784) 42b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 669a-b
7b. Human and angelic knowledge
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XH, par 12, 102a;
par 16 102d-103a; par 20 103c-d; par 23 104b-c
/ Cay of God, BK VHI, CH 25 283b-c; BK ix,
CH 21-22 296b-297a; BK xi, CH 29 339a-b;
BK xvi, CH 6 426c-427a; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-
587b; CH 29, 614b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 12,
A 4 53b-54c; A 10, ANS and REP 2 59atd; QQ
54-58 284d-306b passim; Q^Q, A i, REP i 306c-
307b; Q 60, A 2, ANS 311a-d; Q 64, A i, REP 2
334a-335c; Q 79, A 8, ANS and REP 3 421c-
422b; A 10, ANS 423d-424d; Q 84, A 2, ANS and
REP 3 442b-443c; A 3, REP i 443d-444d;
A 7, ANS 449b-450b; Q 85, A i, ANS 451c-
453c; A 5, ANS 457d-458d; Q 87, A i, ANS and
REP 2-3 465a-466c; A 3, ANS 467b-46^a; Q^8g,
A 3, ANS and REP 1,3 475d-476c; A 4, ANS 476c-
477a; QQ 106-107 545c"552b passim; Q 108,
A i, ANS 552c-553c; Q 117, A 2 597c-S98c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A i, ANS 12b-13c; PART in, Q 9, A 3, ANS 765b-
766b; A 4, ANS 766b-767b; Q n, A 3, REP 3
773d-774c; A 4 774c-775a; A 6, ANS and REP i
775d-776b; Q 12, A 4 779a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xix [22-
66] 135b-d; xxix [70-81] 151a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 15 149a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [654-735]
149b-151b; BK v [388-505] 183b-186a esp
[404-413] 184a, [469-490] 185b-186a; [544-
576] 187a-b; BK vi [316-353] 203a-2Q4a; BK
vni [66-75] 233b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 285 224a; 793, 326b
3S LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH x,
SECT 9 143a-c; CH xxui, SECT 36 213c-d;
BK III, CH VI, SECT 3 268d, CH XI, SECT 23
305a-b; BK iv, CH in, SECT 6, 3l5a-b; SECT 23
, 320a-c; CH xvn, SECT 14 378c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 81
428c-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, ^^318b; 394a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
285a-287d / Practical Reason, 354d-355d /
Judgement, 572d-574b . )
7c. Knowledge in this life compared with
knowledge in the state of innocence and
knowledge hereafter
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis^ 2:19-20; 3:1-32 esp
3:5>3*2
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 13:12 ,
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124b-126d / Meno, 179d-
18(lb,/ Phaedo, 228a-230c
17 J^LOTJKUS,; Fourth Ennead, TR ivf CH ^75 i59a-
161b
911
"18 AirctfSTiNB: Confessions^ ^ftK ix, par 23-25
68s -c; BK x, par 7 73a; BK xtn, par 18, 115c /
City of God, BK xxn, CH 39 614b-616d /
Christian Doctrine, BK r, CH 37-38 635b-d;
BK n, CH 7 638d-639c
19 AQUINAS: Summa T^Kfohgtca, PART i, Q i,
A 0, REP 3 8d-9c; Q 12 50b-62b esp AA 11-
13 59d-62b; Q 62, A i, ANS 317d-318c; Q 84,
A 5 446c-447c; Q 88, A i, ANS 469a-471c;
Q 89 473a-480c; Q 94 501c-506a; Q 101 522c-
523d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 67,
AA 2-3 82c-84d; Q 69, A 2, REP 3 97b-98c;
PART ii-n, Q 180, A 5 6lld-6l3a; PART in,
Q n, A i, REP 2 772b-773a; A 2, ANS and REP
1-2 773a-d; PART in SUPPL, Q 72, A i, REP i
917c-919a; Q 82, A 3, REP 4 971a-972d; Q 92,
A i, REP 3,5,13,15 1025c-1032b; A 2, ANS
1032b-1034b
21 DANTE. Divine Comedy, HELL, x [94-108]
14c-d; PURGATORY, in [16-45] 56a-b; PARA-
DISE, xv [37-69] 128d-129a; xix [22-66]
I35b-d; xx [130-148] 138a-b; xxi [73-102]
139a-b; xxvi [91-108] 146d-147a; xxx [1-123]
I51d-153a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, HI, 88d-89a
33 PASCAL- Pensees, 242, 218a; 425-427 243 b-
244b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 90
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
168a-c
Id. The knowledge of men and brutes
5 EURIPIDES: Trojan Women [669-672] 275d
7 PLATO: Laches, 35b-36a / Republic, BK n,
320b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98ob
25-27] 499b/ Soul, BK in, CH 3 [427b7-i4J
659d-660a; [428*20-24] 660c, CH 10 [433*8-
13] 665d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[488*24-27] 9d, BK vin, CH i [588*1 8-b4]
114b,d / Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 23
[73i*30-b5) 271c-d / Ethics, BK vn, CH 3 [1147°
2-5] 397d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12,
173a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6, llOc-lllc;
CH 9, 114c-d; CH 28, 134b; BK n, CH 8, 146a-c;
BK iv, CH 7, 233a
12 AURELIUS: Meditdtions, BK HI, SECT 16 262d-
263a,c; BK vi, SECT 23 276b; BK ix, SECT 9
292b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18,
1 A 2, ANS and REP i 105c-106b; Q 78, A 4, ANS
and REP 4-6 411d-4l3d; Q 79, A 6, REP i 419b-
420dJ A 8, REP 3 421c-422b; Q 84, A 2, REP i
442b-443c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan PART i, 52b; 53a-b; 53d-
54a; 63a; 79b-c; PARTH, lOOa-c ; PART rv, 267b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215a-223b >
KNOWLEDGE
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK i, ,
lisa; BK n, APM ^o, 173c:d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59c-60b /
"Objections and Replies, I56a-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [506-^16] 228a;
Bit vrn [369-451] 240a-242a; BK ix [549-566]
259b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 357a-358d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 12-15 140c-141a: CH xi, SECT 4-11 144d-
146a; CH xxvn, SECT 8 221a 222a; BK in,
CH vi, SECT 12, 272b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
n407b-408a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix 487b-
488c; SECT xn, DIV 118, 504c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, ld-2a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164a-165c / Practical
Reason, 316c-317a / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 372a-b / Judgement, 479a-c;
584d-585c; 602b,d [fn i]
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 244a-245b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 288d-289a; 290c-
298c passim, esp 292a-293a, 294d-295a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 678b-686b; 704a-b
8. The use and value of knowledge
8a. The technical use of knowledge in the
sphere of production: the applications
of science in art
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 5:22 / Exodus, 31:1-
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-506] 44c-
45a
7 PLATO: Lysis, 16c-18b / Protagoras, 43b-45a /
Euthydemus, 70a-c / Ion 142a-148a,c / Gorgias,
261a-262a / Republic, BK vn, 392a-b; 394b-d
/ Statesman, 580d-581a / Phikbus, 633a-634b
/ Laws, BK iv, 684c-685a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 19
[100*6-9] 136c / Physics, BK », CH 2 [194*21-
bi}] 270c-271a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i 499a-
500b; BK vii, CH 7 [1032*25-1033*4] 555b-
556a; CH 9 [1034*21-32] 557c; BK ix, CH 2
571c-572a; CH 5 [ro47b3i-io48*io] 573«i-b;
CH 7 [1049*5-12] 574c-d; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*
10-14] 592b-c / Sense and the Sensible, CH i
[436fti6-b2] 673b / Youth, Life, and Breathing,
CH 27 [48ob2i-3i] 726d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH i 339a-b; CH 7
[1098*28-32] 343d; BK n, CH 4 [rto5*i7-b4]
350d-351a; BK vi, CH 4 388d-389a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine la-9a,c esp
par 1-4 la-2c, par 14 5a-t, par 20^22 7b-8d
/ Prognostics, par i 19a-b; par 25 26a,c /
Epidemics, BK in, SECT in, par 16 59b-c /
Surgery, par r 70b / Articulations, par 58,
112d / "The Law, pac '4 144d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 9, 195c-
196a : ,
912
THE GREAT IDEAS
Sa to
(8. The me and value of knowledge. 8a. The tech-
nical use of knowledge in the sphere of
production: the application* of science in
art.)
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK i, 812d-813a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1241-
1457] 77b-80a,c passim
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 17, 158d-
159b
13 VIRGIL: Georgia 37a-99a passim, csp n [475-
515] 65a-66a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 252a-255a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 14, A
8 82c-83b; Q 16, A i, ANS 94b-95c; Q 17, A r,
ANS lOOd-lOld; Q 19, A 4, REP 4 lllc-112c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 57,
A 3, ANS and REP 1,3 37b-38a; A 4 esp ANS
and REP 2 38a-39a; A 5, REP 3 39a-40a; Q 95,
A 2, ANS 227c-228c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
153 21a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 60a-b; 73 b; PART
iv, 267a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 450d-451a; 523c-524b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, lOOc-lOlc
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 154c-
155b; 160d-161a; SECOND DAY, 191b-193b
28 HARVEY- Motion of the Heart, 289d; 291d-
292a / Circulation of the Blood, 305a-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 145c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 5b-c; 48d-
49b; 50c-51d; 74b-c / Novum Organum, BK i,
APH 3 107b; APH n 107d; APH 81 120b-c;
APH 85 121d-122d; APH 129 134d-135d; BK n,
APH 4 137d-138b; APH 44-52 175d-195d pas-
sim / New Atlantis 199a-214d esp 210d-214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-d; 66d-
67a
33 PASCAL: Equilibrium of Liquids, 392b-393a
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-b; COROL 11 15a-
16b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xn,
SECT n-12 361c-362c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5
452d-453b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART HI, 97b; 106a-112a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 5b-6a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 633c; 661c-663c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 60a-c / Fund. Prin. Meta-
physic of Morals, 266d-267a / Practical Reason,
300d [fni] / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
388d /Judgement, 463a-464c; 523d-524a; 526a-
527b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 369a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART i,
45c-d
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 170a; 184a; 213b
45 FARADAY : Researches in Electricity, 433a-440a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 218d-
. 219a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 19c-d
50 MARX: Capital, I67a-171c passim, csp 170a-
171a; 176d-178d; 180d-189b csp 188b-189b;
239b-241a; 299b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 361d^365c;
BK x, 424a-c; 425b-426a; 441b-c; 456a-457c;
EPILOGUE n, 685a
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, 123a-125a
esp 123b, 125a / Civilization and Its Discon-
tents, 777a-c; 778b-d
8b. The moral use of knowledge and the moral
value of knowledge
8b(l) The knowledge of good and evil: the re-
lation of knowledge to virtue and sin
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:9,16-17; 3:1-7,22 /
Job, 28:28 / Psalms, 37:30; 82:4-5— (D)
Psalms, 36:30; 81:4-5 / Proverbs, 1:1-23; 2:i~
20; 7-8 esp 8-8, 8:20; 10-8,31; 11:12; 14:9,16-
18,22,29; r5:2I5 J9:8; 24:1-14; 28:7; 29:8 /
Ecclestastes, 2 '26
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1-7; 6:12-20;
8:5-7; 9.9-10*14; 14:22-27— (D) OT, Boof(
of Wisdom, 1*1-7; 6:13-20; 8:5-7; 9:9-10*14;
14:22-27 / Ecclesiasticus, 17:7; 19:22-24;
50:28-29— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 17:6; 19:19-
21 ; 50:30-31
NEW TESTAMENT: Lu^e, 23*34 /John, 3:17-21 /
Romans, 2:17-23; 7 esp 7:15-25; 16:19 /
Phihppians, 1 19-1 1 / Colossians, 1 19-1 1 / Titus,
1*16 / Hebrews, 5:14 / James, 4:17 / // Peter,
i i-n
5 EURIPIDES • Hippolytus [373-387] 228b-c
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnestan War, BK n,
397b-c; 402d-403b
7 PLATO: Charmides, 7b-c; 12a 13c / Laches,
31a-b; 33a-37a / Protagoras, 40b-41a; 56b;
57d-64d / Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b /
Meno 174a-190a,c esp 177d-178b, 183b-190a,c
/ Phaedo, 225d-226c; 230d-234c / Gorgias,
256d-259c; 280c-281b / Republic, BK i, 301d-
302c; 306c-308a; BK n, 314d-315a; BK HI,
333b-d; 337b-d; BK iv, 354d-355a; BK vi-vn,
383d-401d; BK x, 439b-441a,c / Theaetetus,
S30b-531a / Laws, BK i, 643c-d; 645b-652d;
BK in, 670b, BK v, 689d-690c; 696c-697a;
BK vn, 724c-728a; BK ix, 748a-b; 754a-b;
BK xn, 788d-789a; 792c-d; 795c-d / Seventh
Letter, 801 b; 806b-c; 809c-810d esp 810c-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 25 [69*
20-28] 91a / Topics, BK n, CH 9 [ii4b9~i3]
160b; BK in, CH 6 [120*26-31] 168a; BK iv,
CH 2 [i2ib24-i22*2] 169d-170a; CH 3 [124*10-
14] 172d; BK v, CH 7 [137*13-17] 189b / Meta-
physics, BK in, CH 2 [996*2i~bi3] 514d-51$a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 1-3 339a-340b;
CH 4 [io95a3o-bi2] 340c-d; CH 6 [ro96b32-
1097*14] 342b-c; BK 11, CH 2 [ii03b26-i 104*9]
349b-c; CH 4 350d-351b esp [no5bi-4J 351a,
[ii05bi3-i81 351arb; CH 6 [no6b36~i 107*3]
352c; BK in, CH i [inobi7-35] 356b-c; BK v,
CH 8 [ii35b9-i 136*9] 383c-384a; BK vi, CH 5
CHAPTER 43i KNOWLEDGE
9H3
389a-c; CH 8 [i^i^jft-ii^i^'Sdla-b; CH
9-10 301c-392c; CH 12-13 393t*-394d; »K VII»
CH 2-3 395c-398a; BK x, OH 9 [ii79l»4-n8o*
i3J434b-d/ Rhetoric, BKI, CH 10 [1368*7-13]
61 Id; CH 13 [1373*27-39^6183
12 EPICTBTUS: Discourses^ BK i, CH 5 llOb-c; CH
n 116d418d; CH 26-28 131b-134d; BK n, CH
n 150a-151b; CH 22 167d-170a; CH 26 174c-d;
BK ni, CH 10 185d-187a; BKIV, CH i 213a-223d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ii, SECT i 256b,d;
BK in, SECT 12 262b-c; SECT 16 262d-263a,c;
BK vii, SECT 22 281b; SECT 26 281c; SECT 62-
63 283d-284a; BK vm, SECT 14 286c; BK ix,
SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK XH, SECT 12 308b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122a / Timolcon,
197c-198a / Agestlaus, 490d-491b / Alexander,
543b-S44a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR H, CH 6-7 9a-10a;
TR in, CH 6-TR iv, CH 3 lld-14a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 54-57
85a-86a; BK xm, par 46 123a-c / City of God,
BK vni, CH 3 266a-d; CH 10 271a-d; BK ix,
c»20 296a-b; BK xi, CH 28 338a-d; BK xvm,
CH 40 495a-b; BK xix, CH 20, 524a / Christian
Doctrine, BK i, CH 36-37 634d-635c; CH 40
636a,c; BK n, CH 9 640c-d; CH 38 654b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologjca, PART i, Q i, A 6,
REP 3 6b-7a; Q 14, A 10 83d-84c; Q 15, A 3, REP
I 93b-94a; Q 18, A 4, REP 4 107d-108c; Q 22, A
i 127d-128d; A 3, REP 3 130d-131c; Q 54, A 5
288a-d; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q 79, AA
11-13 424d-427a; PART i-n, Q i, A 6, REP 3
614a-c; Q 2, A i, REP i 615d-616c; Q 19, AA
3-6 704c-708a
20 AQUWA&: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 51,
AA 2-3 13c-15a; Q 58, A 2 42a-43a; Q 76 140d-
144d; PART n-ii, Q 18, A 4, ANS 464c-465a; Q
45, AA 3-5 600c-602b; PART in SUPPL, Q 87
997a4000c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [1-18] 4a-b;
xxvi [49-142] 38c-39c; PURGATORY, in [16-
45] 56a-b; x [112-139] 68c-d; xxxii [37-60]
102d-103a; PARADISE, xix [22-66] 135b-d;
xxvi [25-45] 146a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 95d-96b; PART n,
112a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays 208a; 213a-216c; 218c-
219a; 232b-242d; 478c-480c; 502c-504c; 508a-
512a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT i, sc
n [11-24] 408b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT ii,
sc iv [2-17] 184d (
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a;
26c-27a; 79c-80a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43c; PART in,
49d-50b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, I>ART iv, PREF 422b,d^424a;
DEP 1-2 424a; PROP 8 426b-c; PROP 1^-17
428a-d; PROP 24 430 d; PROP 26-27' '431a-c;
PROP 35-73 433b-447a;^ PART v, PROP 1-20
452d-458a; PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BKVII [519
229a; Bk vnt t3J*~337) ,239a-^; sft tx
779] 262a-264a; SK xt [^4-98] 301a / Areopa-
gitka, 389a-396a passim, csp 390b-391a, 394b-
395a
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 67 180b) 381-385 238b*239a;
425-427 243br244b; 460 234b
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK in, 543b-544a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
5-6 94b-95a; BK n, CH xxi, SECT 35 186b-d;
SECT 62 194c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 100
432b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV i
451a-b; DIV 3-5 451d*453b passim
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 182a*c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343b-345o csp 345a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 164a-165c y Fund. Pan.
Mctaphysic of Morals, 260d-261d; 265b; 282b-
283d / Practical Reason, 318b*3l9b; 326b-
32 7a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
365b [fn i]; 368b-369a -/ Intro. Mctaphysic of
Morals, 388d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 445a-447b passim; 448d-
450a
44 Boswntt'. Johnson, ISlb-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART it, par 139-
140 48d-54a; ADDITIONS, 74 127d-128a; 90
130b-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, I68b-d;
PART ii, 279c-d; 280b-281b; PART HI, 304d-
305b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194b-195a;
214c-215b; BK xn, 537c-538a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
83c-84a; BK v, 122b-125a; 127b-137c; BK xi,
335c-336b; 342d-345c; BK xn, 396d-397a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 806a-807a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 560c-d; 625a-b
8b(2) Knowledge as a condition of voluntari-
ness in conduct
7 PLATO: Laws, BK v, 689d-690c; BK ix, 746a-
748c
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK HI, CH i [mobi7-nii*
23] 356b-357a; CH 2 [iinb6-9] 357b; BK v,
CH 8 383a-384a esp [1135*22^2] 383b /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 10 [i368b7-ij] 611d; ck 13
[i373b27-37] 618a
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 12,
173b-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ii, SECT i 256b,d;
SECT 10 257d-258a; BK' vn, SECT 22 281b;
SECT 26 281c; SECf 62-63 283d-284a; BK VIH,
SECT 14 286c; BK tx, SECT 42 295c-296a,c;
BK XII, SECT 12 308b-C
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vni, CH 1-4
342d-344d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thtologica, PART i, Q 18, A
3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 47, A i, REP i 256a-257b;
Q 82, A i, ANS and REP 1,3! 431d-432c; Q 84,
A 8, CONTRARY 450b-451b; Q 105, A 4, REP
2-3 541c-542a; PART i-n, Q i, A 6, REP 3
914
THE GREAT IDEAS
(Sb. The moral use of knowledge and the moral
value of knowledge. 86(2) Knowledge as a
condition of voluntariness in conduct.)
614a-c; Q 6, AA 1-2 644d-646c; A 8 650d~651c;
Q 7, A 2, ANS 652d-653c; Q 19, A 6 707a-708a;
Q 20, A 2, REP 3 712d-713c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 76,
A 2, ANS 141d-142c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61a-b; 64b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc n [37-255]
68b-70c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 228c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 5, 179c; SECT 7-13 180a-181b csp SECT
13 181b;sECT69l96d-197a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 149d-150a; 164a-165c;
169c-170a / Practical Reason, 333a-334b /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 117
42c-d; par i^948d-49b; PART in, par 142-143
55a; ADDITIONS, 90 130b-d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 767b-768a
8£(3) Knowledge in relation to prudence and
continence
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 59c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94b29-io95*
12] 340a-b; CH 13 [no2bi3-28] 348a-b; BK
vi, CH 5-13 389a-394d; BK vn, CH i [ii45b8]-
CH 2 [i 146*8] 395b-396a; CH 3 396c~398a
14 PLUTARCH: Timoleon, 197c-198a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 4, 512a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 6,
ANS 6b-7a; Q 22, A i 127d-128d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 56,
A 3, ANS 31a-32b; Q 57, AA 4-6 38a-41a; Q 58,
A 3 43b-44a; A 5, ANS 44d-45c, Q 77, AA 2-3
145d-148b; PART ii-n, Q 181, A 2 617d-618c;
PART in, Q n, A i, REP 3 772b-773a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [109-
114] 121b-c; xin [37-111] 125d-126c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 60a-61a; 84c-d;
PART iv, 267a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60c-61c; 327b-d; 520c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 14-17
428a-d
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 389b-391a
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a
8^(4) The possession or pursuit of knowledge
as a good or satisfaction: its relation to
pleasure and pain; its contribution to
happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 10:1-8— (D) III Kings,
10:1-8 / II Chronicles, 9:1-7,22-23— (D) II
Paralipomenon, 9:1-7,22-23 / Job, 28:12-20
/ Proverbs, 1:24-33; 3:13-20; 10:1; 14:24;
16:16; 19:2,8; 20:15; 23:23-25; 24:13-14 /
Ecclesiastes, 1:13-18; 2:12-21; 6:8; 7:11-13;
9:13-18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclcsiasticus, 6:18-37; 21:21; 25:5,
10 ; 37:24; 51:13-28— (D) OT, EcclcsiasticuSy
6:18-37; 21:24; 25:7,13; 37:27; 51:18-36
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 8:1; 13:2
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [160-183] 53d-54a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1348-1353] 142d
7 PLATO. Charmides, 12a-13c / Protagoras, 59a-
64d / Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Phae-
drus, 125a 126c / Symposium, 167a-d / Meno,
183d-184c / Republic, BK i, 295d-296c; BK n,
310c-d; 323c-d; BK vi, 374a-375a; BK ix,
421a-425b / Timaeus, 475d-476b / Philebus
609a-639a,c / Laws, BK n, 655a-656a; 660a-
662a; BK in, 669b-670c; BK v, 688c; BK vn,
728b-d / Seventh Letter, 801b; 808c-809a
8 ARISTOTLE* Heavens, BK n, CH 12 [29ib24-29]
383b-c / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 1-2 499a-501c;
BK xii, CH 7 [i 072^4-29] 602d-603a / Soul,
BK i, CH i [402*1-6] 631a
9 ARISTOTLE* Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5 [644**
22-645a26] 168c-169a / Ethics, BK i, CH 8
[io98bi2-29J 344a-b passim; BK in, CH 10
Jiii7b28~32] 364b; BK vi, CH 12 [1143^7-
1144*6] 393b-c; BK vn, CH 12 [ii52b33~i 153*2]
404a; [1153*21-24] 404c; BK x, CH 3 [ii73bi5-
18] 427d-428a; CH 4-5 428b-430d passim, CH
7-8 431d-434a / Politics, BK vin, CH 3 [1338*
4-13] 543b; CH 5 [1339*27-32] 544d; (i339b
17-20] 545a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [1371*30-
34] 614d; [i37ib4~io] 615a; [i37ib26-28] 615b
/ Poetics, CH 4 [i448b5~2o] 682c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-145]
ld-2d; [921-950] 12b-c; BK n [1-61] 15a-d;
BK in [1053-1075] 43c-d; BK iv [1-25] 44a-b;
BK v [1-54] 61a-d; [1113-1135] 75c-d; BK vi [i-
42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH i 138b,d-
140c; BK in, CH 2 177c-178d; CH 10 185d-
187a; CH 15 190a-191a; CH 22 195a-201a;
CH 23, 202c-203b; BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a;
CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 6 261a-c;
SECT 9 261d; BK iv, SECT 16 264d; BK v,
SECT 9 270b-c; BK vi, SECT 12 274c; BK x,
SECT 12 298c-d
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, n [490-493] 65b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122a; 122d-123c /
Alexander, 543b-544a
17PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR n, CH 6 9a-c;
TR iv 12b-19b csp CH 3-4, 13d-14b, CH 9,
16d-17a, CH 15 18c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 19-27 5d-
7d; BK in, par 7-8 14c-15a; BK v, par 7-9
28c-29b; BK vi, par 26 42d-43a; BK ix, par
23-25 68a-c; BK x, par 33-34 79d-80c; par 54-
57 85a-86a; BK xi, par 2-5 89c-90c / City
of God, BK vni, CH 8 270a-d / Christian
Doctrme, BK 11, CH 7 638d-639c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A i
3b-4a; A 4 5a-b; A 5, ANS and REP i 5c-6a; Q 5,
A 4, REP i 25d-26c; Q 12, A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 5,
ANS and REP 3 54c-5Sb; A 6, ANS 55b-56a; A 7,
to
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
915
REP i 56a-57b; A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; Q 26 150a-
152a,c; Q 57, A 5 299b-300b; Q 58, A i, ANS
300c-301a; Q 62, AA 1-2 317d-319c; AA 7-9
322d-325b; Q 79, A n, REP 2 424d-425b; Q 82,
A 3, REP i 433c-434c; Q 84, A 5 446c-447c; Q
89, A 2, ANS and REP 3 475a-d; A 5, REP 2
477a-478b; PART i-n, Q i, A 6, REP 2 614a-c;
A 8 615a-c; Q 3, AA 3-8 624b-629c; Q 4, AA 1-3
629d-631d; Q 27, A i, REP 3 737b-d; Q 32, A i,
REP i 759b-d; A 2, ANS 759d-760d; A 3, ANS
760d-761c; A 8 764c-765b; Q 33, A 3 767a-d;
A 4, REP i 767d-768c; Q 34, A 3, ANS 770c-
771c; Q 35, A 5 775d>777a; Q 37, A i, ANS 783d-
784c; Q 38, A 4 788d-789b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-H, Q 8,
A 7 421d-422c; Q 9, A 4 425d-426c; QQ 179-180
606a-616d; Q 182 620b-624d; PART in, Q 9, A 2
764c-765a; A 3, REP 3 765b-766b; Q 10, A 4,
ANS and REP i 771b-772a; Q n, A 3, REP 3
773d-774c; Q 15, A 10 795b-796a; PART in
SUPPL, Q 70, A 3, ANS and REP 5 897d-900d;
Q 90, A 3, ANS 1014d-1016a; Q 92, A i 1025c-
1032b; A 2, REP 6 1032b-1034b; A 3, REP 5,7-
8,12 1034b-1037c; Q 94, A i 1040d-1041b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, in [i-i8]4a-b;
iv 5c-7a; PURGATORY, in [16-45] 56a-b;
xx [i24]-xxi [75] 84c-85d; xxx-xxxi 99b-
102b; PARADISE, iv [ii5]-v [12] llld-112b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
23 HOBBLS. Leviathan, PART i, 63a; 78d; 79b-80a
24 RABELAIS' Gargantua and Pantagrucl, BK i,
26d-27d; 29d-30c esp 30b; BK n, lOlb-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a; 63d-77d pas-
sim, esp 69d-72a; lllb-d; 208a; 213a-215b;
218c-219a; 231d-246a; 448d-452b; 497b-504c;
508a-512a; 516b-524a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
[83-117] 58c-59a; sc vii [34-51] 61c; [76-81]
61d-62a / Love's Labour's Lost, ACT i, sc i
[70-93] 255a-b
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation, 331c-332a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 145d-146a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-7c;
18a-b; 27c-28c; 29a-b; 71a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, i la-2a / Discourse 41a-
67a,c passim / Meditations, in, 88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 53 413a;
PROP 58 415c; PART iv, PROP 26-28 431a-c;
APPENDIX, iv 447b-c; xxxn 450c-d; PART v,
PROP 24-42 458d-463d
32 MILTON: // Penseroso 21a-25a / Areopagitica,
383a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 87a-b; INTRO,
SECT 5-6 94b-95a; BK n, CH vn, SECT 6 132d;
CH xv, SECT 11, 165a; CH xxi, SECT 44 188d-
189b; SECT 55-56 192c-193b; BK iv, CH xi,
SECT 8 356b-d
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 2
405b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i 451a-
455b passim, esp DIV 6, 453b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 236b-238*
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 338c-339b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 645c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 523c-527a passim,
esp 524a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256c-257c / Judgement, 508c-509a; 551d-
552a; 586d-587a; 591b-592a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448d-450b passim; 451c-
452a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 112a; 118a; 130b; 256c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 257d-
258a
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART i [354-517] lla-14bt
[602-784] 16b-20b, [1675-1784] 40b-42b, PART
n [11,397-419] 277a-b, [11,434-452] 278a-b,
[11,559-586] 281b-282a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 78a-b; 255a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 33d; BK xi,
481d-482a; BK xv, 631a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 524b-525a; 729b-730a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 773d-
774a; 777a-c; 778d-779a
Sc. The political use of knowledge: the knowl-
edge requisite for the statesman, legisla-
tor, or citizen
6 TiiucYVWEsiPeloponnesian War, BK i,370a-c;
BK n, 402d-403b
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44c-45a / Meno, 188b-
190a,c / Gorgias, 256d-262a / Republic, BK
iv, 346c-347a; BK v, 369b-d; 375b-376c; BK
vi, 381b-d; BK vi-vn, 383b-401d / Statesman,
598b-608d / Laws, BK i, 645b-652d esp 652d;
BK in, 669b-670c; 671a-672a; BK iv, 679c-
680d; BK vi, 702d-703a; BK vn, 723d-730d;
BK vin, 740d-741a; BK ix, 754a-b; BK xii,
789b-790a; 792c-d; 794c-799a,c / Seventh
Letter, 801 b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 2 339b-d; CH 3
[i094b28-i095*i2] 340a-b; CH 13 [1102*5-25]
347b-c; BK vi, CH 5 [ii4ob7~i2] 389b; CH 8
[ii4ib23-ii42ftn]390d'391a; BKx,cn9 [1180*
25-n8ib25] 435a-436a,c / Politics, BK in, CH
n [i28ib40-i282»23] 479d-480a; BK iv, CH i
487a-488b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 4 [1359*30-
I36obi] 599c-600d; CH 8 608a-c; BK n, CH 22
[i396B4-bi9l 644a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c;
BK vi, SECT 30 276d-277a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 41a-b; 43b-d; 46b-c /
Numa Pompilius 49a-61d / Solon 64b,d-
77a,c / Pericles, 122d-125a passim / Alex-
ander, 542d-544b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [109-
144] 121b-122a; xm [37-111] 125d-126c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince la-37d
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART i,
53c-54a; 60d-61a; 67d-68a; 71c-d; 72a-d;
78b-d; PART 11, 128c-130a; 140c; 153a-156b;
158c-d; 164a,c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
85c-87c
THE ORE AT IDEAS,,
(8. The use and value qf knowledge. Be. The polit-
ical use of knowledge the knowledge
requisite for the statesman, legislator, or
citizen.) ,(
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 450d-451a; 451d-452d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 40d;
PART n, 331a-333b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, ld-2b; 4c-
7c; 20d-26a csp 23a-26a; 94b-95a
32 MILTON: Sr Henry Vane 69b / Areopagitica,
383a; 385a b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH x,
SECT 8-9 293c-294a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28b-29b; PART 11,
77a-78b; PART in, 112a-115b; PART iv, 157a-
158a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XH, 85b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329a-331d / Political
Economy, 371b-c / Social Contract, BK n,
400c-402a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337d-338c;
343c-d, 347c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 284a-c; 343a-c
41 Gi B BON : Decline and Fall, 40b ; 75d-81c passim
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE 11, SECT
2 [413-417] 15a; SECT 3 [44°-444l 15b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 35-36, 113a*116a; NUM-
BER 53, 168b-169b; NUMBER 56 174d-176d;
NUMBER 62, 190b-d; NUMBER 84, 253d-254b
43 MILL: Liberty, 317d-319b / Representative
Government, 330d-331a; 337a; 357b-d; 359a-
3611?; 363b-366a; 374c-377a; 380c-389b;
401a-406a; 410d-412a; 4l5a-417c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 211
70a-c; par 215 71c-d; par 300 lOOb / Philosophy
of History, PART n, 272c-273a
48 MELVILLE. Moby Dtcf(, 107a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 242b-243a;
BK ix, 385c-387a passim; BK xii, 537c-538a
0. The communication of knowledge
9a. The means and methods of communicating
knowledge
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 47d-48a; 50c-52d / Craty-
lut, 85d-88a esp 87c-d / Phaedrus, 138c-140b
/ Meno, 179b-183a / Apology, 206b-d / Gor-
fias, 259d-260a; 261d-262a / Republic, BK vn,
388a-398c csp 389d-390a, 397b-398c; 399c /
Theaetetus, 515d-517b; 549c-550a,c / Sophist,
551d; 556c-558d / Statesman, 590d-591c /
Laws, BK n, 656b-c; BK iv, 684c-685a /
Seventh Letter, 809a-811a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH i
97a-d/ Copies, BK i, CH 18 [108*17-37] I52b*d /
Sophistical Refutations, CH 2 (i65*38-b3] 227d-
228a; CH 10 [i7i*27~b2] 235d-236a; CH n
[172*15-21] 237a / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3
513$-4 / Sen* and the Sensible, CH i (436bl8-
437*17] 673d-674a
9 ARISTOTTLE; Ethics, BK vir CH 3
388c / Rhetoric. BK i, CH 2 [1358*3-26] S97d-
598b; CH 4 [1359^18] 599d; BK in; CH i
[1404*1-12] 654a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder', BK i, 403b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nafure of Things, BK i [921-950]
12b-c; BK iv [i-25)44a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 21, 167a-d;
CH 24, 172d-173c; BK in, CH 21-23 I93d-203b
passim; BK iv, CH 4, 225a-226a; CH u, 241 d-
242d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TRIII, CH 2-3 lOd-lla
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13 4b-c;
par 19-20 5d-6a; par 23 6d-7a; BK iv, par 13
22c-d / City of God, BK xi, CH 25 336b-d /
Christian Doctrine, BK 11, CH 6 638a-d; CH
36-37 653d-654b; BK iv 675a-698a,c
19 A.QviNA.$:Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE la-b;
PART I, Q I, A 2, REP 2 4a-CJ A 5, REP 2 5c-6aj
AA 8-10 7c-10c; Q 27, A i, ANS 153b-154b; Q
34, A i, ANS and REP 1,3 185b-187b; Q 57,
A 4, REP i 298a-299a; Q 76, A 2, REP 5 388c-
391a; Q 79, A 10, REP 3 423d-424d; O 84, A 3,
REP 3 443d-444d; A 7, ANS 449b-450b; Q 89,
A i, ANS 473b-475a; QQ 106-107 545c-552b;
Q 108, A 2, REP 2 553c-554c; Q in, A i, ANS
568c-569b; A 3, REP 3 570b-571b; Q 117, A i
595d-597c
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART ii-n, Q i,
A 7, REP 2 385c-387a; Q 181, A 3 618c-619b;
PART in, Q 9, A 4, REP i 766b-767b; Q 12, A 3
778b-779a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
101b-106a
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 63d-SQb passim, esp65a-
66b, 73b-74a, 446d-450a
26 SHAKESPEARE. Richard II, ACT n, sc i [5-16]
327d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 268c / On
Animal Generation, 336d-337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 14c-15a;
16c; 29c-32c; 62c-68b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 42b; 42d;
PART v, 59c-60b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 9-10 173b; 626 286b / Geo-
metrical Demonstration, 439b-446b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH x,
SECT 34 299d-300a; BK iv, CH vn, SECT ii,
340d-341a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 109b-112a
37 FIELDING: Tom ] ones, 99d-100a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d^340a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 337c-d;
339d-340a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88c-d; 597a;
601 b-c; 669a-670b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 80c-d; 231aj 527c-
528a,c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 2d-4a,c / Practical Reason,
9b to 10
CHAPTER 43: KNOWLEDGE
43 MILL: Liberty, 283c-288c passim / Representa-
tive Government, 424b-c
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, 144c; 257c; 471d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 294d-295a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-48d;
EPILOGUE n, 689c
53 JAMES : Psychology, 692a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 449a-451a /
New Introductory Lectures, 820c-829d csp
820d, 822b, 829a-c
9b. The value of the dissemination of knowl-
edge: freedom of discussion
6 TuvcvnivEsiPeloponnesian War, BKii,397b-c;
BK in, 425a-d; 427a-c
7 PLATO: Apology 200a-212a,c / Laws, BK xn,
789b-790a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Articulations, par 47, 107c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 10 207b-d
14 PLUTARCH* Alexander, 543b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 72b-73a; BK xiv,
153b-c
18 AUGUSTINE* City of God, BK xi, CH 25 336b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 96, A 7 1061b-1062a; A n, ANS and REP 5
1063d-1064d; A 12 1064d-106Sb
23HOBBES- Leviathan, PART n, 102d-103a;
114d-115a; 149b-d; 150c-151a; 155d-156b;
PART iv, 274c-d; CONCLUSION, 282d-283a
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 55d-62a esp 60a-c; 65a-
66a; 270a-271a
26 SHAKESPEARE* 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc vn
[34-51] 61c; [76-81] 61d-62a
28 HARVEY Motion of the Heart, 273d-274b /
On Animal Generation, 33 Ib
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 7a-c; 32a /
New Atlantis, 214a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 60d-61a /
Objections and Replies, 283c-284a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b esp 384b-
389a, 398a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15b-c; 18c-21c / Human
Understanding, BK iv, CH in, SECT 20 319b-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5,
453a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xix, 146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-340a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 340c-343d;
347c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 148a-b; 670b-671a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 161c-162b; 300a-b;
334d-335a,c; 523a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 220b-221b, 223a-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b-293b; 293d; 318a-319b;
322a-323a,c/ Representative Government, 330a-
b; 336c-338c; 361b-362c; 418b-d; 424b-c;
425b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 29a-b; 86a-b; 195d; 221d-
222a; 307d, 512c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 215
71c-d; par 224 73d; par 314-315 104b-c;
ADDITIONS, 135 138c; 141 139c / Philosophy of
History, PART n, 280a-b; PART iv, 347b-d;
350d-351a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [101155-159] 247b
50 MARX: Capital, 239d-241a
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, 125d-127a,c
/ New Introductory Lectures, 879b-880b
10. The growth of human knowledge: the his-
tory of man's progress and failures in
the pursuit of knowledge
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 444a-445d
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 34
[i83bi6~i84b8] 253a-d / Physics, BK i, CH 2-9
259b-268d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3-10 501c-
511d: BK ii, CH i [993*30-bi9] 511b,d-512a;
BK xn, CH 8 [io74bi-i4] 604d-605a; BK xin,
CH i [1076*8-17] 607a / Soul, BK i, CH 2-5
633a-641d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK in, CH 3
[513*7-14] 36c-d / Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
[642*25-30] 165b-c / Generation of Animals,
BK v, CH i [778b5-io] 320d / Ethics^ BK i,
CH 7 [1098*22-25] 343c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 1-8 la-
3b; par 12 4b-c / Regimen in Acute Diseases,
par i 26a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 8, 193b-c;
CH 9, 199a,c; BK HI, CH 10 207b-d
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sphere and Cylinder, BK i, 403b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [62-79]
ld-2a; BK in [1-30] 30a-b; BK v [i448]-BK vi
[41] 79d-80d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 6 181d-182b
14 PLUTARCH* Marcellus, 252b-255a
16 PTOLEMY. Almagest, BK i, 6b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 846a-850a / Ear
monies of the World, 1009b-1010a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH i-n
264b,d-272c esp CH 5 267d-268d, CH 10-11
271a-272c; BK xix, CH 1-4 507a-513c /
Christian Doctrine, BK 11, CH 40 655b-656a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 75,
A i, ANS and REP 1-2 378b-379c
20 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 97,
A i, ANS 236a-d; PART n-n, Q i, A 7, REP 2
385c-387a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 114d-ll5a; 153d;
164a,c; PART iv, 267c-269b; 274c-d; CONCLU-
SION, 282b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
81a-83b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 271b-c; 276b-278a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, 2b-d
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267b,d-269a;
274a-b; 279d-280c; 285b-c; 293b-d / Cir-
culation of the Blood, 306a-c / On Animal
Generation, 331a-332a; 336d-337a,c; 364a-
365a; 377a-c; 433c; 458a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning la-lOld
csp 2b-c, 18b, 29b-c, 32a-c, 33b-d, 34b, 42c-
43a, 51d-54b / Novum Organum, BK i, APH
30-31 109a; APH 51 lllc; APH 56 112a; APH
918,
. THE GREAT IDEAS
10
(10. The growth tf human knowledge: the bhtory
of man's progress an d failures in the pursuit
of knowledge.)
70-115 U6b-l30d passim / New Atlantis,
203d-207b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv 5a-7d / Discourse,
PARTI, 42b-44c; PART vi 60d-67a,c
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 404a-b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 355a-358b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 88d-89b
35 BERKELEY. Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
17 409d-410a
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 5,
453a-b; DIV 8-9, 454b-455a; SECT VH, DIV 48,
471b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 118a-119a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 224b-225a
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 329b-330d; 338c-342c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 331b,d-
343d passim
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23d-24a,c; 148a-b;
159a-c; 597a; 601b-c; 633c-634a,c; 669a-
671b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 75b-80d passim;
225a-b; 274a-d; 298a-300b; 325d<328a,c;
347a,c; 439d-440a,c; 451c-452b; 509d-510a,c;
522b-528a,c esp 527d-528a,c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, ld-2b [fhi]; 5a-8b; 175b
[fnx]; 248d-250a,c / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic
of Morals, 273d-274a / Practical Reason,
299d] 307a-d; 317b-318b; 327c-d; 339b-d /
Judgement, 513d-514a; 55lb-552a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9, 47c-d; NUMBER 37,
119b-120b
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b-293b passim / Utilitarian-
ism, 445a-447b
44 BOSWELL* Johnson, 129a
45 FOURIER Theory of Heat, 175b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 391 b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 136
138c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185a-
186a; PART i, 217c-219c; 229b-d; 253b-c;
257d-258a; PART n, 279d-280b; PART iv,
323c-d; 347b-d; 361a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 95b-105b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 196b; BK xi,
469a-d; EPILOGUE n, 694d-696d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK xi,
341d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 37b; 125b-127b
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, 125d-126a /
Interpretation of Dreams, 137b-139a esp 138d-
139a / General Introduction, 550d / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 7 77 a / New Introduc-
tory Lectures, 880d-881c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The differences between human and other kinds of knowledge, see ANGEL 3d; ANIMAL ia(i)-
13(2); GOD 5f; INFINITY 7d; MIND 4e~4f; WISDOM id.
Other discussions bearing on the nature of human knowledge, its relation to truth, error, and
ignorance, and its distinction from opinion, belief, and fancy, see MEMORY AND IMAGINA-
TION 6a; ONE AND MANY 4f; OPINION i, 3-4^ PRINCIPLE 30(2); SAME AND OTHER 43;
TRUTH 2e, 3d; WiLL3b(i); and for the elements, causes, or principles of knowledge, see
DEFINITION 5; EXPERIENCE 3; FORM 3, 4; IDEA la-ic; INDUCTION 3; JUDGMENT 8-8d;
PRINCIPLE 2-2b(3); REASONING 53-5^5); WILL 3X1),
Other considerations of the limits of human knowledge and of the knowability of cer-
tain objects, see ANGEL 2b; BEING 8a-8c, 8e; CAUSE 5d; EXPERIENCE 43; FORM 3b; GOD
6-6b; INFINITY 6b; MAN 2a; MATTER 43; ONE AND MANY 46 ; OPINION 3c; PRIN-
CIPLE 5; SCIENCE 46; SOUL id; THEOLOGY 3c; TIME 6e-6f; TRUTH ya; UNIVERSAL AND
PARTICULAR 4e.
Matters relevant to the classification of the kinds of knowledge by reference to its objects,
sec BEING 8a-8b; FORM 3~3a; IDEA la; MIND ia(i); NATURE 43-40; NECESSITY AND
CONTINGENCY 43; RELATION 4d; RELIGION m; SENSE 4a~4b; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR
4a*
Matters relevant to the classification of the kinds of knowledge by reference to the faculties
involved, see MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 3, 6a; MIND ia(i); SENSE 43-4^
Matters relevant to the classification of the kinds of knowledge by reference to the methods
or means of knowing, see EXPERIENCE 2d; GOD 6c-6c(4); INDUCTION la; JUDGMENT 8a;
MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 33; OPINION 43; REASONING ib; RELIGION 6g; THEOLOGY
! i; WISDOM ic; and |or rriethodology in general and tf>c rncthods of the particular sciences,
see ASTRONOMY 23-20; HISTORY 39; LOGIC 4-4^ MATHEMATICS 3~-3d; MECHANICS 2-20;
METAPHYSICS 2c; PHILOSOPHY :3-3c; PHYSICS 4-*4d; SCIENCE 5-56 ; THEOLOGY 40.
CHAPTER 43: KftoWLEiDGE 9i$
: 'Matters relevant to the classification of the kinds of knowledge by reference to the degrees
of assent, see JUDGMENT 9; OPINION 3~3b; TRUTH 2e.
Other discussions of the distinction between theoretic and practical knowledge, see JUDG*
MENT 2; PHILOSOPHY 2a; PRUDENCE 2a; REASONING 5e~5e(i); THEOLOGY 4d; TRUTH 2c;
WISDOM ib.
The basic divisions of theoretic knowledge, see ASTRONOMY 4; DIALECTIC 4; HISTORY i;
MATHEMATICS la; METAPHYSICS 3b~3c; NATURE 4b; PHILOSOPHY 2b; PHYSICS la, 2;
SCIENCE 13(2), ic, 2a; THEOLOGY 33, 43; TRUTH 4c; and for the problem of the hier-
archy of the sciences and the definition of the highest form of human knowledge, see
DIALECTIC 4; METAPHYSICS i; THEOLOGY 43; WISDOM la.
The basic divisions of practical knowledge, see ART 6c; PHILOSOPHY 2c; PRUDENCE 6a-6b;
SCIENCE 3a~3b; WEALTH 9.
The moral or political value of knowledge, see CITIZEN 6; GOOD AND EVIL 6a-6*c; HAPPINESS
2b(y); PHILOSOPHY 4a-4c; PLEASURE AND PAIN 4c, 4c(2); PRUDENCE 2c; SCIENCE ib(2);
STATE 8c-8d; VIRTUE AND VICE la; WILL 33(1); WISDOM 2b.
The technical use of knowledge and the applications of science to production, see ART 6c;
MEDICINE 2a; PHYSICS 5; SCIENCE ib(i), 3b; WEALTH 3a.
The general problem of the dissemination and communication of knowledge, see EDUCATION
5b; LANGUAGE ib; LIBERTY 2a; OPINION 5b. ,
The development of human knowledge, the advancement of learning, or progress in science
and philosophy, see ART 12; PHILOSOPHY 7; PROGRESS 6a~6e; SCIENCE 6a-6b; TRUTH 6.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
' For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
W. JAMES. The Will to Believe
. The Meaning of Truth, CH 1-2, 4
AUGUSTINE. Answer to Sceptics
. On the Profit of Believing "•
. On Faith in Things Unseen SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK i-n
AQUINAS. On the Trinity ofBoethius, QQ 5-6 SAADIA GAON. The Boo{ of Beliefs and Opinions,
. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK i, CH 48-71 INTRODUCTORY TREATISE
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate ANSELM OF CANTERBURY. Dialogue on Truth
SPINOZA. Of the Improvement of the Understanding MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART HI,
BERKELEY. Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Phi- CH 20-21
lonous ALBERTUS MAGNUS. On the Intellect and the Intel-
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK i, PART iv, ligible
SECT i-iv MATTHEW OF AQUASPARTA. Ten Disputed Ques-
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic tions on Knowledge, QQ i-n
. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science DUNS SCOTUS. Oxford Commentary, BK i, DIST 3,
. Introduction to Logic, v-vi, ix-x Q 4
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, vm PETRARCH. On His Own Ignorance
. Logic, CH 3-5 ALBO. The Boot^of Principles (Sefer ha-Uifcarim), BK
FARADAY. Observations on the Education ofthcjudg- iv, CH i
ment SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, i (6) vm-ix,
J. S. MILL. An Examination of Sir William Hamil- xni (6), xx (i), xxn (i), xxm (7-8), xxx (n-
toris Philosophy ', CH 2-3 12), xxxv (4)
920
THE GREAT IDEAS
MARLOWE. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus
JOHN OP SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus Tho-
misticus, Ars Logica, PART 11, Q 26
GLANVILL. The Vanity of Dogmatizing
MALEBRANCHE. DC la recherche de la veritc"
LEIBNITZ, Discourse on Metaphysics, xxiv-xxix
. New Essays Concerning Human Understanding,
BK IV
. Monadology, par 29-30
VOLTAIRE. "Ignorance," in A Philosophical Dic-
tionary
. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 51-55
J. G. FICHTE, The Vocation of Man
. The Science of Knowledge
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL i,
BK i-m; VOL n, SUP, CH 1-7, 18; VOL HI, SUP, CH
3°
KIERKEGAARD. Philosophical Fragments
. Concluding Unscientific Postscript
J. H. NEWMAN. The Idea of a University
. An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent
LOTZE, Microcosmos, BK v, CH 4
. Logic j BK in
T. H. GREEN. Prolegomena to Ethics, BK i
PEARSON. The Grammar of Science
BOSANQUET. Knowledge and Reality
. Logic, VOL i, INTRO, (2) ; VOL n, CH 7
. Science and Philosophy, 3
HODDER. The Adversaries of the Sceptic
HUSSERL. Logische Untersitchungen
LENIN. Materialism and Empinocriticism
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 11-12;
BK II, CH 21, 27
. Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 2, 6
BERGSON. Matter and Memory
. An Introduction to Metaphysics
. The Creative Mind, CH 6
T. VFBLEN. The Vested Interests and the State of the
Industrial Arts, CH i
J. M. KEYNES. A Treatise on Probability^ PART wi
WITTGENSTEIN. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
MAR£CHAL. Le point de dSpart de la mttaphysiquc
SANTAYANA. Scepticism and Animal Faith
WHITEHEAD. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
Natural Knowledge
. The Concept of Nature
. Process and Reality, PART HI
MEYERSON. Du cheminement de la pensfe
MARITAIN. An Introduction to Philosophy, PART n
(4)
. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 2
BLONDEL. La pensee
GILBY. Poetic Experience
SIMON. Introduction ft I'ontologie du connattre
A. E. TAYLOR. Philosophical Studies, CH 10
GILL. The Necessity of Belief
DEWEY et al. Studies in Logical Theory, i-iv
DEWEY. 'The Experimental Theory of Knowledge,"
"The Significance of the Problems of Knowledge,"
in The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy
. The Quest for Certainty
. Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, CH 25
WEISS. Reality, BK i
BLANSHARD. The Nature of Thought
GILSON. The Unity of Philosophical Experience
. Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages
. Realisme thomiste et critique de la connaissance
C. I. LEWIS. Mind and the World Order
. An Analysis of Knowledge and Valuation
B. RUSSELL. The Problems of Philosophy, CH 5, 7-8,
11, 13
. Mysticism and Logic, CH 10
. The Analysis of Mind, LECT 12
. Sceptical Essays, i
. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, CH 7-12,
18
. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits
DEWEY and BENTLEY. Knowing and the Known
INTRODUCTION
"X /[EN have dreamed of a golden ag[e in
JLVA past when the world' was young
* in the
past when the world' was young and
everything needed for the support of life
existed1 in profusion. Earth, Lucretius writes,
"first spontaneously of herself produced fbr
mortals goodly corn-crops and joyous vine-
yards; of herself gave sweet fruits and glad
pastures; which now-a-days scarce 'attain any
size even when furthered by our labor; we ex-
haust the oxen and the strength of the husband-
men; we wear out our iron, scarcely fed after
all by the tilled fields; so niggardly are they of
their produce and after so much labor do they
let it grow." When the aged plowman "com-
pares present times with times past," Lucretius
adds, "he praises the fortunes of his sire" living
in the time of earth's plenty.
This ancient myth of a golden age has some-
times taken the form, as with RoUsseau, of an
idealization of primitive society, uncorrupted
by civilization, in which an easy, almost effort-
less, existence corresponded to the simplicity of
man's needs. Rousseau pictures a situation in
'which "the produce of the earth furnished
[man] with all he needed, and instinct told him
how to use it,'* so that "singing and dancing,
the true offspring of love and leisure, became
the amusement, or rather the occupation of
men and women assembled together with
nothing else to do."
In our own day, industrial Utopias have been
projected into a future mack free from toil by
the adequacy of machines or the efficiency of
atomic energy. Long before the industrial era,
Aristotle envisioned, as a supposition contrary to
fact, a society built upon labor-saving machines.
"If every instrument could accomplish its own
Work," he writes, if it could obey or anticipate
commands, if /'the shuttle would weave ; . .
without a hand to guide it, the thief workmen
would riot want servants, nor masters slaveii"
In all these conceptions of a better Hfei labor
is eliminated or reduced. The implication seems
to be that the labor required for the mainte-
nance of all historic societies is an affliction, a
drudgery, a crushing 'burden which deforms tht
lives of many, if not all. The 'pains bf toil1 do
not belong to human life by any necessity of
human nature, but rather through the accident
of external circumstances which might be other
than they are. "Work became indispensable,"
according to Rousseau, only when "property
was introduced," and then "vast forests became
smilfng fields, which man had to water with the
sweat of his brow." It was the result of "soine
fatal accident, which, fbr the public good*
should never have happened." Man might have
realized his nature more surely and nchly if,
like th§ lilies of the field, he neither toiled nor
spun.
The contrary view would maintain that work
is not a curse but a blessing, filling man's hours
usefully, turning to service energies which
Would otherwise be wasted or misspent in idle-
ness or mischief. The sinfulness of sloth implies
the virtue of work. The principle of activity,
according to Hegel, whereby "the workman
has to perform for his subsistence," gives man
a 'dignity which "consists in his depending en-
tirely on his diligence, conduct, and intelli-
gence for the supply of his wants. In direct con-
travention of this principle" are "pauperism,
laziness, inactivity."
It 'is even suggested that useful occupations
save men from a boredom they fear Jmote thin
the pain o£ labor, as evidenced 'by the variety
of amusements and diversions tjiey invent or
frantically pursu'e to occupy themselves when
'work is finished. The satisfactions of labor are
as1 peculiarly human as its burdens. Not merely
to keep alive, but to kee,p his self-respect, man
' is' obliged to work. l
921
922
THE GREAT IDEAS
"In the morning when thou risest unwilling,"
the emperor Marcus Aurelius tells himself, "let
this thought be present— I am rising to the
work of a human being. Why, then, am I dis-
satisfied if I am going to do the things for which
I exist and for which I was brought into the
world ? Or have I been made for this, to lie in
the bed-clothes and keep myself warm? But
this is more pleasant. Dost thou exist, then, to
take thy pleasure, and not at all for action and
exertion?"
The perspectives of theology give still an-
other view of labor. It is not an accidental mis-
fortune which men may some day be able to
correct. But neither is it a blessing nor the
thing for which man was created. When the
golden age of Saturn came to an end, and Jupi-
ter replaced him on the throne of heaven, then,
as Virgil tells the story, labor was first intro-
duced into the world. "Before fove
Fields knew no taming hand of husbandmen;
To mark the plain or mete with boundary-line —
Even this was impious; for the common stock
They gathered, and the earth of her own will
All things more freely, no man bidding, bore.
He to black serpents gave their venom-bane,
And bade the wolf go prowl, and ocean toss;
Shook from the leaves their honey, put fire away,
And curved the random rivers running wine,
That use by gradual dint of thought on thought
Might forge the various arts, with furrow's help
The corn-blade win, and strike out hidden fire
From the flint's heart.
Here, while labor may in some sense be a pun-
ishment, or at least a fall from the golden age,
it still does result in benefits. "The divers arts
arose" from Jove's "whetting the minds of men
with care on care, nor suffering realm of his in
drowsy sloth to stagnate." But although "toil
conquered all," it is still "remorseless toil."
According to Christian doctrine, labor is an
inevitable consequence of man's fall from grace,
a punishment for Adam's disobedience like dis-
ease and death. In the earthly paradise of Eden,
the children of Adam would have lived without
labor or servitude of any sort. But when Adam
sinned, the Lord God said unto him: "Cursed
is the ground for thy sake; in toil shalt thou
cat of it all the days of thy life ... In the sweat
of thy face, shalt thou eat bread, till thou re-
turn into the ground."
That work should be painful belongs to its
very essence. Otherwise it would not serve as
a penalty or a penance. But, in the Christian
as in the Virgilian view, laboralsocontnbutes to
such happiness as man can enjoy on earth. The
distinction between temporal and eternal hap-
piness is a distinction between a life of work on
earth and the activity of contemplation in
Heaven. This does not mean the elimination of
leisure and enjoyment from earthly life, but it
does make labor their antecedent and indis-
pensable condition. It also means that even in
his highest activities— in the development of
his arts and sciences — man must be perpetually
at work. His achievement of truth or beauty is
never so perfect and lasting that he can rest in it.
IN THESE DIVERSE conceptions of the relation of
labor to human life, work seems to have several
different meanings. It always involves activity
or exertion. Its clearest opposite is sleep. But
other things are also opposed to work— play
or amusement, leisure, idleness. When leisure
is not identified with idleness, it involves ac-
tivity no less than work. So, too, many of the
forms of play require intense exertion of body
or mind. The difference, therefore, must lie in
the nature or purpose of the activity.
Aristotle suggests what the difference is when
he puts play, work, and leisure in an ordered re-
lationship to one another. Nature, he writes,
"requires that we should be able, not only to
work well, but to use leisure well." Leisure is
"the first principle of all action" and so "leisure
is better than work and is its end." As play and
with it rest (i.e., sleep) are for the sake of work,
so work in turn is for the sake of leisure.
The characteristics of work as the middle
term here seem to be, first, that work is activity
directed to an end beyond itself and, second,
that it is productive of the necessities which
sustain life rather than of the goods by which
life is perfected. The political or speculative ac-
tivity which Aristotle considers the proper oc-
cupation of leisure is intrinsically good or en-
joyable. For participation in such activities
leisure— in the sense of time free from labor-
is required; but since the good life cannot be
lived unless life itself is sustained, labor also is
a prerequisite.
Work is thus defined by wealth as its imme-
diate end— the production of the external, eco-
CHAPTER 44: LABOR
923
nomk, or 'consumable goods which support life.
Though play has the immediately enjoyable
character of an activity performed for its own
sake, Aristotle subordinates it to work, assign-
ing to it the same utility which rest has. Both
refresh men from the fatigues of labor and re-
create the energies needed for work. "Amuse-
ment,1' he writes, "is needed more amid serious
occupations than at other times, for he who is
hard at work has need for relaxation, and amuse-
ment gives relaxation."
The economic sense which connects work
and labor with wealth seems to be the primary
but not the only sense in which these terms are
used in the great books. There is the more
general sense of human work as any productive
activity in which men exercise some art or
skill. The familiar distinction between skilled
and unskilled labor may be only a distinction in
degree if there is truth in the theory that some
degree of skill — some rudimentary art at least
—is required for the performance of the sim-
plest tasks of hand and eye.
Kinds of work, according to this theory, can
be differentiated by reference to the type of art
involved. The ancient distinction between the
servile and the liberal arts also divides workers
into those who manipulate and transform phys-
ical materials and those who employ the sym-
bols of poetry, music, or science to produce
things for the mind. This distinction between
manual and mental work, based on the charac-
ter of the work itself, is not to be identified with
the distinction between slave and free labor.
The latter is based on the status of the worker.
Even in the slave economies of the ancient
world, some freemen were artisans, farmers, or
sailors, and some slaves were philosophers. Nor
is mental as opposed to manual work necessarily
directed to the production of the goods of the
mind. The white-collar workers of an industrial
economy, employed with the symbols of fi-
nance, accounting, or management, do mental
work which has its ultimate end in the produc-
tion or exchange of material goods.
THERE ARE STILL other traditional distinctions
among kinds of work and types of workers, all
of which cannot be put together into a single
scheme of classification without much over-
lapping. Some distinctions, like that between
hand-work and machine-labor or between
healthful and unhealthful occupations, turn on
the characteristics of the work itself. Some de-
pend on the social conditions under which the
work is done or on the relationship between the
individual worker and other men. The work to
be done may be accomplished by an individual
working alone, or by the cooperative labor of
many; and, in the latter case, the social organi-
zation of the laboring group may involve the
ranking of men according to the functions they
perform.
Here we get the division into the master-
craftsmen, who plan and superintend, and all
grades of helpers who execute their directions.
One meaning of the word "menial" as applied
to work signifies the infenor tasks in the hier-
archy of functions; but it is also used to express
society's opinion of those who perform certain
tasks, such as that of the domestic servant. The
distinction between what is menial and what is
dignified work varies, of course, from society
to society.
The characterization of labor as productive
or non-productive, and of work as useful or
wasteful, is based on strictly economic criteria
and on considerations of social welfare. The
sense in which work cannot be divorced from
the production of some extrinsic effect is not
violated by the conception of non-productive
labor as work which in no way increases the
wealth of nations.
"There is one sort of labor which adds to the
subject upon which it is bestowed; there is
another which has no such effect. The former,"
writes Adam Smith, "may be called produc-
tive; the latter, unproductive labor . . . The
labor of some of the most respectable orders in
society is. . .unproductive of any value . . .The
sovereign, for example, with all the officers both
of justice and war who serve under him, the
whole army and navy, are unproductive la-
borers . . . Like the declamation of the actor,
the harangue of the orator, or the tune of the
musician, the work of all of them perishes in
the very instant of its production."
The standard by which Marx judges the use-
fulness of labor also implies the economic no-
tion of a commodity. "Nothing can have value,"
he says, "without being an object of utility. If
the thing is useless, so is the labor contained in
924
THE GREAT IDEAS
it." But Marx also adds a criterion of social
utility. "Whoever directly satisfies his own
wants witb the produce! of his labor, creates, in-
deed, use-values, but not commodities, Ih order
to produce the latter,' he must not only produce
use-values, but use-values for others, social use-
values." It is by this last criterion that Marx
criticizes the capitalist economy for its "most
outrageous squandering of labor power" in
superfluous or socially useless production.
/ . '
THE PRINCIPLE OF the division of labor does
not depend upon any particular classification
of work or workers according to type. Nor does
it belong to one system of economy rather than
another. But the ancients, concerned as they
were with its bearing On the origin and develop-
ment of the state, saw the division of labor as
primarily of political significance; whereas the
moderns arc more concerned with its economic
causes and consequences.
Thucydidcs compares the poverty and crude
life of the early Hellenic tribes with the wealth,
the power, and the civilization of Athens,
Sparta, Corinth, and other city-states at the
opening of the Pcloponnesian War. The differ-
ence is not to be accounted for in terms of the
invention of new tools, but rather in terms of
the greater efficiency in production which is
obtained by a division of labor. This i$, both an
effect and a cause of the enlargement of the
community, and its increasing population. The
greater the number of men associated in a
common life, the greater the number of special-
ized tasks which can i be assigned to different
members of the community.
This observation is formulated by Plato and
Aristotle in their accounts of the origin of the
state. The advantages which the state confers
upon its members are in part won by the di-
vision of labor in which they participate. . ,
The isolated family, Aristotle remarks, is
barely able to supply the "everyday .wants" of
its members. The , tribe or village, which is an
association of families, dan achieve a little more
than bare subsistence; but not until several
tribes unite to fown a city does a truly self-suf-
ficing community come into existence, and one
with an adequate division of kbor. Some men,
if not all, can them acquire the leisure to en-
gage in the arts 'and sciences and politids^rthe
pursuits of civilization which have their mate-
rial basis in sufficient wealth. ^ (
The effect of the division of labor on the
social structure of the state seems to be gen-
erally agreed upon by all observers, ancient and
modern. Men are divided into social classes ac-
cording to the kind of work they do— not only
by reference to the type of economically pro-
ductive labor, but also in terms of the distinc-
tion .between labor and leisure, or between eco-
nomic and other functions in society.
All do not agree, however that such class
distinctions are as beneficial to society as the in-
crease of wealth or opulence which the division
of labor affords. They not only threaten the
unity and peace of the society, but tend to de-
grade the condition of labor by reducing the
individual worker to a cog in the machine. The
division of 'labor frequently restricts him to a
slight and insignificant task, repetitively per-
formed, and so makes it impossible for him to
develop his skill or to enjoy any pride of work-
manship. From a purely economic point of view,
Adam Smith advocates the greatest intensifica-
tion of the division of labor. Each more minute
sub-division of tasks augments efficiency in pro-
duction. But from the human point of view, he
sees that this method of maximizing wealth by
dividing men into functional groups — one man,
one task— leads to the mental impoverishment
of the men, who require a multiplicity of func-
tions for their development.
"In the progress of the division of labor,"
Smith writes, "the employment of the far
greater part of those who live by labor . . .
comes to be confined to a few very simple oper-
ations, frequently one or two . . . The man
whose whole life is spent in performing a few
simple operations , . . has no occasion to exert
his understanding or to exercise his invention
... He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of
such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid
and ignorant as it is possible for a human crea-
ture to become." The situation seems even
worse to Marx, The industrial system, revolu-
tionizing the mode of work, "converts the la-
borer into a crippled monstrosity, by forcing
his detailed dexterity at the expense of a world
of productive < capabilities and instincts" It
makes 'the individual worker "the. automatic
motor of a fractional operation." - ,
CHAPTER 44: LABOR
925
THE GREAT ISSUES concerning labor seem to be
moral and political rather than economic. The
consideration of the division of labor from the
point of view of efficiency in production remains
purely economic only when it is abstracted
from any concern about the effect upon the
laborer. The analysis of factors affecting the
productivity of labor ceases to be merely eco-
nomic when the hours, conditions, and organiza-
tion of work are viewed in terms of the working
men.
The determination of wages by the buying
and selling of labor (or, as Marx insists, of
labor-power) as a commodity subject to market
conditions of supply and demand; the differ-
ence between real and nominal wages as de-
termined by the level of wages in relation to
the price of other commodities; the so-called
"iron law of wages1' according to which wages
cannot be reduced below the minimum of bare
subsistence for the laborer and his family —
these are matters which the economist may
deal with in a descriptive or historical manner,
calculating rates and ratios without regard to
questions of justice. But in terms of such formu-
lations questions of justice are raised and be-
come the great issues concerning the rights of
workmen to the fruits of their labor, to the
security of full employment and other forms of
protection, to collective bargaining, to a voice
in the management of industry or business.
Stated in this way, the issues seem to be pe-
culiarly modern. These are the problems of a
capitalist economy, to which the partisans of
capital and of labor propose different solutions.
Yet the principles of justice to which the parties
in conflict appeal seem to be no less applicable
to earlier conflicts in other economic systems —
between master and slave or between feudal
lord and serf. All the institutional differences
among these three economies should not, ac-
cording to Karl Marx, conceal from us the pro-
found analogy which obtains in the relation be-
tween owners and workers, whether the work-
ers are chattel slaves, peons bound to the land,
or industrial proletarians selling their labor-
power.
"Wherever a part of society possesses a mo-
nopoly of the means of production," he writes,
"the laborer, free or not free, must add to the
working time necessary for his own mainte-
nance an extra working time in order to pro-
duce the means of subsistence for the owners of
the means of production, whether this propriej
tor be the Athenian gentleman, Etruscan theo-
crat, civis Romanus, Norman baron, American
slave-owner, Wallachian Boyard, modern land-
lord or capitalist."
Marx undertakes to explain how the surface
difference between slave labor and wage labor
conceals the analogy. "In slave labor, even that
part of the working-day in which the slave is
only replacing the value of his own means of
existence, in which, therefore, he works for
himself alone, appears as labor for his master.
All the slave's labor appears as unpaid labor. In
wage-labor, on the contrary, even surplus laj
bor, or unpaid labor, appears as paid. There the
property-relation conceals the labor of the slave
for himself; here the money-relation conceals
the unrequited labor of the wage laborer."
Two phrases here — "unpaid labor" and "un-
requited labor"— indicate that Marx is think-
ing in terms of justice. Elsewhere he calls the
industrial proletariat "wage-slaves" to empha-
size the presence in an apparently free economy
of the same unjust exploitation which the word
"slave" connotes when it refers to the u&e-of
men as chattel. The essential similarity in all
forms of economic exploitation — which makes
all forms of economic slavery essentially similar
—is seen by Marx in terms of the production of
a surplus value by the laborer; that is, he pro-
duces a greater value in commodities than he
needs to support his own subsistence. This sur-
plus value, when appropriated by the owner of
the materials and the tools on and with which
the propertyless laborer works, becomes an un-
earned increment, or, in other words, an unjust
profit from the work of another man.
The controversy over the theory of surplus
value in Marx's Capital can be separated from
the controversy over the revolutionary program
of the Communist Manifesto. But neither can be
separated from issues of justice. It is question*
able whether those economists join issue with
Marx who criticize his analysis in terms of the
facts or conclusions of economics as a purely
descriptive science, and who put aside all con-
siderations of the fair and the equitable. Yet
those facts or conclusions, especially with re-
gard to the operation ofthe capitalist economy,
926
TJiB GREAT IDEAS
become relevant in the dispute as to whether
capitalist profits are intrinsically unjust, be-
cause they are incapable pf .accruing, except
from the exploitation of labor.
Those who dispute this nutter seldom deny
that chattel slavery is unjust. On that there
may be conflicting opinions, as indicated in the
chapter on SLAVERY, but they are not germane
to the present issue. Nor do the opponents
seem to argue their casp in terms of a different
theory of what is just and unjust. They them-
selves appeal to the common principle of fair-
ness in exchange and distribution to defend the
rights of the owners of capital to a profit in re-
turn for their own pnor labor in accumulating
capital stock, as well as for the risks they take
when they invest their reserves in productive
enterprises. The problem, therefore, seems to
narrow down to such questions as whether la-
borers are, exploited when they receive in wages
less than the full value their work creates;
whether capitalist profits are entirely reaped
from the surplus value which is the differential
between what labor creates and what labor re^
ccives; or whether, if profit is not identical with
surplus value, it always contains a marginal ele-
ment of unearned increment derived from the
exploitation of labor.
THE NOTION OF VALUE — the value of commodi-
ties and the value of labor itself— is obviously
of pentral importance. As indicated in the chap-
ter on JUSTICE, the formulae of equality, which
determine fair exchanges or distributions, re-
quire some measure of equivalents in value.
What determines the intrinsic value of a com-
rnodjty according to which it can be compared
with another commodity, without reference to
the price of each in, the market place? Adam
Smith's answer to this question is labor. It is
the answer given before; him by Locke, and
after him by Marx.
"Equal quantities of labor, at all times and
places," Smith declares, "may be, said to be of
equal valije, jto the labqrer. In his ordinary state
of'hcajtfii strength and spirits; in the ordinary
degree of his skill and Dexterity, he must al-
ways fay down the same portion of his ease, his
ttt»crty, and his happiness, The price which he
pays, must always be the same, whatever may
be the quantity of goocjU which he receives in
for it. Of these, indeed, it may somer
times purchase a greater and sometimes a smaller
quantity; but it is their value which varies* not
that of the labor which purchases them." Fjrom
this Adarn Smith concludes, that "labor alone,
therefor^, never varying in its pwn value, is
alone the ultimate and real standard by which
the value of all commodities can at all times
and places be estimated and compared. It is
their real price; money is their nominal price
only."
This labor theory of value raises the further
question of the value of labor itself. What deter-
mines its natural or real price, as opposed to its
market or nominal price? On this Marx and
Smith appear to part company, which may ac-
count for their further divergence when Marx
declares that "the real value of labor is the cost
of its production, not the average price it can
command in the market"; and then goes on to
explain how a surplus value is derived by the
capitalist who pays for labor-power on a basis of
the cost of producing and sustaining the labor-
er, but uses his labor-power to produce a real
value in commodities which exceeds the real
price of labor itself.
Smith, on the other hand, holds that "the
whole produce of labor belongs to the laborer"
only "in that original state of things, which pre-
cedes both the appropriation of land and the
accumulation of stock." When "land becomes
private property," the landlord "makes the first
deduction" in the form otrent; and the capital-
ist, or the person who invests some part of his
stock accumulation, "makes a second deduc-
tion" in the form of profit. After rent and profit
are taken, the laborer's wage represents what is
left of "the whole produce of labor*"
Yet Smith also says of the landlords that "as
soon as the land of any country has all become
private property," they, "like all other men,
love to reap where they never sowed." The im-
plication of unearned increment in this remark
suggests that Smith is neither^isinclined to mix
moral judgment with economic description, nor
at variance with Marx ,qn the principle of eco-
nomic justice. That Smith regards profit as the
price properly > paid for^the use of capital and
that he does not see reaping without sowing as
an essential element in -profit-making may per-
haps be read as a challenge to Marx's develop*
i-ABOR
927
ment of the labor theofy of value into a theory
of surplus value and unearned increment.
i
IT is POSSIBLE, of course, that the difference in
the conclusions of Smith and Marx from a com-
moh premise can be explained by the different
directions their analyses take. It may not repre-
sent a direct opposition on a point of fact. The
proposition that value derives from labor seems
to yield a number of theoretical consequences.
Locke, for example, holding that it is labor
which "putt the difference of value on every-
thing," makes this the basis for the right to pri-
vate property, certainly in its original appro-
priation from the common domain which is
God's gift to mankind. "Though the earth and
all inferior creatures be dommon to all men, yet
every man has a property in his own person.
The labor of his body and the work of his hands
we may say are properly his. Whatsoever, then,
he removes out of the state that nature hath
provided and left it in, he hath mixed his labor
with, and joined to it something that is his own,
and thereby makes it his property."
This view seems to be shared by Rousseau.
"It is impossible to conceive," he says, "how
property can come from anything but manual
labor; for what else can a man add to thing$'
which he does not originally create, so as to
make them his own property?" In the same
vein, Smith declares that "the property which
every man has in his own labor, as it is the origi-
nal foundation of all other property, so it is the
most sacred and inviolable." ,
What further conclusions follow from this
justification of private property as a right
founded upon labor? How is the original right
to property extended into a right of inherit-
ance ? How does this conception of the origin of
property bear on the Marxist conception of
the origin of the proletariat — the propertyless
workers who have nothing but their labor-
power to sell ? Denying tie chajrge that cpm-
munists desire to abolish "the right of person-
ally acquiring property as the fruit of a man's
own labor," Marx and Engels make the coun-
tercharge ttiat the development of industrial
capitalism "has to a great exten^ already .c^
stroyed it and is still destroying it daily." They
propose1 j>uBli£ ownership of the means of pro-
duction to protect the property rights of labor;
they seek tt> abdlfeh only "the bourgeois fohh
oi private property'* which, ib their view, is 'a
use of property to exploit labor. - '
The rights of labor seem t6 bt central in any
formulation of the problem of a )u$t distribu-
tion of wealth. But when other rights are taken
into consideration, the problem of economic
justice becornes more complex J aftd different
solutions result from differences in 'emphasis.
Even with regard to one group of solutions,
}. S. Mill observes that "some communists con-
sider it unjust that the produce of the labor of
the community should be shared on any other
principle tha^n that of exact equality; bthers
think it just that those should receive most
whose wants are greatest." To weigh the merits
of competing solutions, -as well as to reach an
adequate statement of the problem, the discus-
sion of labot must be connected with the discui-
sibfr of related considerations in the chapters on
JUSTICE, REVOLUTION, and WEALTH: '
THERE ARE ISSUES of justice concerning labor
other than the strictly economic problem of dis-
tribution. In1 the ancient world, for example,
not only chattel slaves but also free artisans
were frequently regarded as incapable of par-
ticipptyon in political life. Only men of inde-
pendent wealth had enough leisure for the ac-
tivities of citizenship wh.ich» in the Greek city-
states, was almost a full-time occupation. This,
according to Aristotle, is one reason for the dis-
franchiscment of the laboring classes who must
devote a gre^t part of their energy t;o earning a
living and who have neither the time nor train-
ing for liberal pursuits. "Since leisure is neces-
sary both for the development of virtue and the
performance of politick duties," citizens, he
maintains, cannot "lead the life of mechanics or
"tradesmen." , , • t
Against this oligarchical view (which also in-
volves the notion that wealth deserVes' special
< political 'privileges), the Greek democrats take
the position that all free men shoul^ be citizens
on an equal footing, regardless of the amount of
their property or their condition!*, of labor and
leisure. But the oligarchical pjrmciplje still tends
to, prevail among republicans in the i8th cen-
tury. Kant, for example, nolds that citizenship
"presupposes the independence !Jr -self-suffi-
ciency of tile individual citizen among the peo-
928
THE GREAT IDEAS
pic.*' On this basis he excludes from the suf-
frage, as only "passive" citizens, "the appren-
tice of a merchant pr tradesman, a servant who
is not in, the employ of the state, a minor (natu-
raliter vel cwiliter)^ all women, and, generally,
everyone who is compelled to maintain himself
not according to his own industry, but as it is
arranged by others (the state excepted)." They
are "without civil personality, and their exist-
ence is only, as it were, incidentally included in
the state,"
The preference shown by the writers of The
Federalist for a republican as opposed to a demo-
cratic form of government — or representative
government as opposed to direct democracy —
rests partly on their fear of the political incom-
petence, as well as the factional interests, of
wage earners and day-laborers. While express-
ing "disapprobation" of poll taxes, they still de-
fend the right of the government to exact them,
in the belief that "there may exist certain criti-
cal and tempestuous conjunctures of the State,
in which a poll-tax may become an inestimable
resource." Yet such a tax would seem to be
primarily a device for disfranchising working-
men of no property and small income, and in
the opinion of a latex day it is so regarded.
The democratic revolution does not begin
until the middle of the i9th century. But even
then, Mill, who advocates universal suffrage,
argues for the disqualification of paupers or
those on the dole, without raising the question
whether the right to work— to avoid poverty
and involuntary indigence — is not a democratic
right inseparable from the right to citizenship.
It is "required by first principles," Mill writes,
"that the receipt of parish relief should be a
peremptory disqualification for the franchise.
He who cannot by his labor suffice for his own
support has no claim to the privilege of helping
himself to the money of others. By becoming
dependent on the remaining members of the
community for actual subsistence, he abdicates
his claim to equal rights with them in other re-
spects."
The historic connection of democracy with a
movement toward political justice for the la-
boring classes seems to suggest that political
democracy must be accompanied by economic
democracy in order to attain its full realization.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. Labor in human life
la. The curse of labor: myths of a golden age and the decay of the world
ib. Labor, leisure, and happiness: the servile, political, and contemplative life
' ic. The pain of labor and the expiation of sin: the disciplinary and penal use of labor
iff. The social necessity of labor and the moral obligation to work
ic. The honorof work and the virtue of productivity: progress through the inven-
tion of arts for the conquest of nature
if. The degradation of labor: the alienation of the laborer's work in chattel slavery,
serfdom, and industrial wage slavery
2. The nature of work
2a. The ends of work: the good of the product and the good of the workman
2b. The process of work: the relations of art, hand, machine, and matter
3. The kinds of work and the relationship of different types of workers
30. The differentiation of work according to the human talent or ability required:
skilled arid unskilled labor; manual and mental work
3^. The differentiation of work according to the social status of the worker; servile
and free, menial and honorable work
930
931
932
933
€» APTE* 44 r LABOR 929
PAGE
y. The classification of occupations by'refcrence to bodily and mental concomitants of
the work: healthy and uphealthy oqcu^tydns; pleasant and unpleasant tasks 933
$d. Types of work distinguished by reference to the manner in which the work is
done: solitary and group work; the relation of mastcr*craftsmen and helpers 934
3^» Types of work distinguished by reference to their effect on the increase of
wealth: productive and non-productive labor
$f. llie differentiation of work in terms of its relation to the common welfare:
socially useful and wasteful or superfluous >work
4. The division of labor
40. The economic causes and effects of the division of labor: its relation to the ex-
change, production, and distribution of goods and services; its bearing on
opulence
4^, The social consequences of the division of labor: the development of classes
4^. The moral aspects of the division of labor: the acquisition of the virtue of art; the
attenuation of art by insignificant 'tasks 935
5. The organization of production: the position of labor m different economics
50. Domestic or chattel slavery in a slave economy
5^. Serfdom or agrarian peonage in a feudal economy
5<r. The wage earner or industrial proletariat in a capitalist economy 936
$d. The condition of the worker in a socialist economy
6. The wages of labor: kinds of wage payments
6a. Labor as a commodity: the labor market
6£. The iron law of wages: the subsistence level and the minimum wage
6V, The distinction between real and nominal* wages: variable factors affecting wage
level?
6d. The natural wages of labor and the labor theory of value
7. Economic and political justice to the laborer
ja. pair wages, hours, and working conditions: labor legislation
*]b. The right to property: the ownership of the means of production 937
jc. The consequences of economic inequality or oppression: the class war
(1) The economic determination of antagonistic social classes: slaves v$. .free-
men; laboring v$. leisure classes; propertyless vs. propertied classes >
(2) The organisation of workmen and the formation of trade unions to protect
la bdr's ,rights and interests ' ' "938
(3) The proletariat as a revolutionary class; its^fevolutionary aims , , r -
, /5 jj. The underprivileged condition of workers: the exclusion of* slaves from citizen-1
' ship; the disfranchisement of the laboring, classes ,
ye . The problem of poverty and pauperism : unemplbyrtient and the right to work
2/i Thfe relation of economic to political freedom : Economic dejmocracy
' 'i ' • > p i ,/ >~ • i/: j „ ,
, 8. Historical observations on the condition of labor ! ,',/'<,< .939
930 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of me passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK 11 [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, m 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. Forexample,in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) H Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. Labor in human life 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [1046-1104]
297a-298b; BK xi [84-98] 301a; [162-180]
la. The curse of labor: myths of a golden age 302b-303a; [251-262] 304b-305a
and the decay of the world 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b,d-353b; 362b-c
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:17-19,23 / Psalms, 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 125
90:10— (D) Psalms, 89:10 / Ecclesiastes, 1:3- 137a
2:11; 2-17-24; 3:9-13; 4:4-8; 5:15-16; 6:7 — 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 316a-b; 355b-356a
(D) Ecclesiastes, 1:3-2:11; 2:17-24; 3:9-13; 50 MARX: Capital, 199c-200a, esp 199d [fn4l
4:4-8; 5:14-16; 6:7 / Jeremiah, 20:18— (D) 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKVII, 2 75a
leremias, 20:18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiastics, 7:15; 31:3-4; 40:1- **• Labor» leisure, and happiness: the servile,
(D) OT, Ecclesiastics, 7:16; 31 :3-4; 40:1 political, and contemplative life
NEW TESTAMENT; // Thessalonians, 3:7-12 OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 6 :6-n; 13:4; 15:19;
7 PLATO: Statesman, 588a-589c / Laws, BK m, 18:9; 19:15,24; 20:4; 21:25-26; 24:30-34;
664a-665c; BK; ?v, 681b-c 26:13-16; 28:19
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 4 [i253b33-4o] APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 11:11-14; 38:24-34—
447b-c (D) OT, Ecclesiastieus, 11:11-14; 38:25-39
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK H [1105- NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 1038-42
1 174] 29a-30a,c; BK v [195-217] 63c-d 5 ARISTOPHANES : Plutus [415-618] 633d-636d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv [16-47] 14b-15a / Gear- 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 86b; BK v, 161a
gics, i [118-159] 40a-41b / Aeneid, BK vin 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43b-d / Republic, BK vn,
[306-336] 267a-268a 390b-391b / Critias, 479d / Statesman, 581b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 10 385b-d / Laws, BK vn, 710c; 722d-723c; BK vm,
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxn 740d-741a
[130-154] 87d-88a; xxviii [91-96] 97a 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics,* KK \, CH i [98ibi3~
27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACTTI, sc i [143-168) 24] 500a; CH 2 [982*1 1*28] 500d-501a
532d-533a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 6-7 430d-432c /
ik ;$9 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 27b-28a Politics, BK i, CH 4 l^fy^o] 447b-c; CH 5
\cto\d
CHAPTER 44: LABOR
931
448b-c; CH 7
449c; BK n, CH 6 [1265*28-37] 460c-d; CH 9
[i269*33~bi2] 465c-d; BK HI, CH 4 [1277*30-
b6) 474b-c; BK vn, CH 1-3 527a-530a csp CH 3
[1325*16-33] 529b, [i325bi4~3o] 529d; CH 5
[i326b27-32] 530d-531a; CH 9 533a-d esp
[i328b33-i 329*1] 533b; CH 14 [i333*i6]-cH
15 [i334b8] 538a-539c; BK vm, CH 3 542d-
543d; CH 4 [1339*6-10] 544c; CH 7 [i34ib32-
1342*28] 547c-548a esp [1342*19-28] 547d-
548a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 10 116b-d;
CH 29, 137c-d; BK iv, CH 4 225a-228a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 12 262b-c;
BK v, SECT i 268b,d; BK vi, SECT 12 274c;
SECT 33 277b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45b / Alexander,
560b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART H-II,
Q 187, A 3 666a-669b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b / Sec-
ond Nun's Prologue 461a-463a / Parson's Tale,
par 57-59 528b-529a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART iv, 267c-268b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 14c-15a; 107a-112d;
486b-489b; 490c-d; 538d-540b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
[1-22] 57d-58a / Henry V, ACT iv, sc i [247-
301] 554a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACT n, sc i [143-168]
532d-533a
29 CERVANTES . Don Quixote, PART n, 368c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 6c-d;
18a-b; 69d-76a / Novum Organum, BK i,
APH 129 134d-135d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [610-633]
165b-166a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xx,
SECT 2 389a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 332a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89d; 597a-598a
esp 598a
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b; 586a-587a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 171a-b; 201b-c; 216c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 267d-
268b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [5199-5262] 128b-
130a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 214a-b; 355b-366b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324b
50 MARX: Capital, 112b; 262a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 275a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 772d;
774b [fn i]
Ic. The pain of labor and the expiation of sin:
the disciplinary and penal use of labor
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:17-19,23
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 33:24-28; 40:1 — (D)
OT, Eccksiasticus, 33:25-30; 40:1
5 EURIPIDES: Heracles Mad [1-25] 365a-b;
[348-429] 368a-c> [1255-1280] 376a-b
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK 11, 78b
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, i [n8-i59)40a-41b
14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 5l2c-d / Alexander,
560b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 15 521a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92,
A i, REP 2 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c;
PART I-II, Q 32, A I, REP 3 759b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-u, Q
187, A 3, ANS 666a-669b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [16-60]
9d-10a; PURGATORY, x [ioo]-xi [72] 68b-69c;
xxvni [91-96] 97a
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Prologue [15,469-489]
461a / Parson's Tale, par 57-59 528b-529a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 147a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [1046-1104]
297a-298b; BK xi [84-98) 301a; [162-180]
302b-303a; [251-262] 304b-305a; BK xi [334]-
BK xii [649] 306b-333a / Samson Agomstes
339a-378a csp [1-46] 339b-340b, [356-380]
347b-348a, [667-709] 354a-355a, [1156-1177]
364b-365a, [1391-1409] 370a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 597a
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 385a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtct(, 316a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 354b-c; 364a-366a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 47b-c; BK vi,
266c-d; BK vn, 275a; BK xiv, 606a-607a
Id. The social necessity of labor and the moral
obligation to work
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:9-11 / Deuterono-
my, 5:13-14 / Proverbs^ 21:25 / Ecclesiastes,
9:9-10
APOCRYPHA: Eccksiasticus, 7:15; 22:1-2— (D)
OT, Eccksiasticus, 7:16; 22:1-2
NEW TESTAMENT: Ephesians, 4:28 / / Thessa-
lomans, 4:11-12— (D) I Thessalonians, 4:11 /
II Thessalomans, 3:7-12
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [415-618] 633d-636d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 316c-317b; BK vn,
390b-391b / Laws, BK vn, 710c; 722d-723c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [i290b37-
1291*19] 490a-b
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 10 116b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT i 268b,d;
BK vi, SECT 33 277b; BK vm, SECT 12 286b-c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, i [118-159] 40a-41b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45b / Solon, 72d /
Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291c-d / Alexander,
560b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n,
Q 187, A 3 666a-669b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [91-111]
16a-b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART n, 157c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [610-633] 165b-
166a
38 ROUSSEAU; Social Contract, BK in, 415b-c;
BK iv, 428d
932'
XHE G&EAT IDEAS
(1. Labor m hpntan life. Id. The social necessity
of labor and the moral obligation to work.)
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 597a-b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 339d
46 HEGEL; Philosophy of Right, PART in, par i89
65d'66a; par 194 66c-d; par 196 67a / Philoso-
phy of History, PART iv, 333c; 353b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl(, 316a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324b
50 MARX: Capital, 17a; 88c-d; 253a-255a passim
50 MARX-ENCELS: Communist Manifesto, 426d-
427a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 197b-c;. BK
vn, 275a; BK xm, 572d-573b
54 FREUD-: General Introduction, 573c / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 772d; 781d-782c
le. The honor of work and the virtue of pro-
ductivity: progress through the invention
of arts for the conquest of nature
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 6:6-uv, 14:23; 31:10-
31
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 10:27; 38:25-34— (D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:30; 38:26-39
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvm [541-589] 135d-136c
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-506] 44c-
45a n
7 PLATb: Charmides, 6c / Laws, BK in, 664a-
665c; BK vii, 722d-723c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT i 268b,d;
BK vi, SECT 3$ 277b
13 VIRGIL: Georgtcs, i [118-159] 40a-41b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45b / Solon,
64d-65b; 72d / Marcellus, 252a-255a esp
253d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30
651c-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [91-111]
16a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 73b
30 BACON: Advancement of learning, 6c-d / No-
vum Organum 105a-195d esp PREF 105a-106d,
ak i, APH n 107d, APH 81 120b-c, APH 124
133c-d, APH 129 134d-135d, BK n, APH 49-51
188b-194c / New Atlantis, 210d-214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [610-633] 165b-
166a
36 SWIFT; Gulliver, PART n, 78a-b; PART in,
106a-115b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvm,
126c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339b-c; 352a-d; 363 b
/ Social Contract, BK iv, 428d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, la-d; BK i,
6a-d; 8b-10b passim
40 GIB BON: Decline and Fall, 21c-23c passim;
633d-634a,c; 655d-656a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART r, 243d-
244c; 245a; PART n, 267a-b; 268**bj PART
iv, 333c; 353b-c
47 GOETHE; Faust* PART n {^1,559-586^! ,281 b-
282a
50 MARX : Capital, 87a-b; 292d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist MatiifestQ*, 420d-
421a; 421d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 772d;
777a-779a passim r
I/. The degradation of labor: the alienation of
the laborer's work in chattel slavery,
serfdom, and industrial wage slavery
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 1:8-14
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 278d-279a / Cras-
sus, 439a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, pARt n, 53a-56a; PART iv,
154b-155b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355a-b; 365d-366a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 20b-21c;
27b-28d; 43a-b; 52b^53b; BK in, 165b-171c;
BK iv, 239c-240a; 253c-254a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 144b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 421c-422d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 67
29c
50 MARX: Capital, 82d-83a; 88d-89b; 104b-
105c; 150a-c; 161b-l63c; 174b-c; 176a-178d;
194b-195c; 199b-200a; 206c-208a; 226a-236c
passim; 238c-240b; 251c-253b; 261d-262a;
263b-d; 266b-267c; 280c-286a; 288b-290c;
319c-321b; 354a-355d; 369c-371c; 383d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420c-
421a; 422c-423a; 424c-425a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-167b
2. The nature of work
2a, The ends of work: the good of the product
and the good of the workman
7 PLATO: Charmides, 6c / Republic, BK i, 303a-
306b / Laws, BK vin, 733b-d; BK xi, 774a-775a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vn, CH 8 [1328*22-35]
532c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, i [118-159] 40a-41b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36c-d / Pericles, 121a-
122b / Marcellus, 252a-255a / Pompey, 512c-d
J I Alexander, 560b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30,
651c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q
187, A 3 666a-669b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy + PARADISE, vm [115-
148] 118b-c
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Prologue [i5>469-489)
461a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 6c-d {
36 SWI^FT: Gulliver, PART iv, l54b-15Sb
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, uict i, 54d-55a; BK
v, 332a-c
42 KANT: Jtdgemtnt, 524atb
, 46 HEPEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, pal 196
67a / Philosophy of, History, 'PART Ji, 259a-b
2b to 3c
50 MARX: Capital, 16a; 18d; 113c*114a; 251c-d;
253a; 254c-255a; 292 d; 307c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 426b
2b. The process of work: the relations of art,
hand, machine, and matter
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 319a~c / Statesman,
591d-593d; 596a-b; 596d / Philebus, 633a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK m, CH 8 [432*1] 664c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH i 348b,d-349b /
Politics, BK i, CH 4 447 b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 30
651c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 91,
A 3, REP 2 486b-487d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 85,
A 6, ANS 182d-184a; PART n-n, Q 187, A 3,
ANS and REP i 666a-669b
23 HOBBES '.Leviathan, PART i, 73b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 407c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v, SECT 42-43
34a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 4d-5a; 54d-
55a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 68
29d-30a; PART in, par 196 67a; ADDITIONS,
126 137a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 278c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 16d-17a; 31a-b; 85a-88d;
180d-188c esp 184b, 188b-c; 197a-198a;
251a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xm, 576b-
577a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 778b-c
3. The kinds of work and the relationship of
different types of workers
3<*. The differentiation of work according to
the human talent or ability required:
skilled and unskilled labor; manual and
mental work
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 3l6c-320c / Timaeus,
442b / Statesman, 58lc-582a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [98i*3i-b7]
499d
9 ARISTOTLE : Politics, BK i, CH 7 [i255b20-37J
449b-c; CH n [i258b35~39] 453b; BK vm,
CH 4 [1339*6-10] 544c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v {1350-
1360] 78c-d
14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 252a-255a esp 253d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 91,
A 3, REP 2-3 486b-487d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART H-II, Q
187, A 3 666a-669b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vm [115-
148] 118b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60a-c; 110c-112a; 156d-
158a,c; 460a-461a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 6c-d
CHAPTER 44 .-LABOR
933
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART r, 29b-31a; PA*T iv,
158b; 164b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 42d-43c;
54c-55a; 56b-57b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 597a-598a
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b; 586a-587a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 3$6d~367a;
385b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 68
29d~30a; PART HI, par 200 67c-68a; par 204
68c-d; ADDITIONS, 44 123c; 126 137a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324 b
50 MARX: Capital, 17b-18a; 95c-96a esp 95d-96b
[fn2]; 165d-166b; 170c-171b;176d-178a; 186b-
d; 212a-c; 251b-d
36. The differentiation of work according to
the social status of the worker: servile
and free, menial and honorable work
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 84d-85b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vn, 722d-723c; BK vin,
740d-741a; BK xi, 774a-775a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [981*31-
b7] 499d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 7 [i255b20-27]
449b-c; CH 11 [r258b35~39] 453b; CH 13
[i26o»33~b2] 455a^; BK in, CH 4 [i277*3o-b6]
474b-c; BK iv, CH 4 [1290^7-1291*19) 490a-b;
BK vi, CH 4 [1319*20-27] 522d; BK vn, CH 8-9
532c-533d; BK vm, CH 2 [i337b3-23J 542c-d
/ Rhetoric, BK i, CH 9 [1367*28-32] 610a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45b / Solon,
64d-65b / Pericles, 121a-122b / Demetrius,
733b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 110c-112a;459c-462a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
57d-59d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 33
30a-b; CH vn, SECT 85 43c-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 134a-b; 256b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 428c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 42h-d; 44c-
45c; 56b-58b; BK in, 164c-d; 169c-171c
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 44
123c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-167b
3c. The classification of occupations by refer-
ence to bodily and mental concomitants
of the work: healthy and unhealthy
occupations; pleasant and unpleasant
tasks
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH n [i258b35~39)
453b; BK vm, CH 2 542b-d; CH 4 [1335^6-10]
544c
14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 5l2c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 110c-112a; 459c-462a
passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365b-c
934,
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. Tbf kinds of «»rk and the rthti&nsbip of dif-
ferent types of workers. $c. Tfre clarifica-
tion of occupations by reference to bodily and
mental concomitants of the work: healthy
and unhealthy occupations; pleasant and
unpleasant tasks,)
30 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i,'42b-d; 54d-
55a; BK in, 164a; BK v, 340c-343d
42 KANT: Judgement, 524a-b
SO MARX: Capital, 85c-d; 117c-130c passim;
166b-c;l76d-178a; 194b-195c; 200a-204o pas-
sim, csp 204a-c; 206b-209a; 227d-231b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 79b
3</l Types of work distinguished by reference
to the manner in which the work is done:
solitary and group work; the relation o£
master-craftsmen and helpers
7 PLATO: Statesman, 581c-582a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [981^31-
b7] 499d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 4 [I277*30-b6]
474b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 3d-5b; 35c-
36a; 50a-c; 51b-53b; 109a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 385b-d
50 MARX: Capital, 157a-164a esp 158d-159d,
i ;,t60d'162a; 165d-166b; 170c-171b; 186b-188c;
251b-c
3e. Tyjpes of work distinguished by reference
y to their effect on the increase of wealth:
,, productive and non-productive labor
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 365b-366b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 142d-
151c csp 142d-143c; BK ivf 288c-292a; 294b-
296a
50 MARX: Capital, 16b-17aj 17c; 86d-87d csp
87b [fn 2]; 96a-97a; 219a-d; 251a-252a; 290d-
292a
3/. The differentiation of work in terms of its
relation to the common welfare; socially
useful and wasteful or superfluous work
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 318b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [1290^7-
1291*33) 490aTc; BK VH, CH 8-9 532c-533d
12 AURBLIUS; Meditations, BK vn, SECT 5 290a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36c-d / Marcdlus,
255d-256b / Demetrius, 733b<c
20 AQUINAS: Sumfna Theologica, PART it-n,
^ 187, A 3, RHP 3 666a-;669b
21 DAt«i¥fe: Divine Comedy, HELL, *i [91-111]
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365b-366b / 'Social
(J. Gontjwct, BK iv, 428c-d
!^9 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 142d^l51c
esp 142d-143c
49 DARWIN: Dessert of Man, 324b , \
MM*** Capital, 16a-18d esp 16a, 18d; 31a
32c esp32a-c; 34d-35c; 48b-d; 174a-b;
262a , i
4. The division of labor
7 PLATO: Chaftntdesi 5d; 12a-b / Republic,
BK ji, ai6a-319c; BK iv, 349a-350a / Titoatus,
442b-c; 445c-d / Critias, 480a-481b / Laws,
BK vin, 740d-741a
9 ARISTOTLE: PoKticr, BK iv, CH 4 [I29ob2o-
1291^29] 489d-491a; BK vn, CH 8-9 532c-533d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vn, CH 4, 246d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART H-II,
Q 187, A 3, REP i 666a-669b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, vm [115-
148] 118b-c
30 BACON. New Atlantis, 210d-214d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v, SECT 42-43
34a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-353c
39 SMITH; Wealth of Nations, BK i, 3a-10b; BK
ii, 117a-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metafhysic of Morals,
253c-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 420a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par
198-208 67b-69c; par 243 77b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 278d
50 MARX: Capital, 164a-180d esp 164a-165c,
171d-176a, 178d-179c
4a. The economic causes and effects of the di-
vision of labor: its relation to the ex-
change, production, and distribution of
goods and services; its bearing on opu-
lence
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 316c-319a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH v, SECT 42-43
34a-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxin,
191a-c
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 352a-353c; 365b-366b
' 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 3a-10c; BK ir,
117a^d, BK in, I63a-c; BK iv, 191a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-23b; 655d-
656a
, 42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 253c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 198-
199 67b-c / Philosophy of History, PART i,
250ac
50 MARX: Capital, 16c-d; 17b-c; 31a-37C csp
32a-c, 34c-3Sa; 48b-50b; 80b-81a; 164a-165b;
167a-170b; 171c-175c; 176a-d;, 178a-180d esp
178c-179c; 218c-219b; 251a-255a passim;
377c-378a
<
4b. The social consequences of the division of
labor: the development of classes
6 HERODOTUS: Histoty, BK n, 84d-85b; BK vi,
196c
7 PLATO: Republic, BK H-IV, 316c-356a / Lotos,
BK vm, 740d-741a
prAmiaifOTLE: Politic^ BK i, CH 4 447l>-c;rBK
^ n, CH 5 [i264»i-b25l 459a*460a; CK8
b4j. 464«-b; BK ni, CH 5 [1177*33-1
CHAPTER 44: LABOR
935
475«-c; BK ivv OH 4 [1190*21-1291^29] 489d-
491a; BK vi, en i [1317*17^29] 520b-c; BK vn,
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry J#, ACT iv, sc n
57d-59d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, I54b-J&5b; 158a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv, lllc
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353a-355b; 365b-366a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 7d-8b; 55d-
56a; 109d-HOd; BK in, 169c-170b; BK v,
301a-309a,c passim, esp303d-304#
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89d; 498c-d;
501b-c; 655d-656a
42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 35, 113b«114a; NUMBER
36, 114c-115a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 369b-370a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 127b-c; 140b-141a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 198-
208 67b-69c; par 243 77b-c; ADDITIONS, 128-
129 137b-c / Philosophy of History, PART i,
222a-d; 250a-c; PART n, 275b-276a; PART iv,
335a-336c
50 MARX- Capital, 16c-d; 165c-166a; 170c-176a
esp 170c-172c, 174c-175c; 179a-c; 186b-d;
205c-206c; 218c-219d; 239d-240c; 261d-262a;
317c-319a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422b-
424c esp 422c-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-167b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c-d
4c. The moral aspects of the division of labor:
the acquisition of the virtue of art; the
attenuation of art by insignificant tasks
13 VIRGIL: Georgtcs, i [118-^159] 40a-41b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART ii-n,
Q 187, A 3, REP i 666a-669b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a; 353b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 7d-8a; 54c-
55a; 109d-110d; BK iv, 291a-c; BK v, 340d-
342a
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Mctaphystc of Morals,
253c-d / Judgement, 524a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 164b-c; 165a-166c; 170c-171a;
173b; 176a-178d; 205c-208a; 226d-231b;
249a-250c;319d-320a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422c-d
5. The organization of production: the position
of labor in different economies
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 36Sb^36j5a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, JINTRO, ld-2a,c;
BK i, 50a-c; 109a
50 MARX: Capital, 33b-36c esp 36c-d [£112];
79c-81a cap 79d-80b [fo 4], «0b-c; l(Mb-l05a;
113c-115c esp U3c-d; 140a-150c; 157a-164a
esp 158d-160d, 162d-164a; 171d-176e; 266c;
. 267c; 283c-d; 354c-355d; 377c-378d
50 MARX-ENOELS: Communist Manifesto,
425b-429cesp426b-c,429b-c ,
5tf, Domestic or chattel jiavcry io i sla^ve econ-
omy , , t, ^ '. '^ ((i' , k ^ r
OLD TESTAMENT; J&ofas, ?,:8-i4; ai :i-ia,t6»2o-
21,26-27,32 / tyeviticus, 25:4^-55 / Deuter-
onomy, 15:12-1^; 23:15-16; 24:14-15 (1
APOCRYPHA : Ecclesiastics, 33 124-3 1 — (/?)< DT,
Ecclesiasticus, 33:25-33 /( ^
NEW TESTAMENT: Colossians, 3:22-4:1 / Titus,
2:9-11 / Philemon , •• , ,y v, » '
4 HOMER: Odyssey^ BK xiv 155*71] 260d; BK xv
[351-379] 269c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [507-520] 635a-b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 709a-710ft
9 ARISTOTLI; Politics, BK i, cij 2 [i252^26-bi3]
445c-d; CH 3-7 446d-449c passim; CH 13
454a-455a,c passim; BK u, CH 9 [u69*33-bi2]
465c-d; BK vn, CH 10 [1330*25-34] 534d /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [1361*12-14] 601c-
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 278<J-279a; 287b-d
/ Crassus, 439a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies, PART^I-II, Q
105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4 318b*321a
23 HQBBES: Leviathan, PART u, 11 Ob- Ilia; PART
iv, 261d-262a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptrit of Laws, BK XHI, 96d-
97b; BK xv, 109a-d; llld-112c; BK xvi, 116a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 167a-d; BK
iv, 239c-240a; 2S3c-254a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 16c-17d; 144b;
498b-500b passim, esp 500a-b; 620a-c
41 GIBBONS Decline and Fall, 81d-82b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
9 [260-266] 13d; ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [529-535]
16b; AMENDMENTS, XIII 18c »
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 137b-c; NUMBER
54, 170b-d
43 MILL: Representative Government, 339d-340c
44 BOSWELL \ Johmon, 363b-<364c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 66
29a-c
50 MARX: Capital, 95a-b [fn i]; H3fc-U4a; 128d-
I29a; 266c; 267c; ?S3c-d; 354c-355d-
52 DOSTOEVSKY; Brothers Kararnazw, BK vi,
165b-167b
56. Serfdom or agrarian peonage in a feudal
economy
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xui, 96d-
97b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 165b*170c
\ esp 167a-l70c; I?5d-l79a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 144b~c; 62|Bc-d
, 41 GIBBON: Decide an4 Fall, 404c-d; 452d-
453a,c
43 MILL: Representative Governmtnt^$&lfa3S2b
, J&HmzL^PhtiosQphy of Right, PAR.J: I, pwr 66
29a-c / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 335a-
50 MARX: Capital 341?; 79d-80b [ib^; 114a-
, H5c; 2$6c; 354c-355d ^ 355d-364a p^5sin>
50 MARX-ENOELS: Communist Manifetfa 420a-d
936
THE GREAT IDEAS
5c to 7 a
(5, The organization of production: the position of
labor indifferent economies. 56. Serfdom or
agrarian peonage in a feudal economy.)
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 211a-213a;
BK vi, 235a; BK x, 410c-411a; EPILOGUE i,
654a-655c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-166a
5c. The wage earner or industrial proletariat
it* a capitalist economy
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365d-366a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 20b-21c;
27b-37b passim; 42a-62a passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c
43 MILL: Liberty, 309b-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 345c-346a; 366d-367b; 369b-370a /
Utilitarianism, 473b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 251-
256 78d-80a
50 MARX: Capital, 79a-256a esp 82d-84a,c, 88d-
89b, 104b 105c, 112c, 115c-131a, 150a-c, 161b-
162d, 176a-178d, 192d-250c, 254c-255a;
261d-262a; 279a-383d esp 280c-286a, 287b-
290c, 303b-305a, 311c-353a,c, 354c-355d,
364a-368b, 377a-378b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422c-
423a; 424b-c; 426b-428a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-c
5</. The condition of the worker in a socialist
economy
43 MILL: Liberty, 309b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 34d-35c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425b-
429c esp 426b, 429b-c
6. The wages of labor: kinds of wage pay-
ments
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b;
42a62a
43 MILL: Liberty, 309b-c / Representative Gov-
ernment, 366d-367a / Utilitarianism, 472d-
473a
50 MARX: Capital, 82d-83c; 264a-278a,c
6a. Labor as a commodity: the labor market
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 124c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365d-366a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 13a-16d;
20b*2le; 27b-37b esp 28a-d, 29b-33c; 42a-
62a; I07b; BK iv, 243b,d-244a; BK v, 380b,d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 424b-425a
43 MILL: Liberty, 3l9b*d
SOMAftx: Capital, 79a-84a,c; 91a-95a passim,
' esp 93b-94a; 112c-113c; 211a-219d esp 211a-c,
216a-d; 302d-317c esp 303b-305a, 315c-317c;
' ' i?9a-383d esp 381b, 382c-383d
50 MARX-£NOELS: Communist Manifesto, 422c-
423a
6b. The iron law of wages: the subsistence level
and the minimum wage
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 28d-29a; 41b;
BK v, 383b-384c
50 MARX: Capital, 81a-82c; 256b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422c-d;
424d-425a; 426b
6c, The distinction between real and nominal
wages: variable factors affecting wage
levels
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 13a-20b esp
14b-d; 23c-27b passim; 27b-37b esp 28a-32b;
39d-40b; 42a-62a; 82d-83a; 87b-c; BK n,
123b-124a; BK iv, 265a-d; BK v, 380b,d-
382a,c; 383b-387b; 391b-392a
50 MARX: Capital, 171a-c; 223a esp 223b [fn i];
256b-260c esp 258b-c; 267d-268c; 302d-307c;
315c-316c
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto, 422c-d;
423c; 425a-b
6d. The natural wages of labor and the labor
theory of value
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353a-b
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK i, 13a-14d;
16a; 20b-21c; 27b-28a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 424b-425a
50 MARX- Capital, 13a-25d esp 14c-16a, 24c-
25d; 32c-33b; 35d-36a [fn i]; 36a-b [fn i];
78c-d; 93b-96a; lOOa-lOlc; 112c-113b; 264a-
267d esp 265a-266a
7. Economic and political justice to the laborer
la. Fair wages, hours, and working conditions:
labor legislation
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 12:16; 20:9-10; 21:1-
12,16,20,26-27,32; 31:14-17 / Leviticus, 16:29;
19:13; 23:3-8,21,25,27-36; 25:1-12,39-55 /
Numbers, 28:16-18,25-26; 29:1,7,12,35 / Deu-
teronomy, 5.12-15; 15:12-18; 16:8; 23:15-16;
24:14-15 / Jeremiah, 17:22,24; 22:13— (D)
Jeremias, 17:22,24; 22:13
APOCRYPHA. Tobit, 4:14— (D) OT, Tobias, 4:15
/ Ecclesiasticus, 7:20-21; 33:24-31; 34:20-22
— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:22-23; 33:25-33;
34^4-27
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:10; 20:8 / Lufe,
3:14; 10:7 / Ephesians, 6:5-9 / ^ Timothy,
5:i8/// Timothy, 2:6
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vni, 741b-d
9 ARISTOTLE : Ethics, BK ix, CH i 416b,d-417c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 2, REP 6 309d-316a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30c-d
36 SWIFT; Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv,
lllb-c
38 ROUSSEAU; Inequality, 353b; 365b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 13a*14d; 20b-
; LABOR
csp
35b; 42a-62a passtfai, csp 50b-c, 56bf57a, 58b-
ftdt 106c-107a; BK iv, 200c-201a; ?37b-<;
42 KANT: S«mtf of Right, 424b-425a
43 MILL: Liberty, 309b-c; 310c-d / Representative
Government, 345c-346a; 366d-3$7b /' Utili-
tarianism, 467b; 472d-473c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART nit par 236
76a-c; ADDITIONS, 145 140b
50 MARX,: Capital, 81a-84a,c; 102b-156d esp
104b-105c, 112c-113c> 127c-146q, 150a-c,
156c-d; 192d-209a passim, csp 193a-194b;
226a-248d csp 236c-242a; 256b-275c pas-
sim, csp 261c-262a, 263c-d, 266a-267c; 296b-
307c passim, esp 296c-298a, 305c-307c; 366a-
368a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto) 422c-
423a; 423c-d
lb. The right to property: the ownership of
the means of production
7 PLATO: Republic, BK m-iv, 341c-342d / Laws,
BK v, 692d-693a; 695a-696b
9 ARISTOTLE. Politics, BK n, CH 5 45&a-460a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Tiberius
Gracchus, 674c-681a,c csp 675b-d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a
» 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339c-d; 353a / Social
Contract, BK i, 394a
39 SMITH- Wealth of Nations, BK m, 165b-170c;
BK iv, 239c-240a; 243b,d-244a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 404a; 409d-410d;
414c-41,5c; 426b-428a; 431aT432a; 441d-443b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 366d
46 HEGEL; Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 52
25a-c; par 67-69 29c-31a; ADDITIONS, 32
121d-122a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 295a-297a
50 MARX: Capital, 88d-89b; 113c-d;149a-151a,c
passim, esp 150b-c; 160d-162d; I73c-I74a;
280c-283d passim, esp 282b-c; 288b-290c;
319c-d; 354a-364a esp 354a-355d, 359c-361d;
369c-370b; 377c-378d
50 MARX- ENG ELS: Communist Manifesto, 424c;
425c-427b esp 426a-b; 428d-429c
54 FREUD : Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-
788b passim, esp 787d-788b [fn 3]
7c. The consequences of economic inequality
or oppression: the class war
7c(l) The"economic determination of antago-
nistic social classes: slaves vs. freemen;
laboring vs. leisure classes; propertyless
w. propertied classes
5 EURIPIDES : Suppliants [228-245] 260b-c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [507-526] 635a-b
502d-504b; BK vi, 520e-d; 524d^525d; 533a-
c; BK vin 564a-593a,c passim, esp 568d-569a,
, S87a-590o
7 PLATO: Republic^ B*, iv^443c-d; BK vin,
y, BK vi, 203e-b; BK vn,
243b-c
THucYWDRsr ,Pc{oponne.sian War, BK in,
423a-c; 427d-428a; 428c-d; 434c-438c; BK
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 6
461a; CH 7 461d-463c; CH 9
465c-d; BK nif CH IQ [1281*11-29] 478d-479a;
CH ij [w86b8-22] 484d-485a; BK iv, CH 4
[1291^2-11] 490d; CH 6 [1293*12-34] 492d-
493a; CH 11-12 4?5b-497b; BK v, CH, 3 [i303b
5-8] 505a; CH 4 [i304bi-^] 506a; CH 5 [uo4b
i8]-cH 6 [1305^2] 506b-507c; CH 7 [1306^22-
1307^} SOSc-d; CH 9 [1310*19-25] 512c; CH 10
[i3iob9-i5] 512d-513a; CH 12 [i3i6*39~b22]
519c-d; BK vi, CH 3 521c-522a; CH 7 524c-
525b / Athenian Constitution, CH 2-6 553a-
555c esp CH 5 554d-555a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37c / Solon, 68d-
71c / Camillus, 117c-121a,c / Coriolanus,
176b-184c / Agis 648b,d-656d / 'Tiberius
Gracchus, 674^818,0
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 97b / Histories, BK
n, 224d.225a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH ix, 14c-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
57d-59d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT i, sc i [1-167]
351a-353a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-155b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 77b-83c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 3$5a-356a / Political
Economy, 375b-d; 381c-382b / Social Con-
tract, BK iv, 429c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations^ BK i, 28a-d; 55d-
56a; 109d-110d; BK i\i, 169c-170b; BK iv,
239c-240c; 243b,d-244a; BK v, 309a-311c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 126d-127c; 144a-d;
501b-502c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-51b; NUMBER
35, 113b-114a; NUMBER 36, U4c-U5a; NUM-
BER 60, 185b-186a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 345c-346a;
366d-3^7b; 369b-370a / Utilitarianism, 473b-c
46 HBGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 244
77c; ADDITIONS, 149 140d-141a / Philosophy of
History i INTRO, 193 b-c; PART i, 250a-c; PART
u, 263c-d; 275b-276a; PART HI, 287d,288b;
295d-297b; PART iv, 335a-336c; 356c-357a
50,MAR*: Capitol, 6d-9c; 63b-c; lllc-146c csp
113c, 130a-131a, 134c-d, 141b-c, 14Sa; 209c-
215a esp 209c, 214a-215a; 262a; 282d-286a;
354a-364a; 378d '
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415b-
416d esp 416c-d; 419b,d-425b csp 419b,d-
420a, 421a, 422c-425b; 428c-d; 429c-430d;
432d-433a; 434a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-c
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882b 884d
938
THE GREAT IDEAS
(lc. The contequtnctt of economic inequality or
oppression: the class war.)
7c(2) The organization of workmen and the
formation of trade unions to protect
labor's rights and interests
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 28a-d; 51a-
56b; 61c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 309b-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 345d-346a; 366d-367b
50 MARX: Capital 121c-122b; 137b-138c; 146a-c;
317b-c; 367c-368b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415a-
416c; 423b-d; 425b-c
7c(3) The proletariat as a revolutionary class:
its revolutionary aims
50 MARX: Capital, 9c; 294b-295a csp 295a;
377c-378d csp 378d-379b [fn 2]
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415b-
417a,c csp 416b-d; 422c; 424a-d; 425b-434d
csp 425b-c, 428d-430a, 434c-d
Id. The underprivileged condition of workers:
the exclusion of slaves from citizenship;
the disfranchisement of the laboring
classes
5 ARISTOPHANES: Progs [686-705] 572a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 107d-108a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vm, 405c-407a / Laws,
BK vm, 740d-741a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK 11, CH 7 [i267bi4-i9J
463b-c; CH 8 [1268*16-33] 464a-b; BK HI, CH i
[1275*5-10] 471d; CH 4 [i277a30-b6] 474b-c;
CH 5 [i277b33-i278a34J 475a-c; BK iv, CH 6
[i292b22-i293aio] 492b-c; BK vi, CH 4522a-
523b; CH 7 [1321*27-32] 525a; BK vn, CH 8
[i328*-35-38] 532c; CH 9 533a-d; CH 10
[1330*25-34] 534d / Athenian Constitution, CH
2-5 553a-555a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv, 114c-
115b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK HI, 412b-c;
BK iv, 429c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17a-b; 144b
41 GIBBON : Decline and Fall, 73b; 81d-82b; 404c-
d;452d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
XHI, SECT i-xiv, SECT 1 18c-d; xv 19b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 54, 170b-171b pas-
sim
43 MILL: Representative Government, 339d-
340c; 345c-346a; 351d-352b; 383d-387d
passim; 394a-395c passim / Utilitarianism,
473b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 137b-141b passim, csp 138b,
140a-b; 283d-286a; 316d-317c; 364a-368b esp
367c-368b
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto^ 424c-
42 5a: 428a
7<r(2)ft?7/
It. The problem of poverty and pauperism: un-
employment and the right to work
7 PLATO: Laws, BK v, 695a-c; BK xi, 783b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vi, CH 5 [i32o*i7~bi3]
523d-524b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62b-c / Pericles, 127a-128a / Lucullus,
409b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 157a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 154b-l55b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xx, 147a;
BK xxni, 190a-b; 191b-c; 199b-200a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366a / Political
Economy, 375b-d / Social Contract, BK in,
415b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b csp
28a-d, 30b-31b; 58c-62a; BK iv, 239c-240a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 501c-d; 658c
43 MILL: Liberty, 322c-d / Representative Govern-
ment, 383d-384a
44 BOS-WELL: Johnson, 428b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 230
75c; par 241-245 76d-77d; par 254 79c; AD-
DITIONS, 148-149 140c-141a
50 MARX: Capital, 209c-225d passim, esp 211a-c,
215d-217c; 302d-366a esp 303d-305a, 311c-
325c, 354b-355b, 358a-d, 364a-c
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 424d-
425a
7/. The relation of economic to political free-
dom: economic democracy
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 9 477c-478d;
BK iv, CH 4 [129^30-38] 491a-b; CH 6 492b-
493a; CH n [i295b2-i29(5b2] 495c-496c; BK v,
CH 5 [1305*29-34] 507a; BK vi, CH 4 [i3i8b6-
I3i9b2] 522a-523a; BK vn, CH 9 533a-d
14 PLUTARCH- Solon, 68d-70d / Pophcola- Solon,
87a / Tiberius Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c csp
675b-d/ Caius Gracchus 6Slb,d-6S9a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19d-21d;
BK vn, 44d-45b; BK xm, 99b-100c; BK xv,
114c-115b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 353c-355b passim;
355d-356a / Social Contract, BK n, 405b-c esp
405b [fn i]; BK HI, 422c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 51a-62a pas-
sim, csp 52b-c, 61b; 109d-110d; BK iv, 287c-
288c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 144b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b; 452d-453a,c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-51d; NUMBER 35,
113b-114a
43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c / Representative Govern-
ment, 369b-370a; 382c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 243
77b-c; ADDITIONS, 44 123c; 145 140b / Philoso-
phy of History, PART in, 287d-288b; PART iv,
352a;364d
50 M\KK-EtfGELs: Communist Manifesto, 426b-c;
428d-429c csp 429b-c
CHAPTER 44.* LABOR
939
8. Historical observations on the condition of
labor
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 84d-85b; BK vi,
196c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK n, CH 9 [i269*33-b7J
465c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, i [n8-i59)40a-41b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37c / Solon, 72d /
Pericles, 127a-129b / Marcus Cato, 278d-279a;
287b-d / Crassus, 439a-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xiv, 151d-152c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4 318b-321a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 411a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b,d-353b / Social
Contract, BK iv, 428d; 429d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 27b-37b esp
27b-28a, 29d-33c; 42a-62a passim, esp 50a-
53a, 56b-58b, 59a-62a; 88c-d; BK in, 165b-
173b; 175d-179a; BK iv, 200c-201a; 239c-
240a; 287b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 16c-17d; 113c;
144b-c; 498b-501c passim
41 GIBBON -.Decline and Fall, W4c-d\ 452d-453a,c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 149
14Qd-141a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 295a-297a
50 MARX: Capital, 63b-c; 113c-115c; 127c-146c;
162d-163c; 333c-377a esp 355d-368b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415a-
425b passim, esp 415b-416c, 419b,d, 424d-
425a; 429c-433d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-c
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the golden age, see MAN 93; PROGRESS ic; TIME 8b.
Other considerations of penal labor, see PUNISHMENT 4b(3).
Matters relevant to the nature of productive work and the factors influencing productivity,
sec ART 4, pa-pb; EDUCATION 6; SCIENCE ib(i)-ib(2); WEALTH 33.
Other discussions of the division of labor and its consequences, see FAMILY 33-3^ PROGRESS
33; STATE 50; WEALTH 3d.
Other discussions of the position of labor in different economic systems, see SLAVERY 43-40;
WEALTH 6a, 7b(i).
The general theory of wages and the relation of wages to profits, see WEALTH 4C~4d,
6d(i)-6d(2),
The problem of economic justice to the laborer, see DEMOCRACY 43(2); JUSTICE 8b— 80(2);
PROGRESS 3b; WEALTH 6d(2); and for the relation of economic to political liberty, see
LIBERTY 2d, 6b; REVOLUTION 43.
The discussion of property rights and the problem of the ownership of the means of pro-
duction, see WEALTH ya-ye, 8a-8c.
The problem of the political status of the laboring classes and the issue concerning the ex-
tension of the suffrage to workmen, see CITIZEN 3; CONSTITUTION 53; DEMOCRACY 43(1);
LIBERTY if; OLIGARCHY 4, 53; SLAVERY 5a~5b.
Another discussion of the problems of poverty and unemployment, see WEALTH 8c-8d.
The general theory of the class war as it occurs in different economic systems, see OPPOSITION
5b; REVOLUTION 53-50; STATE 5d(2)~5e; WAR AND PEACE 2c; WEALTH ph.
940
THE GKfcAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to d
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
L Works by authors represented in this collection.
it. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
AUGUSTINE, Of the Wor\ of Monty
F|ECEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, iv (A)
MARX. The Poverty of Philosophy, CH 2 (2,5)
J. S. MILL. Principles of Political Economy, BK i, CH
1-3, 7-8, 10; BK II, CH 1 1-14; BK III, CH 6; BK IV,
CH 7
. "The Claims of Labor," in VOL n, Dissertations
and Discussions
ENGELS. The Condition of the Wording Classes in
England
. Herr Eugen Duhring's Revolution in Science,
PART II
TOLSTOY. "On Labor and Luxury," in What Then
Must We &b?
II.
HESIOD. Worty and Days
LANGLAND. Piers Plowman
T. MORE. Utopia
PARACELSUS. The Miners' Sickness and Other Miners'
Diseases
DEKKER. The Shoemaker's Holiday
RAMAZZINI. De Morbis Artificum (The Diseases of
Workers)
FRANKLIN. Poor Richard's Almanac^
FQURIER. Social Destinies
SOUTHEY. Essays, Moral and Political, iv
RICARDO. The Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation, esp CH i, 5, 16
MALTHUS. An Essay on Population
. Principles of Political Economy, esp BK i, CH
1-2, 4; BK II, CH I, SECT 10
SKIDMORE. The Rights of Man to Property!
T. CARLYLE! Sartor Resartus
HESS. Sozialistische Aufsatze
PROUDHON. The Philosophy of Misery
KIERKEGAARD. Christian Discourses, PART iv (2)
THOREAU. Walden, CH i
RUSKIN. Time and Tide
. Munera Pulveris
. Fors Clavigera
GEORGE. Progress and Poverty
STEVENSON. "An Apology for, Idlers," in Virgini-
bus Puerisque
JEVONS. The State in Relation to Labour
ZOLA. Germinal
SMILES. Life and Labor
NIETZSCHE. The Dawn of Day, APH 173
. The Joyful Wisdom, APH 42, 329, 348
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil, CH in (58)
. The Genealogy of Morals, in (18)
A. MARSHALL. 'Principles of Economics, esp BK iv,
CH 6, 9; BK vi, CH 3-5 '
LEO XIII. Rerum Novarum (Encyclical on the Con-
dition of Labor)
DURKHEIM. The Division of Labor in Society
BUCHER. Arbeit und Rhythmus
S. and B. WEBB. Industrial Democracy, esp PART n-
iii
GROOS. The Play of Men
. The Play of Animals
KROPOTKIN. The Conquest of Bread
. Fields, Factories and Workshops
SINCLAIR. The Jungle
PEGUY. Basic Verities (The Honor of Work)
NEXO. Pelle the Conqueror
SOREL. Reflexions on Violence, CH 7
TROELTSCH. The Social Teaching of the Christian
Churches
BRADLEY. Essays on Truth and Reality, CH 3
J. A. HOBSON. The Evolution of Modern Capitalism
. Wor{ and Wealth
T. VEBLEN. The Theory of the Leisure Class
. The Instinct of Workmanship, and the State of
the Industrial Arts
HAMSUN. Growth of the Soil
MICHELS. Economia efelicita
TAWNEY. The Acquisitive Society
BRIEFS. The Proletariat, a Challenge to Western Civili-
zation
DE MAN. Joy in Worl^
BEVERIDGE. Unemployment
Pius XI. Quadragesimo Anno (Encyclical on the
Reconstruction of the Social Order)
BERLE and M£ANS. The Modern Corporation and
Private Property
E. CHAMBERLIN. The Theory of Monopolistic Com-
petition
DUNKMANN. Soziologie der Arbeit
B. RUSSELL. Proposed Roads to Freedom, CH 4
. Freedom Versus Organization
A. R. BURNS. The Decline of Competition
BORNE and HENRY. A Philosophy of Wor{
GILL. Wor^and Leisure
. WorJ^and Property
SIMON. Trots Itfons sur le travail
STEINBECK. The Grapes of Wrath
MARITAIN. Freedom m the Modern World, APPENDIX i
. Scholasticism and Politics, CH vn
J. M. CLARK. Alternative to Serfdom
Chapter ft: LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION
r"T"'HE liberal arts of grammar, rhetoric, and
JL logic are all concerned with language. Each
of these disciplines establishes its own rules for
the use of language, each by reference to a spe-
cial standard of excellence or correctness which
measures language as an instrument of thought
or communication. Together these three arts
regulate discourse as a whole. Their relation to
one another represents the relation of the vari-
ous aspects of discourse— the emotional, the
social, and the intellectual.
The tradition of the great books is the tradi-
tion of the liberal arts. Their greatness consists
not only in the magnitude of the ideas or prob-
lems with which they deal, but also in their for-
mal excellence as products of liberal art. Some
of the great books are expositions of logic or
rhetoric. None is a treatise on grammar. But
they all plainly exemplify, even where they do
not expound, the special refinements of the arts
of language; and many of them, especially the
works of science, philosophy, and theology, and
even some of the poetical works, deal explicitly
with the difficulties of discourse, and the de-
vices that have been used to overcome them.
Language is their instrument, and they are con-
sciously critical in its use.
One of the great books — Augustine's treatise
On Christian Doctrine— is directly and explicitly
concerned with grammar in the broad sense of
the art of reading. Addressed to "earnest stu-
dents of the word," it attempts to "lay down
rules for interpretation," and, in so doing, it is
compared by Augustine to "one who teaches
reading, that is, shows others how to read for
themselves." It is not reading in general, how-
ever, but the reading of one book — the Bible —
with which Augustine is concerned. We shall re-
turn later to this special problem of interpreting
the word of God» or language which is thought
to be inspired.
In our day, there is a lively interest in the
problems of language. This is partly because of
the development of historical and comparative
studies of the various human languages, and the
scientific formulation of what is common to all
languages in origin, structure, and change. But
it also results in part from the claims of a dis-
cipline popularly called "semantics" to have
discovered the properties of language as a me-
dium of expression, and especially to have dis-
covered its limitations. The claims of semantics
often go so far as to find in the misuse of lan-
guage the origin of many human flls. The novel-
ty of semantics is supposed to lie both in the
diagnosis and in the remedies proposed.
Of these two sources of current interest in
language, the second calls attention to the vi-
tality of the liberal arts, of which semantics is a
contemporary formulation. It might almost be
said that there is nothing new about semantics
except the name. Hobbes, Bacon, and Locke,
for example, deal explicitly with the abuses
of language and the treachery of words. Each
makes recommendations for the correction of
these faults. Plato and Aristotle, Augustine and
Aquinas, Berkeley and Hume, are similarly
concerned with ambiguity in speech, with the
multiple senses in which discourse of every sort
can be interpreted, and with the methods by
which men can approximate precision in the
use of language.
The other interest in language is also repre-
sented in the great books. Though the science
of linguistics and the history of languages are
researches of recent origin, speculation about
the origin of language and, in that context, con-
sideration of the natural and conventional as-
pects of language extend throughout the tradi-
tion. At all times the discussion of the nature of
man and society considers language as one of
the principal characteristics of the specifically
941
942
THE GREAT IDEAS
human world or compares the language of men
with the speech of brutes.
In addition there is the broad philosophical
inquiry into the nature of signs and symbols in
general. This is not limited to the problem of
how written or spoken words get their mean-
ing. The general question calls for an examina-
tion of every type of signifying and every sort
of symbol, verbal and non-verbal, natural and
artificial, human and divine. Though these mat-
ters are closely related to the problems of lan-
guage and may therefore be touched upon here,
their main treatment is reserved for the chapter
on SIGN AND SYMBOL.
THE TREATMENT of language seems to have a
different tenor in ancient and modern times.
The philosophers of antiquity appreciate the
need to safeguard discourse from the aberra-
tions of speech. Plato and Aristotle usually pref-
ace their discussion of a subject with an exami-
nation of the relevant words in current use. Dis-
covering the variety of meanings attached to
common words, they take pains to enumerate
the various senses of a word, and to put these
meanings in some order. They pursue definitions
or construct them to control the ambiguity that
is latent in the language anyone must use to ex-
press or communicate ideas. But they do not
expect to remove ambiguity entirely. They tend
to accept the fact that the same word will have
to be used in a number of senses; and they dis-
criminate between the occasions when it is de-
sirable to be precise about a word's meaning
and those times when the purpose of discourse
is better served by permitting a word to carry
a whole range of meanings. They see no special
difficulty in abstract as opposed to concrete
words, or in general names as distinguished from
the proper names which designate individuals,
or in words which refer to purely intelligible
objects like ideas rather than to the objects of
sense-experience.
The mood of the ancients, which also prevails
for the most part among the philosophers and
theologians of the Middle Ages, seems td ex-
press a certain tolerance of the imperfect ions of
language. If men do not think clearly, if they
do not reason cogently or argue honestly, the
fault is primarily the result of the misuse of
their faculties, not of the betrayal of their in-
tentions by the intractable character of lan-
guage as an instrument. Even when men mis-
understand one another, the inadequacy of lan-
guage as a medium of communication is not
solely responsible for the failure of minds to
meet through the interchange of words. With
greater effort, with a more assiduous applica-
tion of the liberal arts, men can succeed even if
language works against them.
Some things are inexpressible in human
speech even as they are incapable of being fully
grasped by human thought. "My vision," Dan-
te says when he reaches the mystic rose of Para-
dise, "was greater than our speech." Such
knowledge as we can have of "the highest mat-
ters and the first principles of things" Plato
thinks "does not admit of exposition like other
branches of knowledge." In his Seventh Letter, he
even goes so far as to say that "no man of intel-
ligence will venture to express his philosophical
views in language."
With these exceptions the ancients seem to
adopt a mood of tolerance towards language.
This does not imply an underestimation of the
difficulties of using language well. It simply does
not make of language an insidious enemy of
clarity and truth. The deficiencies of language
are like the weaknesses of the flesh. As man can
in large part overcome them through the* disci-
pline of the moral virtues, so through the dis-
cipline of the liberal arts— *by skill in grammar,
rhetoric, and logic— he can make language ex-
press almost as much truth as he can acquire,
and communicate it almost as clearly as he can
think it. Men need not succumb to the tyranny
of words if they will make the requisite effort to
master language to serve their purpose.
But the liberal arts do not guarantee purity
of purpose. Obscurantism, obfuscation, decep-
tion, and falsification are sometimes the aim.
Men try to persuade others at all costs, or to
win the argument regardless of where the truth
lies. They try to confuse their opponents or
mislead their audience. The use of language for
such ends requires as much skill as its employ-
ment in the service of truth. If such use is a
misuse, then language is equally available for
use or misuse*
It is an ancient saying that only the compe-
tent in grammar can make grammatical errors
intentionally. So, as Plato recdgni&es, the dif-
CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE
943
fcrcncc between th? sophist and the philoso-
pher is not one of skill but of purpose. When he
criticizes the trickery of sophistical argument,
he ajso acknowledges the cleverness with which
the sophists juggle words and propound absurd-
ities under the cover of superficially significant
speech. The sophistical fallacies which Aristotle
enumerates are seldom accidental errors. Far
from being the result of the impediments which
language places in the way of thought, they are
in large measure artfully contrived equivoca-
tions. They are ways of using language against
logic. According to Aristotle, they represent
"foul fighting in disputation" and are resorted
to only by "those who are resolved to win at all
costs."
IN THE MODERN treatment of language there is
more of an imputation that words cause men
unwittingly to deceive themselves as often as
they enable one man intentionally to deceive
another. Men are duped or tricked by the tend-
ency of words to counterfeit a reality which
does not exist. This, in the view of Hobbes or
Locke, Berkeley or Hume, is particularly true
of general or universal names— or words that ,
signify nothing which can be perceived or im-
agined.
We* cannot imagine anything infinite, says
Hobbes. Hence a word like "infinite" is a form
of absurd speech "taken upon credit (without
any signification at all) from deceived philoso-
phers and deceived, or deceiving, Schoolmen."
In addition to the deceptions of ordinary am-
biguity and of metaphorical speech, Hobbes
pays particular attention to the absurd, insig-
nificant, or nonsensical use of words "whereby
we conceive nothing but the sound"; he gives
as examples, not merely "round quadrangle,"
but "infused virtue," "free will," and "imma-
terial substance."
In the light of the examples, this theory of in-
significant or meaningless speech explains what
Hobbes means when he says that "words are
wise men's counters, they do but reckon by
them; but they are the money of fools." It also
indicates how Bofrbes uses the susceptibility of
men to self-deception through language a$ a way
of explaining the errors — he calls them "absurd-
ities"—into which his predecessors have fallen.
What is novel hero is not that he disagrees with >
earlier thinkers on points of psychology and
metaphysics or theology, but that he reduces*
what might be supposed to be an issue between
true and false opinions to a difference between
significant and absurd speech. His opponents
might reply that unless his own views about
matter and mind are true, his semantic criti-
cism of them does not hold. They have been
seduced by language into talking nonsense only
if Hobbes is right in his metaphysics and psy-
chology,
The criticism of arguments which seem to
rely on metaphors is not peculiarly modern. In
his attack on the Platonic theory of ideas, Aris-
totle dismisses the statement that the Forms
"are patterns and other things share in them"
as a use of "empty words and poetical- meta
phors." But Hobbes carries this method of crit
icism much further. He frequently rests his
case against other philosophers entirely on the
ground that they arc talking nonsense. Though
he himself catches the imagination, almost as
often as Plato does, by his skillfully wrought
metaphors, he would insist that what he says
can always be rendered literally, whereas the
metaphors of others conceal the insignificance
of their speech.
Bacon provides another illustration of the
modern attitude which ascribes a diabolical
character to language. "There arises from a bad
and unapt formation of words," he writes, "a
wonderful obstruction to the mind. Nor can the
definitions and explanations with which learned
men are wont to guard and protect themselves
in some instances afford a complete remedy —
words still manifestly force the understanding,
throw every thing into confusion, and lead man-
kind into vain and innumerable controversies
and fallacies." He goes on to say that "the idols
imposed upon the understanding by words, are
of two kinds. They are either names of things
which have no existence . . .or they are names of
actual objects, but confused, badly defined, and
hastily or irregularly abstracted from things/'
Here, as in the case of Hobbes, a theory of
reality and of the way in which the mind draws
its ideas from experience seems to underlie the
charge that language tangles the mind in a^web
of words, so that it deals with words, rather than
with things* In the? same spirit, though not from
the same premises, Locke tells his reader why
944
THE GREAT IDEAS
he found it necessary to include in his Essay
Concerning Human Understanding the long third
book on language, which examines in detail the
imperfections as well as the abuses of words, and
the remedies therefor.
"Vague and insignificant forms of speech, and
abuse of language," he says, "have so long passed
for mysteries of science; and hard or misapplied
words with little or no meaning have, by pre-
scription, such a right to be mistaken for deep
learning and height of speculation, that it will
not be easy to persuade either those who speak,
or those who hear them, that they are but the
covers of ignorance, and hinderance of true
knowledge. ... So few are apt to think they de-
ceive, or are deceived in the use of words or
that the language of the sect they are of has any
faults in it."
Without judging the fundamental issues in-
volved concerning the nature of things and of
man and his mind, one point seems to be clear.
According as men hold different conceptions of
the relation of language to thought (and in con-
sequence assume different attitudes toward the
imperfections or misuse of language), they in-
evitably take opposite sides on these issues.
Whether the discipline of language is called se-
mantics or the liberal arts, the standards by
which one man criticizes the language of another
seem to depend upon what he holds to be true.
The present work on the great ideas aims, in
part, to record the agreements and disagree-
ments among the great minds of the western
tradition. It also records how those minds have
used the same word in different senses or have
used quite distinct words for the same thing. It
could not do either unless it did both. This in-
dicates the basic relationship between language
and thought which the great books exemplify,
even when they do not explicitly make it the
basis of their discussion of the relation between
language and thought.
THE IDEAL OF A perfect and universal language
seems to arise in modern times from dissatisfac-
tion with the inadequacy of ordinary language
for the analytical refinement and precision of
mathematics or science. As Descartes holds up
the method of mathematics as the procedure to
be followed in all other inquiries and subject
matters, so his conception of a "universal ma the-
sis" calls for a language which shall be the per-
fect instrument of analysis and demonstration.
It is sometimes supposed that the symbolism
of mathematics is itself that perfect language.
Lavoisier quotes Condillac to the effect that al-
gebra, "in the most simple, most exact, and best
manner, is at the same time a language and an
analytical method." Of the analytical equations
"which Descartes was the first to introduce into
the study of curves and surfaces," Fourier re-
marks that "they extend to all general phenom-
ena. There cannot be a language more universal
and more simple, more free from errors and ob-
scurities, that is to say, more worthy to express
the invariable relations of natural things. . . .
Its chief attribute is clearness; it has no marks
to express confused notions. ... It follows the
same course in the study of all phenomena; it
interprets them by the same language."
This praise of mathematical symbolism indi-
cates that one feature of the ideal is an exact
correspondence between words and ideas. "Like
three impressions of the same seal," Lavoisier
says, "the word ought to produce the idea, and
the idea to be a picture of the fact." If there
were a perfect one-to-one correspondence be-
tween physical symbols and mental concepts,
there would never be any failures of communi-
cation. Men would be able to understand each
other as well as if they could see directly into
each other's minds. Though they still used
external signs as a medium of communication,
they would approximate the immediate com-
munication which the theologians attribute to
angels. In addition, the process of thinking it-
self, quite apart from communication, could be
perfectly regulated by the rules of grammar —
the rules for manipulating symbols.
In the sense in which Lavoisier says that "the
art of reasoning is nothing more than a language
well arranged," the rules of thought might be
reduced to the rules of syntax if there were a
perfect language. If the symbols of mathematics
lack the universality to express every sort of
concept, then it may be necessary, as Leibnitz
proposes, to construct a "universal characteris-
tic" which would make possible a symbolic cal-
culus for the performance of all the operations
of thought. This conception seems to contain
the principle and the motivation for the vari-
ous logistical schemes which accompany the
modern development of symbolic or
matical logic, from Boole and Vena to Peario*
Coucurat, Russell, and Whitehead. The hopes
to be realized by an algebra of logic find ex-
pression in Jevons' plan for a logical abacus
which, like an adding machine, or comptometer,
would be a thinking machine able to solve all
problems that can be put in suitable terms.
Is THE IDEAL of a perfect and universal lan-
guage a genuine hope or a utopidn dream ? Not
all modern scientists seem to agree with Lavoi-
sier's point that the improvement of a science
and the improvement of its language are insep-
arable. Faraday, for example, apologising for
the invention of new words to name electrical
phenomena, says that he is "fully aware thaj
names are one thing and science another." The
Utopian character of the ideal seems to be im-
plied in Swift's satinzation of a universal Ian*
guage. On his voyage to the cloud-land of the
scientists in Laputa, Gulliver learns of a project
which is being considered by the professors of
language. "Since words are only names for
things, it would be more convenient for all men
to carry about them such things as were neces-
sary to express the particular business they are
to discourse on." The substitution of things for
words would thus provide a "universal language
to be understood in all civilized nations."
In the ancient world thp,imperfection of or-
dinary speech gives rise, not to the conception
of a perfect language which man should try to
construct, but to the consideration of the dis-
tinction between a hypothetical natural lan-
guage and the existing conventional languages
actually in use. If there were a natural language,
it would not only be the same for all men every-
where, but its words would also be perfect im-
ages or imitations of things. That human lan^
guage is conventional rather than natural may
be seen not only in the plurality of tpngues, but
also in the fact that existing languages embody
contradictory principles of symJbolization. ,
This fact, Plato suggests in the Crjtylujt in-
dicates that human language doep jaot originate
as a gift from the gods, for if the gods had given
men the names they use, signs would be j^qrr
fectly and consistently adapted to things signi-
fied* The hypothesis of a natural or god-giv^Q
knguage is not proposed as an ideal to inspire
45r LANGUAGE $45
inert to try to invent a perfect language for
themselves. It functions rather as a norm for the
criticism of majn-madd language and for discov-
ering the naturaj elements common to all con*
ventional languages.
, jLikc human society, human language seems
to be partly natural, partly conventional. As
there are certain political principles, such as that
of natural justice, common to all societies de-
spite the diversity of their customs and institu-
tions, so all conventional languages have certain
common characteristic^ of structure which in-
dicate their natural basis in the physical and
mental constitution of man. In the tradition of
the liberal arts* the search for a universal' gram-
mar, applicable to all conventional languages,
represents not the hope to create a universal or
perfect language, fciXt the conviction that al}
languages have a common, natural basis.
THE HYPOTHESIS of a natural language takes
another forni and has another implication in the
Judaeo-Christian tradition, where it is discussed
in the light of certain portions of revelation. Yet
it retains the same fundamental relevance to the
problem of the origin and characteristics of the
many conventional languages which now exist.
Gene&s relates how, after God formed ev^ry
beast of the field and every fowl of the air, He
"brought them to Adam to see what he would
call them; and whatsoever Adam called every
living creature, that was the name thereof."
The names which Adam devised constituted
a natural language, at least insofar as, accord-
ing to Augustine's interpretation, it is the one
"common language of the race" both before, the
flood and for some time after. But there is . the
further question whether the names which
Adam gave to things were their rightful or
proper Jiames— whether they were natural; signs
in the sense of true representations, of tfre na(-
tures of the things signified. ,»{,,, , ;
Hobbes suggests one answer when he say & that
"the first author of speech was God himself,
who instructed Adam how to name such crea-
tures as he presented to his sight"; Aqgustine
suggests another answer by identifying the orig-
inal language of man with, Hebrew, and by af-
firming, the continuity of the Hebrew spoken
aftqr Babel with the language all men spoke be-
fore the confysion of tongues.
946
THE GREAT IDEAS
At the timt when men began to build "a
tower whose top may reach unto heaven," Gen-
esis tells us that "the whole earth was of one
language and one speech. . . . And the Lord
said, Behold, the people is one, and they have
all one language; and this they begin to do; and
now nothing will be restrained from them,
which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us
go down, and there confound their language,
that they may not understand one another's
speech."
This, according to Hobbes, means that the
language "gotten and augmented by Adam and
his posterity, was again lost at the tower of Babel,
when by the hand of God every man was strick-
en for his rebellion, with an oblivion of his for-
mer language." If the further implication is that
the lost language was unlike any of the con-
ventional languages in the historical record,
then it may be supposed to have been that
natural form of speech in which each thing is
named according to its nature. The modern
ideal of a perfect and universal language may
even be looked upon as an impious wish to
achieve what God took away from men at
Babel.
THE PROBLEM of the origin of human language
is not an easy one for the theologian. It is more
difficult still for those who speculate about it in
purely naturalistic terms. Rousseau tries to ex-
pose some of the perplexities in such specula-
tions.
If speech did not become a social necessity
until men passed from isolation in a state of na-
ture to living together in society, how, he asks,
could societies have been formed before lan-
guages had been invented ? "If men need speech
to learn to think," he remarks, "they must have
stood in much greater need of the art of think-
ing, to be able to invent that of speaking." The
development of languages already in existence,
or the way in which the child learns to speak
through living in an environment where speech
exists, "by no means explains how languages
were originally formed."
Rousseau imagines a primitive condition in
which men uttered instinctive cries "to implore
assistance in case of danger, or relief in case of
suffering"; he supposes that to such cries, men
may have added gestures to signify visible and
movable objects, and imitative sounds to sig-
nify audible ones. Such methods of expression
being insufficient to convey ideas about absent
or future things, men had at last to invent "the
articulate sounds of the voice" and to institute
these as conventional signs. But, as he observes,
"such an institution could only be made by
common consent . . . itself still more difficult to
conceive, since such a common agreement
must have had motives, and speech, therefore,
seems to have been highly necessary in order to
establish the use of it."
The problem of the origin of human language
is not only connected with the problem of the
origin of human society, but also with the prob-
lem of the origin of man himself. The faculty of
articulate speech does not, according to Darwin,
"offer any insuperable objection to the belief
that man has been developed from some lower
form." Though the habitual use of articulate
language is peculiar to man, "he uses, in com-
mon with the lower animals, inarticulate cries
to express his meaning, aided by gestures and
the movements of the muscles of the face." The
songs of birds and the speech of parrots show
that animals can learn to make and repeat cer-
tain definite sounds, and even to connect words
with things. It seems to Darwin quite credible
that man's articulate language "owes its origin
to the imitation and modification of various nat-
ural sounds, the voices of other animals, and
man's own instinctive cries, aided by signs and
gestures."
SUCH AN ACCOUNT of the origin of human speech
is not credible, however, to those who disagree
with Darwin's statement that "the lower ani*
mals differ from man solely in his almost infi-
nitely larger power of associating together the
most diversified sounds and ideas." Those who
hold that human rationality differs in kind,
rather than degree, from animal intelligence
tend to find a corresponding difference in kind
between human language and the sounds of
brutes. Aristotle, for example, says that man is
the only artimal whom nature "has endowed
with the gift of speech. Mere vocalization is
only an indication of pleasure and pain and is
therefore found in other animals/' but men
alone have the power to discuss the expedient
and the just, and this fact distinguishes human
CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE
947
association from the companionship of gregar-
ious animals.
Human speech is, for Descartes, one of the
two criteria by which we can "recognize the
difference that exists between men and brutes.
For it is a very remarkable fact that there are
none so depraved and stupid, without even ex-
cepting idiots, that they cannot arrange differ-
ent words together, forming of them a state-
ment by which they can make known their
thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no
other animal . . . which can do the same. It is
not the want of organs that brings this to pass,
for it is evident that magpies and parrots can
utter words just like ourselves^ and yet they
cannot speak as we do, that is, so as to give evi-
dence that they think of what they say. . . .
This does not merely show that the brutes have
less reason than men, but that they have none
at all."
The difference between men and other ani-
mals is more fully discussed in the chapter on
MAN. Here we are concerned with opposite opin-
ions on that subject only in relation to opposite
views of human language and its origin. When,
as in Descartes' view, human language is dis-
tinguished by syntax and grammar or, as in
Locke's, by man's special power to use sounds
"as signs of internal conceptions, and to make
them stand as marks for ideas within his own
mind," the origin of human speech does not
seem explicable in evolutionary terms.
THE RELATION OF grammar to the other liberal
arts and to the various uses of language is con-
sidered in the chapters on LOGIC, POETRY, and
RHETORIC. Isolated from these others, gram-
mar is primarily concerned with the distinction
of the parts of speech, such as noun and verb, or
particle and adjective.
"By a noun," says Aristotle, "we mean a
sound significant by convention, which has no
reference to time, and of which no part is sig-
nificant apart from the rest." In contrast to
the noun, the verb is denned by Aristotle as
the sort of word which, "in addition to its
proper meaning, carries with it the notion of
time. . . , Moreover," he continues, "a verb is
always a sign of something said of something
else." The grammatical function of nouns and
verbs is, in Locke's opinion, more generally
recognized and better defined than that of
particles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Such
words, Locke writes, "show what connexion,
restriction, distinction, opposition, emphasis,
etc. [a man] gives to each respective part of
his discourse. ... He who would show the
right use of particles, and what significancy and
force they have, must take a little more pains,
enter into his own thoughts, and observe nice-
ly the several postures of his mind in dis-
coursing."
Grammar is also concerned with the dif-
ference between words (or phrases) and sen-
tences, or, in Aristotle's terms, between simple
and composite expressions; and with the rules
of syntax which govern the order and agree-
ment of words according to their function as
parts of speech. By reference to these rules
the grammarian critizes the misuse of language
and classifies a great variety of common errors.
One test of whether grammar is a universal
art applicable to all languages — not just a set
of rules for using a particular conventional
language correctly — is the naturalness of its
theoretical distinctions. Does Aristotle's dis-
tinction between noun and verb, for example,
respond to something natural in all discourse,
or is it peculiar to the Greek or to the Indo-
European languages?
THERE is A MEANING of language which includes
more than the speech of men and brutes. From
Hippocrates on, the physician regards the symp-
toms of disease as if they were a connected sys-
tem of signs, a language for which his diagnostic
art provides a grammar of interpretation. This
is particularly true in the psychological realm
where, in the psychoanalysis of the neuroses and
especially in Freud's interpretation of dreams,
both symptom and dream-symbol are treated
as an elaborate language. That language serves
to express the unconscious thoughts and desires
which cannot be expressed in the ordinary lan-
guage of social intercourse over which conscious-
ness exercises some control.
These medical examples represent a concep-
tion of language according to which the whole
X>f nature is a book to be read by the scientist.
He penetrates the mysteries of nature by learn-
ing the grammar of natural signs. To know the
relation of natural things as cause and effect or
948
IHE GREAT IDEAS
whole and £art is to discover nature's Syntax.
According to another conception, expressed fc>y
Galileo, the book of nature "is written in mathe-
matical language, its symbols being triangles,
circled, and other gedmetrical figures, without
whose help it is impossible to comprehend a
single word of it/'
The book of nature may also be read as the
language of God. Prophecy or divination is such
a reading of dreams or of other events as omens
and portents which bespeak the divine purpose.
'When he reaches the highest heaven Dante finds
in the vision of the Trinity, "bound up with
love in one volume, that which is dispersed in
leaves through the universe.*' Berkeley goes
further than this. All of the ideas which man
gets t>y sdnse-perception are Words in a divine
vocabulary. The uniform appearances of nature
"rhay not unfitly be styled the Language of its
Author, whereby Rediscovers His attributes to
our view and directs us how to act for the con-
venience and felicity of life."
God speaks to man in still another way. With-
in the Judaeo-Christian tradition at least, God
is believed to have revealed himself to man
through the vehicle of human language. Writ-
ten by men under divine inspiration, Sacred
Scripture is the word of God. Because it is at
once human and divine, this language is the
most difficult for man to interpret.
1 The art of interpreting the Bible involves the
most elaborate theory of signs, and of the types
and levels of meaning. It involves special rules
of reading. The development of this theory and
these rules by Augustine and Aquinas, Maimon-
ides and Spinoza, Hobbes and Pascal, has deep-
ened the liberal arts and enlarged the scope of
man's understanding of other languages^-his
own or nature's. Since the heart of this larger
consideration of language lies in the analysis of
meaning and the modes of signification, tfoc dis*
cussion of the syrribolism of nature and fche Word
df God belongs to the chapter on Sidfc AND SYM-
BOL; and, in its theological aspects, at'ine chap-
ters on PROPHECY and RELIGION, f -
• • > » to
TriB DISCUSSION of language, a* we havtf seen,
cannot be separated from -the consideration of
human nature arid human society'.' Because He
"designed man fbr!a sociafee creature," Grid,
according 'to Lticke,''"officfe terrt hot only *tfth
an inclinati tmder a nectesiity to have
fellowship with those of his own kind, but fur-
nished him also with language, Which was to
be the great instrument and common' tie of
society."
It is not merely that the fellowship of men
depends upon speech, According to Locke, men
carinot enjoy "the comfort ihd advantage of
society ... without the communication' of
thoughts." The fact that "man had by nature
his organs so fashioned as to be fit to frame
articulate sounds . . . was not enough to pro-
duce language" — at least riot human language,
"for parrots, and several other birds, can be
taught to make articulate sounds distinct
enough," and yet, Locke writes, they are "by
no means capable of language. Besides articu-
late sounds, therefore, it was further neces-
sary," he insists, that the sounds rhen formed
should be the instrument whereby "the thoughts
of men's minds [are] conveyed from one to
another."
Rousseau, on the other hand, seems to think
that under the primitive circumstances sur-
rounding the origin of both society and lan-
guage, the association of men "would not re-
quire a language much more refined than that
of rooks or monkeys, who associate together
for much the same purpose. Inarticulate cries,
plenty of gestures and some imitative sounds,
must have been for a long time the universal
language," he writes; "and by the addition,
in every country, of some conventional articu-
late sounds . . . particular languages were pro-
duced; but these were rude and imperfect, and
nearly such as are now to be found among
some savage natidns." '
The plurality of conventional, historic lan-
guages seems to parallel the plurality of the
nations or societies into which mankind is di-
vided. But underlying the diversity of tongues
there is also a unity which implies the possi-
bility of mankind's unification. To the extent
that language expressed thought, diverse lan-
guages are but differeht 'mediums for the same
thing. "All men [may] not have the same speech
sounds," Aristotle declares, "but the mental
experiences, which these directly symbolize,
are the same for all"
Tht 'human community conceived in terms
of the communication of thought extends as far
CHAPTBR 45 : LANGUAGE 949
as the bounds of such communication among participate. The extent of this conversation
men. It is not limited by political boundaries, measures the range of western thought. The vo-
lt overcomes by translation the barriers set up cabulary of its language is the stock of ideas with
by a diversity of tongues. It includes the living which each individual can begin to think for
and the dead and extends to those as yet un- himself when he turns from dialogue to sohlo-
born. In this sense, human civilization can be quy; for, as Plato observes, "thought and speech
described as the civilization of the dialogue, and are the same, with this exception, that what is
the tradition of the great books can be conceived called thought is the unuttered conversation of
as the great conversation in which all men can the soul with itself."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PACE
1. The nature and functions of language: the speech of men and brutes 950
i a. The role of language in thought 951
\b. The service of language to society
2. Theories of the origin of language 952
2a. The hypothesis of one natural language for all men
2b. The genesis of conventional languages: the origin of alphabets
3. The growth of language
30. The invention of words and the proliferation of meanings
$b. The spoken and written word in the development of language 953
y. Tradition and the life of languages
4. The art of grammar
40. Syntax: the parts and units of speech
4#. Standards of correctness in the use of language: grammatical errors
5. The imperfections of language 954
50. The abuse of words: ambiguity, imprecision, obscurity
5^. Insignificant speech: meaninglessness, absurdity 955
6. The improvement of speech: the ideal of a perfect language
7. Grammar and logic: the formulation and statement of knowledge
8. Grammar and rhetoric: the effective use of language in teaching and persuasion 956
9. The language of poetry
10. The language of things and events: the book of nature; the symbolism of dreams;
prophetic signs 957
11. Immediate communication: the speech of angels and the gift of tongues 959
12. The language of God or the gods: the deliverances of the oracles; the inspiration,
revelation, and interpretation of Sacred Scripture
950
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK u [265-283] I2d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed m two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO' Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or m the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7.46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim'' signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature and functions of language: the
speech of men and brutes
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 11:1-9
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 4:24— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 4:29
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 14 / Ephcsians,
4:29
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 61a-b
7 PLATO: Cratylus 85a-114a,c / Thtaetetus,
547c-d / Sophist, 575d-577b / Seventh Letter,
809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 6 [4^2-36] 9b / In-
terpretation, CH i [16*4-8] 25a / Soul, BK n,
cn8 [42ob5-42iR6] 651d-652c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
U88»33-b3] 9b-c; BK iv, CH 9 62a-63c / Parts
of Animals, BK n, CH 16 [659b28]-CH 17
[66ob3] 186d-187c / Politics, BK i, CH 2
[1253*7-18] 446b-c / Rhetoric, BK HI, CH 2
(i404br-3] 654c; CH 10 [i4iob9-28] 662o«d
. / Poetics, CH 6 [i450bio-i5J 685a; CH 19
[i456»33-b8] 691d-692a
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK v [1028--
1090] 74c-75b
14 PLUTARCH: Demosthencst$92&
17 PLOTINUS: First Ertnead, TR 11, CM 3, 8a /,
Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 18 151b*c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 19 76a-b /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 13 627d; BK n,
CH 3 637c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13,
A i, ANS 62c-63c; Q 34, A i, ANS 185b-187b;
Q 107, A r,( REP 1-3 549b-550b
20 AQUINAS - Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 60,
A 6, ANS 851b-852b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxvi
[124-138] 147a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-55b; PART n,
lOOb; PART iv, 270a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215b-216b; 218a-c; 300c;
323c-324b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard //, ACT i, sc in [154-
173) 325b
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 62c-63a /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 14 107d-109a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59c-60b *
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [369-451]
240a-242a; BK ix [54^612] 2S9b^60b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 45 178b; 912 349b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK H, CH xi,
SECT 8-u I45b-146a; CH XVIII,(S,ECT 7 174d-
175a; CH xxn, SECT 5 201d; CH xxvn, SECT
8 221a-222a; CH xxvin, SECT 2 228c-229a;
CH xxxii, SECT 7-8 244c-d; BK lit, CH i
d; CH n 252d-254c paSsim; CH in,
CHATO* 45; LANGUAGE
951
SECT 1-5 254dr25$c; SECT 20 260a; CH vi,
SECT a* 273d-274a-; CH ix, SECT 1-4 285a c;
CH x, SECT 13 294c-d;,BK iv, CH v, SECT 10
• 331a; CH vni, SECT 7 347Jx; CH xxi> SECT
4-395a,c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
19-21 410c-411b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, llla-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-342c; 349d-350a
43 FEDERAUST: NUMBER 37, 120a-b
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, la-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182 b-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 297c-300c; 349d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 18b; 35b-37b; 683b-685a;
715b-716a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 512d-513a
la. The role of language in thought
7 PLATO: Cratylus 85a-114a,c / Phaedrus, 138c-
139d / Timaeus, 447c-d / Cntias, 478c-d /
Theaetetus, 520b; 524c-d; 526b; 537d-538a;
547c-d / Sophist, 575d-577b / Statesman,
590d-591a / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 1-5 25a-26c /
Posterior Analytics, BK i, CH 10 [rj6b22-2j]
105c / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 4 525a-528b /
Soul, BK n, CH 8 [420^8-33] 652b
9 ARISTOTLE* Rhetoric, BK in, CH 10(1410^-28]
662c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK xi, par 5 90b-c;
BK xii, par 32-36 107a-108c; par 41-43 llOa-d;
BK xin, par 36 120c-d / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 13 627d; BK n, CH 3 637c-d; CH 36
653d
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13, A i,
ANS and REP 3 62c-63c; Q 34, A i, ANS and REP
1-3 185b-187b; A 3, ANS 188b<189a; Q 63, A 8,
REP 1 332c-333b;Q 107, A i, REP 1-2 549b-550b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART HI, Q 6,
A 6, REP 3 744d-745b; Q 60, A 6, ANS 851b-
852b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-58c; PART iv,
270a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 75c-d; 253c-254a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 61b-c; 62c-
63a / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 14 107d-108a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xm, 26b-c / Discourse,
PART v, 59c-60b / Objections and Replies,
137a; 290c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i
387b-388a; PROP 47, SCHOL 390c-391a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 22-23 175b; 392 239b-240a
35 LOCKE; Human Understanding, BK i, CH i,
SECT 15 98d-99a; BK n, CH xvi, SECT 5-7
166b-167b; CH XXH, SECT 3-9 201b-203a; CH
xxxn, SECT 7-8 244c-d; CH xxxin, SECT 19
k 251c-d; BK in 251b,d-306d esp CH i, SECT 6
252c-d, CH in, SECT 1-5 254d-255c, SECT 10
256c-257a, SECT 20 260a, CH v, SECT 4 264b,
SECT io-ii;266b-d, CH ix, SECT 1-2 285a-b>
SECT 21 290c-291a, CH x, SECT 13 294c*d; BK
, , Tiv, CH, ui, SECT 19 318b-319a; CH iv, SECT 17
328d; CH v, SECT 3-4 329b-d; CH vi, SECT
1-3 331b-d; CH xxi, SECT 4 395a,c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
19 410c; SECT 21-25 411b-412«,c; SECT 121-
122 436d-437c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 169a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 418a-419b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-342c esp340d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, la-c;
4a-5c; 7c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 173a-b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 362c
46 HEGELI Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 78
32d-33a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182b-
c; PART i, 218a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1995-2000] 47a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 299b-300a; 349d;
592a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 36b-37a; 127b-128b; 153b-
154a; 156b; 159a-b; 161a-176a; 333a-334a;
447b-448a; 608b; 650b; 689a-b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 385b-c / Un-
conscious, 442a-443a / Ego and Id, 700b-701d;
714b-c
\b. The service of language to society
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 11:1-9
5 AESCHYLUS \PrometheusBound [442-461 ]44c-d
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-375] 134a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [201-210] 260a-b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120a-b / Gorgias, 270,d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*7-18]
446b-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 23 201a-
203b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvi, CH n 429d-
431a; BK xix, CH 7 515a-c / Christian Doc-
trine, BK n, CH 4-5 637d-638a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 4 207d-208b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi [34^81]
46b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c; 55a-b; PART
n, 132d-133a; 157c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 253c-254a; 323c-324b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard //, ACT i, sc in [159-
173] 325b / 1st Henry IV, ACT in, sc i [192-
238] 452a-c / Henry V, ACT v, sc n [98^306]
564b-566a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a-26a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xvm, SECT 7 174d-17Sa; CH xxn, SECT 5-7
20ld-202b; CH xxvin, SECT 2 228c-229a; CH
xxxn, SECT 7-8 244c-d; BK mt cn.if SECT i
25lb,d; CH n, SECT 1-2 252d-253c; SECT 4
253d; CH m, SECT 3-5 255a-c; SECT 20 260a;
CH v, SECT 7 2$5a-c; CH vi, SECT 51 282d-
283a; CH ix, SE^T 1-4 285a-c; CH x, SECT 13
294c-d; SECT 23-31, 298a-299a; CH xi, SECT
i 300a-b; SECT 5 300d; BK iv, CH v, $«CT 10
331a , i
952
THE GREAT IDEAS
2 tola
(I. The nature and Junctions of language: the
speech of men and brutes. \b. The service
of language to society,)
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
19-21 410c-411b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 25b-26a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340a-342c; 349d-350a;
350d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 15d-16c passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 300a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 347b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 278a; 294d-295a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450a-c / Group
Psychology, 668c; 685a
2. Theories of the origin of language
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:19-20; 11:1-9
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-461]
44c-d
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-375] 134a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [201-210] 260a-b
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK n, 49a-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44c / Cratylus 85a-114a,c
esp 106b-c / Phaedrus, 138c-139b / Gorgtas,
271b-272b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1028-
1090] 74c-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvi, CH 4 425b-
426a / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 4-5 637d-
638a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi [34-81]
46b-d; PARADISE, xxvi [70-142] 146c-147b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54d-55a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 218a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2d~3a; 17d-
18b
32 MILTON '.Paradise Lost, BK vni [267-277] 238a;
[338-356] 239b-240a; BK xn [1-62] 319a-320b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH i,
SECT 5 252b-c; CH n, SECT i 252d-253a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340a-342c; 350d
44 Bosv/ELL', Johnson, 509b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 211b-c / Descent of
Man, 298a-301c; 349d
53 IAMES: Psychology, 685b [fn i]
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 512d 513b
2a. The hypothesis of one natural language for
all men
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:19-20; 11:1-9
7 PLATO: Cratylus 85a-114a,c esp llOc-lllc
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH i [16*4-9] 25a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvi, CH n 429d-
431a / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 4-5 637d-
638a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi [34-81]
46b-d; PARADISE, xxvi [70-142] 146c-147b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54d-55a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK inv
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2d-3a; 18b
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK vni [267-277] 238a;
[338-356] 239b-240a; BK xn [1-62] 319a-320b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH n,
SECT i 252d-253a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT HI, DIV
18 457c-d
2b. The genesis of conventional languages:
the origin of alphabets
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 10:5; 11:1-9
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 12a-b; BK n,
60a-d; 80a-c; BK v, 171a-b
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 107c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 138c-
139b / Philebus, 612d-613a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 103c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK 11, CH 4
637d-638a; CH 24 648d-649a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxi [34-81]
46b-d; PARADISE, xxvi [70-142] 146c-147b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-55a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 62d-63a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [38-62] 320a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH
xxn, SECT 2 201a-b; SECT 5-7 201d-202b; CH
xxvin, SECT 2 228c-229a; BK HI, CH n, SECT
i 252d-253a; SECT 8 254b-c; CH v, SECT 8
265c-266a; CH vr, SECT 43-51 280c-283a pas-
sim, esp SECT 51 282d-283a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340a-342c; 349d-350a;
350d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, lOd esp 675d
[n 83]; 756a [n 43]
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 225a-b; 338b;
342 b-c; 706c [n 22]
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 509b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 221a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 211b-c / Descent
of Man, 300c-301c; 329a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 685b [fn i]
3. The growth of language
3*. The invention of words and the prolifera-
tion of meanings
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae [1167-1182]
628c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 128d
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 89a-107b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH n [i04b34~io5*i]
148c / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 4 [i 006*2 9~b4J
525c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK in, CH 2 [i4O5*3-b2i]
655b-656a; CH 3 [I4o6b5-i9) 657c-d; CH 10
[i4iob5-i5] 662c; CH n [1412*18-21] 664c /
Poetics, CH 21 [i457bi~i458*7] 693a-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 10
640d-641a; CH 16, 644b-d; BK in, CH 5 659d-
660a; CH 24-25 666d-667c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13, A
2, REP 2 63c-64d; A 8 70d-71b; Q 37, A 2, ANS
199a-200c; Q 67, A i 349d-350b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
CHAPTB* 45t LANGUAGE
953
in,
c; 202d-204c; BK iv, 280d-281d
25 MONTAIGNE ; Mssa.y$, 422c-423c \
28 GILBERT; Loadstone, PREF, 2b-c
28 HARVEY: O? Animal Generation, 336d-337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42c-43a /
., Novum Organum, BK i, APH 59 112b-C'
31 DBSCARTKS: Objections and Replies, 290c-d
35 LOCKE; Human Understanding, BK} n, CH
xvni, SECT 7 174d-l75a; CH xxn, SECT 2
r 2Qla-b; SECT 5-7 201d-202b; CH xxvm,
- ' 4ECT 2 22#c-229a; BK in, CH i, SECT 5 352b-c;
CH in, SECT 6-9 255c-256c; CH v 263d-268a;
CH vi, sic? 25 274d; SECT 43-51 280c-283a
passim, esp SECT 51 282d-283a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341a-342b; 349&-350a
/ Social Contract, BK HI, 419b-e
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 775c-776a>c [n 173-
i74l
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 106b-c; 773d [n 23]
42 KANT: Pure Reason, U3b-c / Practical Reason,
294b-c; 337c-338a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 467b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 59d-60d; 19Ia; 353c-354a;
410a-b; 454a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 4a-
, $d; PART i, 24c-d; 25c-29d
45 FARADAY: Researches in< Electricity, 361a-
362d; 829d-830a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 300c-301b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 689a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 509d; 512c-
513b; 516b-c; 517c-518b
3£. The spoken and written word in the de-
velopment of language
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK y, 171a-b
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 85a-107c esp lOOdUOla,
102c-d / Phaedrus, 138c-l39a .
8 ARISTOTLE; Interpretation, CH i [16*3-^] 25a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK in, CH i. [1404*15-
34] 654b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of Cod, BK xvni, CH 39
494c-495a / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 4
637d-638a,
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxvi [70-
142] 146c-147b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341a-b ,,
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 253a-b; 330d-331a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofHistoryi INTROJ 182b-c;
PART i, 218a-c; 247d-248c \
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 329a-b
54 FREUD; General Introduction, 540b-541a
3c. Tradition and the life of languages
. -OLD TmA^BNT: Deuteronomy, 6:4-9
. 8 AuratoTLB : Topics, BK yi,. CH 10 [i48bi6-23]
, 2Q2d'203a / Metaphysics* BK v 533a-547a,c
18 AUCUSTIN*: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH n
641a-Q
20 AquiNAs: Summa Theologica, PART II-H? Q i,
22 CHAUCER: Trotiiu and CwsftdAfWi ti; STANZA
2-421b-22a '• '^
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, CONCLUSION, 282c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel) , BK n,
81d-$3b
25 MON^IGNE: Essays, 77c-79a;42,2c-423c;476b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, Ub-12b;
42c-43a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 290c~d
35 LOCKE; Toleration, 22p-d / Human Under-
standing, BK n, CH xxn, SEQT j ;202a-t?
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 128a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 334c-335b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, J5d-16c; 628a-b;
629a
41 GIBBON? Decline 'and Falls 106b-c; 152a;
300a-b; 325c-328a,c esp 325c-326a, 327a-b;
338b; 522b-528a,c esp 522c-523a, 526a-c,
527d-S28a,c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-115c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 467b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 151c-d; 166d; 3Q7c
46 HBGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 211b-c / Descent of
A/<w,300c-301a
4. The art of grammar
4a. Syntax: the parts and units of speech
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 105d*lQ6a» 109a-b / Sophist,
575d-576b
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 2 [1*17-19] 5b; CH
4 [2a4-i<>l 6a; CH 7 [6b6-8] lla; I^i-j^Ulc /
Interpretation, CH 1-5 25a-26c / Metaphysics,
BK v, CH 3 [1014*26-32] 534c , ,
9 ARJSTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK m, CH 2 [i404b
26-1405*2] 655a-b / Poefas, CH 19-^21, 691d-
694a
19 AQUINAS: Sum,ma Theokgica, PART i, Q 13,
A i, REP 3 62c-63c t
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 64c,r65a; PART m,
182b; PART iv, 270a-c
25 MONTAIGNE; Essays, 70d-71a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 44a-b;
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II^CH vn
283a-284b esp SECT 2 283b-c ' ,
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 2$7b-23$a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341b~342c esp 341b-c,
342b-c
44 BOSWELL; Johnson, 23d-24b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 229b-c
54 FRBUD;. General Introduction, $16b-c
4b. Standards of correctness In the use of lan-
guage: grammatical errors
, 5 ARISTOPHANES ^ fkuds [635-693] 496c-497a
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 14
239a-d; CH 32 25Qd-251c
954
THE GREAT IDEAS
5to5a
(4. The art of grammar. 4b, Standard? of cor-
rectness in the use of language: grammati-
cal errors.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK in, CH 2 654c-656b;
CH 5 657d-658c / Poetics, CH 22 694a-695a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 10 254a
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 13
642b-643a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 70d-71a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxx, SECT 4 238d*239a; CH xxxi, SECT 4-5
240b-d; BK HI, CH vi, SECT 51 282d*283a;
CH ix, SECT 8 286c-d; CH xi, SECT n 302b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 287b-288a
44 Bos WELL : Johnson, 361d-362a
53 JAMES : Psychology, 164a-b
5. The imperfections of language
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 131d-132a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus 65a~84a,c / Cratylus,
108c-110b / Phaedrus, 138c-140a / Republic,
BK v, 369b / Cntias, 478b-d / Theaetetus,
526b; S34a / Sophist, 561d-563b / Seventh
Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 4 525a-
528b
9 ARISTOTLE: Poetics, CH 25 [i46i*9~bi8] 69?c-
698b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [136-139]
2d
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 6, 242c /
Sixth Ennead, TR vm, CH 13 349b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 6
626ab
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 13,
AA 1-2 62c-64d; A 3, ANS 64d-65c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxvm (1-6]
41b; xxxiv [1-27] 51b-c; PURGATORY, xxxi
[133-145] 102b; PARADISE, i [38-81] 106c-107a;
x [28-48] 120c-d; xxin [40-69] 141d-142a;
xxx [19-36] 152a; xxxm 156b-157d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 57d-58a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
101d-102a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 253c-254a; 422c 423c;
476b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 336d-
337a,c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 60b-c; 65b-c
/ Novum Organum, BK i, APH 43 109d HOa;
APH 59-60 112b-113a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, 11, 80d-81a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 47, SCHOL
390c-391a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xm,
SECT 18 152a*c; BK HI, CH v, SECT 16 267d-
268a; CH vi, SECT 43 280c-d; CH ix, SECT i-
CH xi, SECT 7 285a-301c
35 BBRKBLEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
21-25 411b-412a,c; SECT 52 422d-423a; SECT
74 427c; SECT 143-144 441c-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 307b-308b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340d-341a; 342a-c /
Social Contract, BK n, 401c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 40c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 400d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 70d-71b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3432-3468] 84a-b
CSP (345r~345^] 84k; PART n [8691-8692]
211b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vn, 302c-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 127b-128b; 153b-154a;
159a-b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 662a b
a. The abuse of words: ambiguity, impreci-
sion, obscurity
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [1178-1200] 503a-b /
Frogs [923-991] 575a-576a; [1119-1197] 577d-
578d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 192b-c
7 PLATO- Euthydemus 65a-84a,c csp 68c-d /
Phaedrus, 138c-140a / Theaetetus, 520b; 526b;
534d / Sophist, 552b-c / Seventh Letter, 809c-
810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 7 [6b36~7bi4] lie-
12b / Topics, BK i, CH 15 149d-152a; CH 18
[108*18-36] 152b-d; BK n, CH 3 154d-155d;
BK v, CH 4 [i33bi5-i34a4] 184d-l85b; BK vi,
CH i [i39bi2]-cH 2 [140*22] 192b-193b; CH
14 [i5ib3-n] 206c; BK vm, CH 3 [i58b8-i5Qa2]
215b-c; CH 7 217c-d / Sophistical Refutations,
CH i [165*5-19] 227b-c; CH 4 [i65b24-i66bi9J
228b-229c; CH 19-23 243d-247a; CH 24 [i79b
38-180*22] 247d-248b; CH 33 [182^3-32]
251d / Metaphysics, BK iv, CH 4 525a-528b;
BK vn, CH ii [1037*5-9] 560c
9 ARISTOTLE: Pans of Animals, BK n, CH 2
[648*37]-cH 3 [649^22] 172d-174b / Ethics,
BK v, CH i [1129*26-31] 376d / Politics, BK
n, CH 3 [i26ibi6-3i] 456c / Rhetoric, BK in,
CH 2-5 654c-658c passim / Poetics, CH 25 [1461*
9-bi9] 697c-698b passim
17 PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead, TR vm, CH 6, 242c
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 10
640d-641a; CH 12 641c-642b; BK in, CH 1-4
657b,d-659d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
37 26b; STANZA 147-149 40b-41a; BK v,
STANZA 257 153b-154a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 55b; 57d-58a;
78a-b; PART 11, 135c; 157c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
66b-67d; BK 11, 77b-78b; 101b-106a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7Sa-77d; 148a-149a;
253c-254a; 284d-285c; 422c-423c; 448d-449a;
517b-519a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc n [1-44] 205b-c / Romca and]uhet, ACT n,
sc iv [38-140] 297d-298d / Merchant of Ven-
ice, ACT ii, sc ii [34-120] 412b-413a / Julius
Caesar, ACT i, sc i [5-36] 568 b,d
CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE
955
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc i [29-68]
64d-65b; [123-154] 65d-66a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK m, 73d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, llb-13c;
60b-c; 61b-c / Novum Organum, BK i, APH 43
109d-110a; APH 59-60 112b-113a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xin, 26b-c / Meditations^
n, 80d-81a / Objections and Replies, 208c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 40, SCHOL i
387b-388a; PROP 47, SCHOL 390c-391a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, la-14a / Vacuum,
370b; 374b; 376b-377a / Geometrical Demon-
stration, 432a-434a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 12 27d-
28a / Human Understanding, 89a-c; BK n,
CH xin, SECT 18 152a-c; SECT 28 155a-b; CH
xxix, SECT 6-12 234d-236c; CH xxx, SECT 4
238d-239a; BK in, CH v, SECT 16 267d-268a;
CH vi, SECT 30 276d-277b; SECT 48-51 282b-
283a; CH ix, SECT I-CH xi, SECT 7 285a-301c
esp CH x, SECT 5-13 292d-294d; BK iv, CH in,
SECT 19, 318c-d; SECT 30 323a-c; CH iv, SECT
13-17 326d-328d esp SECT 17 328d; CH vin,
SECT n 348b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
21-25 411b-412a,c; SECT 52 422d-423a
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT vn, DIV
48 470d-471c; SECT vin, DIV 62-63 478b-d;
DIV 74 484a-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 234b-236b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38c-39a; 264b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xn, 89c-d
38 ROUSSEAU. Inequality, 342a-c / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 419b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK 11, 123b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 113b-c / Practical Reason,
315d-316a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 120a~b; NUMBER 41,
135c-136a passim
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, 6d-
7a,c
45 FARADAY : Researches in Electricity, 851a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 218a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1995-2000] 47a-b;
PART n [8691-8692] 211b
50 MARX: Capital, 104d [fn 4]
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 517c-518b; 540b-
541b
5b. Insignificant speech: meaninglessness, ab-
surdity
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 107c-108c
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 13
238d-239a; CH 31 250c-d / Metaphysics, BK
iv, CH 4 [ioo6*i2-bn] 525b-d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 49d; 54b-c; 56b-
d; 57c; 59a-60a; 71a-b; 78a; PART iv, 269b-
272c; 274a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK 11,
77b-78b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 370b; 374b / Geometrical
Demonstration, 432b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 89a-c; BK in,
CH n, SECT 7 254a-b; CH iv, SECT 8-to 260d-
261d passim; CH v, SECT 16 267d-268a; CH x,
SECT 2-4 291d-292c; SECT 26 298c; SECT 31
299a; CH xi, SECT 8 301c-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
23-24 411c-412a; SECT 54 423b; SECT 79-81
428b-d; SECT 88 430a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1948-1963] 46a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 534a-c;
BK xiv, 612d-613a; BK xv, 620b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 168b-172a
6. The improvement of speech: the ideal of a
perfect language
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 107c-114a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 7 [6b26~7bi4] llb-
12b / Topics, BK i, CH 18 [108*18-36] 152b-d
/ Sophistical Refutations, CH 19-23 243d-247a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK in, CH 1-12 653b,d-
667b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 7 515a-c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 1-4 657b,d-
659d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-d; 60c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
142d-143a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 12b-c;
60b-c; 62c-64a esp 63a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 290c-d
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 430 b-
431b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH i,
SECT 6 252c-d; CH xi 300a-306d esp SECT 8-
27 301c-306d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 109b-lllb
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 340d-341a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 294b-c; 339b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 120a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 70d-71b; 81b-82c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, la-c;
4a-5d; 6d-7a,c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 173a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 218a-c
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 301a-b
7. Grammar and logic: the formulation and
statement of knowledge
7 PLATO: Euthydemus 65a-84a,c / Cratylus 85a-
114a,c / Phaedrus, 138c-139d / Symposium,
172b-c / Theaetetus, 534d; 541d-542a / Sophist,
561d-563b; 569d-577b / Seventh Letter, 809a-
81 la esp 809a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 1-4 5a-6a / Inter-
pretation, CH 4 [17*1-7] 26b / Prior Analytics,
BK i, CH 34-41 66b-68c / Posterior Analytics,
BK n, CH 13 [97^8-39] 133c / Topics, BK i,
CH 15 149d-152a; CH 18 [108*17-37] 152b-d;
BK n, CH 3 154d-155d; CH 9 (ii4a26-bi4J
160a-b; BK iv, CH 3 [124*10-14] 172d; CH 4
[i24b35-i25*4] 173d; BK v, CH 2 [i3obn-i5]
956
THE GREAT
(7. Grammar and logic: the formulation and
statement of knowledge.)
180d; CH 4 Ii33bi5-i34a4] 184d-185b; CH 7
[i36bi5-32] 188c-d; BK vi, CH i [i^i2\-cH 3
[141*22] 192b-194c; CH 10 202b-203a; CH 14
[I5ib3-n] 206c; BK vin, CH 3 [i58b8-i5J 215b;
CH 7 217c-d / Sophistical Refutations, CH i
[165*1-18] 227b-c; CH 4 [i65b24~i66b2i] 228b-
229c; CH 10 [i7Obn-4i] 234d-235b; CH 13-14
238d-239d; CH 19-23 243d-247a; CH 31-32
250c-251c; CH 33 [182^3-31] 251d / Physics,
BK i, CH 8 [191*33^9] 267b / Metaphysics, BK
iv, CH 4 525a-528b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 3 [ii478i7-24]
397b-c
' 18 AUGUSTINE, Confessions, BK xn, par 32-36
^I07a-108c; par 41-43 HOa-d; BK xm, par
36 120c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 13
627d
23HoBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 55a'-57c; 58a-
60b; 65c-d; PART in, 172a; PART iv, 269b-c;
270a-b
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 253c-254a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 56b-66a
csp 58c-59a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xnr, 26b-c / Discourse,
PART i, 43b; PART vi, 66d / Objections and
Replies, 13 7a; 290c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, PROP 47, SCHOL
390c-391a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 22-23 175b; 392 239b-240a
/ Geometrical Demonstration, 430b-434a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxxin, SECT 19 251c-d; BK in, CH in, SECT
10, 256d-257a; CH vn 283a-284b; BK iv,
CH iv, SECT 17 328d; CH v 329a-331b passim;
CH vi, SECT 1-3 331b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
19 410c; SECT 52 422d-423a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-342c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c
45 LAVOISIER* Elements of Chemistry, PREP, la-c;
4a-5d; 6d-7a,c
46 HEGEL. Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182b-q
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 672a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144a-b
54 FREUD: beyond the Pleasure Principle, 662a-b
8. Grammar and rhetoric: the effective use of
language in teaching and persuasion
NEW TESTAMENT: I Corinthians, 14
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [1373-1383! 486d-
487a / C/ofc<fc488a-$06d esp [882-1105] 499b-
502a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus eSa-^a.c / Phacdrus,
131b-141a,c / Symposium, 172b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH i [16*4-8] 25a;
'i CH 4 [if '1-7] 26b
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK ill, CH 1-12 t553b,d-
667b / Poetic?, CH 21 [i^i-^S^J 693a-d;
CH 22 694a-695a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [142-156] i07a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 42c-43b / Alcibiadcs,
159a-b / Mbrctis Cato, 279d-281b / Phocion,
606c-d / Demosthenes, 692d-695d passim /
Marcus Brutus, 803b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK irr, par 7-8 14c-
15a; BK v, par 10-11 29b*30a; par 23-24 33c-
34b / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 6 63&£-d;
^K iv 675a-698a,c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PROLOGUE
la-b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
2-4 21b-22a; STANZA 147-149 40b-41a / Pro-
logue [725-746] 171b-l72a / Franklin's Pro-
logue 351 a / Prologue to Mehbeus 400b-401a
/ Manciple's Tale [17,154-186] 491a-b /
Parson's Prologue [17,341-375] 494a-b
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, ' PART n, 127d; 128d;
PART iv, 270a, CONCLUSION, 282c-d
24 RABELAIS- Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
77b-78b; 101b-106a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 75a-77d; 309c-310c;
422c-424c; 448d-449c; 482b-483b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, 2b-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, lb-c
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, lb-2b;
12b-c; 16c; 31a-d; 39b-d; 58c-59a; 64b-c;
6Sa-c; 66b-68b; 83d-84a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43b; PART vi,
66d
32 MILTON. Vacation Exercise [1-58] 59a-60b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 14-16 174a-b; 22-23,25-27
175b; 48-59 178b-179b; 797-798 327b-328a
/ Geometrical Demonstration, 439b-446b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH x,
SECT 34 299d-300a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
20 410d-411a
36 SfEkNE: Tristram Shandy, 287b-289b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 341a-b; 342b-c /
Social Contract, BK a, 401c-402a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 343a-b; 529d
41 GIBBON. Decline and Pali, 327a-c; 526a-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 3c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 292b-293b passim
44 BOSWELL: Johnson^ 59c-61^i; ,284b; 353c-
354a; 38ld-382a; 454a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 347b-
• • 348a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450b / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 662a-b
i
9. The language of poetry > ,
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds fo^i-^o] 492a; [1351-
• 1378] 504d*505b / Peace [734-764] 534c-535a
/ Birds [1373-1409] 559b-c / Frogs [755-1533]
'' 573ai582a;c / Thesrriophoriazusae [99^172]
601c-602b c' l
10
CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE
957
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 52d-57a / Ion, 143a-c;
144b-d / Republic, BK in, 328b 333a; BK x,
430b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Interpretation, CH 4 [17*5-7] 26b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 8 [1128*18-25]
375b-c / Politics, BK vm, CH 7 [1342*32^18]
548a,c / Rhetoric, BK in, CH 1-12 653b,d-
667b / Poetics, CH i [i447*29-b23J 681b-c; CH
6 [i45obi3-i5] 685a; CH 19-22 691d-695a csp
CH22 694a-695a; CH 24 [i46ob2-5J, CH25 [1460°
7-13] 696d; [i46iao-b*8] 697c-698b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xi, CH 18 331d-
332a / Christian Doctrine, BK 11, CH 6 638a-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i, A 9,
REP i 8d-9c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxu [1-12]
47c; PURGATORY, xxiv [49-63] 90a-b; PARA-
DISE, x [28-48] 120c-d; xxin [40-69] 141d-
142a; xxx [19-36] 152a; xxxm 156b-157d
22 CHAUCER. Troilus and Cressida, BK 11, STANZA
1-4 21b-22a; STANZA 147-149 40b-41a; BK v,
STANZA 256-257 153b-154a / Prologue [725-
745] 171b-172a / Clerks Prologue [7888-7932]
295a-296a / Franklin's Prologue 351a / Pro-
logue to Melibeus 400b-401a / Manciple's
Tale [17,154-186] 491a-b / Parson's Prologue
[17,341-375] 494a-b / L' Envoi 550a-b
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART i, 67 b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 62b-c; 76b-c; 104d-
105c; 195d-197a; 309c-310c; 422c-423c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACTIII, sc i [121-
135] 451b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT H, sc 11 [454-466]
45a / Sonnets, xxi 589b-c; LXXVI 597d-598a;
LXXVIII-LXXIX 598b; cxxx 606a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, xia-xvid;
Ib-c; PART n, 251a-252b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, llb-12c;
39b-d; 63b-c; 99b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43b
32 MILTON: Vacation Exercise [1-58] 59a-60b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 25-35 175b-177a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 327a-c; 573a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 167d-168b; 180c; 307c;
381d-382a; 455b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153 b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
115a-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 687a-688a
10. The language of things and events: the
book of nature; the symbolism of dreams;
prophetic signs
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:8-17; 37:1-11; 40-
41 / Exodus, 4:1-9,28-31 / Deuteronomy,
4:32-36; 7:17-19 / Judges, 6:36-40; 7:13-15 /
I Kings, i3:i-6-(0) /// Kings, 13:1-6 /
// Kings, 20-8-n— (D) IV Kings, 20:8-11 /
Esther, 10— (D) Esther, 10:1-3 / Job, 12:7-9;
35:11-12; 36:24-25; 37:7 / Psalms, 19:1-6;
65:8— (D) Psalms, 18:1-7; 64:9 / Isaiah,
38:6-8; 45:5-6— (D) Isaias, 38:6-8; 45:5-6
/ Jeremiah, i8:i-^—(D) Jercmias, 18:1-6 /
Daniel, 2; 4-5; 7-8
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Either, 10:4-11:12— (D) OT,
Esther, 10:4-11:12 / Wisdom of Solomon,
13:1-7— (D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 13:1-7
/ Eccksiasticus, 43— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
43 / // Maccabees, 7:28; 15:11-16— (D) OT,
// Machabees, 7:28; 15:11-16
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:26-30; 24:3-34;
26-26-29 / Mart(, 13:4-30; 14:22-25 / Luije,
2:8-15; 12:24-28; 21:7-13; 22:17-20 / John,
6:32-35,47-58 / Acts, 2:16-22 / Romans, 1:20
/ / Corinthians, 1 1 123-29
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [301-368] 13a-d passim;
BK xni [821-832] 96d-97a,c / Odyssey, BK xix
[509-581] 294c-295a,c
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [176-225] 17a-c / Pro-
metheus Bound [442-506] 44c-45a / Agamem-
non [104-159] 53a-d / Choephoroe [523-553]
75b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [976-983] 108b
/ Oedipus at Colonus [1447-1517] 127b-128a /
Antigone [988-1094] 139c-140b / Trachiniae
[663-722] 175d-176b
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigema Among the Tauri [42-60]
411c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [708-722] 551d-552a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 8a-b; 12b-d; 17a-b;
18b; 25b-31a esp 25b-d, 28c-29a; 38a-b; 39c-
40a; 47a-c; BK n, 79a-c; BK in, 90d-91a; 95d;
103b-104b; 106c-d; 116a-b; BK iv, 124d-125a;
135b-c; 146d-147a; BK v, 170c-d; 183d-184a;
BK vi, 190c-d; 199d-200a; 200d-201a; 204b-c;
205d-206a; 208b; 211a; BK vn, 216d-220b;
223b-c; 227a; 238d-239a; BK vm, 267a;
268d-269a; 270c-271a; 278c; 285c-286a; BK
ix, 289d-290a; 309d-310a; 313d~314a
6 THUCYDIDES' Peloponncsian War, BK n, 389a-
b; BK in, 438d-439a; BK vn, 552a-c; 560d-
561a
7 PLATO: Crito, 213b-d / Theaetetus, 520b /
Statesman, 591 b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 27 92a-
93a,c / Dreams 702a-706d / Prophesying 707a-
709a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i357*23-b24]
596d-597c / Poetics, CH 16 [1454^9-30] 689d-
690a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par 25 26a,c /
Epidemics, BK i, SECT HI, par i 49c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [931-
977] 42a-c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 17 122d-
124a; BK in, CH i, 177a b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [385-401] 113b-114a; BK
n [162-233] 128b-130b; [671-704] 143a-144a;
BK in [132-191] 150b-152b; [356-409] 157a-
158b; [530-550] 161b-162a; BK iv [54-67]
168b-169a; [450-473] 179b-180a; BK vi [185-
211] 216a-b; BK vn [59-80] 237b-238a; BK
VHI [31-89] 259b-261b; [520-540] 273a-b;
BK xii [244-265] 360b-361a
958
THE GREAT IDEAS
'10
(10. The language of things and events: the book
of nature; the symbolism of dreams; pro-
phetic signs.)
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 8d-9a; 14d-l5a,c /
Numa Pompihus, 52b-c; 56d-57b / Pericles,
123c-124a / Alcibiades, 174a-d / Timoleon,
198c-d / Pelopidas, 239d-240c / Marccllus,
259c-260c / Pyrrhus, 329c-d / Sulla, 371d-
372c / Cimon, 398d-399b / Lucullus, 411a-b
/ Nicias, 429d-430b / Eumenes, 473a-b /
Alexander, 548d-549a / Dion, 789b-790a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 9a-b; BK n, 26c-27a;
27b; BK iv, 79b; BK vi, 95d-96a; BK xi, lOlb;
103a-b; BK XH, 112d-113a; 119b; 124b; BK
xm, 141a-b; BK xtv, 147a-b; 149b-c; BK xv,
159b-c; 168d-169a / Histories, BK r, 189d-190a;
195b-c; 206a; BK ir, 228a-b; 235a-c; BK in,
2S6d-257a; BK iv, 293a-294a
16 KEPLER- Epitome, BK iv, 853b-854a / Har-
monies of the World, 1080b-1085b passim
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par 13 4b-c;
BK in, par 19-20 18b-19a; BK xm, par 6-48
112a-124a passim / City of God, BK i, PREP
129a-d; CH 36 149c-d; BK n, CH 2-3 150c-151c;
BK iv, CH 33-34 206c-207a,c; BK v, CH i
207d-208c; CH 11-26 2l6c-230a,c; BK x, CH 5
301b-302a; CH 8 303a-d, CH 12-20 306d-
311c; BK xi, CH 18 331d-332a; CH 24-28
335c-338d; BK xv, en i 397b,d-398c; CH 21-
22 415b-416c; BK xvi, CH 25 438a-b, BK
xvn, CH 1-3 449a-451c; BK xvni, CH 1-2
472b,d-473d; BK xxn, en 30, 618c-d /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 2 624d-625a; BK
n, CH 1-3 636b,d-637d esp CH i, 637a; BK iv,
CH2i, 690d-691b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 57,
A 4, ANS 298a-299a; Q 104, A 4, ANS and REP i
538a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART in, Q 12,
A 3, REP 2 778b-779a; QQ 60-65 847a-884a,c
csp Q 60, A 2, ANS and REP i 848a-d, A 4, REP
r 849c-850b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxiv [1-21]
34d; xxxin [1-90] 49c-50c; PURGATORY, ix
[13-69] 66a-c; xix [1-69] 81c 82a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
52-55 127a-b; STANZA 177-185 143b-144b;
STANZA 207-217 147a-148b; STANZA 245 152a
/ Nun's Priest's Tale [14,898-15,162] 451a-455b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53c-d; fcOb-c;
81d-82b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
146a-147d; 148d-150d; 154a-156c; 159d-163c;
166a-l69d; 175c-178a; 215c-218a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69b-d; 212a-c; 215a-
216b; 218a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI \ Adr i, sc 11
[17-40] 36c-d / 3rd Henry VI, ACT v, sc vi [44-
79J I03c-104a / Richard III, A6f 'i, sc iv [i-
83] 114d-115c / Romeo and Juliet, ACT i, sc
iv [49-103] 291a-c / Richard U, ACT ri, sc iv
[7-24] 334c-d / Midsummer -Nights t>ream,
ACT n, sc n [145-156] 360b-c / 1st Henry 7F,
ACT in, sc i [1-63] 450a-d / 2nd Henry IV,
ACT i, sc i [60-103] 468d-469b / Julius Caesar,
ACT i, sc in [1-78] 572c-573b; ACT n, sc n
[71-90] 578d-579a; ACT v, sc i [71-92] 592d-
593a / As You L% //, ACT n, sc i [3-20]
603c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc i [64-125]
30b-31a / King Lear, ACT i, sc n [112-164]
249a-b / Macbeth, ACT v, sc i 306b-307a /
Cymbehne, ACT v, sc iv [30-151] 481c-482c;
sc v [426-465] 488b-d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY,
200a-b
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 331b-332a
29 CERVANTES- Don Quixote, PART n, 381a-b
30 BACON- Advancement of Learning, 54c-55a
31 DESCARTES' Discourse, PART i, 44a-c
31 SPINOZA- Ethics, PART i, PROP 25, COROL 365b;
PART n, DTP i 373a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [28-128] 176a-
178a; BK v [3o8]-BK vin [653] 182a-246b
esp BK vin [283-499] 238b-243a; BK xi
[I93J-BK xn [649] 303b-333a / Areopagitica,
389a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 173 203b-204a; 643-646
290b-291b esp 643 290b-291a; 652-657 292a-
293a; 670 295a-b; 675 296b-297a; 693-736
301b-317b, 803-856 328b-341b
34 NEWTON- Principles, BK in, GENERAL SCHOL,
369a-371a / Optics, BK in, 528b-529a
35 BERKELEY Human Knowledge, SECT 44
420d-421a, SECT 65-66 425d-426a, SECT 108-
109 434a-b, SECT 146-154 442a-444b passim,
esp SECT 148 442b-d
37 FIELDING- Tom Jones, 162b-163a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 294a-296b; 547a-b;
571a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 398b 399b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART 11, 263d-
265c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [430-481] 12b-14a
48 MELVILLE! Moby Dic(, la-3a; 115b-117a;
120a-b; 135a-136a; 138b-145a; 204a-205a;
231a; 331a-332a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 198b-203a;
BK vi, 248d-250a; 259c-d; BK vn, 298d-299b;
300c-301b; 302c-d; BK virt, 340d-341a,c; BK
ix, 377d-379a; BK x, 428a-429a; B& xi, 481 1|-
482a; BK xu, 546a-<i; 5^1b-562a; BK xiv,
608a-b; EPILOGUE i, 673d-674a,e
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 36b-
c; BK vi, 147c-148a^BK vii, 189a-191a,c
54 FREUD: Origin and Developrricnt of Psycho-
Analysts, llb-l2<J passim / Hysteria^ 57a-59d
/ Interpretation of Dreams, 137d-138d; 173a-
174d; 178a-205c es^i 178b-l79c, 194b-d, 197b-
I98d; 230b-231c^ 252c-340a dp 252c-253a,
264C-272C, 282a-285b, 33?a-333b / Uncon-
}scf<tMtti' 440c-442b / General 'Introduction,
467a-b; 489c-494d csp 492d-493c; 504d-
45: LANGUAGE
959
519d csp 505b-506c, 5l3d-$18d / New Intro-
ductory Lectures, 808d-810d; $12d-817a esp
813c-814a, 814d-8l6b
11. Immediate communication: the speech of
angels and the gift of tongues
OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 11:16-17,24-30
NEW TESTAMENT: Mar1(, 16:17 / Acts, 2:1-21;
10:44-47; 19:5-6 / / Corinthians, 12-14 esP *4
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 18 151b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xvi, on 6 426c-
427a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, QQ
106-107 545c-S52b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 51,
A 4, ANS 15a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [1-21]
HOd; vn [1-24] llSa-c; xi [13-27] 122a-b;
xv [1-90] 128b-129b; xxni [70-139] 142a-c;
xxvi [82-108] 146c-147a; xxix [1-12] ISOb
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 55a-b /
New Atlantis, 203c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxni, SECT 36 213c-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall 189b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 846a-847b esp 846b~847b
[fa 3]
54 FREUD: Netv Introductory Lectures, 820c-829d
esp 820d-821a, 822b-823d, 829a-c
12. The language of God or the gods: the de-
liverances of the oracles; the inspiration,
revelation, and interpretation of Sacred
Scripture
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, i / Exodus, 4:11-12;
24 12; 31:18; 32:15-16; 34:1 / Numbers, 12.6-
8; 22 20-38 / Deuteronomy, 4:2; 8:3; 9:10;
18:18-22; 29:29; 30:11-14 / /<?/>, 38-42 /
Psalms, 12:6; 33:6,9; 119:105,130— (D) Psalms,
117; 32 6,9; 118.105,130 / Proverbs, 30.5-6 /
Isaiah, 28-9-13; 34:16; 40:8; 51:15-16; 55:8-
ii ; 59:21— (D) Isaias, 28:9-13; 34:16; 40:8;
51:15-16; 55:8-11; 59:21 / Jeremiah, 1:7-9;
5:14; 13:1-11; 15.16; 18:1-6; 23 28-32; 24,
36:1-4— (D) Jeremias, 1:7-9; 5 14; 13 i-u,
15:16; 18:1-6; 23-28-32; 24; 36-1-4 / Ezetyel,
2:7-3:11 — (D) Ezechiel, 2:7-3:11 / Daniel,
2:20-22,28-29,47; 5:5-28 /Joel, 2:28-29
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 16:26— (D)
OT, Bool^ of Wisdom, 16:26 / Ecdesiasticus,
1:5; 39:16-17; 42:15,19; 43:26— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 1:5; 39:16-17; 42:15,19; 43:28 /
I Maccabees, 12:9— (D) QT,lMachabecs, 12.9
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:4; 10:19-20; 11:25;
13:1-53; 15:10-20; 16:16-17; 19:3-9; 21:33-
45; 22:29 / Mar{, 2:23-28; 4:3-34; 10:2-9;
12:24; 14:49 / L«^, 1:70; 2:25-26; 8:4-15;
10:21; 11:28; 20:37-38; 21:33; 24:27,32,44-
45 / John, 5:38-39,46-47; 10:1-14,35; 12:47-
50; 14:24; 16:25-29 / Acts, 2:17-18; 17:11 /
,, Remaps, 1:20; 10:8; 15:4; 16:25-27 / / Co-
rinthians, 2:7-16; 14:26-39 / // Corinthians,
3:2-7; 12:1-7 / Galatians, 1:11-12 / Ephesians,
3:2-5 / 11 Timothy, 3:14-17 / Hebrews, 1:1-3;
4:12 / / Peter, 1:10-13,23-25; 2:5-8 / // Peter,
1:19-21; 3:5,15-16 / I John, 2:20,27
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK i [59-67] 3d; BK n [1-34]
lOa-b / Odyssey, BK xiv [321-336] 263b-c;
BK xix [291-307] 292b
5 AESCHYLUS; Seven Against Thebes [742-777]
35b-c / Prometheus Bound [640-682] 46d-
47b / Choephoroe [269-305] 72d-73a; (1021-
1076] 80a-d / Eumenides [1-^3] 81a-b
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Oedipus at Colonus [386-419] 117d-118a /
Trachiniae [155-177] 171c; [821-830] 177b
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia Among the Taun [1234-
1283] 422 b-c / Iphigenia at Aulis [872-883]
433a
5 ARISTOPHANES- Knights [108-233] 471b-472d;
[941-1099] 481d-483d / Peace [1017-1126]
537c-539a / Birds [959-991] 554c-555a /
Lysistrata [762-780] 593a-b / Plutus [1-78]
629a-630a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 4d; lOa-c; llb-d;
14a-15c; 20a b; 21b-22a; 38a-b; 39c-d; BK
n, 60d-61b; 70d-71a; 77a-b: 80c; 81d-82b;
83b-c; BK HI, 101d-102b; 103b-d; BK iv,
126d-127a; 153b-d; BK v, 160a-b; 175b-c;
178a-180a; 183d-184a; BK vi, 189a-b; 191d-
192b; 194d-195b; 197d-198a; 199d-201a; 201d-
202c; 211b-d; 212d-213a,c; BK vn, 234d;
239c-240d; 241c-242a; 246b-c; 248b-c; 250b;
255c-d; BK vm, 263b-c; 268b-d; 269c-270a;
273b-c; 276d-277a; 281a; 284d-285b; BK ix,
295d-296c;302b-c;308a-c
6 THUCYDIDES- Peloponnesian War, BK i, 355b-
c; 378a-b; 380a-d; BK n, 392a-b; 401a-b;
415d-416C; BK m, 442c-443a; BK v, 489a-b
7 PLATO: Ion 142a-148a,c esp 142d-145c /
Apology, 201d-203a / Timaeus, 467b-c
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK n [io8-i}6] 127a-b; BK
in [84-191] 149b-152a; BK vi [42-101] 212a-
213b; BK vir [81-106] 238a-239a
14 PLUTARCH: Anstides, 268a d / Cimon, 392 b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 37a-b / Histories, BK
n, 235a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 9 15a-b;
BK vi, par 6-8 36c-37c; BK xi-xin 89b-125a,c
/ City of Cod, BK xi, CH 3 323d; BK xv, CH
26-27, 419d-421d; BK xvi, CH 2, 423c-d; CH 6
426c-427a; BK xvn, CH 3 450c-4Slc; BK xvm,
CH 23 483d^485a; CH 42-44 496d-498c; CH
46-47 500a-501b; BK xx 530a-560a,c esp CH
21, 549d, CH 28-29 556c-557c / Christian
Doctrine 621a-698a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q i,
AA 9-10 8d-10c; Q 3, A i, REP 1-5 I4b-15b;
Q 34 185a-189a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, QQ
101-103 265d-304a; PART ii-n, Q i 380a-
390d; PART in, QQ 60-65 847a-8«4a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, iv [22-48]
HOd-llla; xix [40-66] 135c-d; xxiv [52-1^4]
960
THE GREAT IDEAS
12
164b / Penstes, 570-588 273b-277b passim;
642-736 290b-317b; 775 323b-324a; 803-856
328b-341b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 5a-b; 21c-22d / Human
Understanding BK in, CH ix, SECT 9 286d-
287b; SECT 23 291b-c; CH x, SECT 12 294b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 44
420d-421a; SECT 65-66 425d-426a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, 401c-402a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 186d-188a passim
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 230c-232c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 120a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 290a-291d passim / Utilitar-
ianism, 455b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART HI, 308c-
309d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1220-1237] 30a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 30a-36b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c
(12. The language of God or the gods: the de-
liverances of the oracles; the inspiration,
revelation, and interpretation of Sacred
Scripture.)
143b-d; xxv [67-102] 145a-b; xxvi [1-69]
145d~146c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 70c-71a; 81d-82a;
PART ii, 160b-c; PART in, 165a-167b; 171a-
172a; 176d-177b; 181a-186c; 215b-216b;
241a-242a; 246c; PART iv, 247a-258b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 284d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Cymbeline, ACT v, sc iv [91-
122] 482a-b; sc v [426-485] 488b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c; 97c-
lOOb / New Atlantis, 202d-203c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 123d-
124a; 227a-228a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [544-576] 187a-b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 78b-80b; 163a-
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The other major discussion of language in terms of the variety of signs and the modes of
signification, see SIGN AND SYMBOL.
Other considerations of language as an instrument of thought, see IDEA 43; JUDGMENT 53;
LOGIC 33; MATHEMATICS 3d; RHETORIC ib, 2c-2d; SIGN AND SYMBOL id, 4!), 4e.
The distinction of the natural and the conventional as applied to language, see CUSTOM AND
CONVENTION i; SIGN AND SYMBOL ib, id, if.
The general discussion of the liberal arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, see ART 6b; and for
the relation of grammar to these other arts, see LOGIC 33; RHETORIC ib, 3c.
Another analysis of the imperfections of language, and for the remedies proposed by seman-
tics, see SIGN AND SYMBOL 33, 4c.
The language of poetry, see POETRY 8b.
The language of symptoms in medicine, of dreams in psychoanalysis, and of omens and
portents in prophecy and divination, see MEDICINE 3c; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 8d-8e;
PROPHECY 30-3^ SIGN AND SYMBOL 46, 5b, 6a-6c.
The language of God or the gods in Sacred Scripture or oracular utterances, and for the
problem of interpreting the divine word, see GOD 6c(i); PROPHECY 3a~3d; RELIGION ib(i);
SIGN AND SYMBOL 56 ; THEOLOGY 4b.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
HOBBES. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic^
PART i, CH 13
DANTE. DC Vulgari Eloquentia MILTON. Grammar
. Convivio (The Banquet), FIRST TRBATISE, SPIHOZA. Tractates TheologicO'Poltticus(Thtohgical-
CH 5-7, 9-13 Political Treatise), CH 7-13
CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE
961
LOCKE. Conduct of the Understanding
ROUSSEAU, Essai sur ¥ origins des langues
A. SMITH. A Dissertation on the Origin of Languages
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK i; BK iv, CH 3-6
II.
EPICURUS. Letter to Herodotus
QUJNTIUA&, Institijtio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory),
BK I-III
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogicon, BK I
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexe^ PART i;
PART II, CH 30; PARI III, CH I -7
R. PACOM. Opus Majus, PART m
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysical *xx (13),
XLI (3)
JOHN OF SAINTTHOMAS. CursusPhilosophicus Thoniis-
ticus, Ars Logica, PART i, QQ 1-3
ARNAULD and LANCELOT. A General and Rational
Grammar Containing the Principles of the Art of
Speaking
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART i,
CH 15; PART II, CH 1-2
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK III
J. HARRIS. Hermes, or A Philosophical Inquiry Con-
cerning Universal Grammar
BURKE. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of
Our Ideas' of the Sublime and Beautiful, PART v
VOLTAIRE. "Languages," in A Philosophical Dictiort-
ary
CONDI LLAC. La langue des calcuh
. Logique, PART ii
BLAIR. Lecture* on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, xi-xiv
TOOKE. The Diversions ofPurley
D STEWART Elements of the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, PART n, CH i
A. JOHNSON. A Treatise on Language
J. MILL. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
Mind> en 4
KMERSON. Nature
GRIMM. Vbcr den Ursprung der Sprache
TRENCH. On the Study of Words
COMTE. System of Positive Polity, VOLII, Social Statics,
CH 4
BOOLE, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK v, CH 3
RENAN. De Voriginedu langage
MULLER The Languages of the Seat of War in the
East. With a Survey of the Three Families of Lan-
guage, Semitic, Anon, and Turanian <
. Comparative Mythology
. The Science of Language
SCHLEICHER, Darwinism Tested by the Science of
Language
FARRAR. Chapters on Language
WBOQWQOD. Or\the Origin of Language
E. HARTMANN. The Philosophy of the Unconscious^
(B)VI
WHITNEY. Oriental and Linguistic Studies
JEVONS. On the Mechanical Performance of Logical
Inference
. The Principles of Science, CH 6 (17-18)
SAYCE. Introduction to the Science of Language
VENN. Symbolic Logic
. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
CH 6, 22
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK i, CH 2
BRE"AL. Semantics
A. SIDGWICK. The Use of Words in Reasoning
CROCE. Aesthetic as Science of Expression
COUTURAT and LEAU. Hi$toirc de la latiguc univcrselle
DILTHEY. Das Erkbnis und die Dtchtung
WHITEHEAD and RUSSELL. Pnndpia Mathematica,
INTRO
SHAW. Pygmalion
PARETO. The Mind and Society, VOL i, CH 1-2
SAPIR. Language
VENDRY|S. Language
OGTJEN and RICHARDS. The Meaning of Meaning,
CH i, 9-10
H. DELACROIX, Le langage ct la pens^e
JESPERSEN. Language
. The Philosophy of Grammar
CASSIRER. Philosophic der symbohschen Formen, VOL i,
Die Sprache
•—*--, Language and Myth
DEWEY. Experience and Nature, CH 5
HEAD. Aphasia and Kindred Disorder* of Speech
WHITEHEAD. An Introduction to Mathematics,
CH 5
— — . Process and Reality, PART i, CH i (5)
BUHLER. Sprachtheorie
R. A. WILSON. The Miraculous Birth of Language
RICHARDS. Interpretation in Teaching
JOYCE. Fmnegans Wake
URBAN. Language and Reality
AYER. Thinking and Meaning
CARNAP. The Logical' Syntax of Language
. Introduction to Semantics
. Meaning and Necessity
B. RUSSELL. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth,
CH 1-6, 13-15, 25
. Human Knowledge^ lt$ Scope and Limits,
PART ii
Chapter^: LAW
INTRODUCTION
HpHE notion of law is associated with a di-
JL vcrsity of subject matters, and its mean-
ing undergoes many variations as the discussion
shifts from one context to another. The most
radical difference separates the way in which
natural scientists use the term law from the way
in which it is used in the arts and in morals or
politics.
We ordinarily think of law as a rule — a com-
mand or a prohibition — which should be obeyed
and can be disobeyed. Both alternatives are
usually present. Though the duty or obligation
which a law creates is one of obedience, there
would be no moral significance to discharging
this duty if the law could not be violated. But
the laws of nature which the scientist tries to
discover do not have this characteristic. They
are inviolable. The so-called law of gravitation,
for example, or Newton's three laws of motion,
cannot be disobeyed. Scientists may disagree
about the truth of any formulation of a natural
law, but if the formulation is valid, then the
general rule of behavior is supposed to obtain
without exception; and if exceptions are found,
they are not interpreted as instances of disobe-
dience, but rather as cases to which the law does
not apply.
The rules of an art may be violated, either
unwittingly or intentionally. For example,
grammatical errors can be made by those igno-
rant of the rules or by those who wish to disre-
gard them. The so-called "law of contradiction"
in the art of logic seems to be like the rules of
grammar or of any other art. Men certainly
contradict themselves in spite of the rule which
places the penalty of error on those who make
contradictory statements.
But according to another conception of the
law of contradiction, which belongs to the sci-
ence of metaphysics rathtr than to the art of
logic, nothing can both be and not be at the
same time in the same respect. This law of be-
ing, like the laws of motion, is regarded as in-
violable by those who think it true. In this it
has the aspect of a scientific or natural law. The
law of contradiction, conceived as a rule of
logic, may also be natural in the sense of not
being man-made. In the opinion of certain phi-
losophers, man does not invent either the meta-
physical rule which all existences must observe
or the logical rule which the human mind
should always obey. He discovers both.
There still remains that other class of rules to
which the word "law" is most commonly ap-
plied. These are rules of moral action or social
conduct which, like rules of art, are essentially
violable. "Laws, in their most general significa-
tion," Montesquieu writes, "are the necessary
relations arising from the nature of things. In
this sense all beings have their laws." But he
points out that law operates differently in the
realm of physical nature and in the realm of in-
telligent beings like man. The latter, he says,
"does not conform to [its laws] so exactly as the
physical world. This is because, on the one hand,
particular intelligent beings are of a finite na-
ture, and consequently liable to error; and on
the other, their nature requires them to be free
agents." Hence, even the laws "of their own in-
stituting, they frequently infringe."
The profound division between laws of nature
and laws of human conduct thus seems to in-
volve two points: (i) the former may apply to
all things, the latter are addressed to man alone;
(2) the former, being inviolable, state the ne-
cessities of behavior, the latter, precisely be-
cause they are violable, imply freedom in those
to whom they are addressed.
These two kinds of law have this much in
common. Both the laws of nature discovered by
the scientist and the rules of conduct instituted
by the legislator are general rather than particu-
962
CHATTER 46: LAW
963
lar. Their generality has been made, in the tra-
dition of jurisprudence, the basis for differen-
tiating rules of law from particular decisions or
decrees. On theological grounds, however, the
two kinds of law can be said to have a more sig-
nificant characteristic in common.
Aquinas conceives the laws of nature which
the scientist discovers as laws implanted in the
very nature of things at their creation by God.
The laws which God implants in human nature
do not differ in their eternal origin in the divine
intellect and will, or in their manifestation of
the divine government of the world. They dif-
fer only in that it is part of man's nature to be
free and therefore able to disobey even the rules
of his own nature. Thus both sorts of law are
directions of behavior. Only if the laws which
science discovers are not attributed to God,
will they seem to be merely descriptive rather
than prescriptive.
In this chapter we shall be primarily con-
cerned with law as a direction of human con-
duct or, as Kant would say, law in the sphere of
freedom. But within the one meaning of law
which concerns us here, there are still many im-
portant distinctions of type. The division of law
into divine and human, natural and positive,
private and public, moral and political— to
name only some of the traditional distinctions
— determines the outlines of the diverse philoso-
phies of law which the great books contain, and
underlies the great issues concerning the origin,
the properties, and the authority of law.
DIFFERENT WRITERS use different criteria to set
up their classification of the kinds of law. It is
nevertheless possible to perceive certain paral-
lels in analysis and classification. The opposite
of natural law is sometimes called "human law,"
"positive law," or "written law," sometimes
"civil law" or "municipal law." Sometimes, as
with Kant, for whom the analysis of law derives
from an analysis of rights, the differentiation be-
tween natural and positive right is also expressed
in terms of innate and acquired right, public
and private right.
Thus, for Kant, "natural right rests upon
pure rational principles a priori; positive or stat-
utory right is what proceeds from the will of a
legislator. , . . Innate right is that right which
belongs to everyone by nature, independent of
all juridical acts of experience. Acquired right
is that right which is founded upon such juridi*
cal acts." From natural or innate right develops
"the system of those laws which require no ex-
ternal promulgation" and which therefore be-
long to the sphere of private right. Positive or
civil rights are the acquired rights of men living
in a state of civil society under "the system of
those laws which require public promulgation"
and which therefore belong to the sphere of
public right. The source of differentiation here
seems threefold: whether the right is inherent
in human nature or acquired from the state;
whether men are viewed as living in a state of
nature or as living in a civil society; whether
the laws do or do not need to be publicly pro-
mulgated.
The distinction between the state of nature
and the state of civil society is used by many
other writers in differentiating between natural
and positive (or civil) law, e.g., by Hobbes, Spi-
noza, Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau. They
also recognize that the law which governs men
living in a state of nature is natural in the sense
of being instinctive, or a rule of conduct which
man's reason is innately competent to prescribe;
whereas the civil law originates with specific
acts of legislation by a political power, vested in
a sovereign person, in a representative assembly,
or in the whole body of the people.
Dividing all laws into two kinds — "laws of
nature and laws of the land"— Hegel holds
that "the laws of nature are simply what they
are and are valid as they are." In contrast,
positive law is "valid in a particular state, and
this legal authority is the guiding principle for
the knowledge of right in this positive form,
i.c.t for the science of positive law." Our man-
ner of knowing their content further distin*
guishes between these two kinds of law. "Xo
know the law of nature," Hegel explains, "We
must learn to know nature, since its laws are
rigid, and it is only our ideas about them that
can be false. . . . Knowledge of the laws of the
land is in one way similar, but in another way
not. These laws too we learn to know just as
they exist . . . But the difference in the case of
laws of the land is that they arouse the spirit
of reflection, and their diversity at once draws
attention to the fact that they are not abso-
lute."
964
THE GREAT IDEAS
This leads us to the heart of the distinction.
The kw of the land, or civil law, is "something
posited, something originated by men." It is
positive law in the sense that it must be posited
(i.e., officially instituted) in order to exist. The
civil law is not something discovered by exam-
ining man's nature. It is made, and must be
externally promulgated so that those who are
subject to it can learn its provisions. Anyone
who will inquire can learn the natural law for
himself; or he can be helped to discover it by
a teacher who instructs him in this matter as
he would instruct him in geometry, not as a
hwyer informs clients concerning the prevail-
ing laws of the state.
AQUINAS BOTH subtracts from and adds to this
analysis of the difference between natural and
positive law. On the one hand, he does not ap-
peal to the condition of man in a state of na-
ture as contrasted with civil society. On the
other hand, he finds the chief difference be-
tween the natural and the positive law in their
originating sources. The one is made by God,
the other by man. "The natural law," Aquinas
writes, "is nothing else than the rational crea-
ture's participation in the eternal law." It is
God's eternal law with respect to man as that is
received and exists in human nature. It exists in
man as the first principle of his practical reason
and includes all the precepts which can be dis-
covered by reasoning therefrom.
Hence, for Aquinas as for Locke, the law of
nature is not only the law of reason but the law
of nature's God. But Aquinas distinguishes be-
tween the law of natur£ generally, or the eter-
nal law, and the natural law in man. The latter
is a moral law* both in the sense that it is a law
governing free acts, and also in the sense that it
directs man with regard to good and evil in the
sphere of his private life, not merely with re-
gard to the political common good.
Natural and positive law are alike in the very
respects in which they differ. Both share in the
nature of law which, according to Aquinas^ "is
nothing else than an ordinance of reason for the
common good, made by hirti who has care of
the community, and' promulgated." Each has a
rnaker, God or man; each proceeds in a certain
way from the reason and will of its maker; each
cnust be promulgated, though not in the same
manner; and each is concerned with a common
good — human happiness or -the welfare of the
state. - -,:.<.
The further additions which Aquinas makes
consist of distinctions with respect to divine
and human law. With respect to the divine law
he distinguishes between God's eternal ordi-
nances and His positive commandments. The
eternal part of the divine law, as we have seen,
is that which, at the moment of creation, "God
impnnts on the whole of nature" to instill in
each created species **the principles of its proper
actions." "If man were ordained to no other
end than that which is proportionate to his nat-
ural faculties," Aquinas writes, "there would be
no need for man to have any further direction
. . . besides the natural law and the human law
which is derived from it." But "man is ordained
to the end of eternal happiness"; and since sal--
vation is a supernatural end which exceeds
man's power to achieve without God's help, "it
was necessary that . . . man should be directed
to this end by a law given by God."
God gave such a body of law to man, not at
creation, but at a certain moment in history. He
did not implant it in his natuce but promulgate^
it, in the manner appropriate to positive law,
through verbal declaration — through His re-
vealed word in the Old and the New Testa-
ments, e.g., the Ten Commandments and the
two precepts of charity.
The human law Aquinas divides "into the
law of nations [or the ms gentium] and cwillatv"
The civil law is that which is instituted by a
community for its own members. With regard
to the ius gentium Aquinas follows the tradition
of the Roman jurists. What he has in mind in
using this term should, therefore, not be coh^
fused with what later writers, such as Grdtius^
treat as the ius inter gentcs or international hy.
Yet applicable to both the law of nations and
international law is the question whether such
law belongs more properly to the sphere of nat-
ural or to the sphere of positive law. r
International law concerns the relations be-
tween autonomous states which, as Hegel points
out, are "in a state of nature in relation to 6ne
another," since "the sovereignty of a state is
the principle of its relations to others." Laws
cannot bg 'applied to Sovereign States with the
coc*fcive force of positive. kiw» ''It follows;" says
CHAPTER 46: LAW
965
Hegel, "that if states disagree and their particu-
lar wills cannot be harmonized, the matter can
only be settled by war." His statement that in-
ternational law "does not go beyond an ought-
to-be" separates it from positive law. On similar
grounds Aquinas separates the ius gentium from
positive law. He recognizes, as will presently
appear, that it does not result from legislative
enactment. Furthermore, he points out that it
is discovered by reason and derives its rules by
way of deduction from natural law. The law
of nations is, therefore, not positively instituted.
That the law of nations lacks some of the
properties of civil law does not make it, for
Aquinas, less essentially a body of law; but for
Hegel it falls short of the essence of law, which
consists in a determinate and universal rule of
right posited by a sovereign will. The great le-
gal positivists of the i9th century, such as Aus-
tin, go further and deny that anything is truly
law except the positive enactments of a govern-
ment which has the power to enforce its ordi-
nances. The laws of nature are laws only in a
metaphorical sense.
The Greeks also appear to regard law as pri-
marily a creation of the state. Aristotle con-
ceives political justice as "part natural, part le-
gal—natural, that which everywhere has the
same force and does not exist by people's think-
ing this or that; legal, that which is originally
indifferent, but when it has been laid down is
not indifferent." This tends to identify the le-
gal aspect of justice with the conventional. The
threefold division of law into civil law, law of
nations, and natural law is not Greek but Ro-
man in origin.
Yet the Greeks do not hold that all law is of
human institution or merely a matter of local
convention. The fundamental opposition be-
tween the divine law and the man-made law of
the state occurs frequently in the Greek trage-
dies, and with particular force in the Antigone
of Sophocles. In burying her brother, Antigone
violates the king's edict, but, in her view, not to
have done so would have been to violate the
"unwritten statutes of heaven" which, she de-
clares, are "not of today or yesterday, but from
all time, and no man knows when they were first
put forth. Not through dread of any human
pride," she says, "could I answer to the gods for
breaking these."
Aristotle cites this passage from Sophocles
when, in his Rhetoric, he advises the forensic ora-
tor (or trial lawyer) "to appeal to the universal
law, and insist on its greater equity and justice,"
if "the written law tells against our case." Un-
der such circumstances, he thinks it is wise to
"urge that the principles of equity are perma-
nent and changeless, and that the universal law
does not change either, for it is the law of na-
ture, whereas written laws often do change."
Under the opposite circumstances, that is, when
"the written law supports our case," he pre-
scribes an opposite course— to cite the laws of
the state and to urge that they be upheld.
Though Aristotle here speaks of "the law of
nature," he seems to have in mind the notion of
"a universal law," or a body of law that is com-
mon to all peoples. For the most part, he speaks
of natural justice rather than natural law.
Whether or not the two notions are equivalent,
his principle of natural justice stands in the
same relation to political enactments as, for later
writers, the natural law stands to the positive
law. Plato's conception of law as "a disposition
of reason" which orders things according to
their natures, even more explicitly recognizes
that law neither depends upon nor derives its
authority from the power of the state. The
phrase "natural law" may be infrequent in the
Greek books, but its meaning is not unrepre-
sented in Greek thought.
OTHER DISTINCTIONS in kinds of law— written
and unwritten, statutory and customary, con-
stitutional law and the various particular bod-
ies of law, such as the law of contracts, of crimes,
or of torts — are for the most part subdivisions
of positive law. The one exception, perhaps, is
the unwritten law, which, when not identified
with customary law, stands for the natural law
or the law of reason. With respect to these parts
of law, the chief problems concern constitutions
and customs. The difference between a consti-
tution as law and all other laws obtaining in a
state is considered in the chapter on CONSTITU-
TION; and the legal force of custom, both in jt-
self and also in relation to legislative enactments,
is discussed in the chapter on CUSTOM.
Here our major concern is with positive law
as a whole, with its properties and defects, but
above all with its relation to natural law. Some
966
THE GREAT IDEAS
of the properties of positive law are agreed upon
even by those who sharply disagree concerning
its relation to natural law.
It is generally agreed, for example, that a rule
of positive law cannot be made by any man, but
only by him who exercises the legislative au-
thority and has the power to enforce the rule.
Agreement also prevails concerning the muta-
bility of positive law, though not all would go
as far as Montaigne in holding that "there is
notMng more subject to perpetual agitation
than the laws." Yet it is generally recognized
that tile content of positive law continually un-
dergoes change with the nullification or amend-
ment of old rules and the addition of new ones,
and that positive regulations on any particular
matter may vary from state to state.
No less common is the understanding of the
indispensability of courts and judges. "Laws arc
a dead letter without courts to expound and de-
fine their true meaning and operation," Hamil-
ton writes. Though rules of law, in distinction
from decrees, are formulated to cover an indefi-
nite number of like cases, the cases to which
they must be applied by the judicial process are
far from uniform. Courts and judges have the
task of deciding whether the facts of the par-
ticular case bring that case under the specific
provisions of the law. This is the field of judicial
discretion and the battleground of litigants and
lawyers.
The propensities of men of law, on the bench
and at the bar, to protract and complicate the
procedures of a trial, to multiply and divide the
issues, to separate themselves from laymen by a
heavy curtain of language, have been satirically
noted in the great diatribes against the legal pro-
fession, from Aristophanes to Chaucer, Rabe-
lais, Montaigne, and Swift.
Rabelais, for example, has Pantagruel under-
take to arbitrate in the litigation between
"Lord Kissbreech, plain tiff of one side, and . . .
Lord Suckfist, defendant of the other, whose
controversy was so high 'and difficult in law
that the court of parliament could make noth-
ing of it." Pantagruel conducts the proceed-
ings in an unusual style* When the counsellors
and attorneys "delivered into his hands the
bags wherein were the writs and pancarts con-
cerning that suit, which for bulk and weight
were almost enough to load*four great couilkrd
or stoned a&es, Pantagruel said unto them,
Are the two lords, between whom this debate
and process is, yet living?" Upon being told
they are alive, "to what a devil, then, said he,
serve so many paltry heaps and bundles of
papers and copies which you give me? Is it
not better to hear their controversy from their
own mouths, whilst they are face to face before
us, than to read these vile fopperies, which are
nothing but trumperies, deceits, diabolical coz-
enages of Cepola, pernicious slights and sub-
versions of equity."
Furthermore, Pantagruel continues, "seeing
the laws are excerpted out of the middle of
moral and natural philosophy, how should
these fools have understood it, that have, by
G— , studied less in philosophy than my mule?
In respect of human learning, and the knowl-
edge of antiquities and history, they are truly
laden with these faculties as a toad is with
feathers. And yet of all this the laws are so
full, that without it they cannot be under-
stood. . , . Therefore, if you will that I make
any meddling in this process, first, cause all
these papers to be burned; secondly, make the
two gentlemen come personally before me,
and, afterwards, when I shall have heard them,
I will tell you my opinion freely, without any
feignedness or dissimulation whatsoever." The
trial which Pantagruel then conducts, in which
the two lords are forced to plead without bene-
fit of counsel, is a choice and proper piece of
litigation.
THE PROBLEMS of casuistry, with which Pascal
deals at length in his Provincial Letters,are some-
times thought of as peculiar to the canon law,
but casuistry, in the sense of distinguishing
cases and examining them in relation to general
rules, necessarily occurs in the judicial applica-
tion of any body of law. The most difficult cases
are those which may fall under the letter of a
law but seem to be inconsistent with its spirit.
The reverse also happens; cases fall outside the
letter of the law but the purpose of the law
seems to cover them. All such cases indicate an
unavoidable defect in rules of law.
The defect is unavoidable, Aristotle says. Law
aims at universality "but about some things it
is not possible to make a universal statement
which shall be correct." To remedy this defect,
CHAPTER
the intention of the lawmaker should be coiv-
suited. The particular case should be treated as
he would have treated it if he had had it in
mind when he framed the general rule. Such
handling of the difficult case is what Aristotle
means by the equitable — "a correction of the
law where it is defective owing to its universal-
ity'"
The law which equity is called upon to cor-
rect may be a just rule, but that does not pre-
vent its being unjustly applied. Equity prevents
the injustice of misapplication by dispensing
justice in the particular case according to the
spirit, not the letter, of the law. It is a kind of
justice, Aristotle says; "not legal justice but a
correction of legal justice . . . not better than
absolute justice but better than the error which
arises from the absoluteness of the rule."
Those who share Aristotle's theory of equity
acknowledge a standard of justice by which not
only the law's application, but also the law it-
self, is lo be measured. In his terms, natural jus-
tice provides this standard. The justice of laws
made by the state is not only relative to the con-
stitution of the state, but since the constitution
itself can be more or less just, there is a stand-
ard of justice prior to and independent of the
state — in this sense, natural.
Essentially the same point is made by those
who, like Montesquieu and Locke, appeal to
the natural law, both as a measure of constitu-
tions and as a criterion for distinguishing good
from bad law, "Before laws were made," Mon-
tesquieu writes, "there were relations of possible
justice. To say that there is nothing just or un-
just but what is commanded or forbidden by
positive laws, is the same as saying that before
the describing of a circle all the radii were not
equal*"
The law of nature, according to Locke, does
not apply only to the conduct of men living in
a state of nature. The law of nature which Locke
describes as a rule "of common reason and equity
which is that measure God has set to the actions
of men for their mutual security," is not abol-
ished when men enter into civil society. "The
obligations of the law of nature cease not in so-
ciety, but onjy in many cases are drawn closer,
and have by human laws known penalties an-
nexed to them, to enforce their observation.
Thus the law of nature stands as an eternal rule
96?
to all men, legislators as well as others." The
rules of positive law, writes Locke, must "be
conformable to the law of nature, /.£., to the
will of God, of which that is the declaration."
The municipal laws of any particular state "are
only so far right as they are founded on the law
of nature, by which they are to be regulated
and interpreted."
THE POSITION of Locke and Aquinas makes
natural law the source as well as the standard of
positive law. As a source, natural law gives rise
to positive law in a way which, for Aquinas at
least, differentiates it from the law of nations or
the tus gentium.
"Something may be derived from the natural
law in two ways," he writes. "First, as a conclu-
sion from premises; secondly, by way of deter-
mination of certain generalities. The first way,"
he explains, "is like to that by which, in sci-
ences, demonstrated conclusions are drawn from
the principles; while the second mode is likened
to that whereby, in the arts, general forms are
particularized as to details: thus the craftsman
needs to determine the general form of a house
to some particular shape." Now "to the law of
nations belong those things which are derived
from the law of nature, as conclusions from
premises, <?.£., just buy ings and sellings, and the
like, without which men cannot live together,
which is a point of the law of nature, since man
is by nature a social animal. ... But those things
which are derived from the law of nature by
way of particular determination, belong to the
civil law, according as each state decides on
what is best for itself,"
Aquinas exemplifies the determinations of
positive law by pointing out that "the law of
nature has it that the evildoer should be pun-
ished; but that he be punished in this way or
that, is a determination of the law of nature/'
which the positive law must institute. He might
also have used as an example the fact that the
universal prohibition of killing is a conclusion
frpm the principle of natural law that "one
should do harm to no man" whereas the
various Icinds and degrees of murder are dif-
ferently defined in different countries accord-
ing to the determination of the natural law
made by the positive law of homicide in each
country.
968
THE GREAT IDEAS
The rules of positive law cannot be arrived at
deductively. They do not follow necessarily
from principles. They are only determinations
which particularize the precepts of natural law
in a manner which fits the contingent circum-
stances of a particular society. Whatever is
made determinate by positive law is something
which the natural law leaves indeterminate be-
cause no point of justice or right is involved.
Other determinations could have been made.
An element of choice is involved in the making
of positive laws. In addition to being formu-
lated by the reason, they must be posited by
the will of whoever has the authority to make
laws.
Rules of positive law are the work of reason
to the extent that reason is called upon to pro-
pose various possible determinations of the
natural law, e.g.> one or another definition of
murder in the first degree, one or another
definition of the penalty for it. Since a definite
rule of positive law cannot be instituted until a
choice is made among the alternative possibili-
ties, the positive law cannot be solely the work
of reason. Choice, according to Aquinas, is al-
ways an act of the will.
Though he recognizes the role of choice, and
hence of the will, in the enactment of positive
law, Aquinas does not go to the other extreme
of making the will the sole arbiter of what is
law. The legality of the state's ordinances does
not depend entirely on their being posited by
the will of a sovereign authority. If a positive
regulation is not derived from the natural law,
it cannot be a just rule. Quoting Augustine's
remark that "a law which is not just is a law in
name only," Aquinas goes on to say: "Every
human law has just so much of the nature of
law as it is derived from the law of nature. But
if in any point it departs from the law of nature,
it is no longer a law but a perversion of law."
An ordinance which had no other foundation
than the will of a sovereign prince or govern-
ment might have the coercive force of law,
but it would lack the moral authority of law.
It would bind men, not through conscience,
but only through their fear of punishment
for disobedience. "That force and tyranny
may be an clement in law,'* writes Hegel, "is
accidental to law, and has nothing to do with
its nature."
A COMPLETELY opposite view is taken by those
who deny natural law or principles of innate
right and natural justice. There is, in addition,
a theory of natural law which leads to an op-
posite view of the legal and the just, though the
opposition in this case is qualified to some ex-
tent.
According to Hobbes, "civil and natural law
are not different kinds, but different parts of
law." The law of nature and the civil law, he
says, "contain each other and are of equal ex-
tent." But he also says that "the laws of nature
. . . are not properly laws, but qualities that
dispose men to peace and to obedience."
Before the formation of a commonwealth, by
the contract or covenant whereby men transfer
the rights and liberties which they possess in a
state of nature, the natural law directs men,
first, to preserve their lives in the war "of every
man against every man"; and second, to seek
the security of peace by leaving the natural
state of war to join with their fellow men in the
order of a civil society. The nineteen precepts
of natural law which Hobbes enumerates seem
to set forth reason's recognition of the advan-
tages of civil society over the state of nature
and also reason's understanding of the condi-
tions indispensable to a firm foundation of the
commonwealth.
These rules of reason "are the laws of nature,
dictating peace, for a means of the conservation
of men in multitudes, and which only concern
the doctrine of civil society." But until the
commonwealth exists, the laws of nature bind
in conscience only, and they are therefore not
effective in achieving theirend, which is secu-
rity. "When a commonwealth is settled, then
they are actually laws and not before; as being
then the commands of the commonwealth, and
therefore also civil laws. For it is the sovereign
power which obliges men to obey them."
The distinction between natural and civil
law then becomes a distinction between un-
written and written rules; but the test of whether
any rule is actually a law is the same, namely,
whether it is adopted and enforced by the
sovereign. "All laws, written and unwritten,
have their authority and force from the will of
the commonwealth," Hobbes writes.
The difference between the Hobbesian theory
and that of Locke or Aquinas reveals itself in its
consequences. Under what circumstances can a
subject or citizen refuse obedience to the laws
of the state ? On the ground that they arc un-
just or tyrannical? By the criterion that they
violate precepts of natural law or the positive
commandments of Qod? Is the individual
bound in conscience to obey every command of
the civil law, because the civil law includes the
natural law, interprets it, and gives it the
authority and force of law; and because the
natural law itself commands obedience to the
cwil law once a commonwealth has been insti-
tuted? Or, on the contrary, is an individual in
conscience free to disobey those positive en-
actments which lack the authority of law be-
cause they are not in conformity to the natural
law or the divine law ?
To QUESTIONS OF THIS sort, and to the whole
problem of the right of rebellion, different
answers seem to be given in terms of different
views of the nature of law, the sources of its
authority, and its sanctions.
At one extreme there is the doctrine that
rebellion is never justified, that the security of
peace, which the maintenance of law and order
provides, is always better than the anarchy and
war which result from rebellion. Hobbes, for
example, holds that "nothing the sovereign
representative can do to a subject, on what
pretence soever, can properly be called in-
justice, or injury." The rebel would, therefore,
always be a criminal, a man who takes the law
into his own hands, and uses force to gain his
ends. A man may be justified in using force,
according to Hobbes, only to repel force used
against him, and then only in defense of his life.
So much the law of nature permits or requires*
But it does not permit or require him to decide
which laws enacted by his sovereign he shall
obey or disobey.
At the other extreme there is the doctrine of
civil disobedience as expounded by Thoreau
and, of course, Gandhi. Unjust laws, or laws
which violate a man's conscience, may have the
force of the state behind them. But they exert
no authority over him. The just man is called
upon to break them and to submit gladly to the
consequences of breaking them, by suffering
whatever penalties may be attached to their
breach. It is not enough for the individual c^ik.t
zen to „ »7 ~.s conscience f>y criticizing the
government and joining with like-minded fel-
low citizens in an effort to get junjust laws abol-
ished or reformed. He is obliged in conscience
not to await (iclp from others or to be patient in
the use of gradual means. He is obliged to act
alone and at once— by disobeying the unjust
law.
Kant seems to go this far when he interprets
the precept "Do wrong to no one" as meaning
"Do no wrong to anyone, even if thou shouldst
be under the necessity, in observing this duty,
to cease from all connection with others and tp
avoid all society." But he qualifies this some-
what by the precept: "Enter, if wrong cannot
be avoided,- iq to a society with others in which
everyone1 may have secured to him what is his
Another sort of qualification limits disobedi-
ence, rebellion, or secession from society— even
when the individual conscience recoils from the
injustice or illegality of a civil ordinance. The
principle, as stated by Aquinas, seems to be
that the common good may, under certain
circumstances, be better served by acquies-
cence than by disobedience. Unless what the
law commands involves a transgression of
God's commandments, an unjust law may be
obeyed "m order to avoid scandal or disturb-
ance."
Even with regard to reforming law by legal
means Aquinas recommends that the disad-
vantages resulting from the change of law be
weighed against the advantages. The effective-
ness of law depends upon the habits of obedi-
ence it forms and upon the customary behavior
it establishes. "Consequently," Aquinas says,
"when a law is changed, the binding power of
law is diminished, in so far as custom is abol-
ished." This harm to the common welfare may,
of course, be compensated either by "the bene-
fit conferred by the new enactment" or by the
fact that "the existing law is clearly unjust, or
its observance extremely harmful."
Locke states the principle somewhat differ-
ently. So long as due process of law is available
to remedy unjust ordinances or illegal acts, the
individual is not justified in disobedience, for
such action would "unhinge and overturn all
polities, and, instead of government and order,
leave nothing but anarchy and confusion." Nor
976 THE GREAT IDEAS
is it effective for the individual to act alone in As the foregoing discussion indicates, the
using force to resist tyranny or injustice. But if basic issues in the philosophy of law are in-
these illegal acts have extended to the majority separable from questions about justice and
of the people "and they are persuaded in their liberty, the rights of the individual and the
consciences, that their laws, and with them authority of the state, the powers of govcrn-
their estates, liberties, and lives are in danger, ment, and the fundamental alternatives of
and perhaps, their religion too, how they will be crime and punishment, war and peace. These
hindered from resisting illegal force used against matters are considered in the chapters appropri-
them, I cannot tell. This is an inconvenience, I ate to the terms mentioned above. More par-
confess, that attends all governments. "There is ticular consequences of the theory of law,
no alternative then but rebellion — "properly a especially natural law, are found in such chap-
state of war wherein the appeal lies only to ters as REVOLUTION, SLAVERY, and TYRANNY,
heaven." CITIZEN, CONSTITUTION, and WEALTH.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The definition of law 972
i a. The end of law: peace, order, and the common good
ib. Law in relation to reason or will 973
ic. The authority and power needed for making law
id. The promulgation of law: the need and the manner of its declaration
2. The major kinds of law: comparison of human, natural, and divine law; comparison
of natural and positive, innate and acquired, private and public, abstract and civil
rights 974
3. The divine law
30. The eternal law in the divine government of the universe: the law in the nature
of all creatures
(1) The natural moral law as the eternal law in human nature
(2) The distinction between the eternal law and the positive commandments of
God 975
3^. The divine positive law: the difference between the law revealed in the Old
and the New Testament
(1) Law in the Old Testament: the moral, the judicial, and the ceremonial
precepts of the Old Law
(2) Law in the New Testament: the law of love and grace; ceremonial precepts
of the New Law 976
4. The natural law
40. The law of reason or the moral law: the order and habit of its principles
4^. The law of men living in a state of nature
4c. The a priori principles of innate or abstract right: universal law in the order of
freedom; the objectification of the will
4^. The natural law as underlying the precepts of virtue: its relation to the moral
precepts of divine law 977
4*. The relation of natural law to natural rights and natural justice
CHAPTER 46: LAW 971
PAGE
4/. The relation of natural law to civil or municipal law: the state of nature and the
regulations of the civil state 977
4£. The relation of natural law to the law of nations and to international law: sov-
ereign states and the state of nature < 978
4^. The precepts of the natural law and the condition of the state of nature with
respect to slavery and property
5. The human or positive law: the sanction of coercive force
5*7. The difference between laws and decrees
5^. The kinds or divisions of positive law 979
5^. The justice of positive law: the standards of natural law and constitutionality
5*/. The origins of positive law in the legislative process: the function of the legislator
5<?. The mutability or variability of positive law: the maintenance or change of laws 980
5/". The relation of positive law to custom
5g. The application of positive law to cases: the casuistry of the judicial process; the
conduct of a trial; the administration of justice 981
5^. The defect of positive law: its need for correction or dispensation by equity 982
6. Law and the individual
6a. Obedience to the authority and force of law: the sanctions of conscience and
fear; the objective and subjective sanctions of law; law, duty, and right
6b. The exemption of the sovereign person from the coercive force of law 983
6c. The force of tyrannical, unjust, or bad laws: the right of rebellion or disobedience
6d. The educative function of law in relation to virtue and vice: the efficacy of law
as limited by virtue in the individual citizen
6e. The breach of law: crime and punishment 984
(1) The nature and causes of crime
(2) The prevention of crime
(3) The punishment of crime 985
7. Law and the state 986
ja. The distinction between government by men and government by laws: th<6
nature of constitutional or political law
7^, The supremacy of law as the principle of political freedom
jc. The priority of natural to civil law: the inviolability or inalienability of natural
rights
yd. Tyranny and treason or sedition as illegal acts: the use of force without authority 987
7<?. The need for administrative discretion in matters undetermined by law: the
royal prerogative
7/ The juridical conception of the person: the legal personality of the state and
other corporations
8. Historical observations on the development of law and on the diversity of legal
systems or institutions
9. The legal profession and the study of law: praise and dispraise of lawyers and judges 988
1972 THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which arc the volume and page
numbers of tnc passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK ir (265-283] 124> the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed m one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 1 16a-l 19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and Tower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins m the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 463 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, en,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, m brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283} 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; c g., OLD TESTA-
MENT- Nehemiah, 7-45— (D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously m the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
44 BOSWELL' Johnson, 203d-204a
1. The definition of law 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 4a-b;
7 PLATO: Statesman, 599c-601b / Laws, BK i, INTRO, par 3 10a-12c; AUDITIONS, i 115a-d
650a-b;BKiv,681b-c;BKix, 743a-b; 754a-b; , ,
757a la. The end of law: peace, order, and the com-
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi4-i9l mon good
377a; BK x, CH 9 [1180*14-24] 434d-435a / 7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 301b-304a; BK n,
Politics, BK in, CH 16 [1287*28-32] 485d; 311b-c; BK v, 363b-365d; BK ix, 425c-427b
[i287b3~5] 486a; BK vn, CH 4 [1326*29-32] esp 426c-d / Thcaetetus, 531a-b / Statesman,
530fr-c 599c-601b / Laws, BK i-ni 640a-677a esp BK
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT i 302a-b i, 643a-644a, 650a-b, BK in, 669b-d, 676b-c;
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i-n, Q 90 BK w, 677d; 681b-682c; BK vi, 706b-c; BK ix,
20Sa-208b esp A 4, ANS 207d-208b 747d; 754a-b; 757a; BK'XII, 795c-796b /
23 HQ9BES: Leviathan, PART n, 130b-c; 131a-c; Seventh Letter, 804b-c
l49c; 157b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi4-i9]
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi, SECT 5736d- 377a; CH 6 [1134*29-32] 382a / Politics, BK
3?b; CH ix, SECT 124 53d-54a; CH xi 55b-58b m» CH 16 [iiS^iS-1^] 485c-486c; BK vn,
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-2b; 3c CH 4 [1326*29-32] 530b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330b-d / Political 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 72b
Economy, 370b-d / Social Contract, BK n, 18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BKXIX, CH 17 522b-
399b-400c esp 3(99c-d 523a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, llOc / Fund. Prin. Meta- 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgicat PART i-n, Q 90,
physic of Morals, 266c-d / Pref. Metaphysical A 2 206b-207a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 207a-c;
Elements of Ethics, 367b-c / Intro. Metaphysic Q 91, A i, REP 3 208b-d; A 5, ANS 211c-212c;
of Morals 383a-394a,c esp 392b / Science of A 6, REP 3 212c-213c; Q 92, A i, ANS and REP
Right, 397a-399c 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 93, A i, REP i 215b,d-216c;
13 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33, lOSd-lO^a; NUM- A A, CONTRARY 218b-d; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-
2, 191b ' 223a;f A 3, REP i 223a-c; Q 9$, A i 226c-227c;
\b to Id
CHAPTER 46: LAW
973
A 3 228c-229b; A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, AA
2-3 231c-233a; A 4, ANS 233a-d; A 6, ANS
235a~d; Q 97, A i, ANS and REP 3 236a-d; A 2,
ANS and REP 2 236d-237b; A 4 238b-239b; Q
98, A i, ANS 239b-240c; Q 99, A i, ANS and
REP 1-2 245c-246b; A 2, ANS 246b-247a; A 3,
ANS 247a-248a; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a;
A 8, ANS 259d-261a; A 9, CONTRARY 261b-
262b; A ii, REP 3 263c-264d; Q 105, A 2, ANS
and REP 1,4 309d-316a; Q 107, A i, ANS 325c-
327b; A 2, ANS 327b-329a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy ', PURGATORY, xvi [85-
102] 77d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 103a; 131b-c;
157bc
30 BACON* Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 8c; lib; 15c; 16a-17b
passim / Civil Government, CH i, SECT 3 25d;
CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b; CH ix 53c-54d; CH
xi 55b-58b; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b; CH xix,
SECT 219 75b-c
36 STERNE* Tristram Shandy, 262a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptrtt of Laws, BK i, 2c-3d
passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353d-355b esp 354d-
355a; 359c-d / Political Economy, 370b-d;
375b-c / Social Contract, BK n, 399b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 617a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-115a / Fund. Prm.
Metaphysic of Morals, 259c-261d csp 259c-d;
272a-b; 274a-277b / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 373d / Science of Right, 398c-
399c; 408c-409c; 412c-414a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 204b-c; 219d-220a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 299
99c-100b; ADDITIONS, 135 138c / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 170c-171c; PART n, 271d-272a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-d
£. Law in relation to reason or will
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 271c-272b / Republic, BK i,
301c-302c / Laws, BK i, 650a-b; BK in, 669b-
670c; BK iv, 679c-680d; 681b-682c; 685d; BK
ix, 754a-b; BK xn, 792c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [1180*14-24]
434d-435a / Politics, BK i, CH 2 [1253*31-37]
446d; BK in, CH 16 485b-486c esp [1287*19-
32] 485c-d; BK vi, CH 3 521c-522a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21, A
2, REP i 125c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i 205b-206b; A 3 207a-c; Q 95, A i 226c-227c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86b-87a; 96b;
PART n, 127b; 131d-132b; 133a; 160b-c; PART
iv, 272c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6-8 26b-
27a; CH vi, SECT 57-63 36d-38c; CH xi 55b-
58b passim; CH xin, SECT 151 59d*60a; CH
xix, SECT 212 74a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 266a b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la; 3c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-371a /
Social Contract, BK n, 395b-d; 399b-400c; BK
in, 4J9c-420a
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
264b-d; 273d-274a / Practical Reason, 309d /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 390b; 393a /
Science of Right, 435a; 448b-d; 450a-b /
Judgement, 596c-598b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 78, 230d-232a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 4 12d-
13a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170c-171c;
PART iv, 328a; 364d-365a
50 MARX-£NGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427a-b
Ic. The authority and power needed for making
law
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [1180*14-24]
434d-435a / Politics, BK m, CH 16 485b-486c;
BK vi, CH 3 521c-522a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 34b-d,
47a-c / Numa Pompihus, 52b-c / Solon 64b,d-
77a,c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3 207a-c; Q 92, A 2, REP 3 214d-215a,c; Q 95,
A i 226c-227c
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xn, 18a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, lOOc-lOla;
123a-b; 130b-132a; 137b-138b; 157b; 160c-
161a; PART in, 171a-172a; 201a-b; 231d-234d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 147a;
PART n, 362b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 87-88
44a-c; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi 55b-58b; CH xin,
SECT 149 59b-d; CH xix, SECT 212 74a-b /
Human Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT 5-6
105a-c; SECT 12-13 107b-108c; BK n, CH
xxvni, SECT 5-12 229c-231c passim, csp SECT
6229d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369a / Social
Contract, BK n, 399d-400a; 400c-402a; BK in,
420a-421c
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 393c /
Science of Right, 398b-c; 399c; 405d-406c;
412c-414c; 435c-436c; 438b-c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [43-47] 2a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33, 107b-108a; 108d-
109a; NUMBER 44, 145c-146d; NUMBER 78,
230d-232a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 94
36b; PART in, par 212 70d-71a / Philosophy
of History, PART i, 207b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680d-
684a
id. The promulgation of law: the need and the
manner of its declaration
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 27:1-8 /Joshua,
8:3°-35-P)/°^ 8:30-35
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 2:14-15
974
tHE GREAT IDEAS
( I . The definition of law. Id. The promulgation
of law; the need and the manner of its
declaration.)
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [450-460] 135a
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia Among the Tauri [1435-
1499] 424a-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 684c-686b; BK ix, 745c-
746a; BK x, 760c~761b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 3 [1113*3-13]
359a / Athenian Constitution, CH 7, par i 555c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 38c / Numa Pompilius,
50d-61c / Solon, 73d-74a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 4 207d-208b; Q 91, A i, REP 2 208b-d; Q 93,
A 2 216c-2I7b; A 5, REP i 219a-d; Q 106, A i
321a-322a
23 HOEBES: Leviathan, PART nf 132b-133d; 137b-
138b; 143b-c; 157c-d; 160b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 47c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 14b / Civil Government,
CH n, SECT 9 27a-b; CH vi, SECT 57-60 36d-
38a; CH ix, SECT 124 53d-54a; CH xi, SECT
1^6-137 56c-57b
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spirit of Laws, BK xxix,
266b-268c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 371a / Social
Contract, BK n, 401c-402a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 616d-617a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73a; 73d- 74b pas-
sim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 203d-204c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 210-
211 69d-70ct par 215 71c-d, par 217 72b-c;
par 224 73d, ADDITIONS, i 115a-d, 141 139c
2. The major kinds of law: comparison of
human, natural, and divine law; com-
parison of natural and positive, innate
and acquired, private and public, ab-
stract and civil rights
5 SOPHOCLES Antigone [441-525] 134d-135c;
[891-943] 138d-139a / Ajax [1047-1421] 152a-
155a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [513-565] 262d-263b /
Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 681b-683a
8 ARISTOTLE. Sophistical Refutations , CH 12
[173*7-3*] 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 382c~383a /
Politics, BK i, CH 6 448c-449b / Rhetoric, BK
i, CH 10 [i368b7~io] 611d; CH 13 [i373bi-i7J
617c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b;
par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK xix, CH 17
522b-523a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 63,
A 2t ANS 64b-65a; Q 91 208b-213c; Q 97, A 3,
RHP i 237b-238b; Q too, A i 251b-252a; A 2,
ANS 252b-253a; Q 107, A i, ANS 325c-327b
2*3*0)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxx (97-
123] 152d-153a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-d; PART n,
131a-c; 136d-137b; 138c; 151a-c; PART in,
245c-246a; PART iv, 249a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 281a-283c; 516c-517a;
519a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, lOOd
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n 25d-28c pas-
sim; CH iv, SECT 21 29d; CH vi, SECT 56-59
36d-37d; CH ix 53c-54d passim / Human
Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT 13 107d-
108c; BK n, CH xxvni, SECT 6-13 229d-231c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-3a;
BK xxiv, 202b-c; BK xxvi, 214b,d-215a;
218a; 221c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 399b-c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 72a
42 KANT- Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392b /
Science of Right, 400b,d-403b; 429a-c; 434b-
436b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 467c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3, lOa-
llb; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d
3. The divine law
3<*. The eternal law in the divine government of
the universe: the law in the nature of all
creatures
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 119 esp 119:91 — (D)
Psalm*, 1 18 esp 118:91 / Proverbs, 8:15-30
18 AUGUSTINE. City of God, BK v, CH n 216c-d;
BK xi, CH 22 333d-334c; BK xix, CH 11-14
516d-520d
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 21,
A i, REP 2 124b-125b; A 2 125c-d; PART i-n,
Q 19, A 4 705b-c; A 6, ANS and REP 2 707a-
708a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 91,
A i 208b-d; A 2, ANS and REP 3 208d-209d;
Q 93 215b,d-220d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, i [94-142]
107b-d, xxx [97-123] 152d-153a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 159d-160b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 55a-b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 30-32
418c-419a passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, la-2b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 243b-d
3<*(l) The natural moral law as the eternal law
in human nature
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 37*30-31 — (D) Psalms,
36:3°-3i
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 2:11-16
5 SOPHOCLES : Antigone [450-460] 135a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions^ BK n, par 9, lOd; BK
m, par 13-15 16c-17b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 19,
A 4 705b-c
3«(2) to
CHAPTER 46: LAW
975
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgicat PART I-H, Q 91,
A 2 208d-209d; Q 93, A 2 216c-217b; A 6 219d-
220d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 96b; PART n,
134c; 136d-137a; 160b-c; PART in, 171a-c;
216c-217a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning* lOOd
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 5-6 105a-c passim; BK n, CH xxvm,
SECT 7-8 229d-230a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331d / Social
Contract, BK iv, 437a
3<*(2) The distinction between the eternal law
and the positive commandments of God
NEW TESTAMENT* Romans, 2:11-16
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 4, ANS and REP i 210c-211c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 136d-138b;
160b-c; PART in, 171a-c; 199b; 216c-217a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-b; lOOd
3£. The divine positive law: the difference be-
tween the law revealed in the Old and
the New Testament
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:8-17; 17:4-14; 26:2-
5 / Exodus, 19:3-6; 20 / Deuteronomy, 5;
17:18-19; 27-1-8; 31*26 / Joshua, 8-30-35—
(D) Josue, 8:30-35 / Psalms, i; 40:8; 78; 119
passim, esp 119.1-16, 119:33-40, 119*129-136
— (D) Psalms, i; 39-9; 77; 118 passim, esp
118:1-16, 118:33-40, 118:129-136 / Proverbs,
3:1-2; 6:20-23 / Jeremiah, 31:33— (D) fere-
mias, 31 33
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 2:16; 17:11; 19:17-
20; 32:15; 33:2-3; 39:1-11 — (D) OT, Ecclesi-
asticus, 2-19; 17-9; 19:17-18; 32:19; 33:2-3;
38:39-39:15
NEW TESTAMENT- Matthew, 5 17-44 esp 5:17-
20; 22:36-40 / Lu^e, 16:16-17 / John, 1-17;
7:19-23 / Acts, 10.1-48; 13:38-39; 15:22-29;
21:19-28 esp 21:20-25 / Romans passim /
/ Corinthians, 9:19-21; 10:23-33 / Galatians
passim, esp 2:1-5:12 / Ephesians, 2:14-15 /
Colossians, 2.13-23 / / Timothy, 1:5-11 /
Hebrews esp 7-10 / James, 1 125; 2:8-12
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 17 309c-
310b; CH 25 313c-314c; BK xvin, CH n
477c-d; BK xx, CH 4 532b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
AA 4-5 210c-212c; QQ 98-108 239b-337d;
PART ii-n, Q 16 454c-456d; Q 22 480d-482c;
Q 44 592d-598c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PARTII, I37b-138b; 160b~
c; PART in, 171a-172a; 177c-180a; 199b-207b;
215b-219d; 240c-241a; PART iv, 257c-258a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [101-314] 32 Ib-
326a; [401-419)3288
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 79b / Penstes, 520
263b 264a; 522 264a; 620 285a-286a; 672 296a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 14b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 40 2a; BK
iv, 435c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 181 b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 252c
36(1) Law in the Old Testament: the moral, the
judicial) and the ceremonial precepts of
the Old Law
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:3-7; 17:9-14; 26:2-5
/ Exodus, 12-13; 2°-3i J 34-35; 4° / Leviticus /
Numbers passim, esp 15, 17-19, 27-30, 35-36 /
Deuteronomy esp 4-27 / Joshua, 1-7-8; 8:30-
35; 22:1-6— (D) Josue, 1:7-8; 8:30-35; 22:1-6
/ I Samuel, 1 3:9-1 4 —(D) / Kings, 13.9-14 /
// Kings, 21 :8— (D) IV Kings, 21 :8 / / Chroni-
cles, 22:12-13— (D) / Paralipomenon, 22:12-13
/ 11 Chronicles, 34-35 esp 35:1-19— (D) II
Paralipomenon, 34-35 esp 35:1-19 / Ezra, 9-10
— (D) I Esdras, 9-10 / Nehemiah, 1:5-9; 9:16-
38— (D) // Esdras, 1:5-9; 9*16-38 / Psalms,
78; 89:30-32; 94:12; 105:43-45; 119 passim—
(D) Psalms, 77; 88.31-33;" 93:12; 104:43-45;
118 passim / Proverbs, 3:1-2; 4.1-2; 6*20-23 /
Isaiah, 1:10-17; 5:24-25; 42:21-25; 51:7-8 —
(D) Isaias, 1:10-17; 5-24-25; 42:21-25; 51:7-8
/ Jeremiah, 6:19; 9*13-16; 16-10-13; 26:4-6;
31:33; 44:10-14,23— (D) Jeremias, 6:19; 9:13-
16; 16:10-13; 26-4-6; 31:33; 44:10-14,23 /
Ezetyel, 5:6-9; 11:18-20; 18; 22:26; 36:25-27;
43-48— (D) Ezechiel, 5:6-9; 11:18-20; 18;
22:26; 36-25-27; 43-48 / Daniel, 9:1-15 /
Hosea, 4:6; 8:i-(£>) Osee, 4:6; 8:1 / Micah,
6:6-8— (D) Micheas, 6:6-8 / Zcphaniah, 3:1-
7~(D) Sophomas, 3:1-7 / Zechanah, 7:12-14
— (D) Zachanas, 7:12-14 / Malachi, 2:1-10;
3:7— (D) Malachias, 2:1-10; 3:7
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 2.16, 10:19; 11:15;
17:11; 19:17-20; 24:1-23 esp 24:23; 32:15;
33:2-3; 39:1-11; 45:5— (D) OT, Ecclesias-
ttcus, 2:19; 10:23; 11:15; 17-9; 19:17-18; 24:1-
33 esp 24:32-33; 32-19; 33-2-3; 38:39-39;i5;
45:5-6 / / Maccabees, 1:38-63; 2:19-68— (D)
OT, / Machabees, 1:40-66; 2:19-68 / // Mac-
cabees, 6-7; 15:1-5— (D) OT, II Machabees,
6-7; 15:1-5
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH 17 309c-
310b; CH 25 313c-314c; BK xx, CH 4 532b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 5 211c-212c; A 6, ANS and REP i 212c-213c;
QQ 98-105 239b-321a; Q 106, A 3, ANS 323a-
324a; A 4, ANS and REP 1,3 324a-325c; Q 107
325c-330d passim; Q 108, A i, ANS and REP 3
331a-332b; A 2 332b-333d; A 3, REP 1-3 334a-
336b; PART n-n, Q 16 454c-456d; Q 22 480d-
482c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 137b-c; 154b-
155c; 160b-c; PART iiif 177c-188a; 199b-204a;
2l2d-213a; 216c-218a; 223a-c; 226b-d; 231b;
PART iv, 268b-c; 269a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 18b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [223-371] 324a-
327a esp [223-230] 324«, [287-309] 325b-326a
976
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3>b. The divine positive law: the difference be-
tween the law revealed in the Old and the
New Testament. 34(1) Law in the Old
Testament: the moral, the judicial, and
the ceremonial precepts of the Old Law.)
33 PASCAL- Pensfa, 619-620 284b-286a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 180b-182c passim;
208a-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 46 7c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i» 246c-
247a
3&(2) Law in the New Testament: the law of
love and grace; ceremonial precepts of
the New Law
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5-7 csp 5:17-20;
16:18-19; 18:18; 22 34-40; 28.19 / Mar{,
12:28-34 / Lufy, 6:20-49; 10:25-37; 1 6. 1 6-
17; 22:15-20 / John, 3:1-8, 6 csp 6:47-58;
13:31-17 26; 20,21-23— (D) John, 3:1-8; 6
csp 6:47-59; 13:31-17:26; 20:21-23 / Acts,
2:37-42; 8:14-17,26-40; 10:34-48; 13-2-4,38-
39; 15-22-29; i9*i--7; 21-20-25 / Romans
csp 3-13/7 Corinthians, 11:23-34; 13 / Gala-
tians csp 3-6 / Colosstans / I Timothy, 4 14 /
Hebrews, 7-10 / James, 5:14-15/7 Peter, 4:8-
ii / I John/ II John
18 AUGUSTINE. City of God, BK x, CH 25 313c-
314c; BK xx, CH 4 532b-c / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 22-30 629b*633b, CH 35 634c-d; BK
in, CH 10 661c-662a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 5 211c-212c, Q 98, A 4, ANS 242b-243c, Q
101, A 2, ANS 267a-268a; A 4, REP 2 269a-
270b; Q 102, A i, REP i 270c-271b; A 4, REP
2-4 276d-283c, A 5, REP 3 283c-292c; Q 103,
A 3, ANS 300d-302a; QQ 106-108 321a-337d;
PART n-ii, Q 16, A i, REP 2 454c-455c
22CHAUCFR- Parson's Tale, par 31 517b-518b;
par 68 533b-534a
23HoBBEs: Leviathan, PART in, 180c-d, 206c-
207a; 218a-219d; 240d; PART iv, 257c-258a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 81a; lOOd
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [285-3 14] 325b-
326a; [576-605] 331b-332a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 672 296a
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
259a / Practical Reason, 327c-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 286b-287a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 525c-526b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
121d-137c csp 121d-122b, 126c-127b; BK vi,
150a-c; 166c-170a
4. The natural law
4a. The law of reason or the moral law: the
order and habit of its principles
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT n 262a-b;
BK iv, SECT 4 264a; BK vn, SECT 55 283 b-c;
BK xi, SECT i 302a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 9, lOd
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 79,
A 12 425c-426b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 58,
AA 4-5 44a-45c; Q 63, A i 63a-64a; Q 90, A i
205b-206b; Q 91, A 2 208d-209d; A 5, REP 3
211c-212c; A 6 212c-213c; Q 94 220d-226b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86b-87a; 91a-96b
csp 96b; PART n, 132c-d, 133b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 23b-c; 184a-b; 520c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 96a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d; PROP 31-35 432a-434a; PROP 37,
SCHOL 2 435b-436a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH n 25d-28c esp
SECT 6-1 1 26b-27d; CH vi, SECT 56-63 36d-
38c; CH ix, SECT 124 53d- 54a / Human Under-
standing, 90d; BK i, CH n, SECT 5-6 105a-c
passim; SECT 13, 108b-c
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK n, 399b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b; 236d-237a /
Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254d;
259c-261d, 264b-265a, 268d [fn 2], 271c-d;
282b-287b / Practical Reason, 306d-310b;
314d-321b; 360d-361d / Intro. Metaphystc of
Morals, 386b-387a,c; 388b-c, 390b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 140,
52a~53a, PART in, par 213 71a; ADDITIONS, i
115a-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170d-
171a
4b. The law of men living in a state of nature
7 PLATO: Republic, BK n, 311b-312d
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 84c-87b; PART n,
99a-b
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
35 LOCKE- Civil Government, CH ii-m 25d-29d;
CH ix 53c-54d
38 MONTESQUIEU Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-331b; 333b-d;
342c-348a esp 343b-345c / Social Contract,
BK i, 389d-390a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 237c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right,
402c; 433c-436c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 93
36a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171c-
172b
4c. The a priori principles of innate or abstract
right: universal law in the order of free-
dom; the objectification of the will
42 KANT. Pure Reason, HOc; 114b-115a / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 390b; 392b / Science of
Right, 400b,d-402a; 412c-414c; 416b-417b;
429a-c; 435a-436b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 446a-d; 458d-459d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight^ INTRO, par 4-3®
12d-19c csp par 4 12d-13a, par 15 16a-b, par 22
17c-d, par 27-30 18d-19c; par 33 20b-d; PART
i 21a-39d csp par 36 21 b-c, par 94 36 b; PART
n, par 106-114 40a-42b; par 133 47a; par 135
CHAPTER 46: LAW
977
47b-d; PART in, par f 42-157 55a-57d esp par
140 56b; par 209 69d; ADDITIONS, i I15a-d;
4<v 123d-124a; 84 129b; 86 129c; 94 132fc; 131
137d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170c-
171c; PART iv, 362b-d; 364c-d
44. The natural law as underlying the precepts
of virtue: its relation to the moral pre-
cepts of divine law
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:1-17 / Deuteron-
omy, 5:6-21 / Jcrcmtah, 31:33— (D) Jeremias,
3I:33
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:18-52; 2:11-16; 3
18 AUGUSTINE Confessions, BK n, par 9, lOd;
BK HI, par 13-15 16c-17b; par 17 17d-18a
19 AQUINAS Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 19,
A 4 705b-c; A 6, ANS and REP 2 707a-708a
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 51,
A i, ANS 12b-13c; Q 91, A 4, ANS and REP i
210c-211c; Q 94, A 3 223a-c; A 5 224d-225d;
Q 98, AA 5-6 243c-245b; Q 99, A 2 246b-247a;
A 4, REP 2 248a-d; A 5, ANS 249a-250a, Q 100
251a-265d; PART in, Q 61, A 3, REP 2 856c-
857c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 91a-96b csp 95d-
96b; PART n, 131a-b; 136d-137a; PART in,
216c-217a; 240d-241a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 96a-c; lOOd
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH n, SECT 4-6 25d-
26c / Human Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT
5-6 105a-c passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Sptnt of Laws, BK i, Ic-d
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 343b-345c; 366c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals, 275b
/ Practical Reason, 317b-318c; 327c-d
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of History, PART iv, 361c-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 33c-
34b
4e. The relation of natural law to natural rights
and natural justice
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [441-525] 134d-135c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 5 447d-448c /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i7) 617c-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a;
BK vii, SECT 55 283b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, Bit xix, CH 21 524a-
525a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96, A
i 510b-511b; A 4 512d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 2 208d-209d; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a; Q
95, A 2 227c-228c; A 4 229b-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-d; PART n,
13la-c; 138c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Trailus and Crcssida, ACT n,
so n [163-188] U5b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; APPENDIX, vin 447d
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [888-902] 359*
3$ LOCKE :' CfyR Government, CH n-ix 25d-$4d*
pkssim; CH xi, ssct i35ri$7^5d-57b; CH xv,
sfiCT 171-172 65a-c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 53b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a«331b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61b; BK n,
140b
41 GIBBON: Dfcline and Fall, 86d-87a
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392b /
Science of Right ± 397a-b; 421c-422d; 429a<,
430a-432c; 434a; 435a-457b esp 436c, 437od,
447b-450b, 451c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE? [1-28]
la-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-273b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171c-
172b
4/. The relation of natural law to civil or munic-
ipal law: the state of nature and the reg-
ulations of the civil state
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [450-460] 135a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [ii34bi8-
1135*4] 382c-d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i^^i-
18] 617c-d; CH 15 [i375a2&-b8] 619d-620a;
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15 17a-b;
par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK i, CH 21
142d-143a; BK xix; CH 12 517b-519a; CH 21
524a-525a, CH 24 528b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 91,
A 3 209d-210c; Q 94, AA 4-6 223d-226b passim;
Q 95, A 2 227c-228c; A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 99,
A 3, REP 2 247a-248a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 84c-87b; 91a-96b
passim; PART 11, 99a-b; 103a; 115b-c; 124d-
125a; 131a-c; 132c-d; 134b-135b; 138c; 142a-c;
156b-c; PART iv, 273c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
87a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 281a-282a; 516c-517a;
5l9a-520b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Samsdn Agonistes [888-902] 359a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 7-13
26c-28b; CH vn, sECT8944d; CH ix 53c-54d;
CH xi 55b-58b; CH xmf SECT 149 59b-dJ CH
xiv, SECT 159 62b-c; SECT 168 64b-c; CH xv,
SECT 171 65a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d; BK
vin, 52a; BK xvi, 119d; BK xxvi, 215b-2I8a;
219d-221c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 333b-c; 353d-355b;
^ 361c^362a / Political Economy, 369*-b; 370d
/ Social Contract, BK I, 393b-394d; BK n,
397a;399b-c;40ScM06a
39 SMi-rn: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 52b-c; 61b;
BK iv, 228a; BK v, 397a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b; 86d-89b esp
86d-87d J
978
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The natural law, 4f. The relation of natural
law to tfivil or municipal law: the state of
nature and the regulations of the civil
state.)
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right,
397a-b; 402c; 405d-406c; 426b-429a; 430a-
432c; 433c-434d; 435c 436b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 143b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 470d-471b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 120b-c; 275d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 214
71a-c; par 217 72b-c; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 186a-c; PART i,
207b-c; 208b-d; PART iv, 361c-d
4g. The relation of natural law to the law of
nations and to international law: sover-
eign states and the state of nature
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
14 PLUTARCH- Camillus, 108b-109a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 94,
A 4 223d-224d; Q 95, A 2, ANS 227c-228c; A 4
229b-230c
23HoEBEs: leviathan, PART i, 86a; PART n,
114b-c, 159c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
13a-b
35 LOCKE : Civil Government, CH 11, SECT 9 27a-b;
SECT 14 28b-c; CH in, SECT 19 29b-c; CH xii,
SECT 145-146 58d-59a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2d-3b;
BK x, 61b,d-63d; BK xxiv, 201b-c; BK xxvi,
223c-224a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c / Political Econ-
omy, 369a-b/ Social Contract, BK i, 389d-390d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 604c [n 107]
42 KANT: Science of Right, 435a-b; 452a-455c esp
452a-d; 456b-457a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 64, 197d-198a; NUM-
BER 75, 223b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 338
llOa-b / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 361c-d
4b. The precepts of the natural law and the
condition of the state of nature with
respect to slavery and property
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 5-6 447d-449b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 13 120b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 15 521a-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92, A
i, REP 2 488d-489d; Q 96, A 4 5l2d-513c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
A 5, REP 3 224d-225d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 65-67, 531a-532a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 85d; 86b; 91a-b;
94b-c; PART ii, 103a; 124d-125c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv-v 29d-36a;
CH vii, SECT 85 43c-d; SECT 87 44a-b; CH ix
53c-54d passim; CH xi, SECT 138-140 57b-58a;
CH xv, SECT 171-173 65a-c; CH xvi, SECT 183
67d-68b
4£ to 5a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xv, 109b-
llOa; HOd-lllb; BK xxvi, 216a-217b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 333b-d; 348b,d; 353a;
353d-355b; 356c-357a; 357c-358b / Political
Economy, 368a / Social Contract, BK i, 388a-c;
389a-390d; 393c-394d
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 52b-c; BK iv,
228a; BK v, 309a-311c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 401b-402a; 413d-
414a; 421c-422d; 445c-446a; 454a-455a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [7-10] la
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 49
24c-25a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b
5. The human or positive law: the sanction of
coercive force
7 PLATO: Cnto 213a-219a,c esp 216d-219a,c /
Republic, BK iv, 344a-345d / Statesman, 599c-
604b / Laws, BK iv, 684b-686c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [1179*35-
n8ob28] 434a-435c / Politics, BK in, CH 15
[i286b28~4i] 485b / Athenian Constitution, CH
12, par 4 557d-558a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 17,
522d-523a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i 205b-206b; A 3, REP 2 207a-c; QQ 95-97
226b-239b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xn, 18a
23 HOBBES- Leviathan, PART n, 103a; 113c; 130b-
138d
29 CERVANTES • Don Quixote, PART n, 362b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a; 3c-4a / Civil Govern-
ment, CH ix 53c-54d passim; CH xix, SECT 219
75b-c / Human Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT 5 105a-b, BK n, CH xxvni, SECT 6 229d;
SECT 9-13 230b-231c esp SFCT 9 230b
38 MONTESQUIFU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 3c
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality, 345d / Political Econ-
omy, 371a-c / Social Contract, BK n, 399b-
400c; BK iv, 426b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71b,d-96d
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392 b /
Science of Right, 439a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 65a-d; NUMBER 16
66c-68d passim, esp 67d-68a; NUMBER 21,
78b-d; NUMBER 28, 96c; NUMBER 33, 108d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 467d-468c passim
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 211-
228 70a-75b; ADDITIONS, 131 137d / Philoso-
phy of History, PART m, 290a-b; PART iv,
364d-365a
5a. The difference between laws and decrees
7 PLATO: Laws, BK ix,, 745c-746a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-37]
491b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 96,
A i, REP i 230c-231c
5b to
CHAPTER 46: LAW
979
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH ix, SECT 131
54d; CH xi, SECT 136-137 56c-57b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b; BK
vi, 33a-34d; BK xxix, 268c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK n, 395b-d;
397b-c; 399c-400a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d-74b
42 KANT. Science of Right, 438a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 64, 197a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART m, par 299
99c-100b / Philosophy of History, PART i,
207b-c
b. The kinds or divisions of positive law
7 PLATO: Laws, BK HI, 674b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [1130^0-
1131*9] 378b-c / Politics, BK iv, CH i [1289*13-
25] 488a-b
14 PLUTARCH : Lycurgus, 38c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 95,
A 4 229b-230c; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART n, 136b-137b;
138b-c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxvi,
221c-223b passim
38 ROUSSEAU- Social Contract, BK n, 406a-d
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 96a
43 FEDERALIST' NUMBER 53, 167d-168b; NUM-
BLR 81, 241c-d, NUMBLR 84, 252a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 40
21d-22c; PART in, par 211 70a-c
c. The justice of positive law: the standards of
natural law and constitutionality
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [450-460] 135a
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [878-911] 347b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 52b / Gorgias, 271b-
272b; 273d-274c / Statesman, 598b-604b /
Laws, BK iv, 680c-683b; BK ix, 747c, BK x,
760c
8 ARISTOTLE. Sophistical Refutations, CH 12
[173*7-19] 238b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH i [ii29bi2-24]
377a; CH 7 382c-383a; CH 9 [n 36^2-35] 385a;
CH n [1138*4-13] 386b-c / Politics, BK i, CH 6
[i255*3-b4] 448c-449a; BK HI, CH n [i282bi-
14] 480b-c; CH 16 [i287a28-b5] 485d-486a; BK
iv, CH i [1289*13-25] 488a-b / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 10 [i368b7-io] 611d; CH 13 [i373bi-i7]
617c-d; CH 15 [1375*25^25] 619d-620b;
[i376»33-b3i] 621a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 4 264a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 15 17a-b;
par 17 17d-18a / City of God, BK n, CH 21
161b-162d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a; CH 24
528b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK iv, CH 18
686d-687d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART i-n, Q 91,
A 3 209d-210c; Q 93, A 3 217b-218a; Q 95, A 2
227c-228c; Q 96, A 4, ANS 233a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 91a-b; PART nt
131a-c; 132a-b; 134b-133b; 156b c; 157b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47c-48a; 281a-282a;
384b-c; 519a-520b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
32 MILTON: Sdm'son Agonistes [888-902] 359a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 291-338 225a-233a; 878-879
345a-b
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH n, SECT 12 27d-
28a; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xi 55b-58b; CH xvm
71a-73c passim; CH xix, SECT 221-222 75d-
76c; SECT 240-242 81b-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
3c-d; BK vi, 39b; BK vin, 54b; BK xn, 85c-
86d; BK xix, 136a; 138a-c; BK xxvi, 214b,d-
225a passim, esp 214b,d-215a; BK xxix,
262a-b; 265d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369c-d; 370d /
Social Contract, BK 11, 399b-400a; 405a-406a;
BK iv, 426b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 61 b; BK n,
140b; BK iv, 228a; 284d; BK v, 397a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 525d-526c;
617b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 76d-77b; 89d-94b
passim; 403b-404d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
429a-c; 434a; 435a-436a; 450d-451c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE* la-3b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE I, SECT 8-10 13a-14bj ARTICLE VI
[583-590] 16d; AMENDMENIS, i-x 17a-18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33, 108b-109b; NUM-
BER 44, 145c-147a; NUMBER 78, 230d-232d
passim; NUMBER 81, 2,37d-238b
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-323a,c passim / Utili-
tarianism, 465d-466b; 467c-d
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 203d-204a; 205b-c; 363c-
364a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 212-
213 70d-71a / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
364b
d. The origins of positive law in the legisla-
tive process: the function of the legis-
lator
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 301c-302b; BK iv,
344a-346a / Theaetetus, 531a-b / Statesman,
599c-600d / Laws, BK in, 666b-c; BK iv, 679c-
680d; 684b-686c; BK vi, 705d-706c; BK ix,
745c-746a; 754a-d; BK xi, 782a-b / Seventh
Letter, 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE- Ethics, BK vi, CH 8 [ii4ib23~33]
390d-391a; BK x, CH 9 434a-436a,c / Politics,
BK HI, CH ii [i282bi-i4] 480b-c; BK iv, CH 14
498b-499c / Rhetoric^ BK i, CH i [1354*13-
1355*3] 593b-594a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1143-
ii 60] 76a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Solon 64b,d-
77a,c
15 TACITUS : Annals, BK in, 51a-52a
980
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The human or positive law: the sanction of
coercive force. 5d, The origins of positive
law in the legislative process the function
of the legislator.)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theofagica, PART MX, Q 90,
A 4 207d-208b; 095, A i 226c-227c; A 4, ANS
229b-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103a; 123b-d;
130d-131a; 131d-132a; 133d-134a; 151c-152a;
PART iv, 273d
29 CERVANTES • Don Quixote, PART ix, 363c|-364a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART n, 44d-45a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, lib; 16a-c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH vn, SECT 88-89 44c-d; CH ix, SECT
I27-CH x, SECT 132 54a-55b; CH xi, SECT 134
55b-d; CH xi, SECT 141-011 xu, SECT 143
58a~d; CH xin, SECT 150 59d; CH xix, SECT
212-217 74a-75a
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART 11, 73a-74b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK n, 6b;
BK vi, 33a-35c; BK xi, 69d; 71a-72b passim;
BK xxix 262a-269a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c-d / Political
Economy, 368c-369a / Spctal Contract, BK n,
399b-402a, BK in, 419c-423a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 27d-28a; 154a-b;
616d-617a; 624b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-75b esp 72a,
73b-c; 79d-80b; 93b-c; 108a-c
42 KANT. Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 393c /
Science of Right, 397a-b; 436b-c; 438b-c;
451d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [29-47] *b-
2a; [62-64] [78-79] 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THB U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
1-9 lla-14a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33, 107b-108c; NUMBER
38, 121b-124a; NUMBER 40, 13Qc-132a; NUM-
BER 44, 145c-146d; NUMBER 53, 168b-169b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 356b-362c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 255d
4*6 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART ni, par 298
99c / Philosophy of History, PART n, 271d-
273a; PART in, 290a-b; PART iv, 364d-365d
5e. The mutability or variability of positive
law: the maintenance or change of laws
OLD TESTAMENT: Esther, 1^19 / Daniel^ 6 esp
6:8, 6:15
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c; BK m, 108c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponncsian War, BK in,
435a-c; 438a-b
7 PLATO: Republic* BK iv, 344b-345d; BK vin,
403a-404*. / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws,
BK iv, 679c-680d; BK vi, 705d-706c; 707a-b;
BK vu, 717d-718c; BK vm, 740c-d
^ARISTOTLB: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 [n34bi8-
1135*4] 383c*d / Politic*, BK ii, CH 8 [1268*33-
1269*28] 464d-465b; BK v, CH 9 [1310*12-19]
512b-c / Rhetoric* BK i, CH 13 [1375*25^85]
619d-620b
14 PLUTARCH : Lycurgus, 38c; 47a-48a / Lycvrgus-
Numat 63d-64a?c / Solon, 69c-d / Agesilaus,
494a-c / Agestlaus-Pompey, 539a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 21b-c; BK HI, 51a-
52a; 57d-58b; BK xi, 106d; BK xiv, 151d-152c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Thcofagica, PART i-n, Q 97
235d-239b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART n,
116a-b; 157c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47a-51a; 131b^l32a;
281a-c; 318c-319b; 462c-465c; 504c-506a;
516c-517a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH xin, SECT 157-
158 61c-62b; CH xix, SECT 223 76c^d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 77d;
BK xiv, 102b; 104c; BK xvm, 126d; BK xix,
135d436a; BK xxix, 268d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324d / Social Contract,
BK n, 405d-406b; BK in, 419c-420a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK HI, 166a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 78b-81c passim, esp
80d-81b; 96b-c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 441b-c; 450d-452a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [76-77]
2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE v 16c
43 FEDERALIST. NUMBER 37, 118d-119b, NUMBER
39, 127d-128b; NUMBER 40 128b-132a; NUM-
BER 43, 143a-b; NUMBER 49-50 159b-162c;
NUMBER 53, 16?d-168b; NUMBER 62, 190d-
191c, NUMBER 64, 197a-c; NUMBER 73, 220a-b,
NUMBER 81, 239a-b, NUMBER 85, 257a-259a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 359a-d, 360c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 203d-205a; 205d; 276a^b,
277b
46 HHQEL* Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3,
llc-d, PART in, par 216 71d-72a; ADDITIONS,
176 147c-d
47 GOETHE. Faust, PART i [1972-1979] 46b-47a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427a-b
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK vi, 238c-243d;
BK vin, 308d
5f. The relation of positive law to custom
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [877-911] 347b-c /
Hecuba [798-805] 359d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 97d-98a
7 PLATO: Symposium, 154a-c / Republic, BK iv,
344b-d; BK vn, 401c-d / Statesman, 600a-b /
Laws, BK in, 666b-c; BK iv, 678d-679a; BK
vii, 713c-716b; 7l8b-c; 730d-731b; BK vin,
736c-737a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3 [995*4-6]
513c
PARISTOTLB: Ethics, BK v, CH 7 382c-383a /
Politic** BK n, CH 8 [1268^3-1269*28} 464d-
465b; BK in, CH 16 [i287b5~7] 486a; BK v, CH
8 [i307b30-38] 509d-510a; CH 9 [1510*12-19]
512b-c
,14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-4^d c*p 38b-d / Ly-
curgus-Numtj 63d-64a / Themistocks, 99b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xu, lllb-c; BK xiv,
151d-152c
CHAPTER 46: LAW
981
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xv, CH 16,
411a-d; BK xix, CH 17, 522d-523a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A 2, REP 3 227c-228c; Q 96, A 2, ANS 231c-
232b; Q 97, AA 2-3 236d-238b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART n,
108c; 130d-131a; 131c; 136d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 46b-48b; 131b-132a;
281a-283c; 462d-463b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc i [1-4] 178d-179a / King Lear, ACT i, sc n
[1-22] 247d-248a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 294 225b-226b; 312 229a;
325-326 230b-231a
35 LOCKE. Civil Government, CH xm, SECT 157-
158 61c~62b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Law*, BK i, 3c-d; BK
x, 65b; BK xiv, 106b, BK xix, 135a-146a,c;
BK xxi, 168d-169a; BK xxm 197c-198a; BK
xxvin, 237a-d, 240b; 261a-262a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324d / Social Contract,
BK n, 406c-d, BK in, 419d-420a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 616d-617a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71d-73a passim,
75b-d; 77c-d; 79d 80d passim; 96b c
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE [15-22] Ib
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 49,
159d-160a
43 MILL: Liberty, 269c-271b; 307b-d / Repre-
sentative Government, 329d-330a; 330d-331a
44 Eosw ELL: Johnson, 204c-205b; 276a-b; 277b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 211
70a-c; par 274 92a; par 339 llOb; par 355
112d-113a; ADDITIONS, 132 137d-138b / Phi-
losophy of History, PART n, 271d-272d; PART
in, 294c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 292a-297a
50 MARX Capital, 235a-236c
#. The application of positive law to cases:
the casuistry of the judicial process; the
conduct of a trial; the administration of
justice
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18*20-22; 23*1-3,6-9
/ Numbers, 5:11-31 / Deuteronomy, 1:16-17;
i6'i8-i9; 17*2-13; 19:15-20 / / Kings, 3:16-
28— (D) HI Kings, 3*16-28 / Daniel, 13
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 21-26
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides 81a-91d esp [397-822]
85c-89c
5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [1129-1251] 362c-363c
5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps 507a-525d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32b-c; BK in, 95d-
96b; BK iv, 135c-d; BK v, 164c; BK vi, 211d-
212a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 381d-
382d; BK in, 429c-434c; BK vi, 523b-c; 524d-
525d
7 PLATO: Apology 200a 212a,c / Republic, BK
in, 337b-338a / Theaetetus, 544a-c / States-
man, 599c-603a / Laws, BK vi, 704c-705c; BK
vni, 740c-d; BK ix, 744b-c; 754a-d; BK xi,
782a-b; 783c-784b; BK xif, 792a-793a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 4 379b-380b csp
[i I32«i9-bi8) 379d-380b; BK vi, CH 8 [ii4ib23-
33] 390d-391a / Politics, BK n, CH 8 (u68b5~
23] 464c; BK in, CH n [i282bi-6] 480b-c; CH
15 [1286*10-30] 484b-c; CH 16 [1287*24-28]
485d; [i287bi5-25] 486a-b; BK iv, CH 16 501c-
502a,c / Athenian Constitution, CH 45 573d-
574a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH i (1354*13-1355*3]
593b-594a; CH 15 619d-622d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 70d-71b/ Akibiades, 162d-
165b / Conolanus, 179c-184c / Anstides,
264b-c / Agesilaus, 494a-c / Pompey, 526a-d /
Agestlaus-Pompey, 539a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 46d-49b; 61c-62a;
BK xiv, 151c / Histories, BK n, 216d-217a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 6 514b-
51 5a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A i, REP 2-3 226c-227c; Q 105, A 2, ANS and
REP 7-8 309d-316a; PART in SUPPL, Q 87, A i,
ANS 997b-998c
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, par n 403 b-
404a
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART n,
123b-d; 134b-136b; PART in, 234d; PART iv,
275a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
85c-92c; BK in, 204c-215c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47c-48a; 283a; 516c-
520b passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i 425c-430b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure 174a-
204d esp ACT n, sc i-n 178d-184a / King
Lear, ACT in, sc vi 266c-267d / Conolanus,
ACT in, sc in 375b-377a / Henry VIII, ACT n,
sc i [51-136] 558c-559c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 332d-
333b; 340d 343a; 353b-356d; 361a d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
33 PASCAL. Provincial letters, 27a-62a; 90a-99a;
102b-117b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 90-94
44d-46c; CH ix, SECT 125 54a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 73b-75a; PART iv,
152b-154a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 260a-b; 266a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 8c-10c; 28c
38 MONTESQUIEU* Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 33a-
37d; 42c-d; BK xxix, 262a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 433a-b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 311c-315a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 244d-245b;251b-d;
343b-c; 618a-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 77b-78b; 93b-c;
94c-95c; 403c-404b; 458c-d; 459b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 60a-c / Pref, Metaphysical
Elements of Ethics, 372b-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [52-55] 2a;
[70-71] 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE in 15c-
16a; AMENDMENTS, v-vin 17b-d; xi 18a; xiv,
SECT i 18d
982
THE GREAT IDEAS
5hto6a
(5. The human or positive law: the sanction
of coercive force. 5g. The application of
positive law to cases: the casuistry of the
judicial process; the conduct of a trial; the
administration of justice.)
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 65a-b; NUMBER 17,
69d 70a; NUMBER 22, 83d-84a; NUMBER 65
198a-200c passim; NUMBER 73, 221b-c; NUM-
BER 78-83 229d-251a passim
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 133b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 85
35a-b; PART in, par 214 71a-c; par 219 72d-
73a; par 222-229 73b-75b, ADDITIONS, 141
139c / Philosophy of History, PART i, 2SOd-251a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 292a-295a
50 MARX: Capital, 139b 140b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 547a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
168c-d, BK ix 235b,d-271d; BK xn 348b,d-
401 d
Ik. The defect of positive law: its need for cor-
rection or dispensation by equity
7 PLATO: Laws, BK vi, 699d-700b; BK ix,
754b-d; BK xi, 777d-778b, BK xn, 785c-786a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 3 [141*15-18]
194b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 10 385c-386b esp
[ii37bio-28] 385d-386a / Politics, BK in, CH
15 [1286*10-37] 484b-d, CH 16 [1287*24-28]
485d; [i287bi5-25J 486a-b / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 13 [i374*i7-b24] 618c-619a
14 PLUTARCH: Fabms, 150d-151a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 96,
A 6 235a-d; Q 97, A 4 238b-239b; Q 100, A 8,
ANS and REP i 259d-261a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 94d; PART n,
132d; 133d-135d; 136b; 156b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 50b-51a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xiv, SECT 159-
160 62b-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 152b-154a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 343c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d-74b; 77d-
78a, 91b-c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 399c-400d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 78r 232c-d; NUMBER 80,
237a-b; NUMBER 83, 248d-249a
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 214
71a-c; par 223 73c-d
6. Law and the individual
6a. Obedience to the authority and force of
law: the sanctions of conscience and
fear; the objective and subjective sanc-
tions of law; law, duty, and right
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 5:28-29; 13:11;
17:12-13; 19:18-20; 21:20-21; 28:58-59 / Ec-
clenasus, 12*13
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 13:1-5 1 1 Peter ^ 2:13-
16
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a;
[681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d csp [362-372]
134b, [640-680] 136d-137a / Ajax [666-676]
148d; [1047-1421] 152a-155a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [491-525] 399a-b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370b-
c; BK n, 396c-d; 400d-401a; BK in, 425a-c
7 PLATO: Apology, 206b-d / Crito 213a-219a,c /
Republic, BK n, 311b-312b / Statesman, 599c-
604b / Laws, BK in, 675c-676b / Seventh
Letter, 807a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 12 [1144*12-21]
393d; BK x, CH 9 [11 79*35-1 i8ob28] 434a-
435c / Politics, BK n, CH 8 [1269*12-23]
465a-b; BK in, CH 15 [i286b28-4i] 485b; BK
iv, CH 8 [1294*1-8] 493d, CH ii [i295b2-2o]
495c-d; BK v, CH 8 [i307b30-38] 509d-510a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1143-
n6o]76a-b
12EpicTETus: Discourses, BK iv, CH 7, 234d-
235a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 38c; 48a / Lycurgus-
Numa, 63d-64a,c / Solon, 66a / Agesilaus,
480b,d-481a / Cleomenes, 659d-660a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 92,
A i, ANS and REP 2 213c-214c; A 2, ANS and
REP 4 214d-215a,c; Q 95, A i, ANS and REP i
226c-227c; Q 96, AA 4-6 233a-235d
23 HOBBES • Leviathan, PART i, 90b-d; PART n,
99a-b; 112b-d; 115a-b, 130b-131c; 132d-
133d, 149b-c, 153b-c; PART in, 224d; 240a-
241a; 244d-246a,c; CONCLUSION, 279a-c; 283c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 48b-50a, 319b; 383c-d;
480b-c; 520b
27 SHAKESPEARE' Coriolanus, ACT in, sc i [263-
336] 372c-373b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 68b-73a;
177a-b; PART n, 362b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 MILTON: Samson Agomstes [1334-1379] 368b-
369b
33 PASCAL- Provincial Letters, 114b / PensSes, 297-
303 227a-b
35 LOCKE. Toleration, 3a; 16c-17c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH VH, SECT 94 46a-c; CH vin, SECT 97
47a-b; SECT 120-122 52d-53c, CH ix 53c-54d
passim; CH xi, SECT 134 55b-d / Human
Understanding, BK i, CH n, SECT 5-6 105a-c
passim; SECT 13 107d-108c; BK n, CH xxvin,
SECT 6 229d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vni, DIV
76, 485a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366d / Political Econ-
omy, 371a-372b / Social Contract, BK 11, 398d;
401c-402a; 406c-d; BK iv, 426b-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 308a; 309a-
31 Ic passim; 397a-c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
253d-254b; 259a-c; 273d-287d csp 273d-274a,
275b-d, 277d-279d, 281c-282d, 283b-d /
CHAPTER 46: LAW
983
Practical Reason, 325d-326b; 356a-c / Prrf.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 365b-366d;
375b-d; 379b-d / Intro. Metaphvsic of Morals,
389a-b; 391a-c / Science of Right, 399c;
400b-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 65a-b; NUMBER 16
66c-68d passim; NUMBER 17, 69d-70a; NUM-
BER 27 94d-96c
43 MILL. Liberty, 295d-296b; 302d-303a / Rep-
resentative Government, 329c-330a; 339c-340d
/ Utilitarianism, 457c-461c, 465d-466b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 181b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 2b-3a; 4d-
5a; PART in, par 144 55b; par 261 83a-d; par
270 84d-89c passim; ADDITIONS, i 115a-d; 93
13 2a; 140 139b-c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 186b-c; PART i, 207b-c; 211a-c; PART
n, 271d-272d; PART in, 290a-b; PART iv,
333c-d; 353c-d; 365b-t:
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 304a-305c esp 305a;
310a-317d esp 310d, 313d-314c, 317a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 670c-
671a
6b. The exemption of the sovereign person
from the coercive force of law
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 95d-96b; 107c-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK iv, 682b-c; BK ix, 754a-b /
Seventh Letter, 807a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Alexander, 564d-566b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 96,
A 5, REP 3 233d-234d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 102b-c; 125b-c;
130d; 149d-150a; 153b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 177a-b
30 BACON: New Atlantis, 208b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 90-94
44d-46c; CH xvi, SECT 195 70a-b; CH xvin,
SECT 205-206 72a-c
38 ROUSSEAU* Inequality, 357b-c / Political Econ-
omy, 370d-371a / Social Contract, BK n, 399d-
400a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 27b-c; 51c-d
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 74c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 438b-c; 439c; 446a-b
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: v [74-81] 6a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
6 [132-142] 12c; ARTICLE n, SECT 4 15c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 69, 207b-c; NUMBER
81, 240c-241a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 120a-c
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 284
96b
6c. The force of tyrannical, unjust, or bad laws:
the right of rebellion or disobedience
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1082]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a*142d esp [1-99]
131a-132a, [441-525] 134d-135c, [640-680]
136d-137a, [891-943] 138d-139a
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [1625-1682]
392b-d
7 PLATO: Apology 200a-212a,c / Crito 213a-
219a,c / Laws, BK vi, 706b-c / Seventh Letter,
800c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK iv, CH 8 [1294*1-8]
493d / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [i373bi-i7J
617c-d; CH 15 [i375*2<S-b25] 6l9d-626b;
[1376*33-^31] 621a-c
14 PLUTARCH' Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d /
Marcus Brutus, 805c-811a
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK iv, 269d-270b
18 AUGUSTINE' Confessions, BK in, par 15-17 17a-
18a / City of God, BK xix, CH 17 522b 523a
20 AQUINAS Summa Theologtca, PART i-n, Q 90,
A i, REP 3 205b-206b; Q 92, A r, REP 4 213c-
214c; Q 93, A 3, REP 2 217b-218a; Q 95, A 4,
ANS 229b~230c; Q 96, A 4, ANS and REP 2-3
233a-d; Q 97, A 2 236d-237b; PART n-n, Q 42,
A 2, REP 3 584b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART 11, 102b-c; 113d-
114b; 115a-116a; 134c-135b; 153c; 157b; PART
in, 228b; 238b-c; PART iv, 273a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7c; 504c-506a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [888-902] 359a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 326 231a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16c-17c / Civil Govern-
ment, CH xni, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH xiv,
SECT 168 64b-c; CH xvi-xix 65d-81d passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 388d-389a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 397a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439a-441d; 450d-451b
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 68b-c; NUMBER 28,
97c-d; NUMBER 33, 108b-109a; NUMBER 78,
230d-232d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465d-466b; 467c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 668a-
669d
64. The educative function of law in relation
to virtue and vice: the efficacy of law as
limited by virtue in the individual citizen
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [681-710] 88b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 35c-d; BK vn,
232d-233a; 233c-d
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK i, 370b-c;
BK n, 396c-d
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-47c / Apology, 203d /
Republic, BK iv, 344a-345d; BK ix, 426c-d /
Statesman, 607b-608d / Laws, BK i, 640a-
644b; BK in, 669d-670a; BK iv, 684b-686c;
BK v, 690d-691b; BK vi, 706b-c; BK vm,
735c-738c; BK xri, 792c-d; 794a-799a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH i^ [1102*8-25]
347c; BK n, CH i 348b,d-349b passim, esp
[no3b3-7] 349a; BK v, CH i [ii29bi2-24]
377a; CH 2 [ii3ob2o-29] 378b; BK x, CH 9
[ii79*35-n8ob28] 434a<435c / Politics, BK
vn, CH 14 537b-538d esp [i332b33-i33^b29]
537c-538c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Lycurgus-
Numa, 63d-64« / Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Ly>
sander, 361b-d / Cleomenes, 659d-660a
984
THE GREAT IDEAS
(6. Law and the individual 6d. The educative
function of law in relation to virtue and
vice: the efficacy of law at limited by
virtue in the individual citizen.)
15 TACITUS: Annals* BK in, 57b-58d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92
213c-2l5a,c; Q 95, A i 226c-227c; Q 96, AA 2-3
231c-233a; Q 98, A 6, ANS 244c-245b; Q 100
251a-265d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvi [85-
105) 77d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 131a-b; 140b-
141b; 149b-c; 153a-155c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 131b-132a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT i,
sc in [19-39] 177c; ACT n, sc i [225-270]
181a-c; ACT v, sc i [318-324] 202b
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 78d-81c
32 MILTON '.Paradise Lost, BK xn [285-306] 325b-
326a / Areopagitica, 383a-395b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 8c; 14a / Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 9-13 230b-
231c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 267b-268b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 13b,d-
17b; BK v, 18b,d-23a; BK vn, 44d-45c;
47c-50c; BK xn, 86b; 87c-88a; BK xiv, 104a-
108d passim; BK xvi, 119d; BK xix, 138c-
142a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d, 359d / Political
Economy, 372a-377b esp 372a-373a, 375d-
377a / Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c; BK n,
400d-401a; BK iv, 434b-435a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, lOOc-lOlb; 291d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93d-94a
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
367b-c; 373b-c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
383a-b / Science of Right, 448d-449c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
xviu 19c-d; xxi 20c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 12, 58b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-273d; 302d-312a passim,
esp 306b-307a; 315d-316b / Representative
Government, 336c<337b / Utilitarianism, 467b-
468a
44 EOSWULL: Johnson, 222d~223b; 301c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 150
56c-57a; par 153 57c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 166b; PART iv, 333c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 328c-d
52 DOSTOBVSKY: Brothers Kara mazov, BK n, 30d-
32a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 758c-d
6e. The breach of law: crime and punishment
6V(1) The nature and causes of crime
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 400d-
401 a; BK in, 436d-438b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK n, 654c-d; BK v, 690d-
691b; BK ix, 743c; 746a-750a; BK x( 758b-
6eto 6>(2)
760c; BK xi 771b-784b passim; BK xn, 784b-
786b; 791c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 2 [1130^30-1131*9]
378b-c; CH n [1138*4-13] 386b-c / Politics,
BK ii, CH 7 461d-463c esp [1267*2-16] 462c-d;
BK iv, CH n [i295b3~i2] 495c / Rhetoric, BK i,
CH 10-14 611c-619d
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK HI, CH 10,
662a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 139c-144d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 23b-c; 334b~335a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH 11, SECT 6-13
26b-28b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 271c-273a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xn, 85c-
86d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v,309a-c;397a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 175c
41 GIBBON Decline and Fall, 92c; 93c
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 391 d-
392a / Science of Right, 446a-b
46 HEGEL- Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 95-
102 36b-39b; PART in, par 218 72c-d; par
319, 106a
50 MARX: Capital, 364a-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Kar am azov , BK n, 33c-
34b
54 FREUD* Ego and Id, 714a-b
6e(2) The prevention of crime
5 AESCHYLUS Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra [1501-1507] 169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [491-525] 399a-b
5 ARISTOPHANES* Clouds [130^-1464] 504b-506c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 87a-b; BK v, 164c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 400d-
401a; BK in, 424d-429a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d / Gorgias, 267c-
270c / Republic, BK n, 321d-322d / Laws,
BK v, 688d-689a; 690 d- 691 b; BK ix, 743a-c;
757a; BK x, 769d-770c; BK xi, 782a-b; BK xn,
786a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK m, CH 5 [ni3b2i-
1114*2] 359d-360a; BK x, CH 9 [1179*33-
1180*32] 434a-435a / Politics, BK n, CH 7
461d-463c esp [1267*2-16] 462c-d / Rhetoric,
BK i, CH 12 [1372*23-27] 615d 616a; CH 14
[.375-1-7] 619b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 61c-d; BK xiv, 151 d-
152c; BK xv, 162c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 16 521d-
522a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 87,
A 3, REP 2 187b-188b; Q 105, A 2, REP 9 309d-
316a
22 CHAUCER: TaleofMelibeus, par 40 418b-419a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 94a; PART n,
140a; 141b; 143d; 145a; 145d; 147a b; 157d
158a
CHAPTER 4$ LAW
*, 446*4) ' '
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet <k<?r i, sc i
[7i~iifcl286b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT i,
sc HI 177b-d; ACT v, sc i (318-324) 202b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics* PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; PROP 51, SCHOL 439d; PROP 63,
SCHOL 444a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a / C/iw/ Government, CH
H, SECT 7-12 26c-28a / Human Understand-
ing, BK i, CH ii, SECT 13 107d-108c
35 HUME* Human Understanding, SECT VIH, DIV
76, 485a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, ISOb; 267b-268b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws \ BK vi, 37d-
38a; 38d-40b; BK xix, 139c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 351b-d / Political
Economy, 371a-c; 372c / Social Contract,
BK n, 399a
1 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175c-d; 216a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83c; 85a-c; 92b
42 KANT- Science of Right, 446a-449c esp 446b-
447c, 448b-d
43 MILL. Liberty, 271c-272d; 313a-316b / Rep-
resentative Government, 334d-335a / Utili-
tarianism, 471b-472d
44 BOSWELL. Johnson, 7d-8a; 204b-c; 301c d;
335c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 99
37b-d; PART in, par 232 75c-d; par 319, 106a;
ADDITIONS, 62 126a / Philosophy of History,
PART i, 214d-216a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 314b
52 DOSTOHVSKY- Brothers Karamazov, BK n, 30d-
32a; 33c-34b; BK vi, 165c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 78 7c
6i(3) The punishment of crime
SAFSCHYLUS. Eumenidcs [490-562! 86b-87a;
J68i-7io] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [640-680] 136d-137a /
Electra [1501-1507] 169a,c
5 EURIPIDES Orestes [491-604] 399a-400a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32b-c, BK m, 116b-
117a; BK iv, 135c-i36a; BK v, 164c; BK vn,
251a-b
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK HI,
427d-428a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45a-46d / Gorgias, 267c-
270c / Statesman, 601c-602d / Laws, BK v,
690d-691b; BK ix 743a-757d esp 747d, 757a;
BK x, 769d-770c; BK xi 771b-784b passim; BK
XH, 784b-786b; 792o793a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 4 379b-380b;
CH 5 [it32bai-30] 380b*c; CH n [1138*4-13]
. 386b-c; BK x, CH 9 [1179*33-1180*32] 434a-
435a / Politics, BK vi, CH 8 [i 32 ib4O-i 323*28]
525d-526a; BK vn, CH 13 [1332*10-16] 536d /
Athenian Constitution, CH 52 576b-d; CH 57-59
579b-580c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 12 [i372*3~bi6]
; CH 14 619a-d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 70d; 73» / Themistoelci,
97b-d / Cicero, 711c-712d / Artaxerxes, 851a-b
'15 TkciTus: 'Annals, BK lit, 57d,
18 AuGUsrtNtrCity of God; BK xrx, c» 6 514b-
5l5a; B^XX*. CH n 570b-571a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theohgica, PART i-u, Q 92,
A 2, ANS and REP 3-4 214d~215a,c; Q 96, A 5
233d-234d; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP 9-12
309d>316a
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Mehbeus, par 40 41 8b-
419a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 145a-148b; 157d-
158a; CONCLUSION, 281a-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 519a*c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT n, sc in
[1-15] 44c-d / Romeo and Juliet, ACT i, sc i
[71-110] 286b-d; ACT HI, sc i [146-202] 302c-
303a / Richard II, ACT i, sc in [i 18-153] 324d-
32Sb / 2nd Henry IV, ACT v, sc n (65-145]
498d-499b / Henry V, ACT u, sc « 539a-
541a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote* PA&T i, 68b-73a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 51, SCHOL 439d
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 108b-109a
35 LOCKE* Toleration, 3a / Civil Government, CH
i, SECT 3 25d; CH HJ SECT 6-13 26b-28b; CH
VH, SECT 87-88 44a-c; CH ix, SECT 128 54b-c;
SECT 130 54c; CH xv, SECT 171 65a-b / Human
Understanding, BK n, CH xxvin, SECT 6 229d,
SECT 9 230b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
76, 465a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART i, 28a-b; 29b
38 MONTESQUIEU. Spiru of Laws, BK vi, 37d-
43d; BK xii, 85c-92b
38 ROUSSEAU- Inequality* 351 b-d / Political
Economy, 371a-c / Social Contract, BK 11,
398b-399a; 406c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 175d-176a; 388c-d;
617b-d
41 GIBBON; Decline and Fall, 83b-c; 91a-94c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306b-c / Science of
Right, 446a-449c csp 446b^447c,,448a-d; 450a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE i, SECT
9 [271-272] 13d; SECT 10 [300-301] 14a;
ARTICLE II, SECT 4 ISc; ARTICLE III, SECT 3
[507-511] 16a; AMENDMENTS, v 17b-c; vin
17d;xni 18c
43 FEDERALIST; NUMBE& 15, 65a-b; NUMBER 21,
78b-d; NUMBER 65 199a-200c passim
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 471d-472d; 474d
44 BOSWELL; Johnson* 204b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 90-
io33Sdr39b esp par 96-100 36c-38a; PART n,
par 132 46b-47a; PART tu, par 218 72c-d; par
220 73a-b; par 233 75d, par 319, Iv6a; ADDI-
TIONS, 60 125d; 138 139a-b / Philosophy of
History, PART iv, 320b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 364a-367a. passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi» 505a-511b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karam&sw, BK n, 30b-
32a; BK vi, 168ddj «K xn, 398b-d
986
7. Law and the state
THE GREAT IDEAS
7to7c
la. The distinction between government by
men and government by laws: the nature
of constitutional or political law
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides (681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [907-931]
122d-123a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 26 Id- 262 b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps [463-507] 512d-513c
6 HERODOTUS, History, BK HI, 107c-d; BK vn,
233a-d
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK i, 368c-d;
BK ii, 396b-c
t PLATO: Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws, BK in,
667c-d; BK iv, 681b-682c; BK ix, 754a-b /
Seventh Letter, 805d; 807a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34*25-b8]
382a-b; BK x, CH 9 [1180*14-24] 434d-435a /
Politics, BK i, CH i [1252*6-16] 445a-b; CH 5
[i254*34-b9] 448a; CH 7 [i255bi5~2o] 449b;
CH 12 453d-454a; BK n, CH 10 [i272*35-bn]
468d-469a; BK in, CH 10 [1281*29-38] 479a;
CH ii [i282bi-i4J 480b-c; CH 15 [i285b34]-cn
17 [1288*5] 484b-486c; BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-37]
491b-d; CH 6 492b-493a; CH 8 [1293^2-27]
493c; CH 10 [1295*9-23] 495a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger, 635a-b; 638b-
639a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK ii, 36b; BK in, 51b-c;
61c-62a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 90,
A 3 207a-c; Q 95, A i, REP 2 226c-227c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART ii, 149d-150a, PART
iv, 273a-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Henry VIII, ACT i, sc n [91-
ioi]553d
35 LOCKE- Civil Government 25a 81d esp CH iv,
SECT 21 29d, CH vi, SECT 57 36d-37b, CH vn,
SECT 87-94 44a-46c, CH xi, SECT 137 56d-57b,
CH xvin, SECT 199-202 71a-72a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK H, 4a; 7c-
9a,c; BK in, 12a-13c; BK vi, 33a-35a; BK xix,
137c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d-324a; 358b;
361c-362a / Social Contract, BK ii, 400a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 96d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
401c; 436c-d; 451b-c / Judgement, 586c
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: la-3b pas-
sim
43 CONSTITUTION OP THE U.S. : ARTICLE vi [583-
599) 1<*
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 33 107b-109b passim;
NUMBER 44, 146d-147a; NUMBER 53, 167d-
168b
44 MILL: Representative Government, 340a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 260-
271 82a-89c; par 349 llld-112a; ADDITIONS,
171 146b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO,
198b-199c; PART i, 213b; PART n, 271d; PART
in, 303a-b; PART iv, 329b-c; 342b-c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b*d
lb. The supremacy of law as the principle of
political freedom
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [429-441] 262a-b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
396c-d; BK in, 438a-b
7 PLATO: Laws, BK HI, 672d-674d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 17 [1288*11-14]
486d; BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-37] 491 b-d; BK v,
CH 9 [1310*25-36] 512c / Athenian Constitu-
tion, CH 45 573d-574a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vi, SECT 57-60 36d-38a; CH ix, SECT
124-131 53d-54d; CH xi, SECT 136-139 56c-
58a; CH xvin, SECT 202 71d-72a; SECT 206
72c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 34c-d;
BK xi, 69a-b; BK xn, 85a-c; BK xv, 109c;
112c-d; BK xxvi, 223c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353d-355b esp 354d-
355a / Political Economy, 370b-d; 375b-c /
Social Contract, BK i, 393b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 314d-315a,c
42 KANT- Science of Right, 398c-399c; 436c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-47] la-
2a passim; [72-79] 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
AMENDMENTS, V-VII 17b-d,* XIII, SECT I-XIV ,
SECT i 18c-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30a c; NUMBER 9,
47b-c; NUMBER 53, 167d-168b; NUMBER 57,
177d-178a; NUMBER 84, 251b-253d
43 MILL: Liberty 267a-323a,c passim, esp 267b,d-
274a / Representative Government, 339d-340c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 208
69c; par 265 84b; par 286 96c-97a; ADDIIIONS,
129 13 7c; 135 138c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 170c-171c; 180c-d; PART i, 230a-c;
PART n, 271d-272d; PART iv, 321a; 342b-d;
34Sa-b; 364b-c
Ic. The priority of natural to civil law: the in-
violability or inalienability of natural
rights
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [450-460] 135a
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH 13 [1373**!-
17] 617c-d; CH 15 [1375*25^13] 619d-620a;
[1376*33-^1] 621a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK ii, CH 21 161b-
162d; BK xix, CH 21 524a-525a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 94,
AA 4-6 223d-226b; Q 95, A 2 227c-228c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87d; 90a-b;
94b-95a; PART n, 115b-116a; 131a-c; 134c;
138c; 142b-c; 153c; PART iv, 273c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 519a-520b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 20d-21a / Civil Govern-
ment, CH H, SECT 10-12 27b-28a; CH in, SECT
16-19 28d-29c; CH iv, SECT 21 29d; CH vn,
SECT 87-94 44a-46c; CH ix 53c-54d; CH xt,
SECT 135-140 55d-58a; CH xiv, SECT 168
64b-c; CH xvi-xix 65d-81d passim
CHAPTER 46i LAW
987
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, Ic-d;
2b-d; BK xv, 109b-110a; llla-b; BK xxvi,
215b-217c
38 ROUSSEAU : Inequality, 357c-358b / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 393d-394d; BK n, 397a-b; 399b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 52b-c; 61b;
BK H, 140b; BK iv, 228a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 408d-409c; 426b-429b
csp 426b-c; 434a; 436a-b; 456b-457a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b csp
[1-28] la-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, ix
17d-18a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 28, 97c; NUMBER 43,
143b-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 465d-466b
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 363c-364a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 66
29a-c; PART n, par 127 45b-c; PART in; par
323-324 107a-d; ADDITIONS, 43 123c / Phi-
losophy of History, PART iv, 362d-363a; 364d-
365a
Id. Tyranny and treason or sedition as illegal
acts: the use of force without authority
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK in,
432b-c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK ix, 744c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK in, CH 10 [1281*19-28]
478d-479a; BK v, CH 10 [i 313*8 18] 515c-d;
BK vu, CH 2 [1324^3-41] 528d-529a
24 PLUTARCH: Pophcola, 77a-80d; 81 d / Timole-
on, 196c-197b / Lysander- Sulla, 387b,d-388c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK n, 36b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 92,
A i, REP 4 213c-214c; Q 93, A 3, REP 2 217b-
218a; Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 96, A 4, ANS
and REP 2 233a-d; PART 11-11, Q 42, A 2 584b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 101a-102c; 114d-
H5a; 115d-116a; 121b-122b; 144a; 147c; 150c-
151a; 152b-c; 153c; PART iv, 273a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT 11, sc n [102-
144] 540b-c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 298 227a; 325-326 230b-
231a; 332 232a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xi, SECT 136-140
56c-58a; CH xm, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH xvn-
xix 70c-81d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 361c-362a / Social
Contract, BK i, 388d-389a; BK in, 419a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 251d; 525d-526c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92d-93c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 439a-441d
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: la-3b esp
[25-30] Ib
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [37-44] 5d;
v [74-81] 6a
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE n, SECT
4 15c; ARTICLE in, SECT 3 15d-16a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16, 68b-c; NUMBER 43,
140c-d; NUMBER 65 198a-200c passim; NUM-
BER 74, 222b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 274b,d [fn i]
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 278
92c-93a / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 328b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 8d-10d; BK xi,
505a-511b; EPILOGUE i, 668a-669d
7<. The need for administrative discretion in
matters undetermined by law: the royal
prerogative
7 PLATO: Statesman, 600a-b / Laws, BK vi,
705d-706c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH 10 385c<386b
passim, csp [ii37b26-3i] 386a / Politics, BK
in, CH 16 [1287*24-28] 485d; [1287^5-25]
486a-b / Athenian Constitution, CH 9 556c-d >
Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [i354b4-y] 593c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 95,
A i, REP 3 226c-227c; Q 96, A 6, REP 3 235a-d;
Q 97, A 4 238b-239b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 103c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xn, SECT 147
59a-b; CH xiv 62b-64c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73d-75b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 448a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 214
71a-c; ADDITIONS, 134 138b c
7/. The juridical conception of the person: the
legal personality of the state and other
corporations
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 96c-98a,c; PART
n, 100c-102c; 104a-b; 117b-119a; 119d-120c;
122b-124b csp 122b-c; 130b-d; 132a-b; 151c-
152a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a /
Social Contract, BK i, 392a; 393a; BK n, 396d-
397a; BK in, 408b-409a; 412c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 429b; 438b; 454a-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 46
23d 24a; PART HI, par 279, 93c; ADDITIONS,
191 150a-c / Philosophy of History, PART in,
285b-d; 302d-303c
8. Historical observations on the development
of law and on the diversity of legal
systems or institutions
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 3:1-5:21 / Galatians,
3'1-5'M
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c; 14a-c; BK n,
77d-78b; 87a-b; BK in, 96a-b
7 PLATO: Crtttas, 484c-485d / Laws, BK in,
664b-670a csp 666b-c, 668a; 674d-676b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK it, CH 7-12 461d-471d
passim / Athenian Constitution $53a-584a,c
passim, csp CH 27, par 3-5 565b-c, CH 63-69
581d-584a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1136-
n 60] 76a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 26a-b / Lycurgus 32a-
48d passim / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d passim
/ Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon 64b,d-
77a,c / Poplicola, 81b-82a / Poplicola- Solon,
86d87b
THE GREAT IDEAS
(8. Historical obttrvatiom on tb* development of
tyw apd on the diversity of legal systems
or in$titutwns.) , ,
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK H, 44t>-c; BK in, 51 b-
" S2a; 57b-'58U; 61c-62a; TJK iv, $7d-68a; BK
xh, llla-d; BK xiv, 15id~i52c; BK xv, I62c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK m,]ter 13-14 16c-
' 17a / City ofG&l, BK XT CH 2% 313c-314c; BK
xvin, CH ii 477c-d; BK xx, CH 4 532b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica,' PART Ml, Q 94,
A 4, XNS 223d-224d; QQ 98-108 239b-337d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE^ vi [1-30]
23JioBBEs: Leviathan, PART n, 144c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47c-48a; 281a-283c;
519b-520b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT i, sc n [33-95]
534b-535a
30 BACON; Advancement of Learning, 95b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 374b-376a
38 MONTESQUIEU- Sptnt of Laws la 315d passim
38 ROUSSEAU: , Inequality, 324c-325a; 330a-d;
353d-355c; 366a-b / Political Economy, 369c-d
/ Social Contract, BK n, 401d-402a
40 GIBBON. Decline and Fall, 51d; 175b-176a;
616d-618d; 624b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71b,d-96d; lO&a-c;
210b-c; 403b-404d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 451d-452a
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 2, 32a-d; NUMBER 9,
47b-d; NUMBER 38, 121fcnl22b; NUMBER 53,
167d; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 295d-296b / Representative Gov-
ernment, 329d-330a / Utilitarianism, 467c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 204c-205b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3 lOa-
12c; ADDITIONS, 176 147c-d / Philosophy of
History, PART I, 229d-230a; PART n, 271d-
272a; PA*T HI, 290a; 296b-297a; 312c-d;
PART iv, 34Sa-b
48 MiLviLLEsMo^y Dic{, 292a-297a
50 MARX: Capital, 114d-115c; 131a-145c; 194a-b;
195b-196d; 236c-238a; 241a-244b; 357a-
358b; 364a-368b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vx, 238c-243d
9. The legal profession and the study of law:
praise and dispraise of lawyers and
judges
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 1:12-17; ^7:8-13
/ 7 Samuel, 8:3— (D) I Ktngs^ 8:3 / Isaiah,
1 121-26— (D) Isaias, 1 121-26 / Jeremiah, 5 :i6-
29** (JD) Jcrcmias, 5:26-29 / Micak, 3:9-12—
(D) Mwheast 3:9-1^
TESTAMENT: Luke, 11:45-46,52-54; i8:t-8
, 1 1 Corinthians, 6:1-9
5 ARISTOPHANES : Clouds (428-475). 493d-494b
/ Birds [27-48] 542c-d; [1035-1057] 555ctd;
, [1410-1469] S59c-560b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 95d-96b
7 PLATO: Apology, 200a-c / Republic, BK in,
337b-338a / Theaetetus, 528c-529a; 544b-c /
Statesman, 604c-605c / Laws, BK xi, 784a-b;
BK.KII, 792c-d
9 ARISTOTLE' Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [n8obi2-
n8ib24] 435b-436a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, eft i
[I354*I3-I355a3] 593b-594a; CH 12 [1372*17-
21} 615d; [1372*33-35} 616a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, 101c-102a{ BK xiv,
151c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 6 514b-
515a
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [309-330] 164b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 78b-c; PART n,
132a-b; 135b; 150b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel^^n n,
85c-92c; BK HI, 204c-215c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 47c-48a; 238a-b; 283a^
516c-520b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, sc n
[83-91] 58c / Merchant of Venice, ACT iv, sc i
425c-430b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 5b-6a; 94d-
95a
32 MILTON : Sonnets, xvni 67b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK in, CH x,
SECT 12 294b-c
36 SWIFT' Gulliver, PART ii, 73b-75a; PART iv,
152a-154a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 260a-b; 266b;
374b-376a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 54b-C
39 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330a-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 314b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 244d-245d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 72d-73a; 75d-80b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 78, 233a-c
-44BoswBLL: Johnson, 157c-d; 191c-d; 209d-
210a; 216c; 251d-252b; 281c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, JNTRO, par 3 lOa-
12c; PART in, par 212 70d-71a; par 215 71c-d;
par 228 74d-75b; par 297 99b} ADDITIONS,
'i35138c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 1^1968-1979] 46b-47a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 295b^297a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK'^I, 243c; SKXII,
547b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK ix,
247b-d
CHAPTER 46: LAW 989
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions bearing on the kinds of law, ^CONSTITUTION ab; GOD 70; JUSTICE ic, loa;
LIBERTY ib, 30; LOVE 5b(i); NATURE 2b; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 50; PRINCIPLE 4,
4b; PUNISHMENT 40; STATE 3b(2)~3c; VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(3); WAR AND PEACE i; WILL
53(4); WORLD ic; and for the comparable distinctions in the sphere of rights, set JUS-
TICE 6-6b.
The relation of law to liberty, justice, and peace, sec DEMOCRACY 43; JUSTICE ID-IOC;
LIBERTY id, ig; MONARCHY 4e(i); TYRANNY 53; WAR AND PEACE iia, nc; and for the
distinction between government by law and government by men, see CONSTITUTION i ;
MONARCHY ia(i); TYRANNY 5-50.
The relation of law to duty, virtue, and sin, see DUTY 3, 5; EDUCATION 40; SIN i; VIRTUE
AND VICE 4d(3); WILL 8d.
The conception of the common good as an end of government and law, see GOOD AND EVIL
5d; GOVERNMENT ic; HAPPINESS 5~5b; LIBERTY ic; STATE if.
Other discussions of the making of law, see GOVERNMENT 3c~3c(2); PRUDENCE 6b.
The factors of authority and power in lawmaking, see GOVERNMENT id; TYRANNY la; and
for law in relation to sovereignty, see GOVERNMENT la; LIBERTY ib; TYRANNY 5c; WAR
AND PEACE i id.
Other discussions of the application of laws to particular cases, see GOVERNMENT 3d-3d(i);
OPINION 6b; PRUDENCE 6b; and for the problem of equity in the application of law, see
JUSTICE icd; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 6c.
The relation of law to custom and habit, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 6b; HABIT 7.
The consideration of punishment for the breach of human and divine law, see GOD 5$; JUSTICE
IGC; PUNISHMENT 4~4d, 53-56(2); SIN 6-6e.
Other discussions of the use of lawless force, and of the right of rebellion or civil disobedience,
see JUSTICE icb; REVOLUTION 6a-6b.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, BK in, PART n,
• SECT xi
AUGUSTINE. On the Spirit and the Letter . Of the Original Contract
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK HI, CH in- A. SMITH. Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms
121, 128-130 KANT. Lectures on Ethics, pp 47-70
. Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate, Q 16 HEGEL. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT 11, SUB-SECT
. The Two Precepts of Charity and the Ten Com' A,C (cc,a,0)
mandments FREUD. Totem and Taboo
F. BACON. The Maxims of the Law
HOBBES. Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Govern- "••
ment and Society, CH 2-4 CICERO. De Republica (The Republic), in
. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic . De Legibus (The Laws)
. A Dialogue Between a Philosopher and a Student QUINTILI AN. InstitutwOratoria (Institutes of Oratory),
of the Common Laws of England BK v; BK vn, CH 5-7, 10
SPINOZA. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (Theological- GAIUS. Commentaries
Political Treatise), CH 4, 12 Talmud
THE GREAT IPEAS
JUSTINIAN. The Digest
. The Institutes
SAADIA GAON. The Boo1( of Beliefs and Opinions,
TREATISE in
RANULPH DE GLANVILLE. The Laws and Customs
of the Kingdom of England
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART in,
CH 25-53
BRACTON. De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae
(On the Laws and Customs of England}
Njalssaga
LEONANO. On War, Reprisals, and the Duel
FORTESCUE. Governance of England
', De Laudibus Legum Angliae (In Praise of
English Law)
SAINT-GERMAN. Dialogues Between a Doctor of Di-
vinity and a Student in the Laws of England
VITORIA. De Indis et De Jure Belli
SOTO. Libri Decem de Justitia et Jure
HOOKER. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
SU^REZ. A Treatise on Laws and God the Lawgiver
COKE. Institutes of the Laws of England
GROTIUS. The Rights of War and Peace
PUFENDORF. De Jure Naturae et Gentium (OntheLaw
of Nature and Nations)
Vico. // diritto universale
BURLAMAQUI. Principles of Natural and Politic Law
BLACKSTONE. Commentaries on the Laws of England
VATTEL. The Law of Nations
VOLTAIRE. "Crimes or Offenses," "Criminal,"
"Law (Natural)," "Law (Salic)," "Law (Civil
and Ecclesiastical)," "Laws," "Laws (Spirit of),"
in A Philosophical Dictionary
J, WILSON. Worlds, PART i, CH i-v, XH; PART in
JEFFERSON. The Commonplace Boof(
BENTHAM. A Comment on the Commentaries, SECT
1-12
. A Fragment on Government, CH 4-5
. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation
AUSTIN. Lectures on Jurisprudence
. The Province of Jurisprudence Determined
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK vi, CH i
THOREAU. Civil Disobedience
DICKENS. Pickwic\ Papers
- . Blea^ House
TRENDELENBURG. Naturtecht auf dem Grunde ACT
MAINE. Ancient Law
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK HI, CH 6
IBSEN. Pillars of Society
IHERING. The Struggle for Law
1 " '. Law as a Means to an End
O. W. HOLMES JR. The Common Law
BRENTANO. The Origin of the Knowledge of Right
and Wrong, par 1-13, 37-49
POLLOCK. Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics, CH 2
- . The Expansion of the Common Law
DICEY. The Relation Between Law and Public Opin-
ion in England During the Nineteenth Century
VECCHIO. The Formal Bases of Law
KOHLER. Philosophy of Law
DUGUIT. Law in the Modern State
B. RUSSELL. Proposed Roads to Freedom, CH 5
T. VEBLEN. The Vested Interests and the State of the
Industrial Arts, CH 2
POUND. The Spirit of the Common Law
CARDOZO. The Nature of the Judicial Process
- . The Growth of the Law
KAFKA. The Trial
VINOGRADOFF. Common Sense in Law
- . Custom and Right
HOCKING. Present Status of the Philosophy of Law
and of Rights
MALINOWSKI. Crime and Custom in Savage Society
C. K. ALLEN. Law in the Making
DEWEY. "Logical Method and Law," "Nature and
Reason in Law," in Philosophy and Civilization
F. COHEN. Ethical Systems and Legal Ideals
M. R. COHEN. Reason and Nature, BK in, CH 4
- . Law and the Social Order
A. J. CARLYLE. Political Liberty
MARITAIN. The Rights of Man and Natural Law
KELSEN. General Theory of Law and State
Chapter 47: LIBERTY
INTRODUCTION
TIBERTY and law, liberty and justice, lib-
J— t erty and equality — the familiar connec-
tion of these terms breeds neglect of the mean-
ing they confer upon one another through
association. A few simple questions may help
to restore the significance of these relationships.
Are men free when their actions are regulated
by law or coercion ? Does liberty consist in do-
ing whatever one pleases or whatever one has
the power to do, or is one required by justice to
abstain from injury to others? Do considera-
tions of justice draw the line between liberty
and license? Can there be liberty apart from
equality and perhaps also fraternity ?
Other questions immediately suggest them-
selves. Does not the rule of law secure liberty to
the governed? Is not slavery the condition of
those who are ruled tyrannically or lawlessly ?
Does it make a difference to freedom whether
the law or the constitution is just? Or is that
indifferent because government itself is the
impediment to liberty? Does liberty increase
as the scope of government dwindles and reach
fullness only with anarchy or when men live in
a state of nature ?
Yet are not some forms of government said
to be fitting and some uncongenial to free
men? Do all men have a right to freedom, or
only some ? Are some men by nature free and
some slave ? Does such a differentiation imply
both equality and inequality in human nature
with, as a consequence, equality and inequality
in status or treatment? What implications for
law, justice, and equality has the distinction
between free societies and dependent or sub-
ject communities?
, As Tolstoy points out, the variety of ques-
tions which can be asked about liberty indi-
cates the variety of subject matters or sciences
in which the problems of freedom are differ-
ently raised. "What is sin, the conception of
which arises from the consciousness of man's
freedom? That is a question for theology . . .
What is man's responsibility to society, the
conception of which results from the concep-
tion of freedom? That is a question for juris-
prudence . . . What is conscience and the per-
ception of right and wrong in actions that fol-
low from the consciousness of freedom ? That is
a question for ethics . . . How should the past
life of nations and of humanity be regarded—
as the result of the free, or as the result of the
constrained, activity of man ? That is a question
for history."
The great traditional issues of liberty seem
to be stated by these questions. From the fact
that most, perhaps all, of these questions elicit
opposite answers from the great books, it might
be supposed that there are as many basic issues
as there are questions of this sort. But the
answers to certain questions presuppose an-
swers to others. Furthermore, the meaning of
liberty or freedom or independence is not the
same throughout the questions we have con-
sidered. Answers which appear to be inconsist-
ent may not be so when the meanings involved
in their formulation are distinguished. We must,
therefore, find the roots of the several distinct
doctrines of liberty in order to separate real
issues from verbal conflicts.
THE HISTORIANS report the age-old struggle on
the part of men and of states for liberty or in-
dependence. History as a development of the
spirit does not begin, according to Hegel, until
this struggle first appears. 'The History of the
world,'* he writes, "is none other than the
progress of the consciousness of Freedom,"
which does not reach its climax until freedom is
universally achieved. But though freedom is
its product, history, in Hegel's view, is not a
work of freedom, but "involves an absolute ne-
991
992
THE GREAT IDEAS
cessity." Each stage of its development occurs
inevitably.
Other historians see man as free to work out
his destiny, and look upon the great crises of
civilization as turning points at which free men,
that is, men having free will, exercise a free
choice for better or for worse. "Whether we
speak of the migration of the peoples and the
incursions of the barbarians, or of the decrees of
Napoleon III, or of someone's action an hour
ago in choosing one direction out of several
for his walk, we are unconscious of any con-
tradiction," Tolstoy declares, between freedom
and necessity. "Our conception of the degree of
freedom," he goes on to say, "often varies
according to differences in the point of view
from which we regard the event, but every
human action appears to us as a certain combi-
nation of freedom and inevitability. In every
action we examine we see a certain measure
of freedom and a certain measure of inevi-
tability. And always the more freedom we
see in any action the less inevitability do we
perceive, and the more inevitability the less
freedom."
Accordingly, neither necessity which flows
from the laws of matter or of spirit, nor over-
hanging and indomitable fate determines the
direction of events. If the theologians say that
nothing happens which God does not foresee,
they also say that divine providence leaves the
world full of contingencies and man a free agent
to operate among them. "Though there is for
God a certain order of all causes," it does not
follow, Augustine says, that nothing depends
"on the free exercise of our own wills, for our
wills themselves are included in that order of
causes which is certain to God, and is embraced
by His foreknowledge, for human wills are also
causes of human actions."
These matters are further discussed in the
chapters on FATE, HISTORY, and NECESSITY
AND CONTINGENCY. The mention of them here
suggests another meaning of liberty — that of
free choice or free will— and with it issues other
than those involved in the relation of the in-
dividual to the state or to his fellow men. Yet
the metaphysical questions about liberty and
necessity, or freedom and causality, and the
theological questions about man's freedom un-
der God, are not without bearing on the politi-
cal problems of man's freedom in society, or his
rights and powers. The fundamental doctrines
of civil liberty certainly seem to differ accord-
ing to the conception of natural freedom on
which they are based. Freedom may be natural
in the sense that free will is a part of human na-
ture; or in the sense that freedom is a birth-
right, an innate and inalienable right. It may be
natural m the sense in which freedom in a state
of nature is distinguished from political liberty,
or liberty under civil law and government.
THE EFFORT TO clarify meanings requires us to
look at the three words which we have used as
if they were interchangeable— "liberty," "free-
dom," and "independence." For the most part,
"liberty" and "freedom" are synonyms. Both
words are used in English versions of the great
books. Though authors or translators some-
times prefer one, sometimes the other, their
preference does not seem to reflect a variation
in meaning.
In English the word "freedom" has a little
greater range in that it permits the formation
of the adjective "free." It is also adapted to
speaking of freedom from certain restraints or
undesirable conditions, as well as of freedom to
act in accordance with desire or to exercise cer-
tain privileges. In consequence, the word "free-
dom" is more frequently employed in the dis-
cussion of free will. Though the traditional
enumeration of civil liberties may use the
phrasing "liberty of conscience or worship" as
frequently as "freedom of conscience or wor-
ship," "freedom of speech" is more usual, and
"freedom from fear or want or economic de-
pendence" does not seem to have an alternative
phrasing.
The word "independence" has special con-
notations which make it equivalent to only part
of the meaning of "freedom" or "liberty."
Negatively, independence is a freedom from
limitation or from being subject to determina-
tion by another. Positively, independence im-
plies self-sufficiency and adequate power. When
we speak of a man of independent means, we
refer not only to his freedom from want or
economic dependence on others, but also to his
having sufficient wealth to suit his tastes or
purposes. A moment's reflection will show that
this is a relative matter. It is doubtful whether
ER 47JHBERTY
(#3
a bsohitc economic independence is possible for
meh or even for nations. ' ' '
Thfc rebl questfcta here scorns ttf be a meta-
physical one. Can any firiite thing be absolutely
independent ? The traditional answer is No. As
appears in the chapter on INFINITY, only a
being infinite in-pcrfectionand power— only the
Supreme One of Plotinus, the uncreated God
of AquinaS, or the self-caused God of Spinoza^-
has complete independence. God has the free-
dom of autonomy which cannot belong to finite
things. There i«> however, another sense' of
divine frdedom which Aquinas affirms and both
Plotinus and Spinoza deny. That is freedom of
choice.
"God does not act from freedom of will,"
Spinoza writes; yet God alone acts as a free
cause, for God alone "exists from the necessity
of his own nature and is determined to action
by himself alone." The divine freedom consists
in God's self-determination which, for Spinoza,
'does not exclude necessity. The opposite view is
most clearly expressed in the Christian doctrine
of creation. The created world does not follow
necessarily from the divine nature. "Since the
goodness of God is perfect," Aquinas writes,
"and can exist without other things, inasmuch
as no perfection can accrue to Him from them,
it follows that for Him to will things other than
Himself is not absolutely necessary." This issue
of freedom or necessity with regard to God's
will and action is more fully discussed in the
chapters on WILL and WORLD.
The metaphysical identification of independ-
ence with infinity does not carry over into the
sphere of political freedom. Yet in one respect
there is an analogy. The autonomous is that
which is a law unto itself. It admits no superior
authority. When in the tradition of political
thought states are called "free and independ-
ent," their autonomy or sovereignty means
that by virtue of which, in the words of the
Declaration of Independence, "they have full
power to levy war, conclude peace, contract
alliances, establish commerce;* and to do all
other acts and things which independent states
may of light do." • *
Free and independent states do not 'have
infinite power. There is always the possibility
1 of their being subjugated by another state and
feduced 'to? the condition of a dependency* But
thbugh thefr power is tidt infinite, they At-
knowledge no superior. TVbe a sovereign is to
accept commands from no one. " * '
Since autonomy or sovereignty is incompati-
ble with living under human law or govern-
ment, the 'independence of sovereign princes
or states must be an anarchic freedom—a free-
dom from law and government. This sterns to
be the view of Hobbes, Locke, Kant, and
Hegel, all of whom refer to the anarthy of in-
dependent states or sovereign princes to explain
what they meafi by the "state of nature1. '* Sov-
ereigns arc, in the words of Kant, "like lawless
savages."
Applying this conception to individual men,
Hobbes and Locke define natural as opfx>sed to
civil liberty in terms of man's independence^
a state of nature. In a state of nature man riacl'a
limited independence, since each man might Be
coerced by a superior force; but it was an
absolute independence in the sense that he was
subject to no human government or man:made
law.
THE NATURAL FREEDOM of man, according to
Hobbes, is not free will. Since "every act of
'man's will, and every desire and inclination,
proceed from some cause, and that from another
cause, in a continual chain (whose first lihk'is m
the hand of God, the first of all causes), they
proceed from necessity" Liberty is not of the
will, but of the man, consisting in thisr^'that
he finds no stop in doing what he has the will,
desire, or inclination to do." The proper ap-
plication of the word "free" is to bodies in
motion, and the liberty it signifies when so ap-
plied is merely "the abserice of external im-
pediments."
The natural right of every man is "the" liber-
ty each man has to ti& his own power ... for
the preservation of his own nature, that is to
»say, of his own life * . . anid consequently of
doing anything which in his own judgment and
reason he shall conceive to-be the aptest 'means
thereunto." This liberty or natural right be-
longs to man only iri a state of nature. Wheta
men leave the state of nature and enter the
commonwealth, they surrender this natural
liberty in exchange fot^a civil liberty which,
according to Hobbes, consists fin ftothing more
than their freedom to do what the law of die
994
THE GREAT IDEAS
state does not prohibit, or to omit doing what
the law does not command.
Locke agrees that man's natural liberty is not
the freedom of his will in choosing, but the
freedom to do what he wills without constraint
or impediment. He differs from Hobbes, how-
ever, in his conception of natural liberty be-
cause he differs in his conception of the state of
nature.
For Hobbes the state of nature is a state of
war; the notions of right and wrong, justice and
injustice, can have no place in it. "Where there
is no common power, there is no law; where no
law, no injustice." The liberty which sovereign
states now have is the same as "that which
every man should have if there were no civil
laws, nor commonwealth at all. And the effects
of it also are the same. For as amongst master-
less men, there is perpetual war of every man
against his neighbor ... so in states and com-
monwealths not dependent on one another,
every commonwealth has an absolute liberty
to do what it shall judge . . . most conducing to
its benefit."
For Locke the state of nature is not a state of
war, but a natural as opposed to a civil society,
that is, a society in which men live together
under natural rather than under civil law. Men
who live in this condition are "in a state of
perfect freedom to order their actions and dis-
pose of their possessions as they think fit, with-
in the bounds of the law of nature." This is a
limited, not an absolute freedom; or, as Locke
says, "though this be a state of liberty, yet it is
not a state of license." The line between liberty
and license is drawn by the precepts of the
natural law. The difference, then, between
natural and civil liberty lies in this. Natural
liberty consists in being "free from any supe-
rior power on earth," or not being "under the
will or legislative authority of man." Only the
rules of natural law limit freedom of action.
Civil liberty, or liberty under civil law, consists
in being "under no other legislative power but
that established by consent." It is a freedom
for the individual to follow his own will in all
matters not prescribed by the law of the state.
IN THE ARGUMENTS for and against free will,
one view regards free will as incompatible with
tiici principle of causality, natural necessity, or
God's omnipotence; the other conceives free
choice as falling within, the order of nature or
causality and under God's providence. We
shall not consider these alternatives in this
chapter, since this issue is reserved for the chap-
ter on WILL.
Yet one thing is clear for the present con-
sideration of political liberty. If the statement
that men are born free means that it is a prop-
erty of their rational natures to possess a free
will, then they do not lose their innate freedom
when they live in civil society. Government
may interfere with a man's actions, but it can-
not coerce his will. Government can go no
further than to regulate the expression of man's
freedom in external actions.
Nor is the range of free will limited by law.
As indicated in the chapter on LAW, any law-
moral or civil, natural or positive—which di-
rects human conduct can be violated. It leaves
man free to disobey it and take the conse-
quences. But if the rule is good or just, then the
act which transgresses it must have the opposite
quality. The freedom of a free will is therefore
morally indifferent. It can be exercised to do
either good or evil. We use our freedom prop-
erly, says Augustine, when we act virtuously;
we misuse it when we choose to act viciously.
"The will," he writes, "is then truly free, when
it is not the slave of vices and sins."
Those who conceive the natural moral law as
stating the precepts of virtue or the commands
of duty and who, in addition, regard every
concrete act which proceeds from a free choice
of the will as either good or bad— never indif-
ferent—find that the distinction between lib-
erty and license applies to every free act. The
meaning of this distinction is the same as that
between freedom properly used and freedom
misused. Furthermore, since there is no good
act which is not prescribed by the moral law,
the whole of liberty, as opposed to license,
consists in doing what that moral law com-
mands.
These considerations affect the problem of
political liberty, especially on the question
whether the spheres of law and liberty are
separate, or even opposed. One view, as we
have seen, is that the area of civil liberty lies
outside the realm of acts regulated by law. To
break the law may be criminal license, but to
CHAPTER 47: LIBERTY
995
obey it is not to be free. The sphere of liberty
increases as the scope or stringency of law
diminishes.
The opposite view docs not regard freedom
as freedom from law. "Freedom," Hegel main-
tains, "is nothing but the recognition and
adoption of such universal substantial objects
as Right and Law." All that matters in the
relation between liberty and law is whether the
law is just and whether a man is virtuous. If
the law is just, then it does not compel a just
man to do what ht would not freely elect to do
even if the law did not exist. Only the criminal
is coerced or restrained by good laws. To say
that such impediment to action destroys free-
dom would be to deny the distinction between
liberty and license.
Nevertheless, liberty can be abridged by
law. That is precisely the problem' of the good
man living under unjust laws. If, as Montes-
quieu says, "liberty can consist only in the
power of doing what we ought to will, and in
not being constrained to do what we ought not
to will," then governments and laws interfere
with liberty when they command or prohibit
acts contrary to the free choice of a good man.
The conception of freedom as the condition
of those who are rightly governed— who are
commanded to do only what they would do
anyway— seems to be analogically present in
Spinoza's theory of human bondage and human
freedom. It is there accompanied by a denial of
the will's freedom of choice.
According to Spinoza human action is caus-
ally determined by one of two factors in man's
nature— the passions or reason. When man is
governed by his passions, he is in "bondage, for
a man under their control is not his own master,
but is mastered by fortune, in whose power he
is, so that he is often forced to follow the worse,
although he sees the better before him." When
man is governed by reason he is free, for he
"does the will of no one but himself, and does
those things only which he knows are of great-
est importance in life, and which he therefore
desires above all things." The man who acts
under the influence of the passions acts in terms
of inadequate ideas and in the shadow of error
or ignorance. When reason rules, man acts with
adequate knowledge and in the light of truth.
So, too, in the theory of Augustine and
Aquinas, the virtuous man is morally or spir-
itually free because humah reason has tri-
umphed in its conflict with the passions to in-
fluence the free judgment of his will. The rule
of reason does not annul the will's freedom. Nor
is the will less free when it is moved by the
promptings of the passions. "A passion," writes
Aquinas, "cannot draw or move the will direct-
ly." It does so indirectly, as, for example,
"when those who arc in some kind of passion
do not easily turn their imagination away from
the object of their affections," But though the
will is not altered in its freedom by whether
reason or emotion dominates, the situation is
not the same with the human person as a whole.
The theologians see him as a moral agent and a
spiritual being who gains or loses freedom ac-
cording as the will submits to the guidance of
reason or follows the passions.
On the supernatural level, the theologians
teach that God's grace assists reason to conform
human acts to the divine law, but also that
grace does not abolish free choice on the part of
the will. "The first freedom of the will," Au-
gustine says, "which man received when he was
created upright, consisted in an ability not to
sin, but also in an ability to sin." So long as man
lives on earth, he remains free to sin. But super-
natural grace, added to nature, raises man to a
higher level of spiritual freedom than he can
ever achieve by the discipline of the acquired
virtues.
Still higher is the ultimate freedom of beati-
tude itself. Augustine calls this "the last free-
dom of will" which, by the gift of God, leaves
man "not able to sin." It is worth noting that
this ultimate liberty consists in freedom from
choice or the need to choose, not in freedom
from love or law. Man cannot be more free than
when he succeeds, with God's help, in submit-
ting himself through love to the rule of God.
THE POLITICAL significance of &ese moral and
theological doctrines of freedom would seem to
be that man can be as free in civil society as in a
state of nature. Whether in fact he is depends
npon the justice of the laws1 which govern him,
not upon their number or the matters with
which they deal. He is, of course,' not free to do
whatever he pleases regardless of the well-being
of other men or the welfare of the community,
996*
1MB ©RBAT IDEAS
but that, iri tie moral conception of liberty, is
not a loss of freedom. He loses' freedom in
society only> when he is mistreated or dais-
gQVerned— when, being the equal of other men,
h$ris not treated as /their equal;) or when, being
capable of ruling himself, he is denied a voice in
his own government. « -
The meaning of tyranny and slavery seems to
confirm this conception of political liberty. To
be a, slave, is not merely to be ruled by another;
it consists in being subject to the mastery of
another, *>., to be ruled as a means to that
other's good and without any voice in- one's
own government. This implies, ,m contrast,
that to be ruled as a free man is to be ruled for
one's own good and with some degree of par-;
ticipation in the government under which one
lives.
According to Aristotle's doctrine of the
natural slave— examined in the chapter on
S^AVERY-H-some men do not have the nature of
free men, and so should not be governed as free
men. Men who are by nature slaves are not un-
justly treated when they are enslaved. "It is,
better for .them as for all inferiors," Aristotle
maintains, "that they should be under the rule
of a master." Though they do not in fact have
the Ijberty of free men, they are not deprived
thereby of any freedom which properly be-
longs to them, any more than a man who is just-
ly imprisoned is deprived of a freedom which is
no longer his by right.
The root of this distinction between free men
and slaves by nature lies in the supposition of a
natural inequality, The principle of equality is
alsp relevant to the injustice of tyranny and phe
difference between absolute and constitutional
government. In the Republic Platp compares
the tyrant to an owner of slave?/ "The only
differences," he writes, "is that the tyradt has
more slaves" and enforces "the harshest and
bitterest form of slavery." The tyrannical ruler
enslaves those who are his equals by nature and
be ruled as free flwa. Throughout
tradition of political thought fthe
01 tyranny signifies the abolition of lib-
erty* But absolute, pr despotic gpvernrnen$ is
not wnifioonjy regarded as the enemy of liberty*
issue concerning the,legUtoacy,of jus^
ute government is examined in the,
capters on MPN^CHV land TYIAWW
can take Itas .generally agreed that <he spbjeet$
of a despot, unlike the citizens of a- republic*, do
not enjoy any measure of self-government To
the extent that political liberty consists in sprue
degree of self-government, th$ subjects of
absolute rule lack the. sort of freedom possessed
by cit&efls under constitutional government.
For this reason the supremacy of law is fre-
quently said to be the basic principle of political
liberty.
"Wherever law ends, tyranny begins," Locke
writes, In going beyond the law, a ruler. goes
beyond the grant of authority vested in him
by the consent of the people, which alone maies
man, "subject to the laws of any government,"
Furthermore, law for Locke is itself a principle
of freedom. "In its true notion," he writes, it
"is not so much the limitation as the direction
of a free and intelligent agent to his proper
interest, and prescribes no farther than is for the
general good of those under that law. Could
they be happier without it, the law, as a useless
thing, would of itself vanish, and that ill de/
serves the name of confinement which hedges
us in only from bogs and precipices. , So that
however it may be mistaken, the end of Jaw is
not td abolish or restrain, but to preserve and
enlarge freedom."
A constitution gives the ruled the status of
citizenship and a share in j their own govern-
ment. It may also give them legal means with
which to defend their liberties when officers of
government invade their rights in violation of
the constitution. According to Mpntiqsquieu,
for whom political, liberty exists only ,under
goveinmerit by law, never under despotism or
the rule of men, the freedom of government it-
self demands "from thse very nature of things
that power should be a check to power." This
is accomplished by a separation of powers. A
system of checks and balances limits the power
of each branch of the goyerriment and permits
the law of the constitution tp be applied by one
department against another when it$ officials
usurp powers not, granted by the constitution
or otherwise act unconstitutionally.,.
,yiefi» unjike tyranny, absolute, government
has been defended. The ancients raise the ques-
tion whether, if a itruly superior or almost -god-
like, ipan, existed,] ft, would not be pro^for
him to,goyern his} inferiors, in an absolute rnan-
CHAPTER 47: LIBERTY
997
ncr. "Mankind will not say that such a one is to
be expelled and exiled," Aristotle writes; "on
the other hand, he ought not to be a subject-
that would be as if mankind should claim to
rule over Zeus, dividing his offices among them.
The only alternative," he concludes, "is that
all should joyfully obey such a ruler, according
to what seems to be the order of nature, and
that men like him should be kings in their state
for life." Those subject to his government
would be free only in the sense that they would
be ruled for their own good, perhaps better
than they could rule themselves. But they
would lose that portion of political freedom
which consists in self-government. Faced with
this alternative to constitutional government
—which Aristotle describes as the government
of free men and equals— what should be the
choice of men who are by nature free?
THE ANCIENT ANSWER is not decisively in one
direction. There are many passages in both
Plato and Aristotle in which the absolute rule
of a wise king (superior to his subjects as a
father is to children, or a god to men) seems to
be pictured as the political ideal. The fact that
free men would be no freer than children in a
well administered household does not seem to
Plato and Aristotle to be a flaw in the picture.
They do not seem to hold that the fullness of
liberty is the primary measure of the goodness
of government.
On the contrary, justice is more important.
As Aristotle suggests, it would be unjust for the
superior man to be treated as an equal and given
the status of one self-governing citizen among
others. But he also points out that "democratic
states have instituted ostracism" as a means of
dealing with such superior men. "Equality is
above all things their aim, and therefore they
ostracized and banished from the city for a time
those who seemed to predominate too much."
Because it saves the superior man from injus-
tice and leaves the rest free to practice self-
government, "the argument for ostracism,"
Aristotle claims, "is based upon a kind of politi-
cal justice," in that it preserves the balance
within the state, and perhaps also because it
leaves men free to practice self-government
among themselves.
Since the eighteenth century, a strong tend-
ency in the opposite direction appears in the
political thought of Locke, Montesquieu, Rous-
seau, Kant, the American constitutionalists,
and J. S. Mill. Self-government is regarded as
the essence of good government. It is certainly
the mark of what the eighteenth century writers
call "free government." Men who are born to
be free, it is thought, cannot be satisfied with
less civil liberty than this.
"Freedom," says Kant, "is independence of
the compulsory will of another; and in so far
as it can co-exist with the freedom of all accord-
ing to a universal law, it is the one sole, original
inborn right belonging to every man in virtue
of his humanity. There is, indeed, an innate
equality belonging to every man which con-
sists in his right to be independent of being
bound by others to anything more than that
to which he may also reciprocally bind them."
The fundamental equality of men thus appears
to be founded in their equal right to freedom;
and that, for Kant at least, rests on the freedom
of will with which all men are born. The crite-
rion of the good society is the realization of free-
dom.
Kant's conception of human society as a
realm of ends, in which no free person should
be degraded to the ignominy of being a means,
expresses one aspect of political freedom. The
other is found in his principle of the harmoniza-
tion of individual wills which results in the free-
dom of each being consistent with the freedom
of all. In institutional terms, republican gov-
ernment, founded on popular sovereignty and
with a system of representation, is the political
ideal precisely because it gives its citizens the
dignity of free men and enables them to realize
their freedom in self-government.
Citizenship, according to Kant, has three in-
separable attributes: "i. constitutional free-
dom, as the right of every citizen to have to
obey no other law than that to which he has
given his consent or approval; 2. civil equality,
as the right of the citizen to recognize no one
as a superior among the people in relation to
himself, except in so far as such a one is as sub-
ject to his moral power to impose obligations,
as that other has power to impose obligations
upon him; and 3. political independence, as
the right to owe his existence and continuance
in society not to the arbitrary will of another,
998
THE GREAT IDEAS
but to his own rights and powers as a member of
the commonwealth, and, consequently, the pos-
session of a civil personality, which cannot be
represented by any other than himself/'
Kant leans heavily on Rousseau's conclu-
sions with regard to political liberty. Rousseau,
however, approaches the problem of freedom
somewhat differently. "Man is born free," he
begins, "and everywhere he is in chains." He
next considers two questions. What makes gov-
ernment legitimate, "since no man has a natu-
ral authority over his fellow, and force creates
no right"? Answering this first question in
terms of a convention freely entered into,
Rousseau then poses the second problem—how
to form an association "in which each, while
uniting himself with all, may still obey himself
alone, and remain as free as before." This, he
says, is "the fundamental problem of which the
Social Contract provides the solution."
The solution involves more than republican
government, popular sovereignty, and a partici-
pation of the individual through voting and
representation. It introduces the conception of
the general will, through which alone the free-
dom of each individual is to be ultimately pre-
served. Like Kant's universal law of freedom,
the general will ordains what each man would
freely will for himself if he adequately con-
ceived the conditions of his freedom. "In fact,"
says Rousseau, "each individual, as a man, may
have a particular will contrary or dissimilar to
the general will which he has as a citizen. His
particular interest may speak to him quite dif-
ferently from the common interest." Neverthe-
less, under conditions of majority rule, the
members of the minority remain free even
though they appear to be ruled against their
particular wills.
When a measure is submitted to the people,
the question is "whether it is in conformity with
the general will, which is their will. Each man,
in giving his vote, states his opinion on that
point; and the general will is found by count-
ing votes. When, therefore, the opinion that is
contrary to my own prevails, this proves nei-
ther more nor less than that I was mistaken,
and that what I thought to be the general will
was not so. If my particular opinion had car-
ried the day, I should have achieved the oppo-
site of what was my will; and it is in that case
that I should not have been free. This presup-
poses, indeed, that all the qualities of the gen-
eral will still reside in the majority; when they
cease to do so, whatever side a man may take,
liberty is no longer possible."
J. S. MILL SEES THE same problem from the op-
posite side. Constitutional government and rep-
resentative institutions are indispensable con-
ditions of political liberty. Where Aristotle re-
gards democracy as the type of constitution
most favorable to freedom because it gives the
equality of citizenship to all free-born men,
Mill argues for universal suffrage to give equal
freedom to all men, for all are born equal. But
neither representative government nor demo-
cratic suffrage is sufficient to guarantee the
liberty of the individual and his freedom of
thought or action.
Such phrases as "self-government" and "the
power of the people over themselves" are de-
ceptive. "The 'people' who excercise the
power," Mill writes, "are not always the same
people with those over whom it is exercised;
and the 'self-government' spoken of is not the
government of each by himself, but of each by
all the rest. The will of the people, moreover,
practically means the will of the most numer-
ous or the most active part of the people; the
majority, or those who succeed in making
themselves accepted as the majority."
To safeguard individual liberty from the tyr-
anny of the majority, Mill proposes a single
criterion for social control over the individual,
whether by the physical force of law or the
moral force of public opinion. "The sole end for
which mankind are warranted, individually or
collectively, in interfering with the liberty of
action of any of their number, is self-protection.
. . . The only part of the conduct of anyone, for
which he is amenable to society, is that which
concerns others. In the part which merely con-
cerns himself, his independence is, of right,
absolute. Over himself, over his own body and
mind, the individual is sovereign."
Mill's conception of, individual liberty at
first appears to be negative— to be freedom
from externally imposed regulations or coer-
cions* Liberty increases as the sphere of govern-
ment diminishes; and, for the sake of liberty,
that government governs best which governs
CHAPTER 47: LIBERTY
999
least, or governs no more than is necessary for
the public safety. 'There is a sphere of action,"
Mill writes, "in which society, as distinguished
from the individual, has, if any, only an indi-
rect interest; comprehending all that portion of
a person's life and conduct which affects only
himself, or if it also affects others, only with
their free, voluntary, and undeceived consent
and participation. When I say only himself,"
Mill continues, "I mean directly and in the first
instance; for whatever affects himself, may af-
fect others through himself. . . . This, then, is
the appropriate region of human liberty."
But it is the positive aspect of freedom from
governmental interference or social pressures
on which Mill wishes to place emphasis. Free-
domfrom government or social coercion is free-
dom for the maximum development of indi-
viduality—freedom to be as different from all
others as one's personal inclinations, talents,
and tastes dispose one and enable one to be.
"It is desirable," Mill writes, "that in things
which do not primarily concern others, indi-
viduality should assert itself." Liberty is under-
valued as long as the free development of indi-
viduality is not regarded as one of the principal
ingredients of human happiness and indispen-
sable to the welfare of society. "The only free-
dom which deserves the name," Mill thinks,
"is that of pursuing our own good in our own
way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive
others of theirs, or impede their efforts to ob-
tain it"; for, "in proportion to the develop-
ment of his individuality, each person becomes
more valuable to himself, and is therefore ca-
pable of being more valuable to others. There
is a greater fullness of life about his own exist-
ence, and when there is more life in the units
there is more in the mass which is composed of
them."
Mill's praise of liberty as an ultimate good,
both for the individual and for the state, finds a
clearly antiphonal voice in the tradition of the
great books. Plato, in the Republic, advocates
political regulation of the arts, where Mill, even
more than Milton before him, argues against
censorship or any control of the avenues of hu-
man expression. But the most striking opposi-
tion to Mill occurs in those passages in which
Socrates deprecates the spirit of democracy be-
cause of its insatiable desire for freedom. That
spirit, Socrates says, creates a city "full of free-
dom and frankness, in which a man may do and
say what he likes . . . Where such freedom ex-
ists, the individual is clearly able to order for
himself his own life as he pleases."
The democratic state is described by Socrates
as approaching anarchy through relaxation of
the laws or through utter lawlessness. Under
such circumstances there will be the greatest
variety of individual differences. It will seem
"the fairest of states, being like an embroidered
robe which is spangled with every sort of
flower." But it is a state in which liberty has
been allowed to grow without limit at the ex-
pense of justice and order. It is "full of variety
and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality
to equals and unequals alike."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
. Natural freedom and political liberty 1001
i a. The birthright of freedom
ib. The independence of men and the autonomy of sovereigns in a state of nature
or anarchy
ic. The relation of liberty to free will: the conceptions of liberty as freedom from
interference and freedom for personal development 1002
id. The supremacy of law as a condition of political liberty
ic. The restriction of freedom by justice: the distinction between liberty and license
i/. The freedom of equals under government : the equality of citizenship
i£. The juridical protection of liberties: bills of rights; the separation of powers 1003
i A. Civil liberty under diverse forms of government
1000 THE GREAT IDEAS
PACT
2. The issues of civil liberty 1003
20. Freedom of thought and expression: the problem of censorship
2b. Liberty of conscience and religious freedom 1004
2c. Freedom in the sphere of economic enterprise: free trade; freedom from govern-
mental restrictions 1005
2d. Economic dependence as a limitation of civil liberty: economic slavery or sub-
jection
3. Moral or spiritual freedom
30. Human bondage, or the dominance of the passions
3^. Human freedom or the rule of reason: freedom through knowledge of the truth 1006
3r. Virtue as the discipline of free choice: freedom as the determination of the will
by the moral law of practical reason
$d. Freedom from conflict and freedom for individuality as conditions of happiness 1007
4. The metaphysics of freedom
40. The relation of human liberty to chance and contingency
4^. The opposites of freedom: causality or necessity, nature, and law
5. The theology of freedom 1008
50. Man's freedom in relation to fate or to the will of God
5^. Man's freedom and God's knowledge 1009
5^. Man's freedom and God's grace: the freedom of the children of God
5*/. The divine freedom: the independence or autonomy of infinite being; divine
choice
6. Liberty in history 1010
6a. The historical significance of freedom: stages in the realization of freedom; the
beginning and end of the historical process
6b. The struggle for civil liberty and economic freedom: the overthrow of tyrants,
despots, and oppressors
6V. The struggle for sovereign independence against the yoke of imperialism or
colonial subjugation ion
REFERENCES
To find the passages1 cited", use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume aticf page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, ifi 4 HOMER :rf/&k/, BK n [265-283} 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number I2d indicates that the^pas-
sage is in section d of page 12. ' • - » ' '
PACE SECTIONS! When the text is printed in one column, the letters & and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of thfe page. For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, H6a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lowei half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer ta the' upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and cfcto the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
tjiepage. For example, in 7 PLATO* Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the teft-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'^ DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, 'in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g.t Iliad, BK u [265-283] 12d. • r
BiBLti REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, ahd verse. When the King James
arid Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James versioh is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT. Nehemtah, 7:45— (Z>) II Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage citei
For additional^, information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface,
Natural freedom and political liberty
t. The birthright of freedom
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 15
521a-c i
19 AQUINAS: Sumtna Theologica, PART i, Q 96, A
4 512d-513c
20 AQUFNAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ir, Q 94,
A 5, HEP 3 224d-225d
26 SHAKESPEARE * Julius Caesar, ACT i, sc u [90-
99] 57Qb •
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xu [63-110] 3£0b-
321b '
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vi 36a-42a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 53b-d
38 M0NTESQUIBU: Spirit -of Laws, BK xv,
109b-cV - , , -
38 RO«U«SEAU: Inequality, 357c-d / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 387c-390d passim
42 KANT; Science of Right, 401b-402a; 420d-
421a; 421c-d
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-15]
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 363c-3644
46 HEGEL: Pfnfosophy of Right, PART it par
' 57 2Cb^27a; par 66 29a-c; ADDITIONS, 36
122b-c / Philosophy vf History, INTRO, 171c-
172b
£. The independence of men and the au-
tonomy of sovereigns in a state of nature
or, anarchy
15 TACITUS. Histories, BK iv, 271a~b ,,
23 HOBBEIS: Leviathan, PART i, 84c-87b; PART n,
99b-c; J13d-115a; 159c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
31 SPINOZA Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, * CH n~vi 25d-42e
passim, esp CH u, SECT 14 28b-c; CH vn» SECT
87 44a-b;, CH ix, SECT 123 53c-d; SECT 128
54b-c; CH xj, SE$T 136-137 £6c-57b; CH xu,
SECT 145 58dr59a; CH xix, SECT 211 73d- 74a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2J>:d; BK
vin, 52a^ BK.XXVI, 221c-d ,; >.c
* 3d ROUSSEAU: Inequaltty, 3f 2c-345c; 352a; 3S3c
355b passim; 356c-3S7a / Political Economy.
369a-r>; 374ja^b / $octal Contract, BK i, 393 be ;
BK n, 398a-b; BK in, 419a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 237c4 ,
455 K^jf^fure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right,
402c; 408c-d; 433c-434d; 435c-436aj 452a-d
46 tf^Cfp,: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 194
60c-df par J33r334 ^09b-c / Philosophy oj
Hiftory, INTRO, 171c*172t>; PART iv, 317d-
318a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780d
1002 THE GJtEAT IDEAS
(1. Natural freedom and political liberty?)
Ir. The relation of liberty to free will: the
Ictolf
conceptions of liberty as freedom from
interference and freedom for personal
development
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 59b; 86c-d; PART
n, 112d-113d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [246-257] 116b
/ Areopagitica, 394b-395b; 408a-b
35 LOCKE: Cwil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vi, SECT 57-63 36d-38c / Human Under-
standing, BK n, CH xxi, SECT 7-27 180a-184c
passim; SECT 57 193b-c; SECT 73 198c-199c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vin, DIV
73 483c-484a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69a-b;
BK xn, 85a; BK xxvi, 223c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 370b-d / Social
Contract, BK i, 393a-c; BK iv, 426c-d
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 386d-
387a,c
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-273b; 293b-323a,c pas-
sim, esp 312b-c
44 Bo$w ELL: Johnson, 161a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 121
43d; par 260 82a-83a; par 299 99c-100b;
ADDITIONS, 117 135d-136a; 155-156 142a-b;
I58l42d;i77l47d
50 MARX: Capital, 237a
!</. The supremacy of law as a condition of
political liberty
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [429-441] 262a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vn, 233c-d
6 TnucYDiDESiPeloponnesian War, BKii,396c-d;
BK HI, 436d-438b csp 438a-b
9 ARISTOTLE* Ethics, BK v, CH 6 [ii34*24~bi7]
382a-c passim / Politics, BK in, CH 6 [1279*8-
22] 476b-c; BK iv, CH 4 [1292*4-37] 491b-d;
BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36] 512c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 73, DEMONST
446c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vi, SECT 56-63 36d-38c; CH ix, SECT 124-
131 53d-54d; CH xi, SECT 135-139 55d-58a;
CH xvin, SECT 202 71d-72a; SECT 206 72c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 34d;
BK xi, 69a-b; BK xn, 85a-c; BK xv, 109a-b;
BK xxvi, 223c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d-324a; 355a-b;
356b-c / Political Economy, 370b-371c; 375b-c
/ Social Contract, BK i, 393b-fc
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 308b-c; 314d-
3l5a,c
41 GIBBQN: Decline and Pali, 96c-d; 161c-162a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right,
398c-399c; 401c-402a; 436c-d / Judgement,
586c
43 DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE: [1-47] la-
2a passim; [72-79] 2b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla.c;
AMENDMENTS, V-VII 17b-d; XIV, SECT I 18d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30a-c; NUMBER 37,
118d-119b; NUMBER 53, 167d-168b; NUMBER
57, 177d-178a
43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-274a / Representative
Government, 339d-340c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 93
36a-b; PART in, par I9466c-d;par2o8 69c;par
265 84b; par 28696c-97a; ADDITIONS, 129 137c;
135 138c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170c-
172b; 173a-175c; 180c-181a; PART n, 271d-
272d; PART iv, 321a; 342b~d; 345a-b? 364b-c
le. The restriction of freedom by justice: the
distinction between liberty and license
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 396c-
d; BK in, 436d-438b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK 11, 314d-3l5d; BK iv,
349a-d / Laws, BK in, 674c-676c
9 ARISTOTLE. Politics, BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36]
512c; BK vi, CH 4 [I3i8b38-i3i9*5] 522c;
[1319^7-32] 523b
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK i, CH 12, 119a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 44d-45b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 57b-58d
19 AQUINAS • Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 96, A 4
512d-513c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c-87b; PART n,
I13b-116b;138c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT i,
sc n [120-134] 176b-c; sc in [7-54] 177b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2,
435b-d; PROP 73, DEMONST 446c
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xii 65a.-b / Areopagitica,
384a-386a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 12c-13b; 17c-18c / Civil
Government, CH 11, SECT 4-6 25d-26c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK in, lOa; BK
vin, 51a-52c; BK xi, 68b,d-69c; BK xn, 92b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK i, 393b-c; BK n, 396d-398b
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK n, 140b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 622d-623c; 653a
42 KANT* Science of Right, 398c-399c
43 MILL: Liberty, 271c-d; 297a-b; 302d-323a,c
passim
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 422c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 29
19a-b; PART in, par 319 105b-106c; ADDITIONS,
127 137b; 145 140b / Philosophy of History,
PART iv, 321a| 328b; 342b-d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780c-
781a
I/. The freedom of equals under government:
the equality of citizenship
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107ti-108d; BK
vn, 232d-233d; I
Ig to 2a
47; LIBERTY
1003
6 THUCYDIDES: Pelopenntsian Wary BK n, 396c-
d; BK vi, 519o520d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 674c-676c .
,9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH <5 [1134*24^17]
382a-c / Politics, BK in, CH i 471b,d-472c; CH
6 [i278b30-i279*22] 476a-c; CH 16-17 485b-
487a passim; BK iv, CH 4 [i29ib3<>-38] 491a-b;
CH 10 [1295*17-23] 495a-b; BK v, CH 9 {1310*
25-36] 512c; BK vi, CH 2 [i3i7*4o-bi6] 520d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations^ BK i, SECT 14 254b-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 97b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 81,
A 3, REP 2 430c-431d
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 114c-115a; 150c-
151a;156b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a; PROP 73, DEMONST 446c
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH iv, SECT 21 29d;
CH vn, SECT 94 46a-c; CH xi, SECT 136-139
56c-58a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a-d;
BK vi, 34d, BK via, 52a-b; BK xi, 68b,d-69c;
71 d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326b-327a; 359a-b /
Social Contract, BK n, 396d-398b; 405a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90d-92a esp 91 b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 398c-399c; 400b,d-
402a,c; 408c-409c; 436c-d; 438b; 450d-452a
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36] 5b-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE IV, SECT 2 [519-521] 16aj AMEND-
MENTS, xiu-xv 18c-19b; xix 19d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 80, 236a-b
43 MILL: Representative Government, 354b-355b;
365b-366a / Utilitarianism, 460a-c; 467a;
474d-476a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 213b;
PART n, 271d-272d; 276a-d; PART iv, 362d-
363a
Ig. The juridical protection of liberties: bills
of rights; the separation of powers
7 PLATO: Laws, BK in, 671b-672c
14 PLUTARCH. Lycurgus, 34d-35d
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xn, SECT 143
58c-d; CH xvni, SECT 202 71d-72a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xi, 69a-
75b; BK xii, 84b,d-86d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24b; 27a-b; 522c-
523a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, Slc-d; 403b-404c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 451a-d ,
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: iv [17-36] 5b-c;
v (74]-vi [93] 6a-b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE lla,c;
ARTICLE I, SECT 3 [81-95] I2a-bj SECT 6 [143-
151] 12c-d; SECT 9 [267-275] 13d; [283-295]
13d-14a; SECT 10^300-303] 14a; ARTICLE n,
SECT I [33I-334J 14bj ARTICLE III, SECT 3 15d-
16a; ARTICLE iv, SECT 2 [519-521] 16a; SECT 4
H5b-c; AMENDMBNT&, i-x 17a-18a; xiu, SECT i-
xiv, SECT i 18c-d; xv 19b; xix 194 .
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9, 47a-d; NUMBER 21,
78d*?9b; NUMBER 43, 140c-d; NUMBER 44,
I44d-14Sa; t46c-d; NUMBER 47-51 153c-165a
passim; NUMBER 53, 167d; NUMBER 57, 177d-
178a; NUMBER 58, 180d{ NUMBER 63, 192c-
193c; NUMBER 78-79 229d-234d passim; NUM-
BER 80, 236a-b; NUMBER 8i,241a-242a passim
NUMBER 83, 245d-247a; NUMBER 84, 251a 253d
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b / Rcprescntativt
Government, 361b; 365b-366a; 369b-370ai
401d-402b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 164c;19Sc-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 345a-t
lb. Civil liberty under diverse forms of govern-
ment
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [429-441] 262a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK in, 107c-108c
6 TnucYDiDEs:Pcloponnesian War, BKii,396c-d
BK vi, 519c-520d
7 PLATO. Republic, BK vin, 409b-d; 412a-413a /
Laws, BK HI, 672c-676c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v, CH 9 [1310*25-36
512c; BK vi, CH 2 [i3i7*40-bi6] 520d; CH ^
522a-523b passim
12 AURELIUS • Meditations, BK i, SECT 14 254b-(
14 PLUTARCH- Lycurgus, 44d-45b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK i, 189a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 114b-115a; 150c
ISlajPARTiv, 273a-b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 382a; 384b-388a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 90-9*
44d-46c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK vi, 33a-35a
BK xi, 68b,d-75b; BK xn, 84b,d-85a; BK xv,
109a-b; BK xix, 135a-b; 142a-146a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b / Social Con
tract, BK in, 415b-d; 417b-c; 422a-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 32c-34a,c; 617a-b
632d-633a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 161c-162a; 222d
224a; 288a,c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 445b-c; 451b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8 44c-47a passim; NUM
BER 47-48 153c-159a; NUMBER 51, 164a-165a
NUMBER 53, 167d-168b
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b / Representative
Government, 338d-341d; 351d-352b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 299
lOOa-b; ADDITIONS, 155-156 142a-b / Philos
ophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c
2. The issues of civil liberty
2a. Freedom of thought and expression: th<
problem of censorship
, OLD TESTAMENT: Jeremiah, 38:4-28— (D) Jere
mias, 38 14-28
NEW TESTAMENT; Matthew, 23:29-38 / Luke
11:47-51 / Acts, 4:1-31; 5:17-42; 16:19-24
18:12-16; 19:19; 21:27-32 / 7 Thessalonians
2:14^6
tHE!fORE AT IDEAS
(2. The Issues of civil liberty. 2<& Frttdom of
thought and expression; tit pwbleto- of cen-
sorship.)
5 SOPHOCLES: Attttlpnt [499-511] 135b-c; [683-
700] 1376
5 ARISTOPHANES: Achamians [366-384] 459c-d;
[497-508] 460d-461a
6 HERODOTUS- History, BK v, 172d-l73b; BK vi,
189c; BK vn, 217a '* '
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK H, 397b-
c; BK ill, 427a-c; BK vm, 5&)b-c
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43b-c / Apology 200a-
212a,c / Gorgias, 259d / Republic, BK ii-m,
320c-334b; BK iv, 344b-d; BK x, 427c~434c
csp 432d-434c / Statesman, 601c-602c / Laws,
BK n, 653a-658b csp 654d-656b; BK in, 675c-
676b; BK vn, 719d-721a; 727c-728b; BK vm,
732c; BK xi, 782d-783b
12AuRELius: Meditations^ BK i, SECT 6 253b;
SECT 14 234b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 76a / Timoleon, 212b-c /
Cato the Younger, 632d; 636b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 2lb-22d; BK m, 56d-
57b; BK iv, 67c; 72b-73a; BK vi, 87c-88d;
1 BK' Xiv, 152d-153c; BK xvi, 180d-183a / His-
tories, BK i, 189a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK n, CH 9 154a-c;
6n 12 155c-d; CH 14 156c-157c; BK vm, CH 13
273b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 102d-103a; 150c-
' 151a; PART iv, 273c-d; 274c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 260b; 270c-d; 408b-410c
2Q CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 13b-16c;
117d-119d; 185b-188c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 7b-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 60d-61a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica 381a-412b esp 384b-
389a,398a-b
35 LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK iv, CH m,
SECT 20 3l9b-c; CH xvi, SECT 4 367c-368b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi, DIV
102-104 497b-498c; DIV 114 503a-b
36 SWIFT : Gulliver, PART n, 75b
3fc MONTESQUIEU- Spirit of Laws, BK v, 32c-
33a,c; BK xn, 89b-90c; BK xix, 146a,c
36 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK iv, 425d "
40 GIBBON: Declmeand Pall, 148a; 355b-d;668d-
671b passim, esp 669b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 300a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 220b-221b; 423a-c /
Science of Right, 425c-426a ,
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, i
^ 17a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 84, 2!>3a-ib ''
43 MILL: Liberty, 272d-293b; 297b-298b / Rep-
resentative Government, 341a-c; 361b-362c;
418c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 29a-b; 86a-b; IBia-b;
' 221d-fc24a; 300c-30la &$ 301a^d [fn ij; 313d-
3I6d; 512c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PAR? iif, {>ar 270,
' 86c~89bi par 31$ I05b^l06c;r ADDITIONS ,'^84-
185 149a / Philosoptybf History, PART i, 210d;
213d-214a; PARTII, 273C'd; 279d-280bf ^
54 FREUD: Psycho- Analytic Therapy, i25d-127a,c
/ War and Death, 757b-c / New Introductory
Lectures, 879b-880b; 883d
2b. Liberty of conscieace and religious freedom
OLD TESTAMENT: II Kings, 10118-28; 11:18; 23—
(D) IV Kings, 10:18-28; 11:18; 23 / Ezra, r,
6-7— (D) I'Esdras, 15 6-7 / Nehemiah, 2:1-9—
(D) // Esdns, 2:1-^ / Daniel, 3; 6~<D)
Daniel, ^1-23,91-^7} 6
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 16— (D) OT, Esther,
16 / / Maccabees, 1-2- (D) OT, / Machabees,
1-2 / II Maccabees, 6-8— (D) OT, // Mocha-
dees, 6-8
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:11-12; 10:16-23;
23:34-38; 24:9; 26:39-66 / MarJ{, 13:9-13;
14:42-65 / Lu^e, 11:47-51; 21:12-18122:66-71
/ 'John, 5:16-18; 7:1; 1 5:1 8-16:3/^/5-, 4:1-22;
5:17-18,25-42; 6:9-14; 7:54-8:3; 9:1-5,23-24;
12:1-6,18-20; 13:27-29,50; 14:5; 16:19-40;
17:5-14; 18:12-16^28:17-29 /Romans, 8:35-36
/ / Corinthians, 4:9-13; 15:9 / II Corinthians,
1:5-8; 11:24-26; 12:9-10 / Galatians, 1:8-^9,13-
24; 2:1-5; 4:295 5:10-12; 6:12 / Philippians,
1 128-30 / / Thessalonians, 2:14-16/77 Thessa-
lomans, 1.3-5 / H Tmothy, 2:8-10; 3:10-12 /
Titus, 3:10-11 / Hebrews, 11:35-38
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 137a-c; 138a-c
7 PLATO: Apology, ' 204d-205c / Laws, BK x,
769d-771b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 21c-d^ BK n, 44b-c;
BK xv, 168a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 17 522b-
523a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART ir-4i, Q 10,
AA 7-12 431b-437d; Q 11, AA 3-4 440b-442b;
Q 12, A 2 443b-444b
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,826-16,021]
467b-471b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan*, PART n, 149b-c; PART iv,
273c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 116d-117c; 208b-c; 324c-
326b
30 BACON: New Atlantis, fc09a-b
32 MILTON: New Forcers of Conscience 688^ /
Lord Gen. Cromwell 69a-b / Samson Agomstes
[1334-1379] 368b-369b / Areopagttica 381a-
412b csp 386a-b, 388a-b, 397a-b, 402a-b,
404b, 4116-b
35 LvOCKE: Toleration la-22d csp 2d-3a, 18c-20c
/ Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvi, SBCT 4
367c-368b
36 STERNS: Tristram Shandy, 2S7a-25&r '
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK btix, 144c-
145a; ^K xxv, 211d*2i3d; BK xxvi, 218d-219a
38 Roti^SEAu: Social Contract, BK iv,. 438d-439c
39 SMITH: Wcabhof Nations, BK v, 344a-b; 345b-
c; 347d-348a ' ^ »
2c to 3a
CHAPTER 47: LIBERTY
1005
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12a>14a; 206b,d-
232b passim, csp 21Ia-b; 290d-291c; 324b;
349a-c; 464b-d; 601d-603b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 227b d; 285d;
333b-335a,c csp 335a,c; 480d-481a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 433b-c; 444a-c
43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: in 5b
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE vi [591-
599! 16d; AMENDMENTS, 1 17a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER i, 30a; NUMBER 51,
164b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 270c-271a; 272d-274a; 276d-
287b; 290a-292a; 307d-309a; 311a-312a /
Representative Government, 341a-c; 437d-438b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 221d-224a; 421d; 436d-
438b;512c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 66
29a-c; PART in, par 270 84d-89c; ADDITIONS,
67 126d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193a-b;
PART iv, 350d-351a; 353c-d
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicf(, 60b-65a
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
2c. Freedom in the sphere of economic enter-
prise: free trade; freedom from govern-
mental restrictions
35 LOCKE : Civil Government, CH v 30b-36a passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xx, 148d-
149a; 149c-d
39 SMI m. Wealth of Nations, BK i, 42a,c; 51a-62a
passim; BK n, 142d; BK iv 182a-300d passim,
esp 194a-c, 287c-288c, 291d-294a, 300a-c; BK
v, 397a-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-443b
43 MILL: Liberty, 312c-315c / Representative Gov-
ernment, 348c-349a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 179
62b-c; par 235-236 76a-c; ADDITIONS, 1451460
/ Philosophy of History, PART n, 277b-c; PART
iv, 345a-b; 364d
50 MARX: Capital, 79c-81a; 83d-84a,c; 127c-146c
passim, esp 130c-131a, 135d-138c, 141a-c,144a-
146c; 194a-b; 236c-248d passim, csp 241a-
242a, 243d-244a; 277d-278a,c; 316d-317c;
367c-368b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420d;
421d-422a; 426c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xin, 573a-b
2d. Economic dependence as a limitation of
civil liberty: economic slavery or sub-
jection
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK HI, CH 5 [12^^-
1278*39] 475a-c; BK vn, CH 9 [i328b34-i329*i]
533b
14 PLUTARCH: Poplicola- Solon, 87a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH vn, SECT 85
43c-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 20d-21d;
BK xin, 99b-100c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 381a-b / Social
Contract, BK n, 405a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 144b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b
42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-51d; NUMBER
79, 233c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 339d-340c;
382c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 243
77b-c; ADDITIONS, 145 140b / Philosophy of
History, PART iv, 352a
50 MARX: Capital, 138b; 366c-368b esp 367c-
368b
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto,4Wb~di
424c; 426b-d; 428c-429c; 434c-d
3. Moral or spiritual freedom
da. Human bondage, or the dominance of the
passions
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:1-16; 6:5,12; 8:20-
22 / Numbers, n :4~35— (D) Numbers, n 14-34
/ // Samuel, n; 13— (D) II Kings, n; 13 /
Proverbs, 5:22-23
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 18:30-31; 23:5-6;
31:1-7,29-30— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18:30-
31; 23:6; 31:1-7,39-40
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 26:41 / Mar1(, 14:38
/ John, 8:31-367^^, 8: 18-23 /Romans, 1:18-
32; 5:12-6-23; 7:8-8:21 / Galatians, 4:1-10;
5.1,13-26 / Phihppians, 3:18-19 / / Timothy,
6:9-10 / Titus, 3:3 /James, 1:12-16; 4:1-7 /
/ Peter, 2:11 /// Peter, 2 esp 2:19-20 / I John,
2:15-17
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 120b-c; 128a-129c / Phaedo,
224d; 232a-234c / Gorgias, 275d-280d / Re-
public, BK i, 296b-c; BK iv, 347d-348d; BK
VHI-IX, 411d-427b / Laws, BK in, 669b-d /
Seventh Letter, 801 b-c; 814b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 12 [1119*35-^8]
366a,c / Politics, BK in, CH 16 [1287*28-32]
485d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-93]
30d-31b; BK v [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH 4, 109c-d; BK n, CH 18 161a-162b; BK in,
CH 15, 190d; CH 22 19Sa-201a; BK iv, CH i
213a-223d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 10 257d-
258a
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 10 82b /
Sixth Ennead, TR iv, CH 15, 304c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 18-26
40d-43a; BK vn, par 27 51d-52c; BK vm, par
lo-n 55c-56b / City of God, BK iv, CH 3
190a-c; BK xiv, CH n, 385d-386b; CH 15 388d-
390a; BK xix, CH 15 521a-c / Christian Doc-
trine, BK i, CH 24 63 Oc- 63 la
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 89,
A 2, REP i 475a-d; PART i-n, Q 9, A 2 658d-
659c; Q 10, A 3 664d-665c
1006
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. Moral or spiritual freedom* $a. Human bond'
age, or the dominance of the passions.)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 72,
A 2, REP 4 112b-113a; Q ^3, A 5 123a-d; Q 77
144d-152a csp A 2 145d-147c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v [25-45] 7b-c
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Talc [17,130-144] 490b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 165c-166a; 232b-c; 488b-
489b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in; sc n [61-79]
49c-d / Othello, ACT iv, sc I 229d-233a /
f Antony and Cleopatra, ACT in, sc xm [m-
116] 335d-336a; [195-201] 336d-337a / Win-
ter's Tale, ACT n, sc in [1-192] 498c-500d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 66c-d;
78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 2, SCHOL,
397c-d; PART iv, PREF-PROP 18 422b,d-429d
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BKVIII [561-594] 244b-
245a; BK xn [79-110] 321a-b
35 LOCKE • Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 12 180d-181a; SECT 54 192b-c; SECT 69
196d-197a
3(5 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 239b
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 393c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 233b-c;
PART iv, 348d-349b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164b-d
54 FREUD: War and Death, 760d-761a
)b. Human freedom or the rule of reason: free-
dom through knowledge of the truth
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 8:31-59 / II Corinthians,
3:17 / James, i csp 1:25
7 PLATO: Lysts, 16c-18b / Phaedrus, 120b-c;
128a-l29c / Phaedo, 230d-234c / Republic,
BK iv, 347d-348d; BK ix, 425c-427b / Theaete-
tus, 528c-531a / Laws, BK i, 650a-b; BK in,
669b-d; BK ix, 754a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK v, CH i [129*10-16]
179a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [no2bi3-no3a
3] 348a-c; BK in, CH 12 [mo^^iS] 366a,c
/ Politics, BK i, CH 5 [i254B33-b26] 448a-b;
CH 13 [1260*4-15] 454c; BK in, CH 16 [1287*
28-32] 485d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1-61]
ISa-d; BK v [1117-1120] 75d
12 EPICTETVS: Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-120b;
BK n, CH 1-2, 139c-141c; CH 18 161a-162b; BK
in, CH 7 182b-184a; CH 15, 190d; CH 22 195a-
201a; BK iv, CH i 213a-223d; CH 7 232c-235a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT 5 257b-c;
SECT 16-17 259a*d; BK in, SECT 6 261a-c; BK
iv, SECT 24 26$c-d; BK v> SECT 9 270b-c;
SECT 26 272c; BK vn, SECT 55 283b-c; SECT
68-69 284c-d; BK xt, SECT 18, 305b
14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger, 646b-648a • •
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ermead, TR i, CH 10 82b /
Sixth Ennead, TR vin, CH 3 344a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrint, BK i, CH 24
630c~631a; CH 34 634b-c; BK in, CH 5-9 659d-
661c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 8r,
A 3 430c-431d; Q 83, A i, REP i 436d-438a;
Q 95, A 2 507c-508a; PART i-n, Q 24, A i
727b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3 8b-9a, Q 56, A 4 32b-33c; Q 57, A 3, REP 3
37b-38a; Q 59, AA 2-3 46c-48c; PART ii-ii) Q
183, A 4, ANS and REP i 627d-628d
21 DANTE: Divine, Comedy, PURGATORY, xvm
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 70a-c; 184b-d; 204d-
205b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc n [61-79]
49c-d / Othello, ACT i, sc in [322-337] 212b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72b;
78a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 67-73 444d-
447a; PART v 451a-463d esp PROP 3-4 453a-d,
PROP 20, SCHOL 457b-458a, PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xn 65a-b / Paradise Lost, BK
xn [79-110] 321a-b / Areopagitica, 404a-b;
409b-410a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, en vi, SECT 56-63
36d-38c passim / Human Understanding, BK n,
CH xxi, SECT 46-54 189d-192c; SECT 69 196d-
197a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK i, 393c
41 GIBBON- Decline and Fall, 300b
42 KANT. Fund. Prm. M etaphy sic of Morals, 2%1b-
283d / Practical Reason, 296a-d / Pref. Meta-
physical Elements of Ethics, 378c
44 BOSWELL Johnson, 92b-c
46 HEGEL' Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-
161c; PART n, 279d-280b; PART iv, 315a;
348d-349b; 350a-b; 361 b-c
54 FREUD: Psycho -Analytic Therapy, 126a-127a,c
/ General Introduction, 625a-d / Ego and Id,
702c-d; 715c-716a / New Introductory Lectures,
838c-839b
3c. Virtue as the discipline of free choice: free-
dom as the determination of the will by
the moral law of practical reason
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 6 [iio6b36-iio7*
6] 352c; BK in, CH 1-2 355b,d-358a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK iv, CH 3, 190c;
BK xiv, CH n, 386b; BK xix, CH 20 523d-
524a; BK xxn, CH 30, 617c-618a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 83,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 438a-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART n-n,
Q 183, A 4, ANS 627d-628d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvni
[19-75] 80a-c; xxvn 94c-96a esp [139-142]
' 9&a; PARADISE, xxxi [73-90] 154a
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 391a-392a; 394b-395b
CHAOTBR 47: LIBERTY
1007
42 KANT: fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 275b
/ Practical Reason, 302a-d; 307d-314d; 331a-b;
332a-334b; 342a-c / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 367d-368a; 378a-b / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-387a,c; 390b,d-
391a / Science of Right, 420d-421a / Judgement,
571c-572a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 29
19a-b; PART n, par 105-114 40a-42b; PART in,
par 149 56b; ADDITIONS, 95 132b / Philosophy
of History, INTRO, 171a-c; PART iv, 328a; 362d-
363a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
164a-165b
3</. Freedom from conflict and freedom for in-
dividuality as conditions of happiness
6 THUCYDiDES.Peloponnesian War, BK n,398a-c
7 PLATO: Lysis, 16c-18a / Gorgias, 275d-276b /
Republic, BK i, 295d-296c
9 ARISTOTLE- Politics, BK in, CH 9 [i28oa32-34]
477d-478a
12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK v [1-54] 61a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH i 105a-106c;
CH 4 108d-110a; CH 12 118d-120b; CH 18 124a-
125a; BK n, CH 1-2 138b,d-141c; BK in, CH 22
195a-201a; CH 24 203c-210a; BK iv, CH 1-2
213a-224b; CH 4 225a-228a; CH 6-7 230b-235a
12 AUREHUS: Meditations, BK x, SECT 12 298c-d
18 AUGUSTINE* Confessions, BK vin, par 10-30
55c-61c / City of God, BK xix, CH 20 523d-
524a, BK xxn, CH 30, 617c-618a
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q
182, A i,REP2620b-621d
22 CHAUCER: Manciple's Tale [17,109-125] 490a-b
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 109a; 318a-319b; 469a-
470a,486b-489b
29 CERVANTES • Don Quixote, PART n, 379d-380a
35 LOCKE- Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 52-53 191d-192b
42 KANT. Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
378c-379a
43 MILL- Liberty, 269b-c; 272d-274a; 293b-302c
/ Utilitarianism, 451d-452a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 118
136a-b; 158 142d / Philosophy of History, PART
n, 276a-d; PART iv, 320c-321a; 364d
51 TOLSTOY- War and Peace, BK v, 221b d; BK
xiii, 577a-578b; BK xiv, 605b-d; BK xv, 630c-
631a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b-202a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 9a-b, 20a-d / General Introduction,
593c; 623d-625d; 633d-634d; 635c
4. The metaphysics of freedom
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 3 llOb-lllc; A 8 116g-d; A 10 117d-118b; Q
22, A 2, REP 4 128d-130d; A 4 131c-132b; Q 59,
A 3 308b-309a; Q 83 436c-440b; PART i-n, Q 6,
A i, REP 3 644d-646a; Q 10 662d-666a,c; Q 13,
A 6 676c-677b; Q 17 eSfi^d-dSSd esp A 6
690b-d; Q 21, A 4, REP 2 719d-720a,c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 7 355b; PROP 17
362b-363c; PROP 32-33 367a-369a; APPENDIX
369b-372d; PART n, PROP 48-49 391a-394d;
PART HI, 395a-d; DEF 1-3 395d-396a; PROP 1-3
396a-398c; PART iv, PREF 422b,d-424a; DBF 8
, 424b-c; PROP 23 430c-d; PROP 6^-73 444c-
447a; PART v 451a-463d csp PREF 451a-452c,
PROP 40-42 462c-463d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 133a; 140b,d-143a; 164a-
172c csp 169c-170a, 170c-171a; 190c-d; 234c-
235a/ Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-
265a; 279b,d-287d / Practical Reason, 291a-
293c esp 292a-293b; 296a-d; 307d-314d esp
309d, 310b-311d; 331c-337a,c; 340a-342d;
351b-352c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals,
390b,d-391a / Judgement, 463a-467a; 571c-
572a; 587d-588a; 606d-607c; 609b-610a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 139
48d-49b / Philosophy of History 153a-369a,c
esp INTRO, 156d-190b, 203a-206a,c, PART iv,
368d-369a,c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 688a-
696d
4a. The relation of human liberty to chance and
contingency
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 439b-441a,c / Laws,
BK iv, 679a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK HI, CH 3 [iii2*i8-bi2j
358a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-293]
18b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 49c; BK iv, 69a-b;
BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 8-10 81d-
82b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 9 213b-
215c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 82,
A 2 432d-433c; Q 83, A i 436d-438a; Q 116, A i
592d-593d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xvn [13-
42] 132b-c
23 MACHIAVELLI- Prince, CH xxv, 35a-b
42 KANT: Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 392d-393c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 15
16a-b; PART in, par 206 68d-69b; ADDITIONS,
12 118a-c / Philosophy of History, PART iv,
368d-369a,c
48 MELVILLE: MobyDic^, l$8b-159a
4b. The opposites of freedom: causality or
necessity, nature, and law
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK ix, CH 5 [1047^5-
I048»24] 573b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK m, CH 3 [imai8-bi2]
358a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [251-260]
18b
1008
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. The metaphysics of freedom. 4b. The oppo-
site* of freedom: causality or necessity,
nature, and law.)
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 69a b; BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR i, CH 4 79d-80a;
CH 8-10 81d-82b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 9-10 213b-
216c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
AA 3-9 110b-117d passim; Q 41, A 2 218c-219d;
Q 47, A i, REP i 256a-257b, Q 59, A 3 308b-
309a; Q 62, A 8, REP 2 323c-324a; Q 83, A i
436d-438a; Q 103, A i, REP 1,3 528b-529a; o
115, A 6, ANS 591d-592d; PART i-n, Q 10 662d-
666a,c; Q 13, A 6 676c-677b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 50,
A 3 8b-9a; Q 71, A 4, ANS and REP 3 108b-
109a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn [61-96]
lOb-c; PURGATORY, xvi [52-114] 77b-78a
22 CHAUCER: Troilusand Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
138-154 106b-108b / Nun's Priest's Tale
[15,236-256! 456b-457a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 113b-c; PART in,
165c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 216c-219a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DBF 7 355b; PROP 17,
SCHOL 362c-363c; APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [80-134] 137a-
138a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 7-27 180a*184c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT vm 478b-
487a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 133a; 140b,d-143a; 164a-
171a; 234c-235a / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of
Morals, 264d-265a; 279b,d-287d esp 283d-
285a / Practical Reason, 292a-293b; 296a-d;
301d-302d; 307d-314d csp 310b-311d; 331c-
337a,c / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-
387a,c; 390b / Judgement, 463a-467a; 571c-
572a; 587a-588a; 60 7c; 609b-610a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 392d-393a; 549c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 139
48d-49b; PART in, par 186-187 64d-65c; AD-
DITIONS, 90 130b-d / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 160c-161c; 171b; 186b-c; PART i,
236a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 158b-159a; 209b;
237a
50 MARX: Capital, 7b-c; 42a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vin, 303d-304b;
BK ix, 342a-344b; BK x, 389a-391c; BK xi,
469a-472b; BK xm, 563a-564c; BK xiv, 588a-
590c; EPILOGUE i, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE n,
688a-696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 84a-94b passim, csp 87b-
90b; 291a-295b esp 291a-b; 823a-826a csp
825b-826b [fn 2]
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 13c / General Introduction, 454b-c;
462d; 4*6d
3. The theology of freedom
5<*. Mao's freedom in relation to fate or to the
will of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3; 4:5-7 / Exodus,
4.21, 7-14 esp 7:3, 10:1, 14:17 / Deuteronomy,
11-26-28; 30 esp 30-15, 30:19-20 / Joshua,
11:19-20; 24:14-24— (D) Josue, 11:19-20;
24:14-24 / I Kings, 8:57-58— (D) III Kings,
8:5^-58 /Job, 3:23; 12:14-25; 34:29 / Psalms,
119:36; 139:15-16; 141:4 — (D) Psalms, 118:36;
138:15-16; 140:4 / Proverbs, 21:1 / Ecclesiastes,
3:14-15 / Isaiah, 14:24-27; 63:17; 64:8— (D)
Isaias, 14.24-27; 63:17; 64.8 / Malachi, 4:6—
(D) Malachias, 4:6
APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 13:8-18— (D) OT,
Esther, 13-8-18 / Wisdom of Solomon, 7-16—
(D) OT, Boo^ofWisdom, 7-16 / Ecclesiasticus,
15.11-20 — (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-21
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 20:1-16; 23-37;
26:39 / John, 6:44,64-65,70-71; 10:26-29;
12.37-40; 13.18-27— (D)John, 6:44,65-66,71-
72; 10:26-29; 12:37-40; 13:18-27 / Acts, 4-27-
28; 7:51-53; 13.48; 17:24-27 esp 17:26 / Ro-
mans, 8-28-924; 11:1-10 / I Corinthians,
7:21-23; 9:16-23; 12 / Ephesians, 1:3-12;
2-8-10; 4-7-14 / Phihppians, 2-13 / 77 Thessa-
lonians, 2-11-14— (D) H Thessalonians, 2.10-
13/77 Timothy, 1:9 /James, 4:13-15
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK vi [342-358] 43c-d; BK xix
[74-94] 137d-138a; BK xxiv [507-551] 176c-
177a / Odyssey, BK xvni [117-150] 285b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp
[1297-1415] lllb-112b / Oedipus at Colonus
114a-130a,c esp [258-291] 116c-d, [960-999]
123b-c / Philoctetes [169-200] 183d-184a;
[1316-1 347] 193d-194a
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [711-721] 304d-305a /
Electra [1168-1359] 337d-339a,c / Heracles
Mad [1255-1357] 376a-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7b-8c; 20a-22a;
BK n, 77a-b; BK in, 98b-99a; BK vn, 218b-
220b; BK ix, 291b-c
7 PLATO- Republic, BK x, 439b-441a,c / Laws,
BK i, 650a-b; BK iv, 679a-b; BK x, 765d-769c
esp 767c-768b
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 10 [1075*
12-24] 605d-606a
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK i, CH 12 118d-120b;
BK 11, CH 8, 147b; BK in, CH 22, 197c-198b;
CH 24, 209c-210a; BK iv, CH i, 218d-219c; CH
3, 224d; CH 7, 233d
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BKIII, SECT n 262a-b;
BK vi, SECT 42-46 278a-d; BK x, SECT 5 296d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK in [492-505] 160b-161a;
BK iv [333-361] 176a-177a
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 188d-189c / Sulla,
370c-371b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 69a; BK vi, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR n-in 82c-97b
passim
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 14 12a-b /
Cttv of God, BK v, CH Q-IO 213b-216c
47 1 LIBERTY
1009
19 AQUINAS: $mnm& Theofagica, PART i, Q 19, A
8 116a-d; Q 23, A ^HEP 4-5 128d-130d; QQ
23-24 132b-143c; Q 83, A*f, RBP 2-4 43C<J-
438a; Q 103, A 5 csp RSP 3 531b-532b; AA 7-8
533b-534b; Q 105, AA 3-75 540c-543b; Q n6
59&i-$95c; PART i-n, Q 6, A i, REP 3 644d-
646a; A 4, REP i 647b-<548a; Q 9, A 6 662a-d;
Q 10, A 4 665d-66fo,te', Q 21, A 4, REP a 7194-
720a,c <, -
21 DANTE: Qwine Comedy* HBLL, vii [61-96]
10b*-c; PURGATOR?, xvi [52-114] 77b-78a;
xvin [1-75] 79d-80cj PARADISE* i [94^-142]
107b-d; ui [64-90] UOa-b; xvn [13-45] 132b-c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus stnd Cr&sida, BK iv, STANZA
J $-1 54 106b-108b , "
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xxv, 35a-b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART n, 113b-c; PART iv,
272b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 51 5a; 520b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT HI, sc n [220-
223] 51 b / King Lear, ACT i, so n [128-164]
249a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 408c
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 141b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, P>ART i, APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK rti [80-134] 137a-
138a; BK v [224-^45] 180a-b; [506-543] 186a-
187a; BK vi [169-188] 200a; BK vii [139-173]
220a-221a; BK ix [342-375] 254b-255b; BK x
[615-640] 287b-288b / Samson Agomstes [667-
709] 354a-355a / Areopagitica, 394b-395b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6 26b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23Qb
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 334a-335c
44 BOSWELL • Johnson, 549c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 161 d-
162a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dtc{, 159a; 396b; 409b-
410b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 481d; BK xn,
553b; EPILOGUE i, 650b-c; EPILOGUE n, 675a-
677b; 680b-c; 684b-d
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 246c-247d /
i General Introduction^ 582a-b
5^. Man's freedom and God's knowledge
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 139 115-16-* (D) Psalms,
138:15-16
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 42:19— (D) OT, EC-
desiasticus, 42:19 / Susanna^ 13:42-43— (D)
OT, Daniel, 13:42-43
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 2:23 / Romans, 8:28-30
•/ Ephestans, 1:4-12 / / Peter, 'i 12,19-20
12 AURBLIUS: Meditation*, Bk vi, SECT 44 278b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK v, CH 9-10 213b-
> 2l6c; BK xxn, CH i, 587a-b
| 19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologies PART i; Q 14, A
> 13 |86d-88c; Q ^2, A 2\ REP 4 128d-130d; QQ
cr ) 23-^24 132b-143c; Q 86, A 4, ANS 463d-464d;
PART I-H, Q 40, A 3, REP i 794c-795a^
21 DAi*tEJ Divine Cotnedy, PARADISE* xvn [13-
138-154 106b-108b / Nun's Priest's Tale
' 1*5,236-4561 456b^457a ' ^
23 HttBfcfetfi Leviathan, PARTiV, 2^1b
25 MONTANA*: E&ays, 342a
32 MILTON; paradise Lost, BK 111 [80^134] 137a-
138d; BK v [224-245] 180a-b; BK x [1-62]
22 CHAUCER: Troilus arid Gretsida, -UK iv, STANZA
41 GIBBON; &e$nc and Fall, 230b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 173c; 392d-393a
5c. Man's freedom and God's grace: the free-
dom of the children of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 1 120-33
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:1-18 csp 1:12-13;
6 144,65-66? 8:3 1-36 / Acts, 13:14-52; 15:1-11
/ Romans passim, csp 3:1-8:21, 11:1-10 /
. / Corinthians, 6:11-12; 7:21-23; 8:9-13; 9:1-
5,19-21; 10:23-29 / // Corinthians, 3:17; 6:1-
2 / Galattans, 2:4; 4:1-5:4; 5:13,18,22-24
/ Ephesians> 1:3-12; 2:4-22 / Phihppians,
2:12^13 / Colossians, i "12-13 / Titus, 2:11-14;
3:3-7 / James, 1:25; 2*10-12 / / Peter, 2.15-16
/ Revelation, 3:20— (£>) Apocalypse, 3:20
18 AUGUSTINE! Confessions, BK ix, par i 61c-d
/ City of God, BK x, CH 32 319d-322a,c;
BK xxn, CH i, 587a-b; CH 30, 617c-618a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23, A
3, REP 3 134b-135a; AA 5-6 135d-138c; A 8
140a-141a; Q 62, A 3, REP 2 319c-320b; A 4,
ANS 320b-321b, Q 83, A 2, CONTRARY 438a-d;
Q 95, A i, REP 3,5 506b-507c; PART i-n, o 5, A
5, REP i 640b-641a; Q 9, A 6, REP 3 662a-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Thcologwa, PART I-H, Q 108,
A i, ANS and REP 2 331a-332b;Q 109, A 2 339c-
340b; Q in, A 2 352d-353d; Q 113, A 3 362c-
363c; A 5 364b-365a; PART II-H, Q 183, A 4,
REP I 627d-628d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, i [1-84]
53a-54a{ xxvn 94c-96a esp [139-142] 96a;
PARADISE, in [64-90] HOa-b; vn [64-84) 115d-
116a; xxi [52-75] 138d-139a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, iv, 91a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, BK iv, PROP 68, SCHOL, 445a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK n [1024-1033]
133b; BK in [56-415] 136b-144b esp [130-134]
138a, [227-238] 140b; BK xi [1-21] 299a-b;
[251^262] 304b*305a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letter^ 154b-159a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 238b *
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 140,
50a / Philosophy of History, PART in, 3lOd-311a
5</. The divine freedom: the independence or
autonomy of infinite being; divine choice
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33:19 / Psalms, 135:6
'— (D) PsalmsJ 134:6 / Isaiah, 14*2^-2$; 46*9-
r^— (D) Iscfias, 14:24-25; 46:9-12 / Jeremiah,
4:2%<—(Dy Jeremias, 4:28 / Daniel, 4*4-37—
(D) Daniel, 4
NEW .TESTAMENT: Matthew, 2o:i-ii6 /John, 5:21
\ I Romans^ 8:28-9:26 csp 9:15-18 / / Corinthi-
ans, 12:7-18 / Ephesians, 1:9-11 / Phihppians ,
2:12-13 / // Timothy, i :8-io / James, 1:18
1010
THE GREAT IDEAS
(5. The theology ofjretdom. 5<£ The divine free-
dom; the independence or autonomy of
infinite bctngf divine Choice.)
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xiv [441-445] 264e
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [1017-1034] 63a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK v, CH 5 [ioi5b9-
16] 536a; BK xn, CH 6-7 601b-603b; CH 10
[1075*12-16] 605d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, CH 13, 188c-d;
BK iv, CH 6, 230c-d
17 PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead, TR vni 342d-353d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 6-7
44d-45d; BK xn, par 18, 103a-b; BK xm,
par 5 llld; par 12 113b'd; par 19 115c-d /
City of God, BK v, CH 10 215c-216c; BK xn,
CH 17 353a-354a; BK xxi, CH 7-8 565d-
568d; BK xxn, CH 2 587b-588a; CH 30, 617d-
618a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 7, AA
1-2 31a-32c; Q 9, A i 38c-39c; Q 19, AA 3-5
110b-113c; A 10 117d-118b; Q 22, A 3, REP 3
130d-131c; Q 23, A 5, REP 3 135d-137d; A 6,
REP 3 137d-138c; Q 25, A 2 144c-145b; AA 5-6
147d-150a; Q 46, A i, REP 9-10 250a-252d; Q
47, A i, REP i 256a-257b, Q 61, A 2, REP i
315c-316a; Q 104, A 3 537b-d; o 105, A i, REP
2 538d-539c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 93,
A 4, REP i 218b-d; PART in, Q 21, A i, ANS 823d-
824d; PART HI SUPPL, Q 91, A i, REP 2 1016b-
1017c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 113b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 38a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 228a-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART i, DEF 6-7 355b; PROP
17 362b-363c; PROP 32-35 367a-369a; AP-
PENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vn [139-173] 220a-
221a / Samson Agonistes [300-329] 346a-b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 654 292b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxi,
SECT 50-51 191 b-c
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 57 423d-
424a; SECT 106 433c-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals,
265b-c csp 265b,d [fn i] / Practical Reason,
321b-c; 324d-325a; 325d; 328b; 342c / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 393c
46 HEOBL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-
161a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 684c-d
6. Liberty in history
6a. The historical significance of freedom:
stages in the realization of freedom; the
beginning and end of the, historical
process . , ,
0 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 23a*b; 38b-c; BK
v, I75b; BK vi, 207b-208c; BK vn; 233a-b;
238b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Pclopormesian War, BK i, 353c-d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK HI 663d-677a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK HI, SI b-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
108, A i 331a-332b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 24c; 32<i-34a,c esp
33c-d; Sic; 90d-91a; 475a; 521c-523a»c csp
522d-523a; 523d-524a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 161c-162a; 202a-d;
300a-b; 452d-453a,c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b; 271d-272a / Rep-
resentative Government, 339a-341d; 346a-c /
Utilitarianism, 475d
46 -HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 4, 12d;
PART i, par 57 26b-27a; PART in, par 340-360
110b-114a,c; ADDITIONS, 36 122b-c / Philoso-
phy of History 153a-369a,c esp INTRO, 156d-
190b, 203a-206a,c, PART i, 207a-209a, 219d-
221a, 230a c, 235d-236c, 245d-246c, 251c,
257a-258a, PART n, 259a-260c, 263d-267a,
268b-274a, PART HI, 286c-287a, 303c-307b,
310d-311d, PART iv, 315a, 319b-321c, 331d-
333d, 348a-c, 350a-c, 360c-365c, 368d-369a,c
50 MARX- Capital, 35b-c
6b. The struggle for civil liberty and economic
freedom: the overthrow of tyrants, des-
pots, and oppressors
OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 12:1-25— (D) III Kings,
12:1-25 / // Kings, 9:1-10:11; n ; 21.18-
26— (D) IV Kings, 9-1-10:11; n ; 21-18-26
/ // Chronicles, 10— (D) II Paralipomenon, 10
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK HI, 120b-c; BK iv,
124a-d; BK v, 167a-b; 171c-175b; 177d-180a;
BK vi, 193b-c; 201a-b; 208d-209b; BK vn,
243b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 353c;
BK vi, 523c-524d; BK vm 564a-593a,c csp
582a-583c, 585d-586b, 587a-589a, 590a-c
7 PLATO- Seventh Letter, 813d-814d
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK v, CH 10 512d-515d /
Athenian Constitution^ CH 5 554d-555a; CH
13-20 558b-562b; CH 33-41 568b-572a passim
14 PLUTARCH: Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Pophcola
77a-86a,c / Poplicola- Solon 86a-87d / Corio-
lanus 174b,d-193a,c / Timoleon 195a-213d csp
206d / Pelopidas 232a-246a,c / Caesar, 600a-
604d / Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c esp 643a-
644b / Agts 648b,d-656d / Tiberius Gracchus
671b,d-681a,c esp 678b-d / Cams Gracchus
68Jb,d-689a,c / Demetrius, 728b-72l9d /
Antony, 752a-755c / Marcus Brutus 802b,d-
15 TACITUS : Annals, BK xi, 104a-c; BK xn, 112a-
113b; 115d-116b; 117a; BK xv, 169a-l76b /
Histories, BK i, 195a^201c esp 197a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT iv, s»c n-x
- 57d-64d / Richard 111, ACT v, sc ni (237-270]
146b-c</v juhus Caesar 568a-S96a,c esp ACT i,
sc lit [72-130] 573b'd, ACT HI, sc i 580b-
583c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus 351a-392a,c
32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Lord
Gen. Cromwell 69a-b \ -
CHAPTER 47: LIBERTY
1011
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK m, 9d-10a;
BK v, 29a; BK viji, 54b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK n, 402cjd
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK in, 170c-173b;
BK v, 345b-d; 347d-353a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 29c-d; 39c-40a;
60b-61a; 71b-76a csp 72c<73c; 144a-d; 449d-
450a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92d; 166a-167d;
192<M93c; 333d-335a,c; 562b-566c csp 562b-
d; 574b-582b; 586c-588a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9, 47a-c; NUMBER 26,
92a-94b passim; NUMBER 45, 147d-148a; NUM-
BER 46, 15la-153b passim; NUMBER 84, 252b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-268b / Representative
Government, 331a; 346a-c; 352a-b; 367b-c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 383b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART n, 275b-
276a; PART in, 295d-296c; PART iv, 342a-
346c; 359a; 364a-c
50 MARX- Capital, 7b
50 MARX~ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415a-
416c; 419b,d| 423b-425b; 429c-433d
51 TOLSTOY. War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 667b-
669d
6c. The struggle for sovereign independence
against the yoke of imperialism or colo-
nial subjugation
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 1-15 / Deuteronomy,
26-5-8 /Judges, 3-7 esp 6:8-9; 13:1-5; 14-167
Jeremiah, 41 — (D) Jeremias, 41
APOCRYPHA \ Judith— (D] OT, Judith / I Macca-
bees, 1-9- (D) OT, / Machabees, 1-9 / II
Maccabees, i-io— (D) OT, // Machabees, i-io
6 HERODOTUS: History la-314a,c esp BK i, 2b-
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The problem of the freedom of the will, see WILL 5-60, 8a; and for the relation of political
liberty to free will, see WILL 5a(2), 73.
The freedom of men in a state of nature or anarchy, and for the independence of sovereign
states, see GOVERNMENT la; NATURE 2b; STATE 3c, 9d; WAR AND PEACE i.
Matters relevant to political liberty or the freedom of the individual as a member of society,
see CITIZEN 2b; CONSTITUTION i, 2b, 7b; DEMOCRACY 43, 4b, 5c; GOVERNMENT ih; JUSTICE
6, 6c-6e; LAW 70-7^ MONARCHY ia(i), 4d~5b; SLAVERY 6-6d; TYRANNY 5-5^ and for
the relation of economic to political liberty, see DEMOCRACY 4a(2); LABOR 7f; SLAVERY
5-5 b; WEALTH pd.
Other discussions of freedom of thought or expression, see ART rob; EDUCATION 8c; KNOWL-
EDGE 90; OPINION 5a~5b; POETRY 9b; PROGRESS 6e; TRUTH 8d; and for other discus-
sions of liber ty of conscience and freedom of worship, see RELIGION 6c(i)-6e; THEOLOGY 4C.
The moral or psychological freedom in the relation of reason and emotion, sec DESIRE
5~6c; EMOTION 4-4^2); MIND 9d; SLAVERY 7; TYRANNY 5d.
The metaphysical consideration of liberty and matters related thereto, sec CAUSE 3; FATE 3;
NATURE 2f; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5a, 53(3), 5f; WILL 53(3), 5c, 8a.
The theological consideration of liberty, see FATE 4; GOD 4C, 5f~5g, 7b, 7d, 7f; SIN 6a, 7;
WILL
6cf 10a 12bf 16c-20b, 23a-b, 33a-b, 35a-40b,
42c-43b, 45b-48a, BK in, U8b-123d, BK iv,
145a-l49a, ETC v, 162b-163d', 170c-180c, 181b-
185a, BK Vi, 186a 191d, 193b-194d, 202c 205a,
207b-208c, BK vn-ix 214a-314a,c
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War 349a-593a,c
esp BK i, 353b-d, 355a-b, 378c-380a, BK n,
389a-b, BK in 4178-4468,0, BK iv, 461b-463a,
468a-469b, 469d-470b, 478d-479b, BK v,
4S2d-483a, 504c-508a,c, BK vi, S19c-520d,
528d-534d
14 PLUTARCH: Timoleon 195a-213d / Aristidcs
262b,d-276a,c / Flamininus, 303a-310d /
Demosthenes, 695d-703b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 16b-21b; BK n, 44d-
45a; BK in, 54b-56b; BK iv, 76a-77c; 82d-
83c; BK xn, 112a-114c; 117c-d; BK xiv, 148d-
151b / Histories, BK i, 191a-b; BK iv, 269b-
277d; 283b-292b; BK v 294c-302a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH v 8a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI la-32a,c / 2nd
Henry P733a-68d / 3rd Henry VI 69a-104d /
Henry V 532a-567a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Cymbeline, ACT in, sc i 463c-
464c
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [241-276] 344b-
345b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH xvi, SECT 192
69c-d; SECT 196 70b-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 71b-d; 489d-491a;
521a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 51a-67c passim, esp
51a-54a; 2l7a-b; 443c-446b; 465a-466a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: la-3b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 45, 147d-148a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 241d-
242b; PART n, 274a-275a
i6i2 rafc GREAT IDEAS
For: The issvje of freedom ahd jftecessjt^ 'in the philosophy of fcistory, *«? FATE 6; HrsroR-t '^T(i)»
41(3) ; WILL yb; and for the history of maa> struggle for civil Uf>erty and economic jEree-
dom, *?<? CITIZEN pj.LAppa 7c-7c(3); REVOLUTION 5a~5c, 6a, 7; TYRANNY 8,,
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booths of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These wprks are divided into two groups;,
I. Works by authors represented in this collection,
ll, Works by authors n6t represented in this collection. T
For the date, place, and other factf concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Rqachngs which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas,
I.
DANTE. On World-Government or De Monarchia,
BK I, CH 12
MACHIAVELLI. The Discourses
MILTON. The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a
Pree Commonwealth
SPINOZA. Tractatus Theologico-Polilicus (Theological-
Political Treatise), CH 20
LOCKE. Four Letters on Toleration in Religion, H-IV
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, IV(B)
DOSTOEVSKY. The House of the Dead
II.
LUTHER. A Treatise on Christian Liberty
CALVIN, Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK iv
SUAREZ. Disputatwnes Metaphyticae, xi (3), xix,
xxx (16), xxxv (5)
DEFOE. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH 21
FRANKLIN. Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity,
Pleasure and Pain
VOLTAIRE. Essay on Toleration
-T-T-. "Liberty," "Liberty of Opinion," "Liberty
of the Press," "Toleration," in A Philosophical
Dictionary
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human
Mind, iv
PAINE. Rights of Man
BURKE. Reflections on the Revolution in France
GODWIN, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice,
BK 11, CH 4-6 '
SCHILLER. William Tell
SCHELLING. Of Human Freedom
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and lde$> VQL i,
BK IV
SHELLEY. Prometheus Unbound
BvkoN. Sonnet on Chilian
- — ^. The Isles of Greece
BENTHAM. On the Liberty of the Press
EMBR^ON, "Self-Reliance," in Essays^ i }
J. H. NEWMAN. "Private Judgment," in VOL n,
Essays and Sketches
\TkoREAU. Civil Disobedience
WHITMAN. Leaves of Grass
LOTZE, Microcosmos, BK i, CH i (4)
BURCKHARDT. Force and Freedom
J. F. STEPHEN. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
ACTON. Essays on Freedom and Power, CH 2-4, 9
BRADLEY. Ethical Studies^ i
ARNOLD. "Democracy," "Equality," in Mixed
Essays
T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obligation,
(H, i)
. Prolegomena to Ethics, BK i, CH 3
SPENCER. The Man Versus the State
R. BROWNING. Why I Am a Liberal
LECKY. Democracy and Liberty
BOSANQUET. The Philosophical Theory of the State
GIDE. The Immoralist
SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 6
P£GUY. Basic Venties (Freedom)
BURY. A History of Freedom of Thought
BURGESS. Reconciliation of Government with Liberty
GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE. God, His Existence and Na-
ture, PART II, CH 4'
DUGUIT. Souveralnete* et libertS
B. RUSSELL. Sceptical Essays, xn-xiv
LASKI. Liberty in the Modern State
WHITEHEAD. Adventures ofldetst CH 4-5
GORKY. Forty Years— the Life ofClim Samghin
DEWEY. "The Idea of Freedom," in Outlines of a
Critical Theory of Ethics
-. The Study of Ethics, CH 8
. Characters and Events, VOL n, BK in (14)
— — . Experience and Education, CH 5-6 •
. Freedom and Culture
CROCE. History as the Story of Liberty
— — . "The Roots of Liberty," in Freedom, Its
Meaning
KOESTLER. Darkness at Noon
MARJTAIN. "A Philosophy of Freedom," in Freedom
in the Modern World
- — . Scholasticism and Politics, CH v
fescKER. New Liberties for Old
A. J. CARLYLE, Political Liberty ( i '
BARKER, Reflections on Government, CH 1-2
MALINOWSKI. Freedom and Civilization
BERDYAYEV. Freedom and the Spirit
-. Slavery and Freedom
HOCKING. Freedom of the Press i !
SIMON, Community oftfoFree, <Jp i ,
Chapter 48: LIFE AND DEATH
INTRODUCTION
MEN have divided the totality of things
in various ways. The three most funda-
mental divisions rest on the distinction between
the natural and the supernatural, between the
material and the spiritual, and between the
lifeless and the living.
The same kind of basic question is raised by
each of these divisions, and given opposite
answers in the tradition of the great books. The
question is not always formulated in the same
way. It may be a question about the existence
of the supernatural order or of incorporeal
beings. It may be a problem of whether the
terms of the division represent a real duality
or merely different aspects of one and the
same whole. Are God and nature one or are
they radically distinct? Is spirituality merely
one expression of bodily existence, or are
there two worlds, a world of bodies and a world
of spirits?
These issues are considered in the chapters
on GOD, NATURE, ANGEL, and MATTER, as well
as in the chapter on BEING. The issue raised by
the third great division is one of the central
topics in this chapter. That issue concerns
the difference between the living and the
non-living. There is no question here about
whether, in the order of nature, living things
exist. The fact of life is not denied, at least not
as a matter of observation. On the surface
there certainly appears to be a striking dif-
ference between the living tree and the stone,
or between the animal which a moment ago
was alive and is now dead.
But how this difference is to be understood
is the question. Does it signify an absolute
break, a discontinuity, between the world of
living bodies and the domain of inanimate
things ? Or is the continuity of nature preserved
across the line which divides inorganic and or-
ganic matter? Is the difference between the
non-living and the living (or the living and the
dead) one of kind or of degree ?
Those who answer that it is a difference in
kind usually formulate a definition of life which
draws a sharp line, on one side of which are the
things that have the indispensable properties of
life, while on the other side are things totally
lacking in these properties. The critical point
here turns on whether vitality is present in
some degree or totally absent. The definition of
life may not always be the same. It may not al-
ways, for example, postulate the soul as the
principle in all living things, or involve the
same conception of soul in relation to living
organisms. But when life is defined as an essen-
tial characteristic of some natures, the defini-
tion implies the existence of natures which are
totally lacking in the properties essential to life.
It also implies the impossibility of intermediate
links between the lowest form of life and the
most complex of the inorganic substances.
The opposite answer that there is only a dif-
ference in degree between the inanimate and
the animate, affirms the continuity of nature
across the gap between things which appear
lifeless and those which seem to be alive. All
bodies have the same fundamental properties,
though not in the same magnitude. But here
there is a further question. It can be asked
whether those properties are the powers or
functions commonly associated with the ap-
pearance of being alive, such as growth, repro-
duction, sensitivity, desire, locomotion; or
whether they are the mechanical properties of
matter in motion — properties which vary only
with the degrees of complexity in the organi-
zation of matter.
According to the doctrine which is sometimes
called "animism" and sometimes "panpsych-
ism," everything is alive, every body is be-
soulcd, though at the lower end of the scale the
1013
1014
THE GREAT IDEAS
signs of vitality remain hidden from ordinary
observation. Although this theory is usually
attributed to a primitive view of nature, it ap-
pears in a subtle 'form in certain philosophical
developments which make soul or mind a prin-
ciple as universal as matter. "There is one com-
mon substance," says Marcus Aurelius, "though
it is distributed among countless bodies which
have their several qualities. There is one sou},
though it is distributed among infinite natures
and individual circumscriptions."
The doctrine which in modern times is called
"mcchanfem" conceives the continuity of na-
ture in terms of the universality of purely
mechanical principles. It reduces all phenomena
to the interaction of moving parts or particles.
No new principle is needed to explain the phe-
nonfena of life. The laws of physics and chem-
istry suffice. Biophysics and biochemistry sim-
ply deal with the mechanics of more complex
material systems. The apparent differences in
function between "living" and "non-living"
things represent the same functions. They are
altered only in appearance by the more complex
organization of the matter which is called
"living."
THE CONTROVERSY over mechanistic principles
in the analysis of life arose with great explicit-
ness in the latter part of the nineteenth century
and continues to our own day. The chief oppo-
nents of the mechanists are those who at one
time called themselves "vitalists" to signify
their insistence upon an essential difference be-
tween vital and mechanical phenomena. The
work of Jacques Loeb can be taken to represent
the mechanistic side of this controversy; the
writings of Bergson, Haldane, Whitehead, the
vitahst position.
Those who regard the realm of living things
as a distinct domain in nature also think that
the study of living things has special concepts,
principles, and methods as different from those
af physics and chemistry as the objects studied
ire distinct.
Biology is a science of ancient origin. The
Hlippocratic collection of writings on health
md disease, the extensive biological researches
)f Aristotle, the work of Galen, represent more
han a bare beginning of the science. The an-
:ient classification of vital functions establishes
the terms of biological analysis. Ideas which
have come to seem obvious because of tradi-
tional acceptance were once great discoveries;
for example, that all living bodies nourish them-
selves, grow, and reproduce; that these are the
minimal, not the maximal, functions of organic
matter; that there is a regular cycle of growth
and decay in the normal life span which is it-
self different for different types of organisms;
that in the dynamic equilibrium between the
living organism and its physical environment,
the organism actively maintains itself through
a certain balance of exchanges in the biological
economy, of which breathing is a prime ex-
ample.
The great books of biological science from
Aristotle to Harvey seem to be of one mind on
the point that living matter possesses distinc-
tive powers and performs functions which are
not present in any degree in the realm of the in-
ert or inorganic. For the most part they reflect
the theory that the living body possesses a soul
which is the principle of its vitality and the
source of the vital powers embodied in its
various organs.
In ancient and mediaeval theory, the soul is
not conceived as belonging peculiarly to man;
it is not identified with mind or with the intel-
lectual faculties. The word "animal" derives
from the Latin name for soul— the principle of
animation. It is true that Galen distinguishes
between what he calls the "natural" and the
"psychic" faculties. The latter for him are the
powers of sensitivity, desire, and locomotion.
Yet his analysis of the vegetative powers of
nutrition, growth, and reproduction which are
common to plants and animals squares with
Aristotle's conception of the vegetative soul.
"What has soul in it," Aristotle writes, "dif-
fers from what has not, in that the former dis-
plays life. Now this word has more than one
sense. . . . Living, that is, may mean thinking
or perception or local movement and rest, or
movement in the sense of nutrition, decay, and
growth. Hence we think of plants also as living,
for they are observed to possess in themselves
an originative power through which they in-
crease and decrease in all spatial directions.
This power of self-nutrition ... is the origina-
tive power, the possession of which leads us to
speak of things as living"
CHAPTER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
Ity THE GREAT BOOKS the Opposite position With
respect to the living and non-living seems to ap-
pear for the Erst time with Descartes. It might
be supposed that Lucretius, since he denies the
soul as an immaterial principle, would also tend
to reject anything except a difference in degree
between animate and inanimate bodies. But
this is not the case. According to Lucretius
living things are not merely more complex
combinations of atoms and void. Their consti-
tution includes a special type of soul-atom,
whose round, smooth shape and speed of move-
ment through all parts of the living body ac-
counts for, the powers and activities which are
peculiar to that body. Lucretius is recognized
as a materialist and a mechanist, yet he sharply
separates living from non-living bodies and ap-
peals to a special principle — the soul-atom— to
explain this difference in kind.
As appears in the chapters on MIND and
SOUL, Descartes is at variance not only with
Lucretius but also with Aristotle, Galen, and
Plotmus in his conception of the soul and of
life. The soul is not a body or composed of
bodies. Neither, in his opinion, is it an immate-
rial principle conjoined with organic matter to
constitute the living body. It is itself an im-
material substance, quite separate from the hu-
man body to which it is allied.
Descartes tells us how he passed from "a de-
scription of inanimate bodies and plants ... to
that of animals, and particularly to that of
He asks us to consider the supposition
1015
ments, he says, follow "as necessarily from th,e
very disposition of the organs - . . as does that
of a clock from the power, the situation, and
the form, of its counterpoise and of its wheels."
In these .motions, as well as in the actions of the
nerves, brain, and muscles, it is not necessary
to suppose any other cause than those operat-
ing according "to the laws of Mechanics which
are identical with those of nature."
This will not seem strange, Descartes adds, to
those who know "how many different automata
or moving machines can be made by the indus-
try of man, without employing in so doing more
than a very few parts in comparison with the
great multitude of bones, muscles, nerves, ar-
teries, veins or other parts that are found in the
body of each animal. From this aspect, the
body is regarded as a machine, which, having
been made by the hands of God, is incompa-
rably better arranged, and possesses m itself
movements which are much more admirable,
than any of those which can be invented by
man." Only the functions of reason, only the
acts of thinking— not those of living — operate
under other than the mechanical laws of cor-
poreal nature. Whether living or not, all bodies
without reason or a rational soul are automata
or machines. Whatever they do can be ex-
plained as a kind of clockwork— by the dispo-
sition and interaction of their parts.
that "God formed the body of man altogether
like one of ours . . . without making use of any
matter other than that which I have described
and without at first placing in it a rational soul
or any other thing which might serve as a vege-
tative or sensitive soul." He then goes on to say
that "examining the functions which might in
accordance with this supposition exist in this
body, I found precisely all those which might
exist in us without our having the power of
thought, and consequently without our soul—
that is to say, this part of us, distinct from the
body, of which it has been said that its nature
i?,to think."
The mechanistic implications of his supposi-
tion are explicitly developed by Descartes in
his consideration of Harvey's discovery of the
motions of the heart and blood. These move>
ANOTHER SOURCE and another version of the
view that the continuity of nature is uninter-
rupted, comes from the theory of evolution.
Darwin himself, in his brief consideration of
the origin of life, deals mainly with the alter-
native hypotheses of the divine creation of a
single original form or of several primitive forms
from which the whole of the plant and animal
kingdoms has developed by the natural steps of
evolution. He rejects the division of the ani-
mate world into more than the two great king-
doms of plant and animal life, and holds that
man differs from other animals only in degree,
not in kind.
As indicated in the chapters on ANIMAL and
EVOLUTION, Darwin questions the disconti-
nuity between plants and animals. He refers to
the intermediate forms which seem to belong
to both kingdoms. He suggests the possibility
that the lowest forms of animal life may have
1016
THE GREAT IDEAS
developed by natural evolutionary descent
from plant organisms. But he does not seriously
consider the hypothesis of an evolutionary tran-
sition from inorganic matter to living organ-
isms. Here, on the contrary, he seems to recog-
nize a difference in kind. "The most humble
organism," he writes, "is something much
higher than the inorganic dust under our feet;
and no one with an unbiased mind can study
any living creature, however humble, without
being struck with enthusiasm at its marvellous
structure and properties.1* He questions the no-
tion that living organisms might have originated
from inorganic matter by spontaneous genera-
tion. "Science has not as yet proved the truth
of this belief," he says, "whatever the future
may reveal."
Nevertheless, with the extension of Darwin's
theory of the origin of species into a doctrine of
cosmic evolution, what fames calls "the evolu-
tionary afflatus" leads writers like Tyndall and
Spencer to "talk as if mind grew out of body in
a continuous way So strong a postulate is
continuity," James writes, that the evolution-
ists try to "leap over the breach" between in-
organic matter and consciousness.
"In a general theory of evolution," he ex-
plains, "the inorganic comes first, then the low-
est forms of animal and vegetable life, then forms
of life that possess mentality, and finally those
like ourselves that possess it in a high degree.
... We are dealing all the time with matter and
its aggregations and separations; and although
our treatment must perforce be hypothetical,
this does not prevent it from being continuous.
The point which as evolutionists we are bound
to hold fast is that all the new forms of being
that make their appearance are nothing more
than results of the redistribution of the original
and unchanging materials. The self-same atoms
which, chaotically dispersed, made the nebula,
now, jammed and temporarily caught in pecul-
iar position, form our brains; and the Evolu-
tion* of the brains, if understood, would be sim-
ply the account of how the atoms came to be so
caught and jammed. In this story no new na-
tures, no factors not present at the beginning,
are introduced at any later stage.*'
James is here presenting a theory which he
himself rejects. He recognizes the strength of
the "postulate of continuity " in the theories of
Spencer, Tyndall, and other evolutionists, but
he thinks the evident "contrasts between living
and inanimate performances*' favor the division
of nature into two realms. Yet he also seems to
regard some degree of intelligence or mentality
as an accompaniment of life. Hence his criterion
of the difference in kind "between an intelli-
gent and a mechanical performance"— namely,
purposiveness or "the pursuance of future ends
and the choice of means"— also serves as the
mark of distinction between the animate and
the inanimate.
IT is WORTH remarking that this criterion is
one of the tests Descartes proposes for differen-
tiating man from all the rest of nature, man
alone having reason or thought. It is also worth
noting that in associating different degrees of
mentality or consciousness with life at all levels
of development, James himself affirms a con-
tinuity in the realm of all living things. He
therefore does not go as far in the direction of
discontinuity as do those in the tradition of the
great books who find an essential difference be-
tween the inanimate and the living, between
plant and animal, and between brute and hu-
man life.
The issues raised by these last two distinc-
tions are further considered in the chapters on
ANIMAL, MAN, and MIND. Here we are con-
cerned only with the fact that those who find
genuine differences in kind in the world of ani-
mate things also tend to distinguish between
the living and the non-living by reference to
the most generic properties of corporeal life,
that is, the powers or functions shared by plants,
animals, and men. The question of origins does
not seem to be relevant to the problem of dif-
ferences. Aquinas, for example, does not seem
to regard the hypothesis of the spontaneous
generation of living organisms from putrefying
organic matter as inconsistent with his assertion
that the vegetative functions of plants and ani-
mals are not performed— in any degree—by in-
animate bodies.
When Aristotle says of natural bodies that
"some have life in them, others not; and by life
we mean self-nutrition and growth," he is aware
that the word "growth** occurs in the descrip-
tion of a certain type of change in inanimate
bodies. Other than living things increase in
CHAPTER 48:?LIPE, AND DEATH
size, TCI awd an <$uivocal uic o£ the
"growth,*' hp assigns three distinguishing charr*
actci istics to the quantitative change ojf increase
in living things: "(i) Any and every part of the
growing magnitude is made bigger, (3) by thei
accession of something, and (3) in such a way,
that the growing thing is preserved arid persists. "
To exemplify this difference, Galen compares
the -growth, of an organism with the expansion
of a dried bladder, when children blow air into
it. The expanding bladder secrns to grow, but
not as it did when it was a part of a living ani-
mal and when the growth of the whole involved
the growth of each part. "In these doings of the
children," Galea writes, "the more the interior
cavity, of the bladder increases in size, the thin-
ner, necessarily, does itssubstance become. But,
if the children were able to bring nourishment
to this thin part, then they would make the
bladder big in the same way that Nature does.
. . . To be distended in all directions belongs
only to bodies whose growth is directed by
Nature; for those which are distended by us
undergo this distension in one direction but
grow less in the others; it is impossible to find a
body which will remain entire and not be tor&
through whilst we stretch it in the three dimen-
sions. Thus Nature alone has the power to ex-
pand a body in all directions so that it remains
unruptured and preserves completely its .pre-
vious form."
Modern biologists sometimes compare the
growth of crystals insolution with living growth
and reproduction. Or, making the point that
"other systems in dynamic equilibrium show in
essence all the properties of living things," they
say that "it is almost impossible todistmguish a
candle flame from a living organism." Aristotle
considers the latter comparison and rejects it.
He pbserves that "the growth of fire goes on
without limit so long -as there is a supply of
fuel"; but no amount of nutriment can increase
the i size of living things without limit. "There
is a limit or ratio which determines their size
and increase, and the limit and ratio are marks
of the soul, but not >of fire,"
Hie flame! is a lively thing, but to say that it
is alive; that it grows or dies, is in Aristotle'*
view a poetic metaphor, not a scieni&ifk state-
intent. "When I have plucked the cose/' Othello
says* "I cannot give it vital growth again, it
needs must wither/' But to the candle binning!
beside Desckmona's bed* he says: "If I quenehi
thce, thou flaming minister, I can again thy
fornaex light restore." The flame is lit CK exr ,
tinguished by motions from without; but the
bifth -and death* the nourishing and grpwth of
the living thing is seik movement. ' , ,
According to Aristotle and Aquinas self-
movement is the essential mark of being alive.;
"All things are said to be alive,"Aqumas writes,
"which determine themselves to movement pr
operation of any kind; whereas those things,
which cannot by their own nature do so, cannot
bfc called living except by a similitude." He fur-
ther defines, the meaning of selfr- movement by
distinguishing between the transitive action of
one inert body upon another and the immanent
activity of a living thing, whereby the agent
it!$elf is perfected. Growing, sensing, and under-
standing are immanent actions because they are
activities which affect the growing, sensing, or
understanding thing, The result of such actions
remains in the agent. In contrast, heating is a
transitivcaction. In heating, one thing acts upon
another, and the hot thing loses its own heat in
the process*
As vital operations differ thus from the ac-
tions of inanimate bodies, so do vital powers
differ from the capacities of inert matter,
through which bodies can act upon or react to
other bodies. The power of self-movement (or
immanent activity) enables living things alone
to change from a less perfect to a more perfect
state of being, as measured by the thing's na-
ture, rather than simply to change from con-
trary to contrary, as a body changes when it
moves locally from this place to that, or alters
from hot to cold, or cold to hot.
FOR THE THEOLOGIAN, there is an additional as-
pect to the problem of, defining life. If the realm
of corporeal substances is divided into inert and
living bodies, what is to be said about incor-
poreal substances (*>,, the angels) and about
God ? It is easier to think of the angels as not
being than to conceive them as not being alive.
More than "infinite" or "omnipotent" or "eter-
nal," "the ever-living God" is the phrase which,
in the language of religious worship, expresses
positively the divine nature, But the funda-
mental activities which distinguish living from
1018
THE GREAT IDEAS
non-living bodies (such as nutrition, growth,
reproduction) are essentially corporeal in na-
ture. So, too, are sensing and locomotion. What
common meaning of life, then, can apply to ma-
terial and spiritual beings ?
Aquinas answers by saying that "since a thing
is said to live in so far as it operates of itself and
not as moved by another, the more perfectly
this power is found in anything, the more per-
fect is the life of that thing." By this criterion,
plants are less perfectly alive than animals, in
whom self-movement is found to a higher de-
gree because of their sensitive faculties; and
among animals, there are grades of life accord-
ing to degrees of sensitivity, and according to
the possession of mobility, a power which cer-
tain animals seem to lack. In both the higher
animals and in man, there is purposive behavior,
but man alone, through his intellect and will,
can freely determine his own ends and choose the
means to them ; hence these faculties give human
life an even greater degree ot self-movement.
But the action of the human intellect is not
perfectly self-determined, for it depends in part
upon external causes, Wherefore Aquinas con-
cludes that life in the highest degree belongs
properly to God — "that being whose act of un-
derstanding is its very nature and which, in
what it naturally possesses, is not determined
by another." He quotes Aristotle's remark that
the perfection of God's life is proportionate to
the perfection of the divine intellect, which is
purely actual and eternally in act. And he goes
on to remark that, in the sense in which under-
standing is movement, and that which under-
stands itself moves itself, "Plato also taught that
God moves Himself."
Nourishment, growth, and reproduction are
indispensable features of corporeal life precisely
because corporeal things are perishable. They
need "reproduction, to preserve the species,"
Aquinas writes, "and nourishment to preserve
the individual." Hence the higher powers of life,
such as sensing and understanding, are never
found in corporeal things apart from the vegeta-
tive powers. This does not hold, however, for
spiritual beings which are by nature imperish-
able. Spiritual life is essentially immortal life.
Subject to the ravages of time, corporeal life
at every moment betrays its mortality — in its
need for sleep, in the enfeeblement of its pow-
ers, in disease, decay, of degeneration. Death is
the correlative of life for those who sharply di-
vide the living from the non-li ving. Rocks may
crumble into dust, bodies may disintegrate, and
atoms explode — but they do not die. Death is a
change which only living matter undergoes.
The transition from life to death accentuates
the mystery of life. The notion of spontaneous
generation aside, life always seems to come from
life. Whether by cell division or by germination ,
the living thing that is generated comes from
the living substance of another thing. But when
a living thing dies, it crosses the gap between
the living and the non-living. As the organic
matter of the corpse decomposes, nothing is left
but the familiar inorganic elements and com-
pounds. This seems to be a change more radical
than generation 'or birth. All the metaphysical
problems of form and substance, of matter and
the soul, of continuity and discontinuity in na-
ture, which appear in the analysis of life, become
more intense in the understanding of death.
As APPEARS in the chapter on IMMORTALITY,
the living are preoccupied with death, not pre-
dominantly with analyzing it, but with facing
and fearing it, struggling against Or embracing
it. Death, as the great poems reveal, is the ob-
ject of soliloquy in moments of greatest intro-
spection or self-appraisal. To die well, Mon-
taigne points out, requires greater moral stam-
ina than to live well. For him the essence of the
philosophical temper, as for others the mean-
ing of i heroism or martyrdom, consists in fac-
ing death with an equanimity which reflects
the highest qualities of a well-resolved life.
Montaigne devotes a long essay to the sub-
ject that "to philosophise is to learn to die,"
and begins it by quotingCicero's statement that
"to study philosophy is nothing but to prepare
one's self to die." Socrates then is the prototype
of the philosopher, for in conversation with his
friends in prison while awaiting death, he tells
them that "the true votary of philosophy ... is
alwsrys pursuing death, and dying." He tries to
prove to them, by his actions as well as by his
words, that "the real philosopher has reason to
be of good cheer when he ts about to die."
Not only death but the dead exercise a pro-
found effect upon the living. The historians de-
scribe the various forms which the ceremonials
CHAFFER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1019
of death take in every society. Whether the
rituals are secular or sacred, they are among the
most significant customs of any culture, for they
reveal the value placed upon life and the con-
ception of life's meaning and man's destiny. No
deeper differences exist among the great reli-
gions than those which appear in the practices
or sacraments in preparation for death and in
the services for the dead.
The moral, social, and religious aspects of
death appear to be peculiarly human. Yet on
the biological level, the same fundamental in-
stincts and emotions seem to prevail in animals
and men. The struggle to remain alive may be
presumed to occur in plants. But it is not there
as plainly discernible as in the specific patterns
of behavior manifested by the animal instinct
of self-preservation. Almost in proportion to
the degree of vitality, the instinct of self-pres-
ervation operates with a strength and pertinac-
ity as vigorous as the love for life and arouses as
an emotional corollary an equally devouring
fear of death.
The instinct of self-preservation is the life
instinct. Directed toward the related ends of
maintaining and increasing life are the repro-
ductive impulses and the erotic instincts. But,
according to Freud, there is in all living matter
a more primitive instinct than these, and one
which aims in the opposite direction. That is the
death instinct— the impulse of the living to re-
turn to hfelessness.
"It would be contrary to the conservative
nature of instinct," Freud writes, "if the goal of
life were a state never hitherto reached. It must
rather be an ancient starting point, which the
living being left long ago, and to which it harks
back again. ... If we may assume as an experi-
ence admitting of no exception that everything
dies from causes within itself, and returns to the
inorganic, we can only say The goal of all life
is death.' "
' The death instinct, according to Freud, orig-
inates with life itself. "At one time or another,
by some operation of force which completely
baffles conjecture, the properties of life were
awakened in lifeless matter. . . . The tension
then aroused in the previously inanimate mat-
ter strove to attain an equilibrium; the first in-
stinct was present, that to return tolifelessness."
The death instinct acts against the tendency of
the erotic instincts/' which are always trying to
collect living substances together into ever larg-
er unities. . . . The cooperation and opposition
of these two forces produce the phenomena of
life to which death puts an end."
Freud's hypothesis of the death instinct has
a bearing on the impulse to commit suicide and
on the question whether it is natural or perverse
for men to choose this escape from the tensions
and difficulties of life. The psychological prob-
lem here, especially with regard to the uncon-
scious forms of the suicidal impulse, is not the
same as the moral problem. The question
whether animals other than men ever commit
suicide, like the question whether the killing of
one animal by another can be called "murder,"
indicates the difference between psychological
description and moral judgment.
FOR THE MORALIST the condemnation of suicide
seems to rest on the same grounds as the con-
demnation of murder. With Kant, for example,
it represents the same type of violation of the
universal moral law. The categorical imperative
requires us to act always as if the maxim of our
individual action could be universalized as a
rule for all men to follow. But, in the case of sui-
cide as in the case of murder, the maxim of the
action cannot be universalized without accom-
plishing a result which no one intends. Further-
more, suicide is not consistent with the idea of
the human person as an end in itself. The man,
says Kant, who destroys himself "in order to
escape from painful circumstances uses a person
merely as a means to maintain a tolerable con-
dition up to the end of life."
Suicide is also condemned by the theologians
as a contravention of the divine as well as of the
natural law. Men are God's handiwork and,
therefore, as Locke puts it, "they are His prop-
erty . . . made to last during His, not one an-
other's, pleasure." Under the natural law, a man
is not at liberty to destroy himself, nor conse-
quently is he at liberty to sell himself into slav-
ery. Everyone "is bound to preserve himself
and not quit his station willfully." Ifj further-
more, there is an after-life of rewards and pun-
ishments, suicide is no escape. "Death so
snatched," Adam tells Eve in Paradise Lost,
"will not exempt us from the pain we arc by
doom to pay*"1
1020 THE -GREAT IDEAS
' "Thtere'iS similar reasoning in pagan antiquity. But the pagan tradition alto speaks with an
Suicide is an act of violence and, says PlotiBUfr, opposite voice. For the Stoics, suicide does not
"if theft! be a period allotted to all by fate, to seem to be as reprehensible as murder. To tlwfce
anticipate the hour could not be a happy act', who complain of life's pains and the fetters of
. . . If everyone is to hold in the other Wortd a the body, Epictetus says, 'The door is open."
standing determined by the state rn which' he In a doctrine in which ail things that affect
quitted this, there must be no withdrawal as only the body afe indifferent to the soul's well-
long as there ft any hope of progress." A Chris- being, death too is indifferent. "Death is the
tian would add that to relinquish hope as'long harbor for all; this is the place of refuge; as soon
as life peisists is the sin of despair. as you choose, yoU may be out of the house."
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. The nature and cause of life: the soul as the principle of life in organic bodies 1021
2. Continuity or discontinuity between living and non-living things: comparison of
vital powers and activities with the potentialities and motions of inert bodies 1022
3. The modes or grades of corporeal life: the classification and order of the various vital
powers or functions
30. Continuity or discontinuity between plants and animals: comparison of plant
and animal nutrition, respiration, growth, and reproduction 1023
3#. The grades of animal life: types and degrees of mobility and sensitivity; analogies
of structure and function 1024
4. The biological economy: the environment of the organism; the interdependence of
plants and animals'
5.' Normal vitality and US' impairment by disease, degeneration, and enfeeblement with
age 1025
5<*. The nature and causes of health
5^. The restorative function of rest or sleep 1026
«fc. The nature and causes <of disease
6. The- life span and the life cycle 1027
6a. The life span of plants and animals, and of different species of plants and animals
6£. The human life span
6c. The biological characteristics of the stages of life
7. The causes and occurrence of 4 Wh: the transition .from life to death , 1028
8. The concern of the living with life and death • 1029
80. The love of life: the instinct of self '-preservation; the life instinct
8£. The desire fdr death: the death instinct; the problem of sufcidfc
,&. The contemplation and fear of dcajth: U>e attitude o£ the he.ro, the philosopher,
the martyr 1030
8«f. The ceremonials of death: the rites of burial m .war and peace 2632
CHAPTER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1021
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends m the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, m 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS. One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES- The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance m the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature and cause of life: the soul as the
principle of life in organic bodies
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-27; 2:7 / Job,
12:9-10
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 93c / Phaedrus, 124b-d /
Phaedo, 223c-d; 225b; 244b-246c / Gorgias,
275d-277b passim / Laws, BK x, 763a-764a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 10 [i48a23-37]
202b-c / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4 [ioi4b22-26]
535a, CH 8 [ioi7bio-i7] 538b; BK vn, CH 10
[K>35bi4-28] 559a-b; BK ix, CH 6 [i048bi8-34]
574a-c; BK xn, CH 7 [io72bi4~29] 602d-603a;
BK XIII, CH 2 [1077*20-23] 608C / Soul, BK I
63 1 a 641 d passim; BK n, CH 1-4 642a-647b;
BK HI, CH 12-13 667a-668d / Youth, Life, and
Breathing, CH 1-4 714a-716b; CH 14 720d-721a
9 ARISTOTLE- Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i [640**
30-641*33] 163c-164b / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 19 [726bi5~29] 266d-267a; BK n, CH i
[73^29-33] 272a-b; [734b20-735ft9l 275b-d;
CH 3 [737ai8-34] 278a-b; CH 5 [741*6-31]
282a-b; BK HI, CH n [762*i8-b22] 303b-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b;
BK n, CH 3, 185a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [865-
1022] 26a-28a; BK HI [94-416] 31b-35c; BK v
[783-825] 71b-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR i la-6b passim /
Second Ennead, TR in, CH 12-13 46c-47b /
Third Ennead, TR vi, CH 3, 108b; TR vm,
CH 8, 133a-b / Fourth Ennead, TR in, CH 8,
146c-d; CH 9, 147b-c; CH 19 151d-152b; CH 23,
153d; TR iv, CH 29 173b-174b; TR v, CH 7,
188b-c; TR vn, CH 2-5 192a-194a; CH 14
200b-c / Fifth Ennead, TR i, CH 2, 208c-209a
/ Sixth Ennead, TR iv, CH i 297b-d; CH
4-6 299a-300b; CH 16, 305a; TR v, CH 12
310b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 25 358b-
359a; BK xm, CH 2 360b-361a; BK xxn, CH
24, 609c-610a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8
626c-627a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A i,
ANS 14b-15b; Q 4, A 2, REP 3 21b-22b; Q 10,
A i, REP 2 40d-41d; Q 18 104b-108c; Q 27, A 2,
ANS 154c-155b; Q 51, A i, REP 3 275b-276b;
A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2 361c-362c; Q 70,
A 3, ANS and REP 2-5 365b-367a; QQ 71-72
367a-369d; QQ 75-76 378a-399b passim;
Q 97, A 3, ANS 515a-d; QQ 118-119 600a-608d
passim
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 56,
A i, REP i 30a-c; PART II-H, Q 23, A 2, REP 2
483d-484d; PART in, Q 2, A 5 715a-716b; Q 5,
A 3 737d-739a
1022
THE GREAT IDEAS
2/03
1. The nature and cause of life: the soul as the
principle of Ufe in organic bodies?)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy \ PURGATORY, xvm
[49-54] 80b*c; xxv [19-108] 91c-92c; PARA-
DISE, H [127-148] 109a-b; vn [121-148] 116b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART i,
65a; PART in, 173d; 176d; PART iv, 251a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
138ab
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 285d-286a;
296a-d / Circulation of the Blood, 316a-31Sb;
325d-326d / On Animal Generation, 384d-
390b passim; 431b 434a esp 433c-d; 488d-
496d
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 156a-d;
207a; 226b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH
xxvii, SECT 3-5 219d-220c passim; BK in,
CH x, SECT 22, 297d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192b
42 KANT- Judgement, 555a-558b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 47
24a-b; ADDITIONS, 28 121b; 161 143a-b
47 GOETHE. Faust, PART n [6819-7004] 167a-
171b; [7851-7864] 191b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 27b-28a; 344b-345a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 145b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xn, 561b-d; BK
xiv, 608a-b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 140a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652d;
654c-656d csp 655c-656a, 659d-660b / Ego
and Id, 708d-709a / New Introductory Lectures,
851c
2. Continuity or discontinuity between living
and non-living things: comparison of
vital powers and activities with the po-
tentialities and motions of inert bodies
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK iv, CH 5 [213*4-9]
292c; BK v, CH 3 [227*10-17] 307d-308a; BK
vii, CH 2 [244bi-245Ri2] 328b-d; BK vm, CH i
[250bn-i4] 334a; CH 4 338d-340d; CH 6
[259*2o-b3i] 345a-d / Heavens, BK n, CH 2
[284b3o-285*i] 376c / Meteorology, BK iv, CH
1-3 482b,d-486a / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 4
[ioi4bi7-26] 534d-535a; BK vn, CH 16 [1040^-
16] 564c / Soul, BK i, CH 5 [411*7-23] 641a-b;
BK ii, CH i 642a-643a; CH 4 645b-647b; CH 12
656a-d / Longevity, CH 2-3 710b-711b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vm, CH i
[588b4-io] 114d-115a / Parts of Animals,
BK iv, CH 5 [681*12-15] 211d / Motion of Ani-
mals, CH i [698*15-21] 233b; CH 4 [700*5-27]
235b-c; CH 6 235d-236b; CH 7 [70ibi]-cH 8
[702*12] 236d-238a / Generation of Animals,
BK i, CH 23 [73i*3o-b8] 271c-d; BK n, CH 4
[740*13-18] 281a; BK m, CH 11 [76*ib25-763bi5]
302d-304d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 7 170c-
171a; BK u, CH 3, 186c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [215-264]
3d-4b; BK n [865-930] 26a-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK ix, SECT 9 292b-d
19 AQUINAS- Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
i, ANS 14b-15b; Q 18, A i 104c-105c; A 4 107d-
108c; Q 27, A 2, ANS and REP i 154c-155b; Q
51, A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2, REP i 361c-362c;
Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q 78, A i, ANS and REP 3
407b-409a; A 3, ANS 410a-411d; Q 118, A i,
ANS 600a-601c; PART i-n, Q 17, A 9, REP 2
692d-693d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE. Othello, ACT v, sc 11 [7-15]
239a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK in, 67b-d
28 HARVEY : On Animal Generation, 384a-b; 457a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27, 157b-
158a; APH 40, 171a-d; APH 48 179d-188b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 59a-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 75 185b-186a / Great Experi-
ment, 382b-383a / Weight of Air, 425a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xxvi,
SECT 2, 217c; CH xxvii, SECT 3-5 219d-220c
passim; BK in, CH vi, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK
iv, CH in, SECT 25 321a-b; CH xvi, SECT 12,
370c-371a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT Judgement, 555a-558b; 578d-582c csp
579d-580a, 582b-c, 602b,d [fn i]
43 FEDERALIST- NUMBER 37, 119c
45 FARADAY Researches in Electricity, 836d
49 DARWIN. Descent of Man, 341c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 449b-c
53 JAMES. Psychology, 4a-6b; 68a-71b passim, csp
68a-b; 85a b, 95b-96a
54 FREUD: Unconscious, 429c-d / Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, 651d-652d; 661b-c / New
Introductory Lectures, 849d $lc
3. The modes or grades of c^*t >real life: the
classification and order of the various
vital powers or functions
OLD TESTAMENT Genesis, 1:11-12,20-31 /
Psalms, 8 esp 8 4-8— (D) Psalms, 8 esp 8:5-9
/ Ecclesiastes, 3 18-22
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-128d passim / Symposi-
um, 165c-166b / Republic, BK iv, 350c-353d /
Timaeus, 466a-c; 469d-470a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 8 [199*20-^3]
276c-d / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 383b-384c /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 5 417b-
420b / Meteorology, BK iv, CH 2 [379b 10-25]
483d-484a / Metaphysics, BK i, CH i [980*22-
b27) 499a-b; BK ix, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5
573a-c / Soul 631a-668d esp BK i, CH 5 [4iob
16-411*2] 640d-641a, BK n, CH 2-3 643a-
645b, BK in, CH 12-13 667a-668d / Sense
and the Sensible 673a-689a,c / Memory and
Reminiscence 690a-695d / Sleep 696a-701d /
Youth, Lye, and Breathing 714a-726d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vni, CH i
114b,d-H5b / Parts of Animals, BK i, CH i
CHAPTER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1023
[641*5-1°] 164b-c; BK n, CH 10
14] 181d-182b; BK iv, CH 5 [681*12-15] 211d;
CH 10 [686b23-687*i] 218b-c / Motion of Ani-
mals, CH 6-1 1 235d-239d esp CH 10 238c-239a
/ Gait of Animals, CH 4 244a-245a / Genera-
tion of Animals^ BK i, CH 23 [73i*24~b8]
271c-d; BK n, CH 3 [736*25-b29] 276d-277c;
CH 4 [740b25J-CH 5 [741*31] 281d-282b; BK in,
CH 7 [757bi4~3o] 298c-d; CH n [76i*i2-b23J
302b-d / Ethics, BK i, CH 7 [io97b33-io98ft7J
343b; CH 13 [1102*33-1103*3] 347d-348c /
Politics, BK VH, CH 13 [i332*39-b8] 537a-b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties 167a-215d csp BK
i, CH i 167a-b, CH 5-8 169b-171a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [258-322]
33b-34b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 6, llla-c; BK
n, CH 8, 146a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK HI, SECT 16 262d-
263a,c; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d; BK vin, SECT 7
286a; BK ix, SECT 9 292b~d
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 854b-856a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR i, CH 1-7 la 4a
passim; CH n 5b-c; TR iv, CH 3, 13d / Fourth
Ennead, TR in, CH 19 151d-152b; CH 23 153d-
154b; TR iv, CH 28 I72a-173b; TR vn, CH 14
200b-c; TR ix, CH 3 206a-b / Fifth Ennead,
TR n, CH 2 215a-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vn, CH 23,
256b-c; CH 29 261a-b; BK xix, CH 13, 519a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 8 626c-627a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 3, A
i, REP 2 14b-15b; Q 18, AA 1-3 104c-107c; Q
27, A 2, ANS 154c-155b; Q 45, A 5, REP i 245c-
247a; Q 51, A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2 361o
362c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; QQ 71-72 367a-
369d; Q 75, A i, ANS 378b-379c; A 6, REP i
383c-384c; Q 76, A 5, REP 3-4 394c-396a, QQ
77-83 399b-440b; Q 98 516d-519a; QQ 118-119
600a-608d; PART i-n, Q 17, AA 8-9 692a-693d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, QUO,
A 4, REP 3 350d-351d; PART m, Q 7, A 9, ANS
751d-752c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xxv
[37-84] 91d-92b; PARADISE, vn [121-148]
116b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
137b-c; 138a-139b; 192d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 369d-370b;
384d-390b passim; 397b-398c; 441a-443b;
444c.44Sc; 447a-b; 456b-458a esp 457a-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 30
159c-d; APH 48, 186d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 56a-b; 59a-
60c / Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 207a;
244b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 57, scHOL415b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [469-490] 185b-
186a; BK vn [307-338] 223b-224b; [387-550]
225b-229a
33 PASCAL: Pcnsccs, 75 185b~186a; 339-344
233a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 11-15 140b-141a; CH xxvn, SECT 4-6
220a-d; BK in, CH vi, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK
iv, CH xvi, SECT 12, 370c-371a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 199c-200c / Judgement,
578d-580a; 583b-c; 602b,d [fn i]
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 836d
49 DARWIN: Origtn of Species, 3a-b; 47c-49c;
60b-61d; 64a-d; 71a-d; 241b-c / Descent of
Man, 331b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-7a; 68b-73b esp 68b,
71a; 95b; 699a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401a-d / Instincts, 415b
/ Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-648a;
648b-c; 651d-654b; 654d-657d esp 656a,
657b-c; 659d-661c / Ego and Id, 708d-709b;
711c-712a / New Introductory Lectures, 851a-c
<*. Continuity or discontinuity between plants
and animals: comparison of plant and
animal nutrition, respiration, growth,
and reproduction
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vin, 403b-d / Timaeus,
469d-470a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK vi, CH 10 [148*23-38]
202b-c / Physics, BK n, CH 8 [i99ft20-bi3J
276c-d / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 [2Q2bi-n] 384a
/ Soul, BK i, CH 5 [4iobi6-4iia2] 640d-641a;
BK n, CH 2 [4i3a20-b4] 643b-c; CH 4 [415^8-
416*5] 646a-b / Sleep, CH i 696a-697c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK iv, CH 6
[53ib8-9] 58b; BK v, CH i [539*15-26] 65b-d;
CH ii [543b23~3i] 70c; BK vin, CH i [588^4-
589*2] 114d-115b / Parts of Animals, BK n,
CH 3 [650*1-37] 174c-175a; CH 10 [655b27~
656*8] 181d-182a; BK iv, CH 4 [677b36-678ai5]
207d-208a; CH 5 [68iaio-b9] 211c-212b; CH 6
[682b26-28] 213d; CH 10 [686^3-687*1] 218b-c
/ Gait of Animals, CH 4 [705*26-b9] 244a-b /
Generation of Animals, BK i, CH i [7i5bi7~
716*2] 255d-256a; CH 23 271b-d; BK n, CH
i [732*12-24] 272c; [735*13-26] 275d-276a;
CH 3 [736fl24-bi4] 276d-277b; CH 4 [740*24]-
CH 5 [741*32] 281b-282b; BK in, CH 2 [752*
10-23) 293a-b; CH 5 [755b6-i3] 296c-d; CH 7
[757bi4~3o] 298c-d; CH n 302b-304d; BK v,
CH i [778b3o-779tt4] 321a-b / Ethics, BK i,
CH 13 [no2*34-b4] 347d / Politics, BK i, CH 2
[1252*26-31] 445c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH i 167a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [700-710]
23d-24a; BK v [783-820] 71b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 8, 146a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 18, A
1, ANS and REP 2 104c-105c; A 2, REP i 105c-
106b; A 3, ANS and REP 3 106b-107c; Q 69, A
2, REP i 361c-362c; Q 72, A i, REP 1,5 368b-
369d; Q 118, A i csp REP 2 600a-601c; Q 119
604c-608d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
143a-144c
1024
THE GREAT lOEAS
Zbto 4
3. The modes or grades of corporeal life: the
classification and order of the various vital
powers or functions. 3a, Continuity or dis-
continuity between plants and animals:
comparison of plant and animal nutritionf
respiration, growth, and reproduction.)
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 278b; 299b-c /
Circulation of the Blood, 327d-328a / On Ani-
mal Generation, 368a-b; 369d-370b; 372b;
384c-d; 397c-398c; 428c-429a; 442b-c; 449a-b;
457c-d; 461b-d; 468b-469b; 471b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27,
158a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH ix,
SECT 11-15 140b-141a passim; BK HI, CH vi,
SECT 12 271d-272b
42 KANT: Judgement, 579d-580a; 582b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART n,
57b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 47c-49c passim,
esp 49a-c; 11 5b; 241 b-c / Descent of Man,
372b-c
53 I AMES: Psychology, 8a
b. The grades of animal life: types and degrees
of mobility and sensitivity; analogies of
structure and function
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-25
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK n, CH 14
[98*20-23] 134a / Soul, BK n, CH 2 [4i3b4-io]
643c; [414*1-3] 644a; BK in, CH n [433b3i-
434*9] 666d; CH 12-13 667a~668d / Sense and
the Sensible, CH i [4 36^2-437*1 7] 673c-674a;
CH 5 [443bi7-445*4] 681c-682d / Youth, Life,
and Breathing 714a-726d passim
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals 7a-158d esp BK
1, CH 1-6 7a-13a, BK n, CH i 19b,d 23d, BK iv,
CH 8 59d-62a, BK v, CH i 65a-66a, BK vin, CH i
114b,d-115b / Parts of Animals 161a-229d
passim, esp BK i, CH 4 167d-168c, CH 5 [645bi-
646*5] 169b-d / Gait of Animals 243a-252a,c
/ Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c esp BK i,
CH 1-19 255a 268a, BK n, CH i 272a-276a, BK
in 290a-304d, BK iv, CH 4-6 311c-317d, BK v
320a-331a,c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK in, CH 2 199d-
200a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 16 262d-
263a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, o 18, A
2, REP i 105c-106b; A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 50,
A 4, REP i 273b-274b; QQ 71-72 367a-369d;
Q 76, A 5, REP 3 394c-396a; Q 78, A i, ANS and
REP 4 407b-409a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 274b-d; 277b-
278d; 280c-283a; 299b-302c / On Animal
Generation, 336b-d; 338a-496d esp 449a-454c,
463d-464a, 470c-472c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK n, APH 27, 158a;
APH 30 159c-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH ix
SECT 11-15 140b-141a; BK in, CH vr, SECT 12
271d-272b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT ix, DIV
82 487b-c
42 KANT: Judgement, 578d-580a esp 579b-c;
602b,d [fn i]
48 MELVILLE- Moby Dic{, 273a-274a; 279a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 75b-78c; 82d-94c;
112b-113c; 207a-229a,c esp 228c-229a,c; 238b-
239a/ Descent of Man, 255a-265d; 271a-275c;
278c-284b; 300a-b; 331a-341d esp 332a-c,
337a-341d; 348b-c; 402b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 13a-14b; 19b-42b passim,
esp 40a, 41b; 51a-52a; 705b-706b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
6S4b esp 653b, 654a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 768d-769a
4. The biological economy: the environment of
the organism; the interdependence of
plants and animals
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:11-13,20-31
6 HFRODOTUS: History, BK n, 63b-c; 64b-c; BK
in, 112d-113b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 377c-d / Timaeus,
469d-470a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK n, CH 2 [i94bi3] 271a
/ Meteorology, BK iv, CH i 482b,d-483c /
Longevity 710a-713a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH i
[487*1 4-b5] 8a-b; BK v, CH n [543bi9-3i]
70b-c; CH 22 [553b20-23J 80c; CH 31 [557*4-
32] 83d-84a; BK vi, CH 17 [57ob29-57i*2]
96d; BK vin, CH 2-29 115c-132d esp CH 2-13
115c-125b, CH 18-20 127b-129b, CH 28-29
131c-132d; BK ix, CH i [6o8bi9]-CH 2 [6iob
19] 134a-136b; CH 31 [6i8b9-i3] 144a-b; CH
32 [619*27-31] 144d-145a; CH 37 [622*8-15]
147c / Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 8 [684*1-14]
215b; CH 12 [693*10-24] 225a / Gait of
Animals, CH 15 [713*3]-^ 18 [7i4b8] 250d-
252a / Generation of Animals, BK in, CH 10
[760*27^28] 301b-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places 9a-19a,c
esp par 1-2 9a-c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 8-9 191b-
199a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [784-787]
40b; BK v [837-877] 72a-c; [925-1010] 73b-74b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 32, 175d-
176a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 69, A
2 361c-362c; QQ 71-72 367a 369d; Q 118, A i,
REP 3 600a-601c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY,
160c-d; SECOND DAY, 187d-188c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 453c
33 PASCAL: Equilibrium of Liquids, 401a~403a /
Weight of Air, 415a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 224a-b; 295b-
296b
CHAPTER 4$; LIFE AND DEATH
1023
3£ MOKTESQUIEU : Spirit of Law, BK xiv, J02b,d-
( 38 ROUSSEAU: /w#«<*&v^334b,d-337d passim
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 33c-34a;
t 63a-b
40 GIBBON: D<?<rtoar W Fall, 428c-d
42 KANT: Judgement, 553c-554b; 583b-c; 584d-
5S5c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART n,
57b-c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 209b
48 MELVILLE. Moby Dic{, 227b-228a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 9b-10d; 32a-41c
csp 38b-39a; 49d-55b esp 52d-S3a, 53d-55b,
65a-d; 68b-69c; 81a-c; lSla-206a,c passim,
esp 184d-188c, 204d-206a,c; 242d-243d /
Descent of Man, 268b-269a; 34!b,d [fn 32];
350b-356a;424a-425d;430d-432c;442a-443b;
525b-527c; $54d-555b
53 JAMES : Psychology, 701a i
5. Normal vitality and its impairment by dis-
ease, degeneration, and enfeeblement
with age
7 PLATO. Ttmaeus, 471d-474d
8 ARISTOTLE- Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [2^,6aio-bi9]
329c-330a / Heavens, BK n, CH 6 [288bi5-i9J
380a-b / Soul, BK i, CH 4 [408^8-29] 638c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 25
103c; BK vn, CH i [58ib25-582a4] 107b-c /
Pans of Animals, BK n, CH 5 [65ia37~bi8]
176c; CH 7 177c-179a csp [653bi~7] 178d-179a
/ Generation of Animals, BK i, CH 18 [72 5b
18-25] 265d-266a; BK iv, CH 2 [766b27-34]
308b; BK v, CH i [78oai.j-bi2] 322b-d; CH 4
(784a3i-b37] 326b-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 3-4 Id-
2c; par 9-22 3b-8d
10 GALEN.: Natural Faculties, BK \\, CH 8-9 191b-
199a,c esp CH 8, 194c-d, CH 9, 195c-196a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK n [1105-
1174] 29a>30a,c; BK in [445-458] 35d-36a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT i 259b,d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 70, A i, REP 7 893d-89Sd
22 CH \UCER' Reeve's Prologue [3862-3896] 224a-b
/ Wife of Bath's Prologue [6051-6062] 263b-
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK HI,
181d-182b - i *
, 25( MONTAIGNE- Essays* 33b-c; ,156d-il58a,c;
394a-395b; 406c-408b <-><' ^
20 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT u, sc v [i-
, 16} 12d-13a / As you Ufy It, ACT u, sc vn
[137-166] 608d-609a *
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart* 296*d / On
Aiwval Generation,* 4$3arw 493a-b
32 MII»?IQN: Paradise Lost, BK xi [527^-543] 3lOb-
t ,
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK r, 384b-385b r ;
laS.Swmri/r^w, PART in, 127a428fti//
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353* .•
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a /
Social -CbntfaO] »K iH^ldo^d :
< 49 DARWIN: Origin of Specie*, 143d-145c esp 14Sa
/ Descent of Mont 25tk$; 323c-357b passim;
354a-355c \\
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKX, 449b-c; BKXI,
499c'5QOc^ IK xv, 617a-b; EPILOGUE iv-66Sa-d
53 JAMBS: Psychology, 19b-41a passim, esp 21a-
26b; 44a-47a; 431b-433a; 815a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 655b-
65 7d / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety,
718a-719d
54. The nature and causes of health
6 HERQBDTUS: History, BK iv, 157a
7 PLATO: Charmides, 2d-3b / Symposium, 155d-
157a / Gorgias, 282c-283a / Republic, BK in,
334b-337a; Bit iv, 355b-d / Timacltf, 474d-
4754 / Philebus, 6J6d-617a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [8b25~9fti8] 13d-
14b passim / Topics, BK in, CH i [n6bi7-2i]
163a-b / Physic^ BK VH, CH 3 [246ftio-bi9J
329c-330a / Heavens, BK n, CH 12 [292ai4-bi8]
383d-384b / Metaphysics, BK v, CH 20 [io22b
10-13! 544a / Sopl, BK i, CH 4 [408*1-2] 637c;
BK n, CH 2 [414*4-14] 644a-b / Sense and the
Sensible, CH 5 [445*17-31] 683a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK m, CH 19
[520^19-521*15] 45c-46a; BK vn, CH i [58^25-
582*4] 107b-c / Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 5
[65i*37-bi7] 176c; CH 7 177c-179a; BK iv, CH
2 [677*5-^1] 206d-207b / Ethics, BK M, CH 2
[1^04*10-^19] 349c; BK v, CH i [1129*12-25]
376b-c;;CH n [1138*29-32] 386d; BK Vi, CH 12
[ii43b2i-i 144*5] 393b-c passim; BK vii, CH 14
[U54bi7-2o] 406a,c / Politics, BK vn, CH 17
[1336*4-39] 541a-c / Rhetoric, BK i, CM 5
[i36ib3-7] 602a; CH 7 (j 36^3^1 364*5] 605b
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 13-19
4c-7b / Regimen in Acute Diseases, par 9, 29d
/ Surgery, par 20 73d / Articulations, par 58,
113a / Sacred Disease, 156b-c
10 GALEN: Natural P acuities, BK n, CH 8, 194od;
CH 9, 195c-196a •
12 JJUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [558-565]
37b
J^.AUREUUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b
18 AUGUSTINE : City of God, BK xfrx, CH 13, 5l9a;
BK xxn, PH 24, 610c-611a
20 AQUINAS; Surnma Theologica, PART MI, Q 49,
A 2 2b-4a; A 3, REP 3 4b-Sa; A 4, ANS 5a-6a;
; -. Q 50, A i, ANS and REP 2-3 6a-7b; A 3; REP 2
8b-9a; Q 51, A i, ANS 12b-13c; Q 52, A t, ANS
15d48a; A 2, ANS 18a-19a; Q 54, A i, ANS 22d-
- 23d \ ,
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
134d-135a; BK iv, 234a-235a; 239d^240a
2S,Moi4TAicKE: Essays, 233c-236a passim; 368d;
369d-370a; 528c-529b
23 HARV&Y: Motion off he Heart, 296d-297a / On
Animal Generation^ 433arc; 493a-b
1026
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3. Normal vitality and its impairment by dis-
ease, degeneration, and enfeeblement with
age. 5a. The nature and causes of health.)
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 72b
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 407b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 412a-417a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335a-b; 336b-337a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK iv, 293d<294b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87d-88a
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
368d-369a / Judgement, 509c-d
44 Bos WELL : Johnson, 171d-172a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324d; 356d-357c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 52d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 635b-c
5£. The restorative function of rest or sleep
5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes [821-832] 189c
8 ARISTOTLE: Sleep 696a-701d esp CH 2 [455bi3~
28] 698b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK 11, CH 7 [653*
11-20] 178b-c / Ethics, BK i, CH 13 [1102"
34-bi3] 347d-348a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par 10 21c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [907-961]
56a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Midsummer-Night's Dream,
ACT in, sc ii [431-436] 367c / 2nd Henry IV,
ACT in, sc i [1-31] 482d-483a / Henry V, ACT
iv, sc i [270-301] 554b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT iv, sc iv [1-20]
272b-c / Macbeth, ACT n, sc n [35-43] 291c-d
/ Henry VIII, ACT v, sc i [1-5] 578a / Son-
nets, xxvn 590c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 413b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 348b-349b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 337c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 35a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 352b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [4613-4727] 115a-
117b
48 MELVILLE: Moby DicJ(, 91b
50 MARX: Capital, 112b; 128a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 144d-146d;
BK xn, 554b-d; BK xin, 584c
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 478c-d; 617b-c
5c. The nature and causes of disease
OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 26*16 / Numbers,
12:10-15; 16:46-50 / Deuteronomy, 28:21-
22,27-28,35,58-62 / II Kings, 5:27— (D)
IV Kings, 5:27 / / Chronicles, 21:14-15— (D)
I Paralipomenon, 21:14-15 / // Chronicles,
26:18^21 — (D) II Paralipomenon, 26:18-21 /
Job, 2:7 / Psalms, 107:17-20— (D) Psalms,
106:17-20 " >
APOCRYPHA: Eccltsiasticus, 37:2^-31— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 37:32-34 / J7 Maccabees, 3:27-
29— (D) OT, // Machabces, 3:27-29
NBW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 9:32-33; 17:14-^18 /
/ Cormthfans, 11:25*30
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 32c-d; 38a-b; BK
n, 64c-d; BK in, 96c; BK iv, 135c-d; I57a
6 THUCYDIDES : Peloponnesian War, BK n, 399b-
401b
7 PLATO: Symposium, 155d-157a esp 156d /
Republic, BK in, 334b-337a; BK iv, 345b-c;
355b-c; BK x, 435a-c / Timaeus, 472a-474b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK vn, CH 3 [246*io-bi9]
329c-330a / Meteorology, BK iv, CH 7 [384*25-
34] 488c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK HI, CH 11
(5i8b2~4] 43a; CH 15 [5i9bi5-2o] 44c; CH 19
[521*10-32] 46a-b; BK vn, CH i [58ib22~582ft
4] 107b-c; CH 12 114c; BK vm, CH 18-27 127b-
131 b passim; CH 29 132c-d / Parts of Animals,
BK n, CH 5 [65ia37~bi8] 176c; CH 7 [653bi-7J
178d-179a; BK in, CH 7 [670^-11] 199a; BK
iv, CH 2 [677*5-bi] 206d-207b / Generation of
Animals, BK iv, CH 7 317d-318b, BK v, CH 4
[784a3i-b35] 326b-d / Ethics, BK n, CH 2 [1104*
10-19] 349c; BK v, CH i [1129*12-25] 376b-c;
CH n [1138*29-32] 386d; BK vn, CH 8 [ii50b
29-35] 401c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par i la-b;
par 3 ld-2b; par 6 2d-3a; par 9-11 3b-4b; par
13-22 4c-8d / Airs, Waters, Places, par i-io
9a-14a; par 22 17b-18a / Regimen in Acute
Diseases, par 9-10 29d-30d; APPENDIX, par i
35c-d; par 3 35d-36a; par 5-6 36b-37a; par 17
40d-41a / Epidemics, BK i, SECT i, par i 44a-b;
SECT n, par 7-8 47a-c; BK in, SECT in, par 1-2
56d-57a; par 15 59b / Surgery, par 20 73d /
Fractures, par 31, 87a / Articulations, par 12
96a-b; par 58, 113a / Aphorisms, SECT n, par
51 133d; SECT in, par 1-19 134a-d; SECT v,
par 16-24 138b c / Fistulae, par i 150a /
Hemorrhoids, par i 152b / Sacred Disease 154a-
160d esp 155d-156a, 160b-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK 11, CH 8-9 191b-
199a,c passim; BK HI, CH 12 208b-209b esp
208d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [459-
614] 36a-38a; BK vi [769-829] 90c-91b; [1090-
1286] 94d-97a,c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR ix, CH 14 74b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-ii, Q 71,
A i, REP 3 105d-106c; Q 72, A 5, ANS 115a-116b;
Q 77, A 3, ANS 147c-148b; Q 88, A i, ANS 193a-
194b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 15lb-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 330b-c; 367b-368a;
369d-370a; 371c-dj 528c-529b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 296a-d / Circu-
lation of the Blood, 305a-d; 316c-d; 321d-322a
/ On Animal Generation, 386d-387a; 407a;
423b; 433a-c; 455d-456a; 493a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 52b-d
^31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi, 61c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [477-548} 309b-
311a
36 Swirh GulUvcr, PART iv, 155b-157aJ 161b-
162a
6to6c
CHAPTE* 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1027
36 StERNEJ Tristram Shandy, 412a-417a
38 MONTESQWEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 106b-
107a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 336b-337a; 364b-c
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 34d-35b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 70a-71a,c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 306d-307a
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 9d-10a / Descent
of Man, 256a; 350d-354a passim; 356d-357b;
380b~c
50 MARX: Capital, 115c; 118b-124a passim; 178a;
194b-195b, 204a-c; 236c-237d; 324a-330d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 52d; BK v,
222b; BK ix, 372a-374d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 69a-b; 799a-807a esp 799a-
800a, 806a-b; 815a; 895a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 4c-5a / Hysteria, 25a-59d esp 25a-
30d, 37d-38d, 56b-58c; 87a-97b; llla-115a
esp 114b-115a / Narcissism, 402d-404a /
General Introduction, 593b-595b; 601b-607b
esp 605b-606a / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and
Anxiety, 744b-747b esp 746c
6. The life span and the life cycle
6a. The life span of plants and animals, and of
different species of plants and animals
7 PLATO- Timaeus, 475d
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK i, CH 9 [279*23-b4]
370c-d / Longevity 710a-713a,c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 14
(545bi5-2o] 72b; CH 15 [547b8-n] 74b; CH 18
[55obi4~i6] 77c; CH 22 (554b6-8] 81b; CH 33
[558*16-20] 84d-85a; BK vi, CH 4 [563*2-3]
89b; CH 9 [564*25-27] 90c; CH 12 [566b23-27J
92d-93a; CH 17 [571*8-12] 96d-97a; CH 18
[573bi6-i7], CH 19 [57^23-29] 99c; CH 20
I574b3°-575ft4] lOOc; CH 21 [575*32-34) ™*>
CH 22 [576a26-b4J 102a; CH 23 [577b3~5] 103a;
CH 24 [577b28-578a4] 103c; CH 26 [578*12-13]
103d; CH 29 [578^2-27] 104b-c; BK vin, CH 2
[592*23-24] 118c; CH 9 [596*9-13] 122a; BK ix,
CH 7 [6i3*i7-b5] 138d-139a; CH 37 [622*15-
32] 147d; CH 41 [627b29-628*7] 153a-b; CH 44
[629^7-34] 155a; CH 46 [63ob23~26] 156a /
Parts of Animals, BK iv, CH 2 [677*20-^1]
207a-b / Generation of Animals, BK iv, CH 10
319c-320a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [878-898]
72c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 34a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK 11, CH
xxvi, SEQT 4 218a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 99b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652d;
655b; 657c-d
6b. The human life span
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 5 esp 5:5, 5:27; 6:3;
9:28-19; 11:10-32; 23:1-2; 25:7-8; 35:28-29;
47:9; 50:26 / Numbers, 33:38-39 / Dcuteron-
°toy* 34 :7 / Joshua, 24:29— (D) Josue, 2439 /
Psalms, 90:10— (D) Psalms, 89:10
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 18:9^10— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 18:8
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 7b-8a; BK in, 93d-
94b
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 469a; 475d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 15
[493b32»494*i] loa / Generation of Animals,
BK iv, CH 10 319c-320a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5
[i36ib3i-34] 602c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [693-705] 186a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 29c-30a; 156d-157b;
535d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [523-548] 310b-
311a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 413b-414a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 336a-b / Social Con-
tract, BK in, 419c-d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK i, 33c-34a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 360b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324d; 325c-327a
50 MARX: Capital, 118b-d; 194b-195b passim;
229a-b; 318a-b
6c. The biological characteristics of the stages
of life
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 17:15-19; 18:9-15;
21 : 1-8; 27:1 / Deuteronomy, 34:7 / / Kings,
1:1-4— (D) HI Kings, 1:1-4 / Proverbs, 20:29
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:17-18— (£>) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 14:18-19
NEW TESTAMENT \ John, 21:18
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [71-82] 52d
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK m, 118b
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 296a-c / Timaeus,
471d-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK i, CH 4 [4o8bi8-29] 638c
/ Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 23-26 724d-
726b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK n, CH i
[500^6-501*7] 23a-b; CH 2-5 23d-24b; BK
in, CH ii [5i8*5]-cH 12 [519*9] 42c-43d; CH
18 [520^-10] 45b-c; CH 19 [52i*3i]-CH 20
[52ibio] 46b-c; BK iv, CH 9 [536b5-8] 63a-b;
CH 10 [537bi5~2o] 64b; BK v, CH 14 71b-73b;
CH 19 [55iai3~552b5l 78a-79b; CH 30 [556**
5-10) 83b; BK vi, CH 3 [561*4-562*22] 87c-
88c; BK vi, CH i8-BK vn, CH 12 97,b-114a,c
passim, esp BK vn, CH i 106b,d-108a; BK vm,
CH 30 [6o7b27~33] 133c; BK ix, CH 5 [6^1*31-
b6] 137a; CH 32 [619*16-29] 144d; CH 37 [622*
15-31} 147d; CH 44 [629^7-33] 155a / Parts
of Animals, BK 11, CH 6 [65ib2o-28] 176d;
BK iv, CH 10 [686^5-28] 218a-b / Gait of
Animals, CH u [7iobi2-i8] 248d / Generation
of Animals, BK i, CH 18 (725bi8-25) 265d-
266a; CH 19 [727*2-10] 267a-b; CH 20 [728**
23-34] 268d 269a; BK n, CH 6 282d-287a;
BK iv, CH 2 I(766b27-3i] 308b; CH 6 316c-
1028
(6.
. 6c.Tbcbhkg-
ical characteristic of the stages of lift.)
317d; CH 8 [rfibi5~2$] 3lSd; BK v, CH i [rf&
20-779bi3J 321a-d; [ySo*!^] 322b-d; CH 3
[78ib3o~78i»i9] 324a-b; ctt 3 frS^j-cH 8
J789b2i] 325c-33laic passim / Politics, BK vn,
CH 1 6 {1335*7-34] 540a-b / Rhetoric, BK n,
CH 12 [1389*12-6] ri36b; CH 13 [1390*11-16]
637c; CH 14 [i39ob9-ii] 638a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Injuries of the Head, par 18
'69a-b / Articulations, par 12 96a-b; par 29
99c; par 41 103c-104b; par 52-53 109b-llla;
par -55 llla-c; par 60 113b-d / Aphorisms,
SECT I, par 13-14 131d; SECT n, par 39 133c;
par 53 133d; SECT in, par 3 134a; par 18
134d; par 24-31 135a-b; SECT vi, par 6 140c;
par 30 141a; par 57 141d; SECT vn, par 82
144a / Sacred Disease, 157b-158b
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK n, CH 8, 193a-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [445-
458] 35d-36a; BK iv [1037-1057] 57d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT i 259b,d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART in SUPPL,
Q 70, A i, REP 7 893d-695d
22 CHAUCER: Reeve's Prologue [3862-3896] 224a-b
/ Wife of Bath's Prologue (6051^6062] 2$3b-
264a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 33b-c; 156d-158a,c;
339a-d; 394a-395b; 406c-408b; 429d-430a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT n, sc v [i-
16] 12d-13a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT i, sc n [201-
208) 472a-b / Henry V, ACT v, sc n [167-174]
565a / As You Like It, ACT n, sc vn [137-166]
608d-609a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT n, sen [197-206]
42c-d/ King Lear, ACT i, sc i [2^91 -312] 247c-
d; ACT n, sc iv [148-158] 260a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 281a-2$2c;
300b-c / On Ammal Generation, 352c; 363d-
383c; 391a-c; 449a-454c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xi [527-543] 310b-
311a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK i, 384b-385b
36 SWIFT: Gullwer, PART in, 127a-128a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 336a-b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 306d-307a; 360b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART 11 [11,531-538] 280b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, lld-12a; 219d-
225b passim, csp 219d-220a, 221b-222a;
257c-258a; 377c-381d passim, csp 377d-
378c, 38lc^d; 511a-525a; 562c-563a
51 TOLSTOY; War and Peace, BKV, 209a-c; BK vin,
305b-310d passim; BK x, 391d-394d; BK xm,
584c; 586c; EPILOGUE. i, 659d-660b; 665a-d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 431b-433a; 714a-715b
54 FREUD/ Origin and Dcvdo$ment<"of Psycho-
Analysis, 15a-16c / Sexual Enlightenment of
Children, 119d-120b / General Introduction,
572d-576a passim, esp 573a-b, 574a-c; 579b-
v ^5dOd / Inhibitions, ' Symptoms, and Anxiety,
746c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 770b
THE GREAT IDEAS 6c to 7
7. The causes and occurrence of death: the
transition from life to death
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK xi [215-224] 245b; BK
xvn [200-327] 280a-c
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 223c<d; 225b; 246c / Gorgias,
292d / Republic, BK x, 434c-436a / Timaeus,
471d-472a
8 ARISTOTLE: Soul, BK in, CH 13 [435b4~i9) 668c
' / Youth, Life, and Breathing, CH 4-27 71 5d-
726d
9 ARISTOTLE. History of Animals \ BK i, CH 4
[489*20-22] lOb-c; BK v, CH 20 (553*12-
16] 79d-80a; BK vn, CH 12 [588*7-9] 114c /
Parts of Animals, BK n, CH 7 [653^1-7] 178d-
179a; BK in, CH 4 [66^2-bi^] 195c-d / Gen-
eration of Animals, BK n, CH 5 [74ibi5-24]
282d
10 HIPPOCRATES: Prognostics, par 2-3 19b-20b;
par" 9 21b-c / Regimen in Acute Diseases, AP-
PENDIX, par 9 38b-c / Aphorisms, SECT n, par
44 133c| SECT vi, par 18 140d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [417-
829] 35c-40c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK iv, SECT 5 264b;
BK vi, SECT 28 276c
17 PLOTINUS; First Ennead, TR vi, CH 6, 24a; TR
ix 34b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xm, CH 9-11
363c-365c
19 AQUINAS* Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 119,
A i, REP 4 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS' Summa 'Theologica, PAJRT i-n, Q 72,
A 5, ANS 115a-116b; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; Q 88,
A i, ANS 193a-194b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 156d-157b; 176c-180b;
530a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT n, sc m [1-28]
541a-b
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 276d-278a;
296a-d / On Animal Generation, 407a-b;
433a-c; 493a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 52d-53a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 127c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 4 425b-d;
PROP 39 436b-437a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a /
Social Contract, BK in, 419c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 306d-307a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic)(, 351a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 326b-327a; 383d-
384c
50 MARX: Capital, 122c-124a; 194b-195b; 228d-
229b; 318a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 44b-45b; BK
iv, l$0d-183c; flK x, 406c*4lOc; BK xi, 499c-
500c; BK xn, 558a-562d{ BK xv, 624d-625b;
EPILOGUE i, 650d-651a
52 DOSTOEVSKT: Brothers Karamazo^ BK vi,
149c-150d; BK vi-vn, I70c-177b
54 FREUD: Beyond (he Pleasure Principle, 652b-
653a; 6S4c-657d / Ego and Id, 708d-709a;
' "
8/086
CHAPTER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1029
8. The concern of the living with life and death
8a. The love of life: the instinct of self-preserva-
tion; the life instinct
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:22-24 / Job, 2:4 /
Psalms, 21:4; 34-12-14; 49:6-12; 91:16— (D)
Psalms, 20:5; 33:13-15; 48:7-13; 90:16 / EC-
clesiastes, 9:4-6
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:16-30 / Mar^
10:17-31 / Luke, 10:25-37 /John, 12:25; 15.13
/ / Timothy, 6-17-19 / / Peter, 3:10-11
3 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [189-197] 226c-d /
Alcestts 237a-247a,c csp [629-746] 242c-243c
/ Iphigenta at Auhs [1211-1252] 436a-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 140d-141a; BK
vi, 191a-b; BK vn, 224d-225a; BK ix, 296c-
297a
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK VH,
559b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK ix, CH 9 [i 170*1 3-b8]
423d-424b; BK x, CH 4 [1175*10-22] 429c /
Rhetoric, BK n, CH 13 [i389b32-35] 637b
12 LUCRETIUS- Nature of Things, BK in 30a-
44a,c passim
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK n, SECT n 258a-b
15 TACIIUS: Histories, BK v, 301 d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par n 21d-
22a; BK vm, par 18 57d-58a; par 25 60a /
City of God, BK xix, CH 4, 513a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 75, A
6, ANS 383c-384c
22 CHAUCER: Nun's Priest's Tale [15,282-287]
457b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 86c; 90a; PART n,
115d; 142b-c; 155b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 31d-32c, 184a; 267b-c;
339a-d; 511d-512a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT v, sc iv
[111-132] 465c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACI i, sc in [306-
369] 212b-d / King Lear, ACT v, sc in [184-
186] 281b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 51b-c; 72c-
73a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 25 429a-431a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 156-157 201b-202a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6-8 26b-
27a; CH HI, SECT 16-18 28d-29b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 124a-129a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 238a-239b; 459a-
460a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 250b~d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK i, 2b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331b; 337c;
342d-343a; 343c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 258b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART n, par 127
45b-c; ADDITIONS, 81 128d-129a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [602-807] 16b-21a;
[1544-1626] 37b-39a; PART n [8909-9126]
216b-221b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 144a; 344b-345a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 159d-160a;
BK vi, 262d-263a; BK x, 439b-440a; 457a-c;
461d-464a; BK xi, 527a-b; BK xn, 549c-551c;
558a-562d; EPILOGUE i, 665a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
118b-119a; BK vi, 149c-150d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 92a-b; 198b; 208a-209b;
700b; 709b
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 399b / Instincts, 414d-415b
/ General Introduction, 591d-592c; 607d-608a;
615b-616b; 623b-c / Beyond the Pleasure Prin-
ciple, 651d-662b esp 653a-d, 657c-659a, 659d-
661c; 663c / Ego and Id, 708d-712a passim,
csp 708d-709b, 711c; 717c / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 790a-b; 791a-d / New Introduc-
tory Lectures, 846b-c; 851c-d
8b. The desire for death: the death instinct; the
problem of suicide
OLD TESTAMENT: I Samuel, 31 :4~6— • (D) I Kings,
31 14-6 / 77 Samuel, 17:23— (D) II Kings, 17:23
/ 7 Chronicles, 10:1-6— (D) 7 Paralipomenon,
10:1-6 / Job, 3 csp 3:13-22; 6:8-13; 7:13-16,21;
10-1,18-22; 14:13-14; 16.22-17:1; 17:13-16 —
(D) Job, 3 csp 3-13-22; 68-13; 7.13-16,21;
10-1,18-22; 14:13-14; 16-23-17:1; 17:13-16 /
Proverbs, 8.36; 11:19; 21:6 / Ecclesiastes, 4:2-3;
6:3-5; 7:1-4— (D) Ecclesiastes, 4:2-3; 6:3-5;
7:2-5 / Isaiah, 28:14-18— (D) Isaias, 28:14-18
/ Jeremiah, 8:3; 20:14-18— (D) Jeremtas, 8:3;
20:14-18 /Jonah, 4— (D) Jonas, 4
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:2— (D) OT, Tobias, 4:1 /
Wisdom of Solomon, 1-12-16; 2:23-24— (D)
OT, Boo\ of Wisdom, i -12-16; 2:23-25 /
Ecclesiasticus, 23 14; 30:17, 41-2-3— (D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 23:18-19; 30.17; 41:3-5
NEW TESTAMENT: John, 11:16 / Acts, 20:24 /
Phihppians, 1:20-24 / Revelation, 9:6— (D)
Apocalypse, 9:6
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1297-1415]
lllb-112b / Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248]
125b-c / Antigone [1261-1353] 141d-142d /
Ajax [394-865] 146c-150c / Electra [804-822]
162c-d / Trachimae [871-1278] 177d-181a,c /
Philoctetes [779-809] 189a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [756-761] 209d / Trojan
Women [622-683] 275b-d / Helen [252-305]
300od / Hecuba [218-582] 354d-357d /
Heracles Mad [1088-1393] 374b-377b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 9d-10a; 47c-d;
BK n, 62d-63a; BK v, 160c-d; BK vi, 199c-d;
BK VH, 224d-225a; 245d; BK ix, 303c-304a
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 222a-225c / Laws, BK ix,
753b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK v, CH n [1138*4-13]
386b-c; BK ix, CH 4 [1166^11-13] 419d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK HI [31-93]
30b-31b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i> CH 9 114c-116b;
CH 24 129a-d
1030
THE GREAT IDEAS
to 8r
(8. The concern of the living with life and death.
8b. The desire for death: the death instinct;
the problem of suicide.)
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 29 272d-
273a; BK vni, SECT 47 289b-c; BK ix, SECT 3
291d-292a; BK x, SECT 8 297d-298a
13 VIRGIL; Acneid, BK 11 [634-704] 142a-144a;
BK iv [450-705] 179b-186b; BK xn [593-613]
370a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47a-c / Themistocles,
lOlc-d / Cato the Younger, 646a-647c /
Cleomenes, 668b-d / Marcus Brutus, 81 4d-
815c; 818d-819a; 823b-824a,c / Otho, 875b-
876c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK vi, 92c-d / Histories,
BK n, 227a-228a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR ix 34b-d / Third
Ennead, TR n, CH 8, 87b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vni, par 18 57d-
58a; par 25 60a / City of God, BK i, CH 17-27
140a-146a; BK xm, CH 4 361d-362a; BK xix,
CH 4 511a-513c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [40-45]
15c; xm 17d-19c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
72-74 98a / Pardoner's Tale [12,645-672] 378b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 69d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b<100a; 167a-173d;
294b-297b; 340d-342a; 358b-362a; 511d-512a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT n, sc v [i-
16] 12d-13a; [107-114] 13d-14a / Richard II,
ACT v, sc v [1-41] 349d-350a / Julius Caesar,
ACT i, sc in [89-102] 573c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [129-159]
32d-33a; ACT n, sc n [211-222] 42d, ACT in,
sc i [56-89] 47c-d; ACT v, sc i [1-36] 64c-d;
[241-273] 66d-67b / Othello, ACT i, sc HI
[306-369] 212b-d / King tear, ACT iv, sc vi
[1-79] 273b-274b / Antony and Cleopatra,
ACT iv, sc xv [63-91] 344c-345a; ACT v, sc n
[207-316] 348d-350a / Cymbeline, ACT in,
sc iv [73-101] 467c-d / Sonnets, LXVI 596b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d; PROP 20, SCHOL 430a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [966-1028] 295b-
296b / Samson Agonistes [508-520] 350b-351a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 156-157 201b-202a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 6 26b-c;
CH xiv, SECT 168 64b-c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 127a-128a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 85a-d; 173d-176d esp
175c-d, 176c-d; 182d-184a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 107a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 342d-343a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fell, 95c-96a
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 258b;
269a; 272b-c
44 Bos WELL :Johnson, 214b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART i, par 70
31a; ADDITIONS, 45 123c-d / Philosophy of
History, PART i, 224d-225a; 228b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i {602-807] 16b-21a;
[1544-1626] 37b-39a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 356b-357a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 159d-160a;
BK v, 200c-d; BK VHI, 311a-313a; 337d-338a;
BK xn, 535b-c; 558a-562d
53 JAMES : Psychology, 204b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle 639a-
663d csp 651d-653a, 663c-d / Ego and Id,
708d-709c; 711c-712a; 714c-715a; 716b-717a,c
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 790a-791d /
New Introductory Lectures, 849c-851d esp
851c-d
Sc. The contemplation and fear of death: the
attitude of the hero, the philosopher,
the martyr
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:19 / Numbers, 23:10
/ Deuteronomy, 30.15-20 / // Samuel, 14:14;
22:5-7— (D) II Kings, 14:14; 22:5-7 / I Kings,
2:1-2— (D) III Kings, 2:1-2 / I Chronicles,
29:15— (£>) / Parahpomenon, 29:15 / Job,
6-7; 14; 17; 20.4-11; 21.23-26; 24:22-24;
30:23-24; 34:15 / Psalms, 6 esp 6:5; 13:3;
18.4-6; 23 esp 23:4; 31:12; 39:4-5; 49; 55:4-
8; 88; 89:47-48; 90:5-12; 103:14-16; 115:17;
116 esp 116:3, 116:15; 144-3-4— (D) Psalms,
6 esp 6:6; 12:4; 17:5-7; 22 esp 22:4; 30:13;
38:5-6; 48; 54:5-9; 87; 88:48-49; 89:5-12;
102:14-16; 113*17; 114-115 esp 114*3, 115:15;
143-3-4 / Proverbs, 7:7-27 esp 7:27; 8:36;
10-2; 11-4,19; 1228; 13:14; 14:27,32; 18:21;
30-15-16 / Ecdesiastes, 2:16; 3:1-2,18-21;
7*1 ; 8-8; 9*1-12; n-j-i2:j—(D) Ecdesiastes,
2 16; 3.1-2,18-21; 7-2; 8-8; 9-1-12; 11:7-12:7
/ Song of Solomon, 8.6— (D) Canticle of
Canticles, 8.6 / Isaiah, 9:2; 25:8; 38:10-19;
40 '6-8— (D) Isaias, 9-2; 25:8; 38:10-19;
406-8 / Jeremiah, 9-17-22; 21:8-10 — (D)
Jeremias, 9:17-22; 21:8-10 / Ezetyel, 18:32;
33*11 — (D) Ezechiel, 18:32; 33.11 / Hosea,
13:14— (D) Osee, 13:14 / Haba%u^, 2:5— (D)
Habacuc, 2:5
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:10— (D) OT, Tobias, 4:11
/ Wisdom of Solomon, 1:12-2:5; 2:24-3:6;
4:7-5:23; i6'i4-(D) OT, Boo^ of Wisdom,
1:12-2:5; 2:24-3:6; 4:7-5:24; 16:14 / Ecclesi-
asticus, 8:7; 10:10-11; 14:11-19; 16:30-17:2;
17-27-28; 18:9-12; 22:11-12; 28:18-21; 33:14;
38:16-23; 41 :i-4— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8:8;
10:12-13; 14:11-20; 16:31-17:3; 17:27; 18:8-
n; 22:10-13; 28:22-25; 33:15; 38:16-24;
41:1-7 / Baruch, 2:17— (D) OT, Baruch,
2:17 / // Maccabees, 6:18-7:42— (D) OT,
// Machabees, 6.18-7:42
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:16; 10:28 / Lu^e,
1:79 / John, 5:24; 8:51-59; n esp 11:23-27;
12:24-25; 15:13 / Acts, 7:54-60— (D) Acts,
7:54-59 / Romans, 5-8; 14:7-8 / I Corin-
thians, 15 / // Corinthians, 1:9-10; 4:9-5:9
/ Philip fians, 1:21-24 / / Thessalonians,
4:13-5:11— (D) I Thtssalonians, 4:12-5:11 /
CHAPTER 48: LIFE AND DEATH
1031
// Timothy, mo; 4:6-8 / Hebrews, 2:9-18;
9:27-28 / James, 4:13-16 / / John, 3:14 /
Revelation, 2:10-11; 6:8; 9:6; 14:13; 20*6;
21:4— (D) Apocalypse, 2:10-11; 6:8; 9:6;
14:13; 20:6; 21:4
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK vi [144-151] 41c; [482-493]
45a; BK xn [290-328] 85b-c; BK xvm [65-
126] 130d-131c; BK xix [198-237] 139a-b; BK
xxi [462-467] 153a; BK xxn 155a-160d csp
[289-305] 158b, [355-366] 159a / Odyssey,
BK xi 243a-249d esp [477-489] 247d
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [249-253]
42d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1579-1779]
128c-130a,c / Antigone [332-375] 134a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [756-761] 209d / Alcestis
237a-247a,c / Heracleidae [593-596] 253b /
Suppliants [1108-1113] 268a / Hecuba [342-
582] 355d-357d / Heracles Mad [275-326]
367c-d / Iphtgenia at Auhs 425a-439d esp
[1211-1252] 436a-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 6c-10a; 20b-21a;
BK ir, 64d-65a; BK v, 183b-c; BK vn, 224c-
225a; BK vm, 281d-282a; BK ix, 303c-304a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnestan War, BK n, 395c-
399a esp 397d-398d; 400d-401a
7 PLATO. Laches, 34d / Symposium, 166b-c /
Apology, 205d-206d; 207c-d; 211b-212a,c /
Crito, 215d-216a; 218b-d / Phacdo 220a-251d
csp 230d-235a / Gorgtas, 286b-287c; 292a-b
/ Republic, BK i, 297a-b; BK in, 324c-325b;
BK vi, 374a-d / Seventh Letter, 805d-806a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK in, CH 6-9 361a-364b
esp CH 6 [ni5*24~b6] 361b-c, CH 9 [ni7b7-i5]
364a / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 5 [i382ai9~27] 628b
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK i [102-158]
2b-3a; BK n [569-580] 22b; BK in [31-93]
30b-31b; [830-1094] 40c-44a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 4 108d-
HOa, CH 9 114c-116b; CH 24 129a-d; CH 27
132b-133b; CH 29 134d-138a; BK n, CH i
138b,d-140c; CH 16 156b-158d; BK in, CH 5
180d-181d; CH 22 195a-201a; BK iv, CH i 213a-
223d; CH 4 225a-228a; CH 10 238d-240d
12AuRELius: Meditations, BK n, SECT 11-12
258a-c; SECT 14 258d; SECT 17 259b-d; BK
in, SECT i 259b,d; SECT 3 260b; BK iv, SECT
5 264b; SECT 48 267d-268a; SECT 50 268c;
BK vi, SECT 24 276b; SECT 47 278d; SECT 49
279a; BK vn, SECT 23 281b; SECT 32,35
282a; BK vni, SECT 25 287b-c; SECT 31 287d;
SECT 58 290d; BK ix, SECT 3 291d-292a;
SECT 21 293b-c; BK xn, SECT 35-36 310c-d
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, n [490-493] 65b / Aeneid,
BK vi 211a-235a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 139c / Pelopidas, 232a-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xi, lOla-b; BK xv,
172c-173d; BK xvi, 180c-d; 181d-182a; 183d-
184a,c / Histories, BK n, 226d-228a; BK in,
256a-c
17PL.OT1NUS: First Ennead, TR iv, CH 16 18d-
19b; TR vi, CH 6, 24a-b; TR vn, CH 3 26d-27a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv» par 7-14 20d-
23a; BK vi, par 18-19 40d-41b; BK vni, par 18
57d-58a; par 25 50a; BK ix, par 23-37 68a-
71b / City of God, BK i, CH n 136d-137a; BK
ix, CH n 291b; BK xin, CH 4 361d-362a;
CH 7-8 362d-363c; BK xix, CH 8 515c-516a
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 61,
A 3, ANS 56b-57a; PART in SUPPL, Q 96, A 6
1058a-1061b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [3017-3056] 209b-
210a / Second Nun's Tale [15,787-800] 467a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 79c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-10a; 26d-36b; 99b-
lOOa; 115b-121c; 124c-125a; 167a-173d; 176c-
180b; 211b-212a; 294b-297b; 327d-329d;
339a-d; 365b-366b; 402c-403c; 404d-405a;
470b-c; 473d-477b; 503b-504c; 508a-512a;
529c-530c; 535c-536a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT n, sc v
[1-32] 12d-13a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT v, sc n
[5-28] lOOa-b / Richard HI, ACT i, sc iv 114d-
117c / Romeo and Juliet, ACT iv, sc v [1-95]
312d-314a; ACT v, sc in [74-222] 316c-318b
/ Richard II, ACT in, sc n [144-177] 337a-b /
1st Henry IV, ACT v, sc iv [111-132] 465c /
Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc n [32-37] 578c;
ACT in, sc i [98-110] 581c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [68-106]
32b-c; ACT in, sc i [56-90] 47c-d; ACT iv,
sc in [20-33] 58a-b; ACT v, sc i [83-129]
65b-d; [202-322] 66c-67d / Measure for
Measure, ACT in, sc i [1-43] 186d-187a; [117-
136] 188a-b / Othello, ACT v, sc n [7-15]
239a / Macbeth, ACT i, sc iv [i-n] 287b;
ACT v, sc in [19-28] 307d; sc v [19-28] 308d-
309a / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT iv, sc xv
[63-91] 344c-345a; ACT v, sc n [207-316]
348d-350a / Pericles, ACT i, sc i [41-55] 422b
/ Cymbeline, ACT iv, sc n [203-332] 475b-
476d; ACT v, sc iv [3-29] 481a-b; [152-215]
482d-483b / Tempest, ACT iv, sc i [146-158]
543b / Sonnets, LXXXI 598c-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 237b-c;
267a-b; 280b-c; 366d-367a, 427a-429d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 26a-c; 73d-
74a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 67 444d-
445a; PART v, PROP 38-39 461d-462c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [782-844] 291b-
292b
33 PASCAL: Penstes, 63 180a; 166,168-169 203a;
199 210b; 210 211b; 215-216 212a; 481 257b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 388a-399b; 459a-
460a; 466b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 86c-88b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 94a-b; 186a; 217d-
220d esp 219c-220d; 327d-328a; 375b-376c;
645c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 238c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 258b;
269a
1032
THE GREAT IDEAS
(8. The concern of the living with life and death.
8c. Tbt contemplation and J ear of death:
the attitude of the hero, the philosopher,
the martyr.)
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 93d-94b; 102b; 167a;
169d; 174b-c; 238b; 347a-c; 394a-c; 399d-
400a; 573b-574a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 197c-
d; PART i, 245b-d; 255a-257a; PART iv,
339b-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1544-1626] 37b-39a;
PART ii [8909-9126] 216b-221b; [11,384-401]
277a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 27a-28a; 168a-169b;
209b; 238a; 316a-b; 318b; 331a-332a; 351a-b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 311a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 34b-c; 37d-
47b; BK n, 77c-81b; 97a-106d; BK in, 146d-
147c; BK iv, 179b-180d; BK v, 194c-d;
200c-d; 216d-218b; 226d-227a, BK vn,
288b-c; BK vni, 311a-313a; BK ix, 369a-
372a; BK x, 416c-417b; 433d-434a; 439b-
440a; 457a-c; 461d-464a; BK xi, 481a-482a;
BK xn, 549c-551c; 558a-562d; BK xm, 569d-
570a; BK xiv, 607c-608d; BK xv, 614a-618b;
636c-637c
52 DOSTORVSKY: Brothers Karama zov, BK n, 26a;
BK v, 118b-119a; BK vi, 148d-150d csp 149c-
150d
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 243a-c / Ego
and Id, 716c-717a,c / Inhibitions, Symptoms,
and Anxiety, 735d-736b / War and Death,
761c-766d
Qd. The ceremonials of death: the rites of
burial in war and peace
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 23; 49:1-50.13 /
Leviticus, 19:28; 21:1-5 / Deuteronomy, 14 i-
2; 33 / // Samuel, 1:17-27; 3:31-36— (D)
II Kings, 1:17-27; 3:31-36 / II Chronicles,
16:13-14— (D) II Paralipomenon, 16:13-14 /
Isaiah, 3:16-26; 15:1-4— (D) Isaias, 3:16-26,
15:1-4 / Jeremiah, 16:6 — (D) ]eremias, 16:6
/ Ezekiel, 7:18; 24.16-23— (D) Ezechiel, 7:18;
24:16-23 / Amos, 8:10
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 22-11-12; 38:16-23
— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 22:10-13; 38:16-22
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8:21-22; 27:57-60
/ Marf(, 15:43-16:1 / Lu^e, 23:50-24:1 /
John, 19:38-42 /James, 5:14-15
4 HOMER: lltad, BK xi [446-455] 76d-77a; BK
xix [198-237] 139a-b; BK xxn [247-272]
157d-158a; BK xxm-xxiv 161a-179d / Odys-
sey, BK xi [51-80] 243c-d; BK xxiv [1-190]
317a-319a
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1579-1779]
128c-130a,c / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax
[1040-1421] 152a-155a,c / Electra [404-471]
159b-d / Trachiniac [1191-1278] 180b-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a 269a,c / Trojan
Women [1123-1255] 279c-280c / Phoenician
Maidens [1625-1670] 392 b-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 38a-b; BK n, 65c-
66c; BK in, 94b-c; BK iv, 128c-d; 136a-d;
157c; BK v, 160d-161a; BK vi, 196b-c; BK vn,
235b-c; BK ix, 293a; 305a-c; 306b-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Pelopomesian War, BK n, 395c-
399a; 400c-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK v, 367b / Laws, BK xn,
793a-794a
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [451-558] 95b-99a /
Aeneid, BK in [60-68] 148b-149a; BK iv [474-
705] 180a-186b; BK vi [212-235] 216b-217b;
[295-383] 219a-221a; BK ix [207-223] 284b-
285a; BK x [898-908] 327a; BK xi [182-212]
333a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46a-b / Numa Pom-
pihus, 55b-c / Pophcola, 80d; 86a,c / Corio-
lanus, 192c-d / Pelopidas, 245a-d / Pompey,
537d-538a,c / Alexander, 574c-575a / Cato
the Younger, 623c-624a / Demetrius, 747c-d /
Marcus Brutus, 810b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK i, 3c-4a; BK m, 45d-
46a; BK xvi, 177b-c
18 AUGUSTINE- City of God, BK i, CH 12-13 137a-
138b; BK vni, CH 26-27 283c-285d
20 AQUINAS' Summa Theologica, PART in, Q 65,
A i, ANS 879c-881d; A 2, ANS and REP 5 881d-
882c; A 3, ANS 882d-883d; PART in SUPPL, Q
71 900d-917b
22 CHAUCER. Knight's Tale [859~ioo4]'l74a-176b
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 5a-10a; 32b-c; 36a-b;
405a-c; 473d-477b; 483b-484a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT v, sc iv
[77-101] 465a-b / Julius Caesar, ACT v, sc v
[76-81] 596c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT v, sc i [1-35]
64c-d; [241-266] 66d-67a/ Cymbeline> ACT iv,
sc n [186-290] 475a-476b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 427d-
429d
32 MILTON: Epitaph on the Marchioness of Win-
chester 14a-15b / On Shafyspear. 1630 16a /
On the University Carrier 16b / Another on the
Same 17a-b / Lycidas 27b-32a / Death of a
Fair Infant 57a-59a esp [1-21] 57a-b / Sonnets,
xiv-xv 66a-b; xix 67b-68a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 34d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 263a; 381a-d;
513b; 568d-569a
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, 193a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 197c-d;
PART i, 211d-212c; 252a-c; 255a-257a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^, 25b-28a; 350b-354b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 38b; 43b-44b;
BK xi, 512a-b; BK xn, 549d-551c; BK xv,
624d-625b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vn,
171a-c
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 510b-c / War
and Death, 762a-b
1033
For; Tlic doctrine of soul as the principle of fife, see ANIMAL ia, ic; Sopt ib.
The general issue concerning continuity or hierarchy in nature, we ANIMAL ib~ic» 2c;
EVOLUTION 43, 40, jb; MAN t-ic^ 8b-8c; NATURE 3b; WORLD 6b.
The contrast between the powers and activities of living and non-living bodies, see ANIMAL
43; CHANGE 6c, 8a-8b, pa-ojb, ioa-iob; and for other discussions of the distinctive pbwers
of plant, animal, and human life, see ANIMAL ia(i)-ia(4), ic-ic(2), 8d; MAN i-ic» 4a~4C,;
i SOUL 2c-2c(3),
The anatomical and physiological considerations relevant to the analysis of vital powers and
operations, see ANIMAL 3~3d, 40-4^ 5a~5g, 6a~7, 8b-8c(^).
Discussions of animal sensitivity and intelligence, see ANIMAL ia(i), ic(i) ; MAN ic; MEMORY
AND IMAGINATION i; MIND 3a~3b; SENSE 2D-2C.
Other considerations of health and disease, see MEDICINE 4, 5a~5d.
A discussion of the human life cycle, see MAN 6c.
Other discussions of man's attitude toward death, see HAPPINESS 4b; IMMORTALITY i ; and for
matters relevant to the special problem of the life and death instincts, see ANIMAL id;
DESIRE 33; HABIT 33.
Another discussion of sleeping and waking, see ANIMAL 13(5).
Another discussion of the relation between the living organism and its environment, see
ANIMAL nb.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
VOLTAIRE,
*" E. DARWIN
;. "Life," in A Philosophical Dictionary
IN. The Loves of the Plants
DANTE. Comnvio (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE, BICHAT. General Anatomy, Applied to Physiology and
CH 8 Medicine
F. BACON. "Of Death," "Of Youth and Age," in BRYANT. Thanatopsis
Essays SHELLEY. Adonais
GOETHE. William Metster HAZLITT. Table Tal^ xxxm
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, v, A (2) LAMB. "New Year's Eve," in Essays ofElia
. Science of Logic, VOL n, SECT HI, CH i COMTE, The Positive Philosophy, BK v
DOSTOEVSKY. The House of the Dead SCHWANN. Microscopical Researches into the Ac-
TOLSTOY. Three Deaths cordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals
. Memoirs of a Madman and Plants
. The Death of Ivan llyitch WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,
VOL I, BK IX
"• R. BROWNING. The Bishop Orders His Tomb at
EPICURUS. Letter to Menoeceus Saint Praxed's
CICERO. Tusculan Disputations, i EMERSON. Threnody
. De Senectute (Of Old Age) SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL
SUAREZ, Disputationes Mctaphysicae, xxx (14) m, SUP, CH 42
CALDER6N. Life Is a Dream . On the Doctrine of the Indestructibility of Our
KING* The Exequy True Nature by Death
BROWNE. Hydriotaphia . "On Suicide," in Studies in Pessimism
GRAY. Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK i
1034
THE GREAT IDEAS
VIRCHOW. Cellular Pathology
BERNARD. Introduction to Experimental Medicine
STEVENSON. "/E$ Triplex," in Virginibus Puerisque
T. H. HUXLEY. Methods and Results, HI
WEISMANN. "Life and Death," in VOL i, Essays
upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems
TENNYSON. Crossing the Bar
FRAZER. The Golden Bought PART HI; PART v, CH
13; PART VI, CH 7
HERTWIG. The Cell
PEARSON. The Chances of Death
ANDREYEV. Lazarus
DRIESCH. The Science and Philosophy of the Or-
ganism
LOEB. The Mechanistic Conception of Life
JOYCE. Dubliners, esp "The Dead"
OSLER. A Way of Life
UNAMUNO. Mist
D. W. THOMPSON. On Growth and Form
BEROSON. Creative Evolution
BERG SON. Mind-Energy, CH i
UEXKULJL. Theoretical Biology , ,
J. S. HALDANE and J. G. PRIESTLEY. Respiration
PEARL. The Biology of Death
LILLIE. Protoplasmic Action and Nervous Action
SANTAYANA. Scepticism and Animal Faith, crt 23
DBWEY. Experience and Nature, CH 7
JUNG. Spirit and Life
G. N. LEWIS. The Anatomy of Science, ESSAY VIH
HENDERSON- Blood
J. S. HALDANE. Mechanism, Life and Personality
. The Sciences and Philosophy, LECT i-vi
WOODGER. Biological Principles
CANNON. The Wisdom of the Body
GOLDSTEIN. The Organism
WHITEHEAD. Modes of Thought, LECT VIH
SHERRINGTON. The Integrative Action of the Nervous
System
. Man on His Nature
SCHRODINGER. What Is Life?
Chapter 49: LOGIC
INTRODUCTION
TN this set of great books, the Organon of Aris-
JL totle, the Novum Organum of Bacon, Des-
cartes' Discourse on Method and his Rules for the
Direction of the Mind, and Kant's Critique of
Pure Reason indicate or discuss the nature, scope
and divisions of the discipline which has come
to be called * logic." Though of all the works
mentioned the Organon is perhaps the most ex-
tensive treatment of the subject, Aristotle does
not use the word "logic" to name the science or
art of which he seems to be the inventor—cer-
tainly the first systematic expounder — in the
tradition of western thought.
Here as elsewhere Aristotle is indebted to his
predecessors for providing him with materials
to develop or criticize: to the sophists for the
construction of arguments, for the formulation
of methods of disputation, and for the discov-
ery of fallacies; to Plato for the theory of classi-
fication and definition, for the root notion of
the syllogism and a conception of proof or
demonstration, for the general outlines of an
intellectual method to which Pkto gives the
name * 'dialectic."
As indicated in the chapter on DIALECTIC,
Aristotle uses Plato's name for the whole
method of the mind in the pursuit of truth, in
order to designate just one part of his method,
the part concerned with probability rather than
truth. Yet in the Roman and mediaeval tradi-
tion, the words ^logic" and "dialectic" come
to be used interchangeably. This is exemplified
by the Stoic division of the sciences into phys-
ics, ethics, and logic or dialectic, and by the
mediaeval enumeration of the liberal arts of the
trivium as grammar, rhetoric, ancl logic or dia-
lectic. So used, these names designate the whole
range of discussion to be found in Aristotle's
Organon.
In their opposition to Aristotelian or what
they sometimes .call "scholastic" logic, modern
inventors of new methods, like Bacon or Des-
cartes, tend to restrict the meaning of logic.
For them logic is little more than the doctrine
of the syllogism. And this they judge to be no
part of genuinely fruitful method, or they hold
it to be of use mainly as a critical instrument in
disputation rather than discovery. Their iden-
tification of logic with dialectic (like their as-
sociation of both with rhetoric) seems to have
an intentionally invidious significance.
But with Kant, who was influenced by the
scholasticism of Christian Wolff, "logic" is gen-
erally restored as the name for the whole range
of materials in Aristotle's Organon, of which
dialectic again becomes a part. In his own Intro-
duction to Logic, Kant speaks of Aristotle as
"the father of Logic." Though "logic has not
gained much in extent since Aristotle's time,"
he says, "there are two amongst more recent
philosophers who have again brought general
logic into vogue, Leibnitz and Wolff." Since
their day, and certainly since Kant's, as may be
seen from the tides listed under Additional
Readings, "logic" prevails as the name for
treatises which discuss, in whole or part, the
matters treated in Aristotle's Organon.
"Logic" is also used in modern times as the
name for an inquiry or study which bears little
resemblance to the discipline expounded in
Aristotle's Organon. What is called "modern
logic" to distinguish it from the traditional
Aristotelian or scholastic logic, is purely a sci-
ence, and in no sense an organon, methodology,
instrument, or art. It doe* not restrict itself to
stating the laws of thought or formulating the
rules of inference. In the words of Josiah Royce,
it is "the science of order" and it is applicable
-to the order of things as well as the order of
thought. So conceived, the science of logic
is sometimes regarded as having the kind of
generality which is traditionally assigned to
1035
1036
THE GREAT IDEAS
metaphysics; as, for example, by Bertrand
Russell in his essay, "Logic as the Essence of
Philosophy."
But it is mathematics rather than metaphys-
ics with which logic is identified by its modern
exponents. "Logistic or mathematical logic,"
writes Russell, "is mathematical in two differ-
ent senses: it is itself a branch of mathematics,
and it is the logic which is specially applicable
to other more traditional branches of mathe-
matics." Since Boole's Laws of Thought, which,
according to Russell, initiates the modern de-
velopment of mathematical logic, "logic has
become more mathematical and mathematics
has become more logical. The consequence,"
he says, "is that it has now become wholly im-
possible to draw a line between the two; in fact,
the two are one."
ARISTOTLE'S Organon stands to the tradition of
logic as Euclid's Elements stands to the tradition
of geometry. In both cases the work of later
minds may alter considerably the structure and
content of the discipline. In both cases there are
modern departures from the earlier tradition.
As in the one case we have Descartes' analytical
geometry and the various non-Euclidean geom-
etries, so in the other we have Kant's trrnscen-
dental logic and the various non- Aristotelian
logics.
But all these innovations, even when they
might be described as anti- Aristotelian rather
than simply as non* Aristotelian, bear the marks
of their traditional origin. Kant, for example,
takes pains everywhere to indicate the parallel-
ism between the formulations of his transcen-
dental logic and those of Aristotle's logic. Even
the various systems of relational and mathe-
matical logic usually attempt to show that the
Aristotelian logic of subject and predicate, of
particularand universal propositions, and of syl-
logisms can be treated as a special case under
their own formulations. The proposals of Bacon
or Mill with respect to induction and the
method of Descartes, though accompanied in
each case by a critique of the syllogism, are less
radical departures, for they do not apparently
reject Aristotle's basic doctrines of predication
and proof.
Many of these issues in logical theory are dealt
with in other chapters, e.g., in DIALECTIC, IN-
DUCTION, and HYPOTHESIS, in IDEA, JUDGMENT,
and REASONING. Here we are principally con-
cerned with the conception of logic itself, not
with the detailed content of the science as much
as with its character as an art or science, its re-
lation to other arts and sciences, its major divi-
sions, and its leading principles. Though such
considerations are more explicitly treated by
Kant than by Aristotle, the formative influence
of the Organon warrants examining it first.
THE PARTS OF LOGIC, as Aristotle conceives
them, seem to be indicated by the subject mat-
ter of the various books which comprise the col-
lection of writings assembled under the title of
Organon. That title has a bearing on the ques-
tion whether logic is a science or an art and on
its difference from other sciences and arts. The
word "organon" has the meaning of instrument
or method. That in turn suggests something to
be used as rules of art are used— as directions
to be followed to produce a certain result.
Aristotle's own differentiation of the specu-
lative sciences, the practical sciences, and the
arts throws light on this view of logic as an art.
"The end of theoretical knowledge," he writes,
"is truth, while that of practical knowledge is
action." In other words, the theoretical, or spec-
ulative, sciences differ from the practical sci-
ences in that they are knowledge for its own
sake as opposed to knowledge for an ulterior
end. According as the ulterior end is the pro-
duction or "making" of something, as distinct
from human action or conduct, art is distinct
from the other practical sciences. "Making and
acting are different," Aristotle says; "the rea-
soned state of capacity to act is different from
the reasoned state of capacity to make. Hence,
too, they are not included one in the other; for
neither is acting making nor is making acting."
Logic, then, if it is an art, will be concerned
with the "making" of something, with pro-
ducing a work or an effect.
The way in which Aristotle himself refers to
the Organon seems to confirm this view. He re-
gards it as a preparation for work in the theo-
retic sciences. "Due to a want of training in
logic," he writes, some men attempt to discuss
the criteria of truth in mathematics or physics
at the same time that they are considering the
subject matter of these sciences. "They should
CHAFER 49: LOGIC
1037
know these things already when they come to a
special study, and not be inquiring into them
while they are listening to lectures on it."
Logic, in Aristotle's* view, trains the mind in
the ways of science. Its productive goal as an art
is the making of science itself. For this reason,
in the mediaeval period, logic comes to be called
a "speculative art" or, with grammar and rhet-
oric, a liberal art.
"Even in speculative matters," Aquinas says,
"there is something by way of work, £.£., the
making of a syllogism, or of a fitting speech, or
the work of counting or measuring. Hence what- •
ever habits are ordained to such works of the
speculative reason are, by a kind of comparison,
called arts indeed, but liberal arts, in order to
distinguish them from those arts that are or-
dained to works done by the body. . . . On the
other hand, those sciences which are not or-
dained to any such work are called sciences ab-
solutely and not arts."
But though it may not be a science, abso-
lutely speaking, because it is an instrument of in-
tellectual work, logic, in addition to being an
art, may also have some of the characteristics of
a science. If it is a science, what is the object of
its knowledge ?
Aristotle's division of the speculative sci-
ences, which he seems to present as exhaustive,
leaves no place for logic. "There are three kinds
of theoretical sciences," he writes, "physics,
mathematics, theology" or metaphysics, as the
last came to be called. Each of these sciences,
furthermore, seems to have a distinctive sub-
ject matter which is some aspect of reality, such
as change, or quantity, or being. But insofar as
logic is concerned with the study of terms, prop-
ositions, and syllogisms, it deals with elements
common to all sciences.
This suggests that whereas reality is the ob-
ject of the other sciences, the object of logic as
a science is science itself, or more generally the
whole of discourse. It considers the elements or
patterns of discourse in a formal manner; that
is, it considers them apart from their reference
to reality or their real significance as the terms,
propositions, and syllogisms of particular sub-
ject matters or sciences. Because it separates the
forms which discursive thought takes from the
matter or content it may have, logic is tradi-
tionally called a "formal science."
WHERE ARISTOTLE makes his object the ele-
ments of discourse (or thought expressed in Ian*
guage), later logicians treat the formal aspect of
thought itself. They deal with concepts, judg-
ments, and reasoning instead of with terms,
propositions, and syllogisms. This difference re"
suits in a definition of logic as the science of
thought; the basic formulations of logic are the
laws of thought. Thus, for example, Kant says
that logic "treats of nothing but the mere forms
of thought," Its limits "are definitely fixed by
the fact that it is a science which has nothing to
do but fully to exhibit and strictly to prove all
formal rules of thought."
The logical principles of identity, excluded
middle, and contradiction, as well as the prin-
ciples of inference, are said to be "laws of
thought." James proposes as the most "funda-
mental principle of inference" what he calls
the "axiom of skipped intermediaries," which
states that "slipping intermediary terms leaves
relations the same." That "equals of equals are
equal" is a special application of this principle
in the sphere of quantities. Because it applies to
all subject matters equally, James regards the
principle as "on the whole the broadest and
deepest law of man's thought."
In either conception of logic as a formal sci-
ence, questions arise concerning the relation of
logic to other sciences. For Anstotle the ques-
tion is about logic and metaphysics, because
both seem to have an unrestricted scope. Meta-
physics considers the being of everything which
is; logic, the formal components of discourse
about anything. Aristotle says of philosophy in
relation to dialetic, that both "embrace all
things" but that "dialectic is merely critical
where philosophy claims to know." The same
comparison could apply to metaphysics and
logic. Both "embrace all things" but not from
the same point of view.
Aristotle also asks whether it belongs to
metaphysics as well as to logic to inquire "into
the truths which are called axioms" — especially
those which are the first principles of all knowl-
edge or demonstration, not merely the founda-
tions of knowledge about some limited subject
matter. "Since these truths clearly hold good
for all things qua being," the science which
studies being qua being (*'.*., metaphysics) must
be concerned with them. It also belongs to
1038
THE GREAT IDE'AS
metaphysics as wcfl as to logic "to inquire into
the principles of the syllogism."
The principles of identity, excluded middle,
and contradiction belong to both sciences*— to
the one as the most universal truths about ex-
istence, to the other as the basic rules of dis-
course or the laws of thought. This sharing of a
common ground does not seem to Aristotle to
violate their scparatcness; but Bacon charges
him with having * 'corrupted natural philosophy
by logic." Of Aristotle's physics, he says that it
is built of "mere logical terms," and, Bacon
adds, Aristotle "remodelled the same subject in
his metaphysics under a more imposing title."
Whereas Aristotle considers the relation of
logic to metaphysics, Kant considers its relation
to psychology. Both logic and psychology arc
concerned with thinking and knowing. Distin-
guishing between pure and applied logic, Kant
says that pure logic "has nothing to do with
empirical principles and borrows nothing from
psychology." Applied logic depends on psy-
chology. In fact, says Kant in his Introduction to
Logic, it is "a psychology in which we consider
what is the usual process in our thought, not
what is the right one." Applied logic ought not
to be called logic at all, for "logic is the science
of the right use of the understanding and the
reason generally, not subjectively, that is, not
according to empirical (psychological) princi-
ples, as to how the understanding actually
thinks, but objectively, that is, according to a
priori principles, as to how it ought to think."
fames also insists upon the distinction be-
tween psychology and logic. He even uses Kant's
terms in calling logic an a priori and psychology
an empirical science. What thepsychologistcalls
"laws of thought," such as the laws of the asso-
ciation of ideas, describe the actual flow of
thought and connections which depend upon
similarity and succession. The laws of logic, in
contrast, state reason's perceptionof the rational
structure of thought itself and the relations
which must obtain if thought is to be rational.
RETURNING NOW to the indication of the parts
of logic which may be found in the structure of
the Organon* we can see two orders in the books.
The first three books — the Categories, On Inter-
prctationy and the Prior Analytics— deal with
terms, propositions, and syllogisms: with the
classification of terms and their relation to o
another; with the classification of propositic
and their opposition to one another; with t
analysis of the various types of syllogisms ai
the formulation of the 'rules of valid inferem
Terms are the elements of propositions; ten
and propositions arc the elements of the syll
gism. This seems to determine the order of t
first three books.
The first three books as a whole stand ir
certain order to the remaining books. Taki
the latter as a group, their differentiation frc
• what precedes them seems to lie in the fact th
they deal with terms, propositions, and syll
gisms, not abstracted from all considerations
knowledge and truth about reality, but rath
with primary emphasis upon the logic of acti
knowledge, or on the processes of knowing ai
arguing about what is true or probable. In t
traditional development of Aristotelian log
this division between the first three and the i
maining books of the Organon is sometim
characterized as a distinction between forrr*
and material logic.
In the Posterior Analytics and the Topics Ar
totle considers the discovery and establishme
of either the true or the probable. He disti
guishes between induction and syllogism (or re
soning) as modes of learning and arguing. T
later division of logic into deductive and indu
tive — sometimes confused with the distincti*
between formal and material logic — does n
seem to correspond to the difference betwei
the Prior and the Posterior Analytics. In the A
vancement of 'Learning, for example, Bacon c
vides the art of judgment, "which treats oft!
nature of proof or demonstration," into th
which concludes by induction and that whi<
concludes by syllogism; whereas Aristotle a
pears to treat induction as that upon which S)
logistic demonstration depends for its prima
and indemonstrable premises.
The distinction between truth and probab
ity, or between knowledge and opinion, do
not affect the formal character of either indu
tion or syllogism. A syllogism may be scientil
(i.e., demonstratively certain) or dialectical (/'.<
merely probable) according to the character i
its premises. In either case its formal structu
remains the same. Similarly, the difference b
tween scientific and dialectical induction a
CHAPTER 49; LOQIC
1039
pears only in its result* *.*., whether it is knowl-
edge Of opinion. The Posterior Analytics and the
Topics consider the employment of both syllo-
gism and induction. The Posterior Analytics
treats them in relation to the development and
structure of scientific knowledge. The fopics
discusses them in relation to the dialectical pro-
cedures of argument and discovery.
The last book of the Organon, which is con-
cerned with exposing the fallacies in sophistical
proofs or refutations, serves to protect both sci-
entific and dialectical reasoning from such soph-
istry. Unlike the philosopher or the dialectician, ,
the sophist does not aim at the truth. Sophistry
misuses the weapons of logic — the same weap-
ons used by the scientist or dialec tician — to pro-
duce a counterfeit of wisdom or, as Aristotle
says, "a wisdom which exists only in semblance."
Though the dialectician cannot claim to know,
he does, nevertheless, deal with opinions criti-
cally and respects the canons of logic as much as
the philosopher.
The art of logic seems to have three main em-
ployments. To its use by the scientist and the
dialectician, Aristotle adds its utilization by the
orator for the purposes of persuasion. The rhet-
orician and the dialectician are most closely al-
lied because both deal with probabilities and
disputable matters concerning which opposite
conclusions can be drawn. "As in dialectic, there
is induction on the one hand and syllogism. . .
on the other, so it is in rhetoric." Aristotle says
that "the enthymeme is a rhetorical syllogism,
and the example a rhetorical induction."
The foregoing suggests that a certain order
obtains between two of the three arts tradition-
ally called the trwium* The elements and prin-
ciples of logic are, in a sense, prior to the rules
of rhetoric. The art of rhetoric depends on and
uses logic. The third art, that of grammar, seems
to serve both logic and rhetoric. It serves the
logician in his task of forming terms and propo-
sitions out of words, phrases, and sentences. It
serves the rhetorician in his effort to make a
forceful use of language. This conception of the
uses of grammar appears in Aristotle's Rhetoric
in, his consideration of style, and in the opening
books of the Organon in his discussion of univ-
ocal and equivocal names, the parts of speech,
simple and composite expressions, aad the dif-
ferent types o( sentences.
KANT SEEMS TO diverge from Aristotle both
with regard to the unity of logic and with re*
gard to the nature and relation of its parts.
Formal or elementary logic, Kant thinks, is not
the same as an organon of the sciences. He ex-
plains, in his Introduction to Logic, that an or-
ganon gives instruction as to "how some partic-
ular branch of knowledge is to be attained* , » .
An organon of the sciences is therefore not a
mere logic, since it presupposes the accurate
knowledge of the objects and sources of the sci-
ences. . . . Logic, on the contrary, being the gen-
eral propaedeutic of every use of the understand-
ing and of the reason, cannot meddle with the
sciences and anticipate their matter." Conced-
ing that it may be called an organon so far as it
serves,"not for the enlargement, but only for the
criticism and correction vi our knowledge," Kant
insists that "logic is not a general art of discov-
ery, nor an organon of truth; it is not an algebra
by the help of which hidden truths may be dis-
covered."
Aristotle, according to Kant, treats the whole
of his logic as an organon, dividing it into an
analytical and a dialectical part. As Kant sees
it, the dialectical part arises from a misuse of
the analytical part. This occurs, he says in the
Critique of Pure Reason, when general or ele-
mentary logic (i.e., the analytic part) "which is
meant to be a mere canon of criticism, is em-
ployed as if it were an organon, for the real pro-
duction of at least the semblance of objective
assertions. . . . This general logic," says Kant,
"which assumes the semblance of an organon, is
called dialectic."
Kant here seems to identify dialectic with
what Aristotle calls sophistry. He says of dialec-
tic that "different as are the significations ir
which the ancients use this name of a science 01
art, it is easy to gather from its actual employ-
ment that with' them it was nothing but a logic
of semblance. It was a sophistic art of giving tc
one's ignorance, nay, to one's intentional casu-
istry, the outward appearance of truth, by imi
tatmg the accurate method which logic always
requires." When logic is treated as an organon,
it "is always an illusive logic, that is, dialectical,
For as logic teaches nothing with regard to the
contents of knowledge . . .any attempt a tusin^
it as an organon in order to extend and enlarge
our knowledge, at least in appearance, can end
1040
THE GREAT IDEAS
in nothing but mere talk, by asserting with a
certain plausibility any thing one likes, or, if one
likes, denying it."
Yet Kant himself retains Analytic and Dialec-
tic as the major divisions of his own transcen-
dental logic, explaining that he employs the title
of dialectic, not for the misuse of logic, but rather
to signify that portion of logic which is the
critique of "dialectical semblance" or sophistry.
General or ordinary logic takes no account of
the content of knowledge and applies to all ob-
jects universally because "it treats of the form
of thought in general," Transcendental logic
docs not entirely ignore the content of knowl-
edge, but only the content of that knowledge
which is empirical in origin. If there are tran-
KtAdcntalor a priori concepts which donot orig-
inate from experience, then there can be a sci-
ence which treats "of that knowledge which be-
longs to the pure understanding, and by which
we may think objects entirely a priori"
That is the science Kant calls "transcendental
Logic." It deals, he writes, "with the laws of the
understanding and reason in so far only as they
refer a priori to objects." That part of it "which
teaches the elements of the pure knowledge of
the understanding, and the principles without
which no object can be thought, is the tran-
scendental Analytic." The second part of it is
the transcendental Dialectic— "a critique of the
understanding and reason with regard to their
hyperphysical employment, in order thus to lay
bare the false semblance of its groundless pre-
tensions . . . serving as a protection of the pure
understanding against all sophistical illusions."
THE ISSUE between Kant and Aristotle cannot
be understood if it is read simply as a dispute
about the nature and divisions of logic. Their
diverse views of logic must be seen against the
larger background of their philosophical differ-
ences with regard to the nature of the mind, the
nature of reality, the origin of knowledge, and
the character of its objects. Controversies about
logic (and even within logic, about this or that
theory of judgment or reasoning) usually reflect
fundamental issues in psychology and meta-
physics. The attack made by some modern lo-
gicians, for example, against the subject-predi-
cate logic of Aristotle cannot be separated from
their rejection of his doctrine of substance and
accident in physics and metaphysics; even as
their own relational logic represents a different
view of the structure of reality or the constitu-
ents ot experience.
On the other hand, the criticism of Aristo-
telian logic by Bacon and Descartes seems to be
motivated primarily by considerations of meth-
od. They do not have a different logic to pro-
pose, as do Kant and later symbolic or mathe-
matical logicians. Rather for them logic itself—
by which they mean Aristotle's logic and par-
ticularly his doctrine of the syllogism— appears
- useless for the purposes of enlarging knowledge,
discovering new truths, and developing the
sciences. Where Kant criticizes Aristotle for re-
garding logic as an organon or method for ac-
quiring knowledge, Bacon and Descartes com-
plain that logic does not serve that purpose at
all, and therefore a novum organum — not a new
logic, but a new method— is needed.
"The present system of logic is useless for the
discovery of the sciences," Bacon writes. It
"rather assists in confirming and rendering in-
veterate the errors founded on vulgar notions
than in searching after truth, and is therefore
more hurtful than useful." The syllogism, for
example, "is unequal to the subtlety of nature.
. . . Our only hope is in genuine induction."
Induction is the key to an art of discovery, and
the rules of induction the heart of a fruitful
method of inquiry.
The relation of induction to demonstration
in Aristotle's logic, and the difference between
Aristotle's and Bacon's theories of induction,
are discussed in the chapter on that subject. In
Bacon's view, the Novum Organum departs rad-
ically from the old Organon. The new can be
substituted for the old in its entirety. It may be
asked, he says, "whether we talk of perfecting
natural philosophy alone according to our meth-
od, or the other sciences also, such as logic, eth-
ics, politics." His answer is that "as common
logic, which regulates matters by syllogisms, is
applied not only to natural, but also to every
other science, so our inductive method like-
wise comprehends them all,"
Demonstration is opposed not only to induc-
tion, but to discovery. Accordingly, logic con-
ceived as concerned only with the rules of dem-
onstration is opposed to other methods which
aim at directing scientific inquiry and research.
CHAPTER 49: LOGIC
1041
The basic contrast is between criticism and con-
struction, or between examining what is offered
as knowledge for its validity and developing
techniques for adding new knowledge to old. In
his Two New Sciences Galileo says that logic
"teaches us how to test the conclusiveness of
any argument or demonstration already discov-
ered and completed" but not "to discover cor-
rect arguments and demonstrations." It does
not, "as regards stimulation to discovery, com-
pare with the power of sharp distinction which
belongs to geometry."
In the same vein Descartes says of logic that
"the syllogisms and the great part of the other
teaching serve better in explaining to others
those things that one knows . . . than in learn-
ing what is new. . . . This made me feel that
some other method must be found." The four
rules of the method he then states, which codify
the steps he himself has taken to make discover-
ies in geometry and physics, seem to him a gen-
eral procedure for insuring the advancement of
all fields of learning.
As his Rules for the Direction of the Mind in-
dicates, Descartes' method does not omit the
intuition of principles and the deduction of con-
clusions therefrom — the apparent equivalents of
induction and demonstration in Aristotle's Or-
ganon. But he explains why he has "omitted all
the precepts of the dialecticians" even though
he is himself concerned with improving "our
power of deducing one truth from another."
Their style of argument, he says, "contributes
nothing at all to the discovery of the truth. . . .
Its only possible use is to serve to explain at
times more easily to others the truths we have
already ascertained; hence it should be trans-
ferred from Philosophy to Rhetoric."
Furthermore, the forms of the traditional syl-
logism do not seem able to accommodate the
connections in mathematical reasoning or the
structure of mathematical proof. "Everyone
will perceive in mathematical demonstrations,"
Locke writes, "that the knowledge gained there-
by, comes shortest and clearest without syllo-
gisms." Locke identifies logic with the doctrine
of the syllogism and, even more explicitly than
Descartes, rejects it as an aid to reasoning.
THE QUESTION whether logic is itself a meth-
odology, or includes rules for the discovery as
well as the demonstration of truth, is answered
in terms of broader and narrower conceptions
of the science or art. Those who regard the rules
of logic as primarily a canon of criticism, which
test the validity of intellectual work, look else-
where for a method whose rules are productive
rather than critical. The question then usually
arises whether there is one methodology appli-
cable to all fields of inquiry, or as many distinct
methods as there are different disciplines or sub-
ject matters.
The difference between the traditional Aris-
totelian and the modern mathematical logic
suggests that there may be a plurality of logics.
The attempts made by the exponents of each
to subsume the other as a special case do not
seem to be entirely successful. Though Aristo-
telian logic appears to give a satisfactory ac-
count of the forms of judgment and reasoning
in certain types of discourse, it cannot, m the
opinion of symbolic logicians, be applied to
mathematics. "Mathematics consists of deduc-
tions, and yet," according to Bertrand Russell,
"the orthodox accounts of deduction are largely
or wholly inapplicable to existing mathemat-
ics." Symbolic logic, on the other hand, may
succeed in formulating the relational structure
of modern mathematics, but it does not, in the
opinion of its critics, hold for metaphysics—at
least not the sort of metaphysics which treats
relation as a category subordinate to substance.
The difference between the kind of thinking
that men do in science and in law suggests
another type of diversity among logics. The
practical or moral judgment seems to involve a
special type of predicate. What Aristotle calls
the "practical syllogism" and what Aquinas
describes as the process of "determination"-
quite distinct from deduction— by which posi-
tive laws are derived from natural law, seem to
call for a logic of practical thinking, quite dis-
tinct from the logic of all the theoretic sciences.
Using the word "logic" in its broadest sense,
we must ask whether there is one logic common
to all the sciences; or a logic which fits mathe-
matics but not physics or metaphysics, a logic
appropriate to speculative philosophy but not
to experimental or empirical research, a logic
peculiar to the nature of the practical or moral
sciences, such as ethics and politics, or to the
work of jurisprudence.
1042 THE GREAT IDEAS
There is evidence in the great books that sci- Because of their relevance to the basic issues
ences as different as mathematics and physics, about logic (and especially those concerning its
or as metaphysics and politics, differ in their scope and unity), the rules of methodology in
methods of discovery and demonstration. This general and the various methods proposed for
may mean that they differ in their logics as particular disciplines are included in this chap-
well. Yet it also appears to be the case that the tcr. They are also considered, of course, in chap-
principle of contradiction applies in all, that fal- ters devoted to the special disciplines or subject
lacious inference is detected by the same cntc- matters, e.g., ASTRONOMY, HISTORY, MATHE-
ria in all, and to this extent all share a common MATICS, METAPHYSICS, PHYSICS, THEOLOGY; and
logic. Where alternative methods have been in the chapters on SCIENCE and PHILOSOPHY.
proposed within a single major field — notably What is distinctive about each of these methods
in the case of philosophy— this may reflect dif- is discussed in those chapters in relation to the
fcrcnt conceptions of philosophy itself rather type of knowledge or inquiry which seems to
than alternative routes to the same end. require a method of its own.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
PAGE
1. Logic as a science: its scope and subject matter compared with psychology and meta-
physics 1043
10. The axioms of logic: the laws of thought; the principles of reasoning
i£. Divisions of logic: deductive and inductive; formal and material; analytic and
dialectic; general and transcendental 1044
2. Transcendental logic: the propaedeutic to all a priori cognition; the transcendental
doctrine of method
3. Logic as an art: its place in education
30. The relation of logic and grammar
3& The relation of logic and rhetoric 1045
4. Methodology: rules for the conduct of the mind in the processes of thinking, learning,
inquiring, knowing
40. Mathematical analysis and reasoning: the search for a universal method
4#. The heuristic principles of research in experimental and empirical science 1046
4^. The criteria of evidence and inference in historical inquiry 1047
4^. The diverse methods of speculative philosophy: the role of intuition, analysis,
dialectic, genetic or transcendental criticism
4^. The logic of practical thinking: the methods of ethics, politics, and jurisprudence 1048
^f. Theological argument: the roles of faith, reason, and authority
5. Logic as an object of satire and criticism: sophistry and Ic»gic-chpppin,g 1049
CHAPTER 49: LOGIC 1043
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES : Psychology ', 116a-I19b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halvesof the right-hand sideof
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) arc sometimes included in the reference, line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases, e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES • The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King fames
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45— (D) // Esdras, 7-46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
... 31 DESCARTES : Rules, n, 2c-3b / Discourse, PART
1. Logic as a science: its scope and subject n 46c,d
matter compared with psychology and 33 pASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration 430a-
metaphysics 446b csp 445^4455
7 PLATO- Republic, BK vn, 397a-398c / Sophist, 35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xxi
571a-c / Philebus, 634b-635a 394d-395a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH i [24*10- 35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
11] 39a / Metaphysics, BK in, CH i [995b6-io] 6 405d-406a
514a; CH 2 [996b26-997*i5] 515b-d, BK iv, 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335d-336a
CH 2 [ioo4bi5-26] 523d, CH 3-8 524b-532d; 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-6d; 34a-37d; 59c;
BK v, CH 7 [1017*22-28] 537d-538a; BK xi, 210b-c / Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
CH i [1059*23-26] 587a, CH 4-6 589d-592b 253a-c; 254c-d / Judgement, 463a; 492c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK i, CH i [1354*1-11] 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, I82d
593a; CH 2 [1358*2-35] 597d-598b 53 JAMES: Psychology, 524a; 867a; 872b-874a;
12 EPICTETUS- Discourses, BK i, CH 7 112b-113d; 878a; 880b; 889a-b
CH 17 122d-124a _. *•••..
17 PLOTINUS : First Ennead, TR m, CH 4 lla-c la- Th? axioms of lo«ic: the laws of Bought;
18 AUGUSTINE : City of God, BK vm, CH 4 266d- the principles of reasoning
267c; CH 7 269c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK n, 7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 72d-73b / Republic, BK
CH 31 651d~652b iv, 350d-351b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 57, 8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 3 [ibio-i6} 5c-d;
A 3, REP 3 37b-38a; A 6, REP 3 40a-41a; Q 94, CH 10 [i3bi~35] 19a-c / Prior Analytics, BK i,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a CH 1-3 39a-40c / Posterior Analytics, BK i,
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 58a~b; 72a d CH x-2 97a-99a; CH n 105d-106b/ Mctaphys-
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY, ics, BK in, CH i [995b6-io] 514a; CH 2 [gg^26-
190b-c 997*i5] 5l5b-d; BK iv, CH £-8 524b-532d;
30 BACON; Advancement of Learning, 55b~61d BK xi, CH i [1059*23-26] 587a; CH 4-6 5$9d-
csp 56c-5fc, 59c-60c 592b
1044
THE GREAT IDEAS
\b to 3a
[ I . Logic as a science: its scope and subject matter
compared with psychology and metaphysics.
1 a. The axioms of logic: the laws of thought;
the principles of reasoning.)
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 7 112b-113d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART I-H, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-61a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK i, CH i
95b,d-103d passim, esp SECT 4 96b, SECT 16
99b-c, SECT 20 lOOc-d; CH n, SECT i 103d-
104a; CH m, SECT 3 113a-b; BK iv, CH i, SECT
4 307b-c; CH H, SECT 8 311a; CH vn 337a-
344d; CH vm, SECT 2-3 345a-346b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 36b-37b; 39c-41c esp
40d-41c; 64d-65c; 109d-113b esp UOd-lllc;
115d-119aespll8a-c;156d-157b;174b-d;194b
/ Judgement, 492c-d; 542d-543a; 600d-601d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 362b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 299b [fn i]; 319b-320a;
360b-361a; 667b-668a; 868b-873a; 878a-879b
b. Divisions of logic: deductive and inductive;
formal and material; analytic and dialec-
tic; general and transcendental
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 30 63d-
64b; BK n, CH 23 90a-c / Posterior Analytics,
BK i, CH i (7iai-n] 97a; CH 3 [72b25~33] 99c;
CH 18 lllb-c; CH 31 120a-c; BK n, CH 7
[92*34-bi] 126b; CH 19 136a-137a,c / Topics,
BK i, CH i 143a-d; CH 12 148d; CH 18 [io8b7-
12] 152d; BK vm, CH i [i55b29-i56*7] 211c-
212a; [i«56bio~i8] 212c-d; CH 14 [164*12-16]
222d / Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; BK VIH, CH
i [252*20-b7] 335d-336b / Heave ns, BK in, CH
7 [306*6-18] 397b c / Metaphysics, BK vi, CH i
[io25bi-i6] 547b; BK xi, CH 7 [1064*4-9]
592b; BK XIH, CH 4 [io78bi8~3o] 610b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 [n ^9^4-34]
388c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 2 [i356*36-bi7] 596a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 42a-c; 56a-
59a esp 57b-58b; 59c-60a; 61d / Novum
Organum, PREF 105a-106d; BK i 107a-136a,c
esp APH 11-26 107d-108d, APH 69 116a-b,
APH 103-106 127d-128c; BK nf APH 10 140c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5b-c; 34a-37d
. Transcendental logic: the propaedeutic to
all a priori cognition; the transcendental
doctrine of method
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5b-c; 15c-16c; 23d; 34a-
48d esp 35b-36a, 39a-41c, 45b-47c; 59c-d;
lOlb-d; 113b-120c; 210a-250a,c esp 210a-c,
211c-218d, 233d-234b, 243c-248d / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-254d esp
253b, 254c-d
. Logic as an art: its place in education
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vn, 397a-398c / Parmcn-
ides, 491a-c / Statesman, 595a-d / Philebus,
633a-635a esp C34b 635a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 1-3 143a-144b;
BK vm, CH 14 221d-223a,c / Sophistical Refu-
tations, CH 34 252c-253d / Metaphysics, BK n,
CH 3 [994b3i-995ai4] 513c; BK iv, CH 3
[ioo5b2-5] 524c
9 ARISTOTLE. Rhetoric, BKI, CHI [1354*1-1 i]593a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 7 112b-113d;
CH 17 122d-124a; BK n, CH 25 174b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 30 26b-c
/ City of God, BK vm, CH 4 266d-267c; CH 7
269c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 31-37
651d-654b
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 57,
A 3, REP 3 37b-38a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18b-19a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 61b-c; 69d-77a passim;
448d-449a
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY,
190b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 31a-d /
Novum Organum, BK n, APH 52, 194c-195a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, iv, 5c; x 16d-17a / Dis-
course, PART n, 46c-d
39 SMITH. Wealth of Nations, BK v, 335d-336a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b
42 KANT. Pure Reason, 36d-37d; 223a-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 287d-288c
a. The relation of logic and grammar
7 PLATO: Euthydemu<; 65a-84a,c / Cratylus 85a-
114a,c / Philebus, 612b-613a / Seventh Letter,
809a-811a
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 1-4 5a-6a / Inter-
pretation, CH 4 [17*1-7] 26b / Prior Analytics,
BK i, CH 34-41 66b-68c / Posterior Analytics,
BK n, CH 13 [97^8-39] 133c / Topics, BK i,
en 15 149d 152a; CH 18 [108*17-37] 152b-d;
BK n, CH 3 154d-155d, CH 9 [ii4tt26-bi4J
160a-b; BK iv, CH 3 [124*10-14] 172d; CH 4
[124^5-125*4] 173d; BK v, CH 2 [i3obn-i5]
180d; CH 4 [13^15-134*4] 184d-185b, CH 7
[i36bi5-32] 188c-d; BK vi, CH i [i39bi2]-cn 3
[141*22] 'l92b-194c; CH 10 202b-203a; CH 14
[i5ib3-ii] 206c; BK vm, CH 3 [158^-17] 215b;
CH 7 217c-d / Sophistical Refutations, CH i
[165*1-18] 227b-c; CH 4 [i 65^4-1 66b2i] 228b-
229c; CH 10 [i7obn-4i] 234d-235b; CH 13-14
238d-239d; CH 19-23 243d-247a; CH 31-32
250c-25lc; CH 33 [i82bi3-i7] 251d / Meta-
physics, BK iv, CH 4 525a-528b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XH, par 32-36
107a-108c; par 41-43 llOa-d; BK xin, par 36
120c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 13 62 7d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 54c-60c; 65c-d;
PART HI, 172a; PART iv, 269b-c; 270a-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
18d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 253c-254a
30 BACON : Advancement of Learning, 56b-66a esp
58c-59a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, xin, 26b-c / Discourse,
49: LOGIC
1045
.1 PART i, 43h; PART YI* 60d / Objections and
Replies, 29Qc-d
31$PJNOZA; &&<*, PART II, PROP 47, SCHOL
390c-391tt
33 PASCAL: Paries, 22-23 I75b; 392 239b-240a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK u, CH
xxxin, SECT 19 251c-d; BK in, CH HI, SECT
10, 256d-257a; CH vn 283a-284b esp SECT 2
s 283b*c; BK iv, CH iv, SECT 17 328d; CH v,
SECT 1-3 329a-b; CH vi, SECT 1-3 331b-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
19 410c; SECT 52 422d-423a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 339d-342c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, la-c;
4a*5d; 7c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 182b-c
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 40c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE i, 672a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 144a-b
\b. The relation of logic and rhetoric
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d esp [882-
ni2]499b-502b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 131b-141a,c / Gorgias 252a-
294d / Philebus, 633a-635a esp 634b-635a
8 ARISTOTLE* Interpretation, CH 4 [17*1-7] 26b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94bi9-27]
339d-340a / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 1-2 593a-598b;
CH 4 [i359bi-i8] 599d; BK n, CH 22-26 643c-
653a,c
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, CH 16, 180d-
181a
18 AUGUSTINE. Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 36-
37 653d-654b; BK iv, CH 4 676d-677a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 55a-b; 60d; 67c;
72a-d; PART n, 127d; 128d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 31a-d; 58c-
59a; 64a-b; 66c-67c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, u, 2c; x, 16d-17a esp 17a
/ Discourse, PART u, 46c-d
33 PASCAL; Pensees, 22-23 175b
3£ LOCKE. Human Understanding, BK in, CH x,
SECT 34 299d-300a
^. Methodology: rules for the conduct of the
mind in the processes of thinking, learn-
ing, inquiring, knowing
7 PLATO: Eutfiydemus 65a-84a,c / Parmenides,
491a-c / Philebus, 610d-613a
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 39 63d-
64b / Topics, BK i, CH 14 149a-d; BK vm, CH
14 221d-223a,c / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3
513q-d; BK v, CH i (10 13*1-3} 533a
9 ARISTOTLE : Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 1 161a-
165d / Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [io94bi2-27J 339d-
340a; BK n, CH 2 [1104*14-15] 349c; JK vi,
CH 3 [1139^4-34] 388c; CH 11 392c-393b esp
[ii43a3i-1)6]392d-393a
12 EPICTETUS . Discourses, BK u, CH n 151b-
152c; CH 25 174b-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 4 Ua-c
23 HOBBES: Lcwukaz, PART i, 55a-56d; 58d-61a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 63d-66b; 240c-242a;
270a-271c; 446d-4SOa; 453c-454d
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciencts, SECOND DAY,
190b-c
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 331a-337a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, Ha-17c esp
J4c-15a, 16b-c; 33d-34b; 43dr44cj 47d-49b;
55b-61d esp 57d-58b; 64a-66a; 96d-97a /
Navum Qrganum, PREF 105a-106d; BK 1 107a-
136a,c esp APH 11-26 107d-108d, APH 39*69
109c-116b, APH 103-106 127d-128c; BK n,
APH 27-32 157b-161b esp APH 32 161a-b
31 DESCARTES: Rules la-40a,c esp m-vi, 4a-9b,
vii 10b-12a, x, 16d-17a, XH-XIII, 24d-27d,
xiv, 28b 29b / Discourse 41a-67a,c esp PART
i, 41d-42b, PART n, 45b-c, 46c-48b, PART in,
50b-51a, PAHT iv, 52a / Objections and Replies,
237b-c; 267a-277a,c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 1-5 171a-173a / Geometrical
Demonstration 430a-446b passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT
4-7 94a-95c; BK i, CH in, SECT 24-26 120a-
121a,c; BK n, CH i, SECT 10 123b-d; CH xi,
SECT 15 146d-147a; BK in, CH x, SECT 34
299d-300a; BK iv, CH in, SECT 22 319c-320a;
SECT 30 323a-c; CH iv, SECT 17 328d; CH
vn, SECT n, 340c-341a; CH xu 358c-363b
passim, esp SECT 7 360b-c, SECT 14 362 d-
363a; CH xvn, SECT 19-22 379d-380b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO> SBCT
21-25 411b-412a,c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT n, DIV
17 457a-b; SECT vn, DIV 49 471c-d; SBCT vin,
DIV 75, 484c; SECT xu, DIV 116, 503d-504a;
DIV 132 509a-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,c esp Ib-d, 3c-d;
lOlb-d; 133o-134d; 179d-182b; 218d-227a;
248d-250a,c / Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of
Morals, 253a-b / Practical Reason, 293c-
294b; 336d-337a,c / Pref. Metaphysical Ele-
ments of Ethics, 376c-d / }udgement, 551a-
552c; 575b-c
43 MILL: Liberty, 276c-d; 283d-284d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 690a b
4a. Mathematical analysis and reasoning: the
search for a universal method
7 PLATO: Republic, BK vi, 386d-387d / Theaete-
tus, 514b-515d
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK i, CH 41
[49b32~5o*3] 68c / Posterior Analytics^ BK i,
CH 7 103c-d; c» 10 104d-105d / Topics, BK
vi, CH 4 [i4ib3-22] 194d-195a; BK vn, CH 3
[153*6-11] 208a-b / Physics, BK n, CH 9
[200*15-29] 277c-d / Metaphysics, BK n, CH 3
513c-d; BK in, CH 2 [996*22-36] 514d*515a;
BK vi, CH i (1026*7-32] 548a-c; BK vn, CH 10
(1036*2-13] 559b-c; BK ix, CH 9 [1051*22-34]
577b-c; BK xi, CH 3 [io6i*29-b3] 589c; CH 4
589d-590a; BK xin, CH 2 [io77bi]-cn 3
[1078*32] 608d-609d
1046
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Methodology; rules for the conduct of the mind
in the processes of thinking, learning, in-
quiring, knowing. 4a. Mathematical analy-
sis and reasoning: the search for a universal
method.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK HI, CH 3 [ni2b2o-24]
358d; BK vii, OH 8 [1151*15-19] 402a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Method 569a-592a esp 569b-
570a
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK u, 831d-841c
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1012b-
< 1014b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 85,
' A 8, REP 2 460b-461b
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 56b; 58a-c; 59b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY,
190b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 65 b /
Novum Organum, BK i, APH 59 112 b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules la-40a,c esp n 2a-3b, iv,
5c-7d, vi 8a-10a, xii, 24d-25a, xiv-xvi 28a-
35c, xvin-xxi 36b-40a,c / Discourse, PART i,
43b-c; PART n, 46c-48b; PART HI, 50d /
Objections and Replies, 128a-129a; 130a-133a,c
/ Geometry 295a-353b esp BK i, 295a-298b,
BK n, 304a-306a, 316a-317a, BK in, 331b, 353a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 1-5 171a-173a / Geometri-
cal Demonstration, 430a-434a; 442a-446b /
Arithmetical Triangle, 451b-452a; 458b-459b;
464a-466a
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-b; BK i, LEMMA i-ii
and SCHOL 25a-32a esp LEMMA n, SCHOL, 31a-
32a; PROP 31, SCHOL 79a-81a; BK n, LEMMA
2 168a-169b; BK m, LEMMA 5 338b-339a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xvi,
SECT 4 166a-b; BK iv, CH i, SECT 9 308c-309b;
CH ii, SECT 9-10 311b-c; CH in, SECT 18-20
317d-319c; SECT 30 323a-c; CH iv, SECT 6-9
325a-326b; CH vn, SECT 11, 340c-341a; CH
xii, SECT 1-8 358c-360c passim; SECT 14-15
362d-363b; CH xvn, SECT n 378b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
12 408a-b; SECT 19 410c; SECT 15-16 415d-
416a; SECT 118-132 436b-439c passim
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT iv, DIV
20 458a-b; SECT vii, DIV 48 470d-471c; SECT
xii, DIV 131 508d-509a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART in, 109b-llla; 118b-
119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d; 15c-16c; 17d-19a;
46a-b; 68a-69c; 211c-212a; 215d-217a; 217c-
2I8d / Practical Reason, 302d-303b; 330d-
331a / Science of Right, 399a-b / Judgement,
497a-498d esp 498b-d; 551a-553c
43 MILL: Liberty, 283d-284a
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREP, 2b
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 172a-173b; 249a-
251b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 469a-d;
EPILOGUE n, 694d-695c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 175a-176a; 870a; 874a-
878a
46. The heuristic principles of research in ex-
perimental and empirical science
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK HI, CH 7 [306*1-18]
397b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK i,
CH 2 [316*5-14] 411c-d / Meteorology, BK i,
CH 7 [344*5-9] 450b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK i, CH 6
[491*5-26] 12c-13a / Parts of Animals, BK i,
CH i I6la-165d esp [642«i4-^4] 165b-d / Gen
eration of Animals, BK in, CH 10 [760^8-33
301d-302a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, par 1-8 la
3b; par 20 7b-d
10 GALEN: Natural Faculties, BK i, eg 13 173d
177a
16 COPERNICUS: Resolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 505a-506a; 507a-508a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK iv, 888b-890a; 907b-
908b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-
28c esp par 6 28c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 32, A
i, REP 2 175d-178a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 377a-d
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, PREF, la-2a, BK i, 6a-7a
esp 6d-7a; BK n, 27b-c
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 13la-
138b; 148c-149c; 157b-177a,c passim; THIRD
DAY, 200a-d; 202d-203a; 207d-208c; 236d-
237a
28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 285c-d / Cir-
culation of the Blood, 322d-323d; 324c-d /
On Animal Generation, 331a-337a esp 331 b-
333d, 335c-336c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 13d-14b;
15d; 34b; 42a-c; 56c-59c; 64d-65a / Novum
Organum 105a-195d esp PREF 105a-106d, BK
i, APH 1-26 107a-108d, APH 50 lllb, APH 70
116b-117a, APH 95 126b-c, APH 104-106
128a-c, BK n, APH 1-9 137a-140c, APH 52
194c-195d / New Atlantis, 210d-214d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART vi 60d-67a,c esp
61d-62c, 66a-b / Meditations, iv, 90a-b /
Objections and Replies, 215a-b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 355a-358b; 365b-371a pas-
sim / Great Experiment 382a-389b
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-2a; BK HI, RULES
270a-271b; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a /
Optics, BK i, 379a; BK in, 542a; 543a-b
34HuYGENs: Light, PREF, 551b-552a; CH i,
553a-554a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH vi,
SECT 13 335c-d; CH xii, SECT 9-13 360d-362d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT HI, DIV
19, 458a; SECT iv, DIV 23-27 459a-460d;
SECT ix, DIV 82 487b-c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-13d esp 5c-6c; 210b-c;
215d-216d
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PREF, Ic-
2bj 6d-7a,c; PART i, 17a; 23c; PART in, 87b-c
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 169a-174a; 175b;
181b; 184a
CHAPTER 49: LOGIC
1047
45 FARADAY: Researches m Electricity, 440b,d;
467a-b; 659a; 774d-775ft
50 MARX: Capital, 6c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Pcacc^ EPILOOUE n,
690a-b; 694d-696d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 3b-4a; 120a-129b passim;
348a-359a esp 351a-352a; 385a-b; 677b;
862a 865b; 882a-886a passim, esp 883a-884a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 400d-401a / Instincts,
412a-b / General Introduction, 463d; 483d-
485a esp 484d-485a / Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, 661c-662b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 815a-b; 818c-819b; 874a-c; 879c; 881b-c
4c. The criteria of evidence aod inference in
historical inquiry
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 17b-c; BK n, 49a-
56b passim; 59a; 69b-d; 71a-73b; 76d; BK
in, 89c-d; 99b-c; BK v, 168b-c; BK vn,
254c-d; BK vm, 281d-282b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK i, 353d-
354b; BK n, 391c-d; BK vi, 523c~524d passim;
BK vm, 586b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus 15a-30a,c passim, esp
15a-18d / Numa Pompilius, 49a-b / Themis-
tocles, 102a,c / Anstides, 262b,d-263c / Ntcias,
423a-c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK in, 49c-d; BK iv, 66b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 96b,d; 232c; 296a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-
158a; 180c-183d; PART m, 285d-286a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xin, 563a-b;
EPILOGUE ii 675a-696d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450d-451a
4d. The diverse methods of speculative philos-
ophy: the role of intuition, analysis,
dialectic, genetic or transcendental criti-
cism
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 50d-52d; 57a-c / Euthy-
demus 65a-84a,c / Phaedrus 115a-141a,c esp
131b-141a,c / Meno, 179d-183a / Republic,
BK vi-vn, 383d-398c / Parmenides, 491a c /
Theaetetus, 514b-515d; 525d-526b / Sophist
551a-579d esp 552b-561d, 571a-c / Statesman
580a-608d esp 595a-d / Philebus 609a-639a,c
esp 609a-617d / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics 97a-137a,c /
Topics, BK i, CH i [ioo*25-b2i] 143a-b; BK
' vm, CH i [i55bi-i6] 211a-b; CH 14 [i63b8-i6]
222a / Sophistical Refutations, CH 16 [175*1-
12] 241a / Physics, BK i, CH i 259a-b; CH 2
[i84b25-i85»i9J 259c-260a; BK n, CH 7-9
275b-278a,c / Heavens, BK n, CH 13 [294^6-
14] 386a; BK HI, CH 7 [306*1-18] 397b-c /
Generation and Corruption, BK i, CH 2 [316*5-
14] 411c-d / Metaphysics, BK i, CH 3 [983*
24~b6] 501c-d; CH 9 [992b 18-993*2] 5lla-b;
BK n, CH i (993*3O-bi9) 511b,d-512a; CH 3
513c-d; BK m, CH i [995*23~b4] 513b,d; BK
iv, CH 2 522b-524b esp [1004*25-31] 523b-c;
CH 4 (ioo5b35-ioo6»28) 525a-c; CH 7 [1012*
17-24] 532a-b; CH 8 [ioi2*29-b8] 532b-c;
BK vt, CH i 547b,d*548c; BK vn, CH 3 [1029*
34-^2] 552a; CH 17 [io4i*6-bn] 565a-d; BK
vm, CH 4 [io44*33-bao] 569a-b; BK. ik, CH 6
[io48»35-b9] 573d-574a; BK x, CH i [io52bi-
15} 578d-579a; BK xi, CH 3 589a-d; CH 5
590a-d; CH 6 [io63ai3-i6] 591br CH 7
[io63b36-io64*9] 592b; BK xin, CH i [1076*
10-16] 607a; CH 3 [io77b 17- 1078*31) 609a-d
/ Soul, BK I, CH I [402*l]-CH2 [403b2$] 631a-
633a; BK n, CH 2 [413*11-19] 643a-b; CH 3
[4i4b20>-CH 4 [415*22] 644d-645c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vi, CH 3 388b-c; CH 6
389d; CH 8 [1142*13-19] 391b; CH n 392c-
393b esp [n43«3i-b6] 392d-393a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR HI, CH 4-6 lla-
12b / Sixth Ennead, TR n, CH 4 270c-271a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK vm, CH 2-8
265b-270d passim
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i,
A 2, ANS and REP i 4a-c; Q 2, A 2 lld-12c;
Q 32, A i, REP 2 175d-178a; PART I-H, Q 18
693b,d-703a passim
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 56b-d; 60a-b;
65c-d; PART iv, 267a-c; 269b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK H,
101b-106a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 16b-c;
42a-c; 56c-59c; 61d
31 DESCARTES: Rules, n-xiv, 2d-33b / Discourse,
PART ii, 46c-47b; PART iv 51b-54b / Medita-
tions, 69a-71a,c; 72b,d; i 75a-77c; in, 82a-d
/ Objections and Replies, 119c-120c; 126a-b;
128a-129a; POSTULATE i-vn 130d-131c; 167c;
206c-207a; 237b-238b; 244a-b; 245d-246a;
267a-277a,c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART ii, PROP 10, SCHOL
376d-377a
33 PASCAL: Geometrical Demonstration, 430a-
434a; 442a-443b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, 87d; INTRO
93a-95d; BK i, CH in, SECT 24-25 120a-d
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
21-25 411b-412a,c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV 2
451b-c; DIV 7-9 453c-455a; SECT ii, DIV 17
457a-b; SECT xn, DIV 116, 503d-504a; DIV
130 508c-d
38 ROUSSEMJ: Inequality, 339d; 341b-342b;
362a-d passim
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-13d; 16a-c; 109d-
112d; 115d-116a; 119a-b; 133c-134d; 184b-c;
185b-c; 193a-200c esp l$3d-194b, 199a-c;
215d-216d; 218d-227a; 248d-250a,c / Fund.
Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-c; 254b-c;
263b-d; 264b-d esp 264d; 271a-c; 283d-284d
/ Practical Reason, 293c-294b esp 293d [fn 3];
297a-c; 329d-330c; 335b-c; 336d-337a,c;
358a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
365a-366a; 376c-d / Intro. Metaphysic of
Morals, 387a-388d / Judgement, 570b-572d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104a
1048
THE GREAT IDEAS
(4. Mrtbodokgy; rub* for the conduct of the mind
in the proctuts of thinking, learning, in-
quiring, knowing. 4d. The diverse methods
of speculative philosophy: the role of intui-
tiont analytic, dialectic, genetic or tran-
scendental criticism,)
43 MILL: Liberty, 287b-288c / Utilitarianism,
445a-447b
46 HBOBL: Philosophy of Right, PREP, la-c;
INTRO, par 2, 9d-10a; ADDITIONS, 3 116a /
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c-158a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 690a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 674a-675b esp 675b; 687a
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 661c-
662 b / New Introductory Lectures, 874c-875b
esp875a
4e. The logic of practical thinking: the methods
of ethics, politics, and jurisprudence
5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps [799-1002] 517c~519d
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Animals, CH 7 [701*5-
39] 236b-d / Ethics, BK i, CH 3 [i 094^2-27]
339d-340a; CH 4 [io95*3O-b8] 340c; CH 7
[I098*25-b8] 343d-344a; BK n, CH 2 349b-
350a csp [no3b27-i 104*9] 349b-c; CH 7
[1107*27-32] 352d-353a; BK in, CH 3 358a-
359a; BK v, CH 10 [i 137^2-3 1] 385d-386a;
BK vi, CH i [ii38bi6-34] 387a-b; CH 5 389a-c
passim; CH 8-9 390d-392b; CH n 392c-393b
esp [ii43*3i-b6] 392d-393a; BK vn, CH 2-3
395c-398a; CH 8 [1151*15-19] 402a / Politics,
BK i, CH i [1252*18-24] 445b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A 5, ANS 112d-113c; A 7, ANS 114d-115d; Q 81,
A 3, ANS and REP 2 430c-431d; Q 83, A i, ANS
436d-438a; Q 86, A i, REP 2 461c-462a; PART
MI, QQ 13-15 672d-684a; Q 44, A 2 808b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 76,
A i, ANS 141a-c; Q 77, A 2, REP 4 145d-147c;
Q 95, A 2 227c-228c; A 4 229b-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 53a-54a; 58a-b;
60b-61a; 66c-68a; 78a-d; PART n, 112d;
129a-b; 158c-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT n,
sc vn [1-75] 416a-417a; sc ix [19-72] 417d-
418b; ACT in, sc n [73-139] 420d-421b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 57d-58b;
79c-80a; 81d-82a; 94d-95b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART in, 48b-50b /
Objections and Replies, 126a-b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 27a-80b; 90a-127a
35 LOCKB: Hitman Understanding, BK i, CH n,
SECT i 103d-104a; SECT 4 104d-105a; BK in,
CH xi, SECT 15-18 303b-304b; BK iv, CH in,
SECT 18*20 317d-319c; CH iv, SECT 7-10
325b-326b; CH xn, SECT 8 360c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT i, DIV
1-5 451a-453b passim; DIV 9, 454d-455a;
SECT XH, DIV 131*132 508d-509d passim, esp
DIV 132, 509od
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 75d-81c passim,
csp 76d-78b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 60a-c; 149d-150* /
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-254d;
264b-d; 266b-c; 271a-c; 283d-284d / Practical
Reason, 291a-297c; 306d-307a; 307d 309b;
309d-310b; 319c-321b; 329a-331a / Pref
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics 365a-379d /
Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 388a-d; 390b;
393a / Science of Right, 397a-b; 398a-399c;
413d-414a; 416b-417a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 31, 103c-104«; NUM-
BER 85, 258d
43 MILL: Liberty, 284b-d / Utilitarianism, 445a-
447b; 456a-457b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 3
10a-12c; PART in, par 222-223 73b-d; par 225
73d-74a; par 229 75b; ADDITIONS, 140 139b-c
50 MARX: Capital, 6a-d; lOa-lld; 301d [fn 3]
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 430c-
433d passim, csp 431a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE n, 680d-
681a; 683d-684a; 690a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 887a 888a
4/. Theological argument: the roles of faith,
reason, and authority
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b; BK
xn, par 32-36 107a-108c; par 41-43 llOa-d;
BK xni, par 36 120c-d / City of God, BK vin,
CH 4-12 266d-273a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 37 635b-c; BK n, CH 31 651d-652b; BK in,
CH 28 668a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q i 3a-
lOc; Q 2, A 2 lld-12c; Q 12, A 12 60d-61c; Q
19, A 5, REP 2 112d-113c; Q 32, A i 175d-178a;
A 4 180b-d; Q 46, A 2 253a-255a; Q 68, A i,
ANS 354a-355c; Q 102, A i, ANS and REP 4
523d-525a; Q 113, A 7, REP i 580b-581a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART MI, Q 102,
A 2 271b-272a; PART n-n, Q i, A 5, REP 2
383b-384b; Q 2, A 10 399b-400b; PART in
SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, REP 2 938a-939d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, xxiv
142d-144b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 66a-c; 83b; PART
n, 137b-c; 149c-d; 160b-c; 163a-b; PART HI,
165a-c; 167a-b; 241c-242a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 98b-99a; 208b-209c;
212a-213a; 292c-294b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 122b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 12c-13c;
17b-c; 39d-40a; 41b-d; d5d-101b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART i, 43c / Medita-
tions, 69a-72d
32 MILTON : Paradise Lost, BK xn [552-587] 331a-
332a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 163a-166a /
Pensees, 242-253 217b'720a; 265-290 221b-
225a; 557-567 272b-273b; 862-866 342b-
343b; 903 348a / Vacuum, 355b-356b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK iv, CH xvn,
SECT 24 380c-d; CH xvm 380d-384b passim;
CH xix, SECT 14 387d-388a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT xi 497b-
CHAPTER 49: LOGIC
1049
503c passim, esp DIV 102 497b-d, DIV 104
498b-c, DIV 107 499c-500b; SECT xn, DIV
132, 509c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 206a-b; 307a-
314a esp 308c-309a, 310b-312a, 313d-314a;
348c-d; 438b-442a; 670b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 134a-151c esp 136d-
140d, 143c-145d; 520b-521c
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 240b-243c / Practical
Reason, 348b-349b; 351b 352c / Judgement,
588a-613a,c esp 588a-592d, 593d-596c, 603d-
607c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
160b; PART in, 308c-309d, PART iv, 360c-361a
. Logic as an object of satire and criticism:
sophistry and logic-chopping
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO- Euthydemus 65a-84a,c / Republic, BK
vn, 400d-401a / Theaetetus, 525d-526b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK 11, en 21 166c-
167d; BK in, CH 2 177c-178d; CH 21 193d-195a
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK n, CH 31
651d-652b; CH 37 653d-654b
23 HOUSES' Leviathan, PART in, 165b; PART iv,
268d; 270d-272c
24 RABELAIS. Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
12d-13b; 18d; 22b-c; 23b-c; BK n, 73b-c;
79c; 101b-106a; BK HI, 150a; 182c, 187b-c;
197b-200d; BK iv, 273c-274b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 61b-c; 72b-77a passim;
255b-256a; 259d-263b; 448d-449a; 517b-519a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew, ACT i,
sc H [1-44] 205b-c / Two Gentlemen of
Verona, ACT i, sc i [70-158] 230a-d / Julius
Caesar, ACT i, sc i [1-36] 568b,d
27 SHAKESPEARE: All's Well Thai Ends Well,
ACT i, sc HI [27-59] 145d-146a
30 BACON? Advancement of Learning, 57d-58b;
60a-61c; 66c-67c / Novum Organum, BK i,
APH 63 113d-114a
31 DESCARTES: Rules, x, 16d-17a / Discourse,
PART n, 46c-d
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 393 240a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK HI, CH x,
SECT 6-13 293a-294d; BK iv, CH vn, SECT n,
341a-d; CH xvn, SECT 4, 373a-c; SECT 6,
376d-377a
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART i, 15b-23a esp 19b-20a;
PART n, 56a-62a esp 58a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 227a-228a; 234b-
236b; 318b-321a; 329b-336a; 421b-422b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 36d-37d; 109b-c; 120c-
121c; 133d; 157d; 221c-222b / Judgement,
607d-608c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [1908-1945] 45b-46a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 238a-c;
242c-243b; BK ix, 361d-365c; EPILOGUE i,
672a-b; EPILOGUE n, 683d-684a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 238b [fn 2]
:ROSS-REFERENCES
7or- Logic as a science in relation to other sciences, see DIALECTIC 4; METAPHYSICS 3c; PHILOSO-
PHY 3d.
The conception of the liberal arts and their place in education, see ART 4, 6b; EDUCATION 5b;
MATHEMATICS ib.
The conception of logic or dialectic as an art, in itself and in relation to other arts, see DIA-
LECTIC i, 2a(2)-ab; LANGUAGE 7; MATHEMATICS la; RHETORIC ib.
Other discussions of the laws of thought and the rules of inference, see JUDGMENT 7a~7b;
OPPOSITION id(i)-id(2); PRINCIPLE ic, 33(3); REASONING 2-2C, 4a; and for the examina-
tion of logical fallacies, see REASONING 3a~3c; TRUTH 3d(2)~3d(3).
Particular problems in the art or science of logic, ftv DEFINITION i, 2a-2e, 4-5; HYPOTHESIS
5; IDEA 4b~4c; INDUCTION i-ib, 4-43, 5; JUDGMENT 6-6d, 8-8d; OPPOSITION ia-ic(2);
REASONING 4d~4f, 50-56(3); SAME AND OTHER 3a(i)~3b.
Matters bearing on the distinction between inductive and deductive logic, see INDUCTION ib;
REASONING 40-4^ 5^3); SCIENCE 5d; and for discussions relevant to the principles of
transcendental logic, see DIALECTIC 2c-2c(2), 3c; IDEA id, 5c; JUDGMENT 4, 8d; MEMORY
AND IMAGINATION la; METAPHYSICS 2C, 4b; OPPOSITION ic; PRINCIPLE 2^3); QUALITY
i ; QUANTITY i ; RELATION 4c.
The special problem of the difference between a logic of predication and a relational logic,
see IDEA 53; JUDGMENT 50-5^ RELATION 4b.
The methodology of the particular sciences, see ASTRONOMY 2a-2c; HISTORY 33; MATHE-
MATICS 3~3d; MECHANICS 2-2c; METAPHYSICS 2c; PHILOSOPHY 3-3^ SCIENCE 5-56;
THEOLOGY 4C.
Other statements of the attack on sophistry or logic-chopping, see DIALECTIC 6; METAPHYSICS
43; SCIENCE 7b; THEOLOGY 5.
1050
THE GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below arc works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works arc divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
H. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
AQUINAS. De Fallacy's
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART i, CH 6
SPINOZA. Of the Improvement of the Understanding
LOCKE. Conduct of the Understanding
KANT. Introduction to Logic, i-it
HEGEL. Science of Logic
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic
. An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
Philosophy, CH 20-23
II.
SEXTOS EMPIRICUS. Against the Logicians
PORPHYRY. Introduction to Aristotle* s Predicaments
BOETHIUS. In Isagogem Porphyri Commenta
ABAILARD. Dialectica
MAIMONIDES. Treatise on Logic
JOHN OF SALISBURY. Metalogicon
GILBERT DE LA PORREE. Liber de Sex Principiis
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, LIV
JOHN op SAINT THOMAS. Cursus Philosophicus
Thomisticus, Ars Logica, PROLOGUS; PART n, Q
1-2
ARNAULD. Logic or the Art of Thinking, PART iv
MALEBRANCHE. Dela recherche de laverite*, BK vi
LEIBNITZ. New Essays Concerning Human Under-
standing, BK IV, CH 2
EULER. Letters to a German Princess
COLERIDGE. Treatise on Method
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL
H, SUP, CH 9
WHATELY. Elements of Logic
W. HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic,
VOL H (1-4)
DE MORGAN. Formal Logic
BOOLE. Mathematical Analysis of Logic
. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought
SIGWART. Logic
LOTZE. Logic, BK I, INTRO, (10-13)
JEVONS. Pure Logic
. The Principles of Science
. Studies in Deductive Logic
BRADLEY. The Principles of Logic
Bo&ANQUET. Logic
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL n, par 1-218;
VOL in, par 154-251, 359-403; VOL iv, par 80-
152; VOL vi, par 102-163, 185-237
VENN. Symbolic Logic
. Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic
BRUNETIERE. An Apology for Rhetoric
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART i, CH 3
LEWIS CARROLL. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
. Through the Looting-Glass and What Alice
Found There
. Symbolic Logic
COUTURAT. The Algebra oj Logic
POINCARE. Science and Method, BK n, CH 3-5
WHITEHEAD and RUSSFLL. Prinapia Mathematica,
(Introductions to first and second editions)
B. RUSSELL. Principles of Mathematics, CH 2
. Our Knowledge of the External World, n
. Mysticism and Logic, CH i
. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, CH 1 8
W. E. JOHNSON. Logic
WITTGENSTEIN. Tractatus Logico -Philosophicus
MARITAIN. An Introduction to Logic
BRIDGMAN. The Logic of Modern Physics
GILSON. The Unity of Philosophical Experience, CH i
SANTAYANA. The Realm of Truth, CH 3
DEWEY. Essays in Experimental Logic
. Reconstruction in Philosophy, CH 6
. The Quest for Certainty, CH 9
. Logic, the Theory of Inquiry, PART i
WEISS. Reality, BK i, CH 7
BLANSHARD. The Nature of Thought
M. R. COHEN. A Preface to Logic, esp i, ix
DEWEY and BENTLEY. Knowing and the Known
Chapter $o: LOVE
INTRODUCTION
HERE, as in the chapters on GOD and MAN,
almost all the great books are represented
except those in mathematics and the physical
sciences. Even those exceptions do not limit the
sphere of love. As the theologian understands
it, love is not limited to things divine and hu-
man, nor to those creatures less than man which
have conscious desires. Natural love, Aquinas
writes, is not only "mall the soul's powers, but
also in all the parts of the body, and universally
in all things: because, as Dionysius says, 'Beauty
and goodness are beloved by all things.' "
Love is everywhere in the universe — in all
things which have their being from the bounty
and generosity of Go^'s creative love and which
in return obey the law of love in seeking God or
in whatever they do to magnify God's glory.
Love sometimes even takes the place of other
gods in the government of nature. Though he
thinks the motions of the world are without
direction from the gods, Lucretius opens his
poem On the Nature of Things with an invoca-
tion to Venus, "the life-giver"— without whom
nothing ucomes forth into the bright coasts of
life, nor waxes glad nor lovely."
Nor is it only the poet who speaks metaphor-
ically of love as the creative force which engen-
ders things and renews them, or as the power
which draws all things together into a unity of
peace, preserving nature itself against the dis-
ruptive forces of war and hate. The imagery of
love appears even in the language of science.
The description of magnetic attraction and re-
pulsion borrows some of its fundamental terms
from the vocabulary of the passions; 'Gilbert,
for example, refers to "the love of the iron for
the bads tone."
On the other hand, the impulsions of love are
often compared with the pull of magnetism.
Sut such metaphors or comparisons are "Seldom
intended to conceal the ambiguity of the word
"love" when it is used as a term of universal ap-
plication. "Romeo wants Juliet as the filings
want the magnet," writes William James, "and
if no obstacles intervene he moves toward her
by as straight a line as they. But Romeo and
Juliet, if a wall be built between them, do not
remain idiotically pressing their faces against
its opposite sides" — like iron filings separated
from the magnet by a card.
THE LOVE BETWEEN man and woman makes all
the great poems contemporaneous with each
other and with ourselves. There is a sense in
which each great love affair is unique— a world
in itself, incomparable, unconditioned by space
and time. That, at least, is the way it feels to
the romantic lovers, but even to the dispassion-
ate observer there seems to be a world of differ-
ence between the relationship of Pans and Helen
in the Iliad and that of Prince Andrew and Na-
tasha in War and Peace, or Troilus and Cressida,
Tom Jones and Sophia, Don Quixote and Dul*
cineajasonand Medea, Aeneas and Dido, Othel-
lo and Desdemona, Dante and Beatrice, Hippol-
ytus and Phaedra, Faustand Margaret, Henry V
and Catherine, Paola and Francesca, Samson
and Delilah, Antony and Cleopatra, Admetus
and Alcestis, Orlando and Rosalind, Haemon
and Antigone, Odysseus and Penelope, and
Adam and Eve.
The analyst can make distinctions here. He
can classify these loves as the conjugal and the
illicit, the normal and the perverse, the sexual
and the idyllic, the infantile and the adult, the
romantic and the Christian. He can, in addi-
tion, group all these loves together despite their
apparent variety and set them apart from still
othercategoriesof love: the friendships between
human beings without regard to gender; the
familial ties — parental, filial, fraternal; thefcvc
of a man for himself, for his fellow men, for his
1051
1052
THE GREAT IDEAS
country, for God. All these other loves are, no
less than the love between man and woman, the
materials of great poetry even as they are omni-
present in every human life.
The friendship of Achilles and Pa troclus dom-
inates the action of the Iliad even more, per-
haps, than the passion of Pans for Helen. The
love of Hamlet for his father and, in another
mood, for his mother overshadows his evanes-
cent tenderness for Ophelia. Prince Hal and
FalstafF, Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, Pan-
tagruel and Panurge seem to IDC bound more
closely by companionship than any of them is
ever tied by Cupid's knot. The love of Cordelia
for Lear surpasses, though it does not defeat,
the lusts of Goneril and Regan. The vision of
Rome effaces the image of Dido from the heart
of Aeneas. Brutus lays down his life for Rome
as readily as Antony gives up his life for Cleo-
patra.
Richard 111, aware that he "wants love's maj-
esty," implies that he cannot love anyone be-
cause he is unable to love himself. Why should
"I love myself," he asks, "for any good that I
myself have done unto myself" ? This element
of self-love which, in varying degrees, prompts
the actions of Achilles, Odysseus, Oedipus, Mac-
beth, Faust, and Captain Ahab, finds its proto-
type in the almost infinite amour-propre of Lu-
cifer in Paradise Lost. This self-love, which in
its extreme form the psychoanalyst calls "nar-
cissism," competes with every other love in hu-
man life. Some times it qualifies these other loves;
when, for example, it enters into Pierre Bezu-
khov's meditations about freeing his serfs and
turns his sentiment of brotherly love into a
piece of sentimentality which is never con-
firmed by action.
Yet self-love, like sexual love, can be over-
come by the love which is charity toward or
compassion for others. True self-love, according
to Locke, necessarily leads to love of neighbor;
and, in Dante's view of the hierarchy of love,
men ascend from loving their neighbors as them-
selves to loving God. Through the love he bears
Virgil and Beatrice for the goodness they repre-
sent, Dante mounts to the highest heaven where
he is given the Good itself to love.
The panorama of human love is not confined
to the great works of poetry or fiction. The
same drama, with the same types of plot and
character, the same lines of action, the same
complications and catastrophes, appears in the
great works of history and biography. The sto-
ries of love told by Herodotus, Thucydides, Plu-
tarch, Tacitus, and Gibbon run the same gamut
of the passions, the affections, the tender feel-
ing and the sacrificial devotion, in the attach
ments of the great figures of history.
Here the loves of a few men move the lives
of many. History itself seems to turn in one di-
rection rather than another with the turning of
an emperor's heart. Historic institutions seem
to draw their strength from the ardor of a single
patriot's zeal; and the invincible sacrifices of
the martyrs, whether to the cause of church or
state, seem to perpetuate with love what neither
might of arms nor skill of mind could long sus-
tain. History's blackest as well as brightest pages
tell of the lengths to which men have gone for
their love's sake, and as often as not the story of
the inner turbulence lies half untold between
the lines which relate the consequences in acts
of violence or heroism.
STILL OIHER OF THE great books deal with love's
exhibition of its power. A few of the early dia-
logues of Plato discuss love and friendship, but
more of them dramatically set forth the love
his disciples bear Socrates, and Socrates' love of
wisdom and the truth. Montaigne can be skep-
tical and detached in all matters. He can sus-
pend judgment about every thing and moderate
every feeling by the balance of its opposite, ex-
cept in the one case of his friendship with Etienne
de la Boetie where love asserts its claims above
dispute and doubt. The princely examples with
which Machiavelh documents his manual of
worldly success are lovers of riches, fame, and
power— that triad of seducers which alienates
the affections of men for truth, beauty, and
goodness.
The whole of Pascal's meditations, insofar as
they are addressed to himself, seems to express
one thought, itself a feeling. "The heart has its
reasons, which the reason does not know. We
feel it in a thousand things. I say that the heart
naturally loves the Universal Being, and also it-
self, according as it gives itself to them; and it
hardens itself against one or the other at its
will. You have rejected the one, and kept the
other. Is it by reason that you love yourself?"
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1053
In the Confessions of Augustine, a man who
finally resolved the conflict of his loves lets his
memory dwell on the torment of their disorder,
in order to repent each particukr sin against
the love of God. "What was it that I delighted
in," he writes, "but to love, and be beloved?
but I kept not the measure of love, of mind to
mind, friendship's bright boundary; but out of
the muddy concupiscence of the flesh, and the
bubblings of youth, mists fumed up which be-
clouded and overcast my heart, that I could
not discern the clear brightness of love, from
the fog of lustfulness."
Augustine shows us the myriad forms of con*
cupiscence and avarice in the lusting of the flesh
and of the eyes, and in the self-love which is
pride of person. In no other book except per-
haps the Bible are so many loves arrayed against
one another. Here, in the life of one man, as
tempestuous in passion as he was strong of will,
their war and peace produce his bondage and
his freedom, his anguish and his serenity.
In the Bible, the history of mankind itself
is told in terms of love, or rather the multiplic-
ity of loves. Every love is here — of God and
Mammon, perverse and pure, the idolatry and
vanity of love misplaced, every unnatural lust,
every ecstasy of the spirit, every tie of friend-
ship and fraternity, and all the hates which love
engenders.
THESE BOOKS of poetry and history, of medi-
tation, confession, and revelation, teach us the
facts of love even when they do not go beyond
that to definition and doctrine. Before we turn
to the theory of love as it is expounded by the
philosophers and theologians, or to the psycho-
logical analysis of love, we may find it useful to
summarize the facts of which any theory must
take account. And on the level of the facts we
also meet the inescapable problems which un-
derlie the theoretical issues formed by con-
flicting analyses.
First and foremost seems to be the fact of the
plurality of loves. There are many different
kinds- of love — different in object, different in
tendency and expression— and as they occur
in the individual life, they raise the problem of
unity and order. Does one love swallow up or
subordinate all the others? Can more than one
love rule the heart? Is there a hierarchy of
loves which can harmonize all their diversity ?
These arc the questions with which the most
comprehensive theories of love find it necessary
to begin.
Plato's ladder of love in the Symposium has
different loves for its rungs. Diotirna, whom
Socrates describes as his "instructress in the art
of love," tells him that if a youth begins by
loving a visibly beautiful form, "he will soon
of himself perceive that the beauty of one form
is akin to the beauty of another," and, there-
fore, "how foolish would he be not to recognize
that the beauty in every form is one and the
same." He will then "abate his violent love of
the one," and will pass from being "a lover of
beautiful forms" to the realization that "the
beauty of the mind is more honorable than the
beauty of the outward jprm." Thence he will
be TedTtoTove <rtne beauty of laws and institu-
tions . . , and after laws and institutions, he
will go on to the sciences, that he may see their
beauty." As Diotima summarizes it, the true
order of love "begins with the beauties of earth
and mounts upwards . . . from fair forms^to fair
practices, and from fair practices to fair notions,
until from fair notions [we] arrive at the notion
of absolute beauty."
Aristotle classifies different kinds of love in
his analysis of the types of friendship. Since the
lovable consists of "the good, pleasant, or use-
ful," he writes, "there are three kinds of friend*-
ship, equal in number to the things that are
lovable; for with respect to each therfr is a
mutual and recognized love, and those who
love each other wish well to each other in that
respect in which they love one another." Later
in the Ethics he also considers the relation ol
self-love to all love of others, and asks "whethei
a man should love himself most, or someone
else."
Aquinas distinguishes between lovt in tht
sphere of the passions and love as an act of will.
The former he assigns to wha£ he calk the
"concupiscible faculty" of the sensitive appe-
tite; the latter, to the "rational ot intellectual
appetite." The other basic distinction which
Aquinas makes is that between kxveas a natural
tendency and as a supernatural habit. Natural
love is that "whereby things seek what i$ suit-
able to them according to their nature," When
love exceeds the inclinations of nattue, M
1054
THE GKEAT IDEAS
does so by "some habitual form superadded
to the natural power/' and this habit of love
is the virtue of charity.
Freud's theory places the origin of love in
the sexual instincts, and so for him the many
varieties of love arc simply the forms which
love takes as the libido fixes upon various ob-
jects. "The nucleus of what we mean by love,"
he writes, "naturally consists ... in sexual love
with sexual union as its aim. We do not separate
from this/' he goes on to say, "on the one hand,
self-love, and on the other, love for parents and
children, friendship and love for humanity in
general, and also devotion to concrete objects
and to abstract ideas ... All these tendencies
arc an expression of the same instinctive activi-
ties." They differ from sexual love only be-
cause "they are diverted from its aim or are
prevented from reaching it, though they al-
ways preserve enough of their original nature
to keep their identity recognizable." Sexual
love undergoes these transformations according
as it is repressed or sublimated, infantile or
adult in its pattern, degraded to the level of
brutal sexuality or humanized by inhibitions
and mixed with tenderness.
All of these classifications and distinctions
belong to the theory of human love. But the
fact of love's diversity extends the theory of
love to other creatures and to God. In the
tradition of biology from Aristotle to Darwin,
the mating of animals and the care of their
young is thought to exhibit an emotion of love
which is either sharply contrasted with or re-
garded as the root of human love. Darwin, for
example, maintains, "it is certain that associ-
atec) animals have a feeling of love for each
other, which is not felt by non-social adult
animals."
At the opposite pole, the theologians identify
G0d with love and see in God's love for Himself
and for His creatures the principle not only of
creatipn, and of providence and salvation, but
alsp the measure of all other loves by which
created things, and men especially, turn toward
or away ,from God. "Beloved, let us love one
another," St. John writes, "for love is of God;
and everyone that loveth is born of God, and
knoweth God. He that loveth not knoweth
not God; for God is love. In this was manifested
the love of God toward us, because that God
sent his only begotten Son into the world, that
we might live through him. Herein is love, not
that we loved God, but that he loved us ...
And we have known and believed the love that
God hath to us. God is love; and he that dwell-
eth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him."
In the moral universe of the Divine Comedy*
heaven is the realm of love, "pure light,"
Beatrice says, "light intellectual full of love
love of true good full of joy, joy which tran-
scends every sweetness." There courtesy pre-
vails among the blessed, and charity alone of
the theological virtues remains. The beatitude
of those who see God dispenses with faith and
hope, but the vision of God is inseparable from
the fruition of love. "The Good which is the
object of the will," Dante writes, "is all col-
lected in it; and outside of it, that is defective
which is perfect there." Desire and will are
"revolved, like a wheel which is moved evenly,
by the Love which moves the sun and the
other stars." Hell is made by the absence of
God's love— the punishment of those who on
earth loved other things more than God.
THERE is A second fact about love to which
poetry and history bear testimony. Love fre-
quently turns into its opposite, hate. Some-
times there is love and hate of the !>ame ob-
ject; sometimes love inspires hate, as it oc-
casions jealousy, of the things which threaten
it. Anger and fear, too, follow in the wake of
love. Love seems to be the primal passion, gen-
erating all the others according to the oppo-
sitions of pleasure and pain and by relations of
cause and effect. Yet not all the analysts of love
as a passion seem to agree upon this point, or
at least they do not give the fact the same
weight in their theories.
Hobbes, for example, gives primacy to fear,
and Spinoza to desire, joy, and sorrow. Spinoza
defines love as "joy with the accompanying idea
of an external cause," and he defines hatred
similarly in terms of sorrow. Nevertheless,
Spinoza, like Aquinas and Freud, deals more
extensively with love and hate than with any
of the other passions. He, like them, observes
how their fundamental opposition runs through
the whole emotional life of man. But he does
not, like Aquinas, regard love as the root of all
the other passions. Treating the combination
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1055
of love and hate toward the same object as a
mere "vacillation of the mind,'* he does not,
like Freud, develop an elaborate theory of
emotional ambivalence which tnes to explain
why the deepest affections of men are usually
mixtures of love and hate.
A THIRD FACT which appears in almost every
one of the great love stories points to another
aspect of love's contrariness. There seems to be
no happiness more perfect than that which love
confirms. But there is also.no misery more pro-
found, no depth of despair greater, than that
into which lovers are plunged when they are
bereft, disappointed, unrequited. Can the
pleasures oflove be hacT without its pains? Is
it better to have loved and suffered than never
to have loved at all ? Is it wiser not to love than
to love not wisely but too well? Is the world
well lost for love ?
These questions paraphrase the soliloquies of
lovers in the great tragedies and comedies of
love. For every praise of love there is, in Shake-
spearian speech or sonnet, an answering com-
plaint. "All creatures in the world through love
exist, and lacking love, lack all that may per-
sist." But "thou blind fool, love, what does
thou to mine eyes, that they behold and see
not what they see?" "The greater castle of the
world is lost," says Antony to Cleopatra; "we
have kissed away kingdoms and provinces."
But in Romeo's words to Juliet, "My bounty is
as boundless as the sea, my love as deep; the
more I give to thee, the more I have, for both
are infinite."
Love is all opposites— the only reality, the
great illusion; the giver of life and its consumer;
the benign goddess whose benefactions men
beseech, and— to such as Hippolytus or Dido—
the dread Cyprian who wreaks havoc and dev-
astation. She is a divinity to be feared when not
propitiated, her potions are poison, her darts
arc shafts of destruction. Love is itself an ob-
jecj.pf love and hate. Men fall in love witji love
and fight against it. Omnia vincit amor, Virgil
writes— "ivcong^uers all."
In the dispassionate language of the moralist,
the question is simply whether love is good or
bad, a component of happiness or an obstacle
thereto. How the question is answered depends
upon the- kind of love in question. The love
which consists in the^best type of friendship
scjgms indispensable tojEejfiarjipy life and, more
thanjhat, to jhe fabric of any society, domestic
or^pplitkal
Such love, Aristotle writes, "is a virtue or
implies virtue, and is besides most necessary
with a view to living. For without friends no
one would choose to live though he had all
other goods. . . . Friendship seems too to hold
states together, and lawgivers care more for it
than for justice." When it is founded on virtue,
it goes further than justice, for it binds men
together through benevolence and generosity.
"When men are friends," Aristotle says, "they
have no need of justice."
But Aristotle does not forget that there are
other types of friendship, based on utility or
pleasure-seeking rather than upon the mutual
admiration of virtuous men. Here, as in the
case of other passions, the love may be good or
bad. It is virtuous only when it is moderated by
reason and restrained from violating the true
order of goods, in conformity to which man's
various loves should themselves be ordered.
When the love in question is the passion oi
the sexual instinct, some moralists think that
temperance is an inadequate restraint. Neither
reason nor law is adequate to the task of sub-
duing— or, as Freud would say, of domesticat-
ing—the beast. To the question Socrates asks,
whether life is harder towards the end, the old
man Cephalus replies in the words of Sophocles,
when he was asked how love suits with age, "]
feel as if I had escaped from a mad and furious
master."
In the most passionate diatribe against love's
passion, Lucretius condemns the sensual pleas-
ures which are so embittered with pain. Venus
should be entirely shunned, for once her darts
have wounded men,"the sore gains strength and
festers by feeding, and day by day the mad ness
grows, and the misery becomes heavier. . . ,
This is the one thing, whereof the more and
more we have, the more does our heart bum
with the cursed desire When the gathering
desire is sated, the old frenzy is back upon them
. . . nor can they discover what device may con-
quer their disease; in such deep doubt the}
waste beneath their secret wound . . . These
ills arc found in love that is true and fully pros
perous; but when love is crossed and hopelesi,
1056
THE GREAT I0EAS
there ar« ills which you might detect with
closed1 eyes, ilk without number; so that it is
better to be oa the watch beforehand, even as
I have taught you, and to beware that you are
not entrapped. For to avoid being drawn into
the meshes of love, is not so hard a task as when
caught amid the toils to issue out and break
through the strong bonds of Venus."
In the doctrines of most moralists, however,
the sexual passion calls for no special treatment
different from other appetites and passions.
Because it is more complex in its manifesta-
tions, perhaps, and more imperious in its urges,
more1 effort on the part of reason may be re-
quired to regulate it, to direct or restrain it.
Yet no special principles of virtue or duty ap-
ply to sexual love. Even the religious vow of
chastity is matched by the vow of poverty.
The love of money is as serious a deflection
from loving God as the lust of the flesh.
WHAT is COMMON to all these matters is dis-
cussed in the chapters on DUTY, EMOTION, VIR-
TUE, and SIN. But here one more fact remains
to be considered— the last fact about love
which the poets and the historians seem to lay
before the moialists and theologians.
When greed violates the precepts of justice,
or gluttony those of temperance, the vice or sin
appears to have no redeeming features, These
are weaknesses of character incompatible with
heroic stature. But many of the great heroes of
literature are otherwise noble men or women
who have, for love's sake, deserted their duty
or transgressed the rules of God and fnan, ac-
knowledging their claims and yet choosing to
risk the condemnation of society even to the
point of banishment, or to put their immortal
soub in peril, The fact seems to be that only
love retains some honor when it defies morality;
not that moralists excuse the illicit act, but
that in the opinion of mankind, as evidenced by
its poetry at least,, love has some privileged
status. Its waywardness and even its madness
ire extenuated.
The .poets suggest the reason for this. Unlike
the other passions which man shares with the
inimals, characteristically human love is a
thing of the spirit as well as the body. A man
£ piggish when he is a glutton, a jackal when
ic is craven, but when his emotional excess in
the sphere of love life him to acts o£ devotion
and sacrifice, he is incomparably human. That
is why the great lovers* as the poets depict
them, seem admirable iiv spite of their trans-
gressions. They almost seem to be justified—
poetically, at least, if not morally—in acting as
if love exempted them from ordinary laws; as
if their love could be a law unto itself. "Who
shall give a k>ver any law?" Arcite asks in
Chaucer's Knight's Tale. "Love is a greater
law," he says, "than man has ever given to
earthly man."
To a psychologist like Freud, the conflict bc-
twe«njlw jejotic^jrnpulses and morality is the
central conflict^ in the psychic fiFof thejndj-
vidual and between tEe individual and society.
There seems to be no happy resolution unless
each is somehow accommodated to the other.
At one extreme of repression, "the claims of our
civilization," according to Freud, "make life
too hard for the greater part of humanity, and
so further the aversion to reality and the origin
of neuroses"; the individual suffers neurotic
disorders which result from the failure of the
repressed energies to find outlets acceptable to
the moral censor. At the other extreme of ex-
pression, the erotic instinct "would break all
bounds and the laboriously erected structure
of civilization would be swept away." Integra-
tion would seem to be achieved in the indi-
vidual personality and society would seem to
prosper only when sexuality is transformed in-
to those types of love which reinforce laws and
duties with emotional loyalty to moral ideals
and invest ideal objects with their energies,
creating the highest goods of civilization.
To the theologian, the conflict between love
and morality remains insoluble-^- not in prin-
ciple, but in practice — until love itself sup-
plants all other rules of conduct. The "good
man," according to Augustine, is not he "who
knows what is good, but whp loves it. Is it not
then obvious," he goes on to say, "that we love
in ourselves the very love wherewith wo love
whatever we love? 'For there is also a love
wherewith we love that which we ought not to
love; and this love is hated by him who laves
that wherewith he loves what ought to.be Jovcd.
For it is quite possible for both to exist in orie
man. And this co-existence is good for a man,
to the end that this love which conduces to our
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1057
living well may grow, and the other, which
leads us to evil may decrease, until our whole
life be perfectly healed and transmuted into
good." Only a better love, a love that is wholly
virtuous and right,~has the power requisite to
c&ercbme love's errors. With this perfect love
goes only ,^one_ rujfe, Augustine says: Dtlige, et
quod vis fac — "love', and do what you will."
This perfect love, which alone deserves to be
a law unto itself, is more than fallen human
nature can come by without God's grace. It is,
according to Christian theology, the super-
natural virtue of charity whereby men par-
ticipate in God's love of Himself and His crea-
tures—loving God with their whole heart and
soul and mind, and their neighbors as them-
selves. On these two precepts of charity, ac-
cofcjfng to the teaching of Christ, "depends the
whole law and the prophets."
The questions which Aquinas considers in
his treatise on charity indicate that the theo-
logical resolution of the conflict between love
and morality is, in essence, the resolution of
a conflict between diverse loves, a resolution
accomplished by the perfection of love itself.
Concerning the objects and order of charity,
he asks, for example, "whether we should love
charity out of charity," "whether irrational
creatures also ought to be loved out of charity,"
"whether a man ought to love his body out of
charity," "whether we ought to love sinners
out of charity," "whether charity requires that
we should love our enemies," "whether God
ought to be loved more than our neighbors,"
"whether, out of charity, man is bound to love
God more than himself," "whether, out of
charity, man ought to love himself more than
his neighbor," "whether a man ought to love
his neighbor more than his own body,"
"whether we ought to love one neighbor more
than another," "whether we ought to love
those who are better more than those who are
more closely united to us," "whether a man
ought, out of charity, to love his children more
than his father,"1 "whether a man ought to love
his wife more than his father and mother,"
"whether a man ought to love his benefactor
more than one he has benefited."
THE DIVERSITY of love seems to be both the
basic fact and the basic problem for the psy-
chologist, the moralist, the theologian. The
ancient languages have three distinct words for
the main types of love: eras, philia, agape in
Greek; amor, amicitia (or dilectio)t and caritas in
Latin. Because English has no such distinct
words, it seems necessary to use such phrases as
"sexual love," "love of friendship," and "love
of charity" in order to indicate plainly that
love is common to all three, and to distinguish
the three meanings. Yet we must observe what
Augustine points out, namely, that the Scrip-
tures "make no distinction between amor, dilcc-
tio, and caritas" and that in the Bible "amor
is used in a good connection."
The problem of the kinds of love seems fur-
ther to be complicated by the need to differ-
entiate and relate love and desire. Some writers
use the words "love" and "desire" interchange-
ably, as does Lucretius who, in speaking of the
pleasures of Venus, says that "Cupid [/.<?., de-
sire] is the Latin name of love." Some, like
Spinoza, use the word "desire" as the more
general word and "love" to name a special
mode of desire. Still others use "love" as the
more general word and "desire" to signify an
aspect of love. "Love," Aquinas writes, "is
naturally the first act of the will and appetite;
for which reason all the other appetitive move-
ments presuppose love, as their root and origin.
For nobody desires anything nor rejoices in
anything, except as a good that is loved."
One thing seems to be clear, namely, that
both love and desire belong to the appetitive
faculty— to the sphere of the emotions and the
will rather than to the sphere of perception
and knowledge. When a distinction is made
between desire and love as two states of appe-
tite, it seems to be based on their difference in
tendency. As indicated in the chapter of DE-
SIRE, the tendency of desire is acquisitive. The
object of desire is a good to be possessed, and
the drive of desire continues until, with posses-
sion, it is satisfied. Love equated with desire
does not differ from any other hunger.
But there seems to be another tendency
which impels one not to possess the object
loved, but to benefit it. The lover wishes the
well- being of the beloved, and reflexively wishes
himself well through being united with the ob-
ject of his love. Where desire devoid of love is
selfish in the sense of one's seeking goods or
1058
THE GREAT IDEAS
pleasures for oneself without any regard far
the good of the other, be it thing or person,
love seeks jo give^rathcr thao to get, or to get
only ajTtEe result of giving1* Whereas nothing
sHort of physical possession satisfies desire, love
can be satisfied in the contemplation of its ob-
ject's beauty or goodness. It has more affinity
with knowledge than with action, though it
goes beyond knowledge in its wish to act for
the good of the beloved, as well as in its wjsh
to be loVitd in return.
Those who distinguish love and desire in
such terms usually repeat the distinction in
differentiating kinds of love. The difference
between sexual love and the love which is pure
friendship, for example, is said to rest on the
predominance of selfish desires in the one and
the predominance of altruistic motives in the
other. Sexual love is sometimes called the "love
pf desire" to signify that it is a love born of de-
sire; whereas in friendship love is thought to
precede desire and to determine its wishes.
In contrast to the love of desire, the love of
friendship makes few demands. "In true fnend-
>hipi wherein I am perfect," Montaigne de-
:lares, "I more give myself to my friend, than
[ endeavor to attract him to me. I am not only
setter pleased m doing him service than if he
:onferred a benefit upon me, but, moreover,
^ad rather he should do himself good than me,
ind he most obliges me when he does so; and if
ibsence be either more pleasant or convenient
"or him, 'tis also more acceptable to me than his
jresence."
These two loves appear in most of the great
inalyses of love, though under different names:
;oncupiscent love and fraternal love; the
Viendship base on pleasure or utility and the
riendship based on virtue; animal and human
ove; sexuality and tenderness. Sometimes they
are assigned to different faculties: the love of
desire to the sensitive appetite or the sphere of
instinct and emotion; the love of friendship to
the will or faculty of intellectual desire, capa-
ble of what Spinoza calls the amor intellectualis
Dei — "the intellectual love of God." Some-
times the two kinds of love are thought able
to exist in complete separation from one an-
other as well as in varying degrees of mixture,
as in romantic and conjugal love; and some-
times the erotic or sexual component is thought
to be present to some degree in all love. Though
he asserts this, Freud does not hold the con-
verse, that sexuality is always accompanied by
the tenderness which characterizes human
love. The opposite positions here seem to be
correlated with opposed views of the relation
of man to other animals, or with oppose^ the-
ories of human nature, especially m regard to
the relation of instinct and reason, the senses
and the intellect, the emotions and the will.
As suggested above, romantic love is usually
conceived as involving both possessive and
altruistic motives, the latter magnified by what
its critics regard as an exaggerated idealization
of the beloved. The theological virtue of chan-
ty, on the other hand, is purely a love of friend-
ship, its purity made perfect by its supernat-
ural foundation. One of the great issues here
is whether the romantic is compatible with the
Christian conception of love, whether the
adoration accorded a beloved human being does
not amount to deification— as much a violation
of the precepts of charity as the pride of un-
bounded self-love. Which view is taken affects
the conception of conjugal love and the rela-
tion of love in courtship to love in marriage.
These matters and, in general, the forms of love
in the domestic community are discussed in the
chapter on FAMILY.
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
i. The nature of love
la. Conceptions of love and hate: as passions and as acts of will
ib. Love and hate in relation to each other and in relation to pleasure and pain
' ic. The distinction between love and desire: the generous and acquisitive aims
j<£ The objects of loye; the good, the true, the beautiful; Go4, ma,n, things
PAGE
1060
1 06 1
CHAPTER 50: LOVE 1059
PAGB
\e. The intensity and power of love: its increase or decrease; its constructive or
destructive force 1063
if. The power of hate 1064
2. The kinds of love
2a. Lustful, sexual, or selfish love: concupiscent love
(1) The sexual instinct: its relation to other instincts 1065
(2) Infantile sexuality: polymorphous perversity 1066
(3) Object-fixations, identifications, and transferences: sublimation
(4) The perversion, degradation, or pathology of love: infantile and adult love
2#. Friendly, tender, or altruistic love: fraternal love
(1) The relation between love and friendship 1067
(2) Self-love in relation to the love of others
(3) The types of friendship: friendships based on utility, pleasure, or virtue 1068
(4) Patterns of love and friendship in the family 1069
ic. Romantic, chivalnc, and courtly love: the idealization and supremacy of the
beloved 1070
2d> Conjugal love: its sexual, fraternal, and romantic components 1071
3. The morality of love 1072
30. Friendship and love in relation to virtue and happiness
3#. The demands of love and the restraints of virtue: moderation in love; the order of
loves 1073
y. The conflict of love and duty: the difference between the loyalties of love and
the obligations of justice
3^. The heroism of friendship and the sacrifices of love 1074
4. The social or political force of love, sympathy, or friendship
4#. Love between equals and unequals, like and unlike: the fraternity of citizenship 1075
4^. The dependence of the state on friendship and patriotism: comparison of love
and justice in relation to the common good 1076
\c. The brotherhood of man and the world community
5. Divine love 1077
50. God as the primary object of love
(1) Man's love of God in this life; respect for the moral law
(2) Beatitude as the fruition of love 1078
5& Chanty, or supernatural love, compared with natural love
(1) The precepts of charity: the law of love
(2) The theological virtue of charity: its relation to the other virtues 1079
y. God's love of Himself and of creatures
1060
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example, i n 53 JAMES -Psychology, 116a-119b, thepassage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the let terse and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. Forexample,m 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the mam divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK n [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; c.g , OLD TESTA-
MI- NT Nchcmiah, 7:45 — (D) // Esdras, 7 46.
SYMBOLS. The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Refeience Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature of love
la. Conceptions of love and hate: as passions
and as acts of will
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6-17-18— (D)
OT, Boo^ of Wisdom, 6:18-19
NEW TESTAMENT: I John, 4:7-8,16,18
7 PLATO: Lysis 14a-25a,c / Cratylus, 103 b-d /
Phaedrus, 115a-129d / Symposium 149a-173a,c
/ Laws, BK vni, 736b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK n, CH 5 [no5b2o-23J
351b; BK iv, CH 6 [ii26b2o-25] 373d; BK vm,
CH i 406b,d-407a esp [ii55*32-bi5] 406d-
407a; CH 3 [ii56»3i-b5] 408a; CH 5 [i 157^8-
33] 409c; CH 6 [1158*10-17] 409d-410a; BK ix,
CH 5 [ii66b33-n67a3] 420b; CH 7 [n68'i£~
21] 421d; CH 10 [1171*11-12] 424d / Politics,
BK vii, CH 7 [i327b40-i328ai7] 532a-b /
Rhetoric, BK n, CH 4 626c-628b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-3 lOa-
lla; TR vi, CH 5 23b-24a / Third Ennead, TR
v 100c'106b / Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 10,
309a-b; TR vii, CH 33 337d-338b; TR ix, CH 9,
359b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xiv, CH 7 380c-
381c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 10, 662a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theobgica, PART i, Q 20,
A i, ANS and REP i 120a-121b; Q 27, A 3, ANS
and REP 3 155c-156a; A 4, ANS and REP 2
156b-d; Q 37, A i, ANS and REP 2 197c-199a;
Q 60, A* 1-2 310b-311d; Q 82, A 5, REP i 435c-
436c, PART i-n, Q 23, A 4 726a-727a, Q 25, A
2 731b-732a; Q 26 733d-737a; Q 28, A i, ANS
and REP 1-2 740b-741a, Q 29 744d-749a
20 AQUINAS • Summa Theohgtca, PART i-n, Q 62,
A 3, ANS and RLP 3 61c-62b; PART n-ii, Q 23,
A 2, ANS 483d-484d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVH
[82]-xvin [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, xxvi [1-81]
145d-146c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK in,
STANZA 1-7 54b-55b; STANZA 250-253 87a-b
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART i, 61c, 63a
25 MONTAIGNE* Essays, 424d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART n, AXIOM 3 373d;
PART in, PROP 13, SCHOL 400d; PROP 38-49
408a-411b; THE AFFECTS, DEF 6-7 417b-d;
PART IV, APPENDIX, XIX-XX 449&
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 4-5 176d-177a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 453a-456a; 502a-b;
523b526b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 9b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-345d
42 KANT: Fund. Prm. Metaphysic of Morals, 259a
/ Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-386d
['If to Ic GHAJPTER
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 64a
46 HEGBL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 101
133b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312b,d [fn 27]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 525c-526b;
BK xn, 560a-561c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 4a-5a; 391b-393a
54 FREUD; Instincts, 418c-d; 420a-421a / General
Introduction, 581b / Group Psychology, 673 b-
674a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 783c
ib. Love and hate in relation to each other and
in relation to pleasure and pain
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c esp (465-662]
216a-217c
7 PLATO: Lysis, 18d-19d; 21a-c / Phtedrus, 121c-
122a / Symposium, 160c / Republic, BK HI,
333b-334b
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK i, CH 15 [io6b2~4] 150b
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK i, CH 5 [644b
31-645*1] 168d/ Ethics, BK VHI, CH 2-6 407a-
410c passim; BK ix, CH 5 [i 167*3-6] 420b; CH 9
[ii7oai3~bi9] 423d-424b; CH n 425a-d esp
[ii7ia34-bi3J 425b-c; BK x, CH 4 [1175*10-22]
429c / Politics, BK vn, CH 7 [i327b40-i328*
17] 532a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [i37obi5~
28] 614a; [i37ifli7~24] 614c-d; BK u, CH 4
[1380^4-1382*19] 626d 628b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1140] 57d-59a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-170a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK iv [279-705] 174b-186b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions^ BK n, par 16-17 12c-
13a; BK in, par i 13b-c / City of God, BK xix,
CH 8 5l5c-5l6a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 23,
A 4 726a-727a; Q 25, A 2 731b-732a; A 3, ANS
732a~733a; Q 26, A 2, ANS and REP 3 734d-
735c; Q 27, A 4 739c-740a; Q 28, A i 740b-
741a; A 5 743c-744b; Q 29, A 3, ANS and REP
1,3 746b-747a; Q 30, A 2 749d-750d; Q 31,
A 6, REP 3 756d-757c; Q 32, A 3, REP 3 760d-
761c; A 4, ANS and REP 3 761c-762a; AA 5-6
762a-763c; A 8, ANS 764c-765b; Q 38, A 3
788b-d
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART n-u, Q 28
527b-530a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-8b;
PURGATORY, XVH [82]-xvni [75] 79b-80c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK i, STANZA
i la; BK n, STANZA in-112 36a; BK HI,
STANZA 174-175 77a-b; STANZA 218-219 83ft»
BK v, STANZA 60 128a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 61c-62c; 77b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida 103a-
141a,c esp ACT in, sc n [8-30] 120b-c, ACT iv,
se iv [1-50] 128b-c, ACT v, sc n 134c-137a /
Cymbeline, ACT in, sc v [70-150] 469d-470c /
Sonnets, cxxix 606a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART HI, PROP 13, SCHOL
4004; PROP 19-26 402c-404b; PROP 33-49
406q-4Ub> pA*T *v» APPENDIX, XIX-XX <
50: tOVE 1061
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 4-5 l?6d-177a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 30a-32a; 127b-c; 349b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344b [fn i]?345d-346b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-309a; 312b,d
[fn 27]
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov* B« x,
282b-283c; BK xi, 324a-b; BK xn, 366a-368c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 391b-392a; 717a-718a;
809b-810b [fn i]
54 FREUD: Instincts^ 418c-421a,c / Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, 659b-d / Group Psychology,
677c-678a; 679a-b / Ego and Id, 708d-711a
esp 709c-710c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and
Anxiety, 724a-725a esp 724b-c; 733d-734b;
752c-754a,c / War and Death, 766a-b /
Civilisation and Its Discontents, 789c-790c /
New Introductory Lectures, 857c-859b esp:
857c, 858c-859a
Ic. The distinction between love and desire
the generous and acquisitive aims
5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia at Aulis [543-589) 429d-
430a
7 PLATO: Lysis, 20c-d; 23d-24d / fyatylus,
103b-d / Phaedrus, J15a-129d esp 120b~c,
123b-124a / Symposium, 153b-155c; 164c-
165b / Laws, BK vin, 735c-736c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK 11, CH 22
[68*25-b7] 89d-90a / Topics, BK vi, CH 7
[146*9-12] 199d; BK vn, CH i [i52b6~9] 207c
9 ARISTOTLE* Ethics, BK in, CH 11 [m8b8-i8]
365a-b; BK vni, CH 1-8 406b,d-411d passim;
CH 13-14 414d-416d; BK ix, CH i 416b,d-
417C1 passim; CH 5 420a-c passim; CH 8 421d-
423a
12 LUCRETIUS. Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1062) 57d-58a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK in, CH 24 203c-
210a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR v, CH 7-TR vi,
CH 9 20a-26a / Third Ennead, TR v lOOc-
106b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK H, par I-BK in,
par i 9a-13c / City of God, BK xiv, CH 7 380c-
381c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 10, 661d-
662a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 19,
A i, REP 2 108d-109c; A 2, ANS 109c-110b;
Q 20, A i, ANS and REP 2 120a-121b; A ^, REP 3
121b-122a; Q 60, A 3, ANS 311d-312b; PART
i-fi, Q 2, A i, REP 3 615d-616c; Q 23, A 2 724c-
725c; A 4 726a-727a; Q 25, A 2 73Ib-732a;
A 3> ANS 732a*733a; Q 26 733d-737a esp A 2,
ANS and REP 3 734d-735c, A 4 736b-737a; Q
27, AA 3^4 738c-740a; Q 28, A i, ANS and REP
1-2 740b-741a; A 2, ANS 741a-742a; A 3, ANS
and REP 2-3 742a-d; A 4 742d-743c; Q 30,
A 2 749d-750d; Q 32, A 3, REP 3 760d-761c;
, A 8, ANS 764c-765b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART 1-11, Q 62^
A 3, ANS and REP 3 61c-62b
1062
THE GREAT IDEAS
(I. The nature of love. If, The distinction be-
tween love and desire: the generous and
acquisitive aims.)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv {40-
81] 75d-76a; xvn [82]-xvin [75] 79b-80c
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART \, 61c; 63a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 83d-84a; 398c-399d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, I-H
447a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [500-617]
243a-245b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK nf CH xx,
SECT 4-6 176d-177b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 346c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345c-346b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi,525c-526b
53 JAMES. Psychology, 204b-209b passim
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 404d-406b; 409b-411a,c
/ Instincts, 420a-421a / General Introduction,
581b; 617c-618a / Group Psychology, 673b-
674a; 679a-b; 681c-682b; 693a-694c / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 783b-c / New Introduc-
tory Lectures, 847d-848a
Id. The objects of love: the good, the true, the
beautiful; God, man, things
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 29:17-18 / Song of
Solomon— (D) Canticle of Canticles / Zechari-
ah, 8:19— (D) Zachanas, 8:19
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 8:1-3— (D)
OT, Boot( of Wisdom, 8:1-3 / Ecclesiasticus,
4:11-19; 9 '8; 36:22— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus ,
4:12-22; 9:8-9; 36:24
NEW TESTAMENT: Mattheiv, 10:37 / Luke, 14:26
/ Romans, 12 .9 / Colosstans, 3:1-2/7 Timothy,
6:10-11 / I John, 2:15-16; 4:20-21
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK HI [121-160] 20b-c; BK xiv
[193-221] lOOa-b
5 EURIPIDES; Andromache [205-208] 317a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK v, 168d-169a; BK vi,
196d-197b
7 PLATO: Lysis, 18d-24d / Phaedrus, 120a-c;
126b-129d / Symposium, 161d-167d / Euthy-
phro, 194b / Phaedo, 225c / Republic, BK i,
296d-297a; BK v-vi, 368c-375b; BK vi, 376d
/ Laws, BK v, 687b; BK vin, 735b«-738c
8 ARISTOTLE : Posterior Analytics^ BK i, CH 2
[72*25-30] 98d / Metaphysics, BK xn, CH 7
[io72»23-b4] 602b-c
9 ARISTOTLE : Ethics, BK vin, CH 2*4 407a-409b,
BK ix, CH 3 418c-419a passim, esp (n65bi3-i7)
418d; CH 5 [1167*3-6] 420b; CH 7 421a-d esp
[1167^34-1168*18] 421b-c; CH 8 421d-423a
passim; CH 9 [ii70*i3-bJ9] 423d-424b; CH 12
425d-426a,c; BK x, CH 4 [1175*10-22] 429c /
Rhetoric, BK i, CH n [i37ibi2-25] 615a-b; BK
iit CH 4 626c-628b; CH 12 [138^*2-15] 636b;
CH 13 [i389b32-34l 637b; [1390^x7] 637c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK in [59-78]
30d-31a
12 EPICTETUS : Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-170a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-3 lOa-
lla; TR vi 21a-26a / Third Ennead, TR v lOOc-
106b / Fifth Ennead, TR v, CH 12, 234a-c /
Sixth Ennead, TR v, CH 10, 309a-b; TR vn,
CH 33 337d-338b; TR ix, CH 9, 3S9b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par i 13b-c;
BK iv, par 7-20 20d-24c; BK VIH, par 10-30
55c-61c passim; BK x, par 38-70 81a-89b /
Ctty of God, BK xii, CH 8-9 346d-348b; BK
xiv, CH 7 380c-381c; BK xv, CH 22 416a-c,
BK xix, CH 10-17 516c-523a / Christian Doc-
trine, BK i, CH 3-5 625b'<>26a; CH 9-10 627a-b;
CH 22-29 629b-632c; CH 35 634c-d; CH 38
635c-d; CH 40 636a,c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 20,
A i, ANS and REP 3 120a-121b; Q 60, AA 3-5
311d-314c; PART I-H, Q i, A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A
i, REP 3 615d-616c; Q 23, A 4 726a-727a; Q 27
737a-740a; Q 29, A i 745a-c; AA 4-5 747a-
748b; Q 32, A 5, ANS 762a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 62,
A 3, ANS and REP 3 61c-62b; Q 66, A 6, REP i
80c-81b; Q 67, A 6 87a-c; Q no, A r, ANS and
REP i 347d-349a; P\RT ii-n, Q 23, A 4, ANS
485d-486b; A 6, REP i 487a-d; Q 24, A i, ANS
and REP i 489d-490b; QQ 25-27 501a-527b
passim
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvi [85-102] 77d; xvn [82]-
xvin [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, i [97-142]
107b-d; iv [ii5]-v [12] llld-112b; vi [112-
126] 114d-115a; xxvi [1-81] 145d-146c
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 164a-b
23 HOBBFS: Leviathan, PART i, 61c-62a; 76c-77b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays^ 84b-85a; 191c-192d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT i, sc i
[214-244] 287d-288a; sc v [43-55] 292b; \cr
n, sc n [1-32] 294b-c
29 ChRVANTEs: Don Quixote, PART n, 381c-382a
30 BACON. Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 56, DEMON&T
414a-c; PART v, PROP 15-16 456c; PROP 18
456d; PROP 33 460c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vin [500-560]
243a-244a / Samson Agonistes [1003-1007]
361b
33 PASCAL: Fences, 81 186b; 100 191a-192b; 323
230a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 4-5 176d-177a; BK iv, CH xix, SECT i
384c-d
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 15b-c; 17b-c; 50d-51a;
130b-c; 198d-199a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346a; 347b-c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 326a-327a A Judge-
ment, 476a-483d; 585d-586a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [8516-8523] 207b;
[9192-9944] 223 b- 241 b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKI, 5d-6b; BK in,
113a-115a; BK vi, 249d-250a; BK xi, 525c-
526b; BK xn, 555b-c; 560a-561c; BK xiv,
608a-b; EPILOGUE i, 659a; 660b-c
\c
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
106
• 52 DOSTOEVSKI: Brothers K&ramazov, BK u, 26d-
27d; BK in, 53d-S4b; BK iv, 83c-84a; BK v,
121d-122d passim; BK vit 167b-168c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 204b^2iUt
54 FREUD: Instincts, 418d-420b esp 420a-b /
Group Psychology, 673b-c / Cwtltzation and
Its Discontents, 775b-c; 783a-b
e. The intensity and power of love: its in-
crease or decrease; its constructive or
destructive force
OLD TESTAMENT: 11 Samuel, 11-12— (D) II Kings,
11-12 f Proverbs, 5:3-14; 6:23-29; 23:26-28
/ Ecclesiastes, 7:26— (D) Ecclesiastes, 7:27
/ Song of Solomon, 8:6-7— (£>) Cant tele of
Canticles, 8:6-7
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvm [1-126] 130a-131c;
BK xix [276-368] 139d-140c; BK xxn [21-98!
155b-156a; [405-515] 159c-160d
5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe [585-651] 75d-76b
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [781-805] 138a / Tra-
chintae 170a-181a,c esp [427-530] 173d-174d
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [627-642] 217c / Hippolytus
225a-236d esp [1-57] 225a-c, [1268-1282]
235b-c / Suppliants [990-1071] 267a-c / Tro-
jan Women [895-1059] 277c-279a / Androm-
ache [274-308] 31 7d / Iphjgenia at Aulis
[543-589] 429d-430a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [685-707] 551b-d /
Lysistrata 583a-599a,c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK ix, 311b-312d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK vi, 523c-
524c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124a-129d / Symposium
149a-173a,c esp 152b-167d / Republic, BK v,
361 b-c; BK ix, 417a-418a / Laws, BK vni,
736b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vn, CH 7 [i327b4o-
1328*17] 532a-b / Rhetoric, BK n, CH 12
I1389b3~5] 636d; CH 13 [138^22-24] 637a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK i [1-41]
la-c; BK iv [1037-1208] 57d-60a
13 VIRGIL- Eclogues, 11 [56-73] esp [68] 7b-8a; x
32a-34a esp [69] 34a / Georgics, iv [452-527]
95b-98a / Aeneid, BK i [657-756] 121a-123b;
BK iv 167a-186b
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR iv, CH 40
180b-c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par i 13b-c;
BK iv, par 7-14 20d-23a; BK vi, par 18-26
40d-43a; BK vni, par 10-30 55c-61c passim;
BK x, par 38-70 81a-$9b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 20,
A i, REP 3 120a-121b; Q 98, A 2, ANS and REP
3 517d-519a; PART i-n, Q 25, A 2 731b-732a;
Q 26, A 2, REP 1-2 734d-735c; Q 28 740a-744d
esp A 6 744b-d; Q 29, AA 2-3 745c-747a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica^ PART n-n, QQ
31-33 536d-558d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-8b; xn
[31-48] 16d; PURGATORY, vni [67-84] 65a;
xv [40-81] 75d-76a; xvn [Sij-xvm [75] 79b-
80c; xxiv [49-63] 90a-b; PARADISE, z [97
142] 107b-d; XXX-XXXIH 151d-157d
22 CHAUCER: Trotlus and Crcssida, BK i, STANZ
1-8 la 2a; STANZA 31-37 5a-6a; STAXZA 58-6
8b-9b; STANZA 143-144 19b-20a; BK n
STANZA 1-^7 54b-55b; STANZA 142-254 73c
87b / Knight's Tale [1152-1186] 179a-b
Rente's Prologue [3853-3896] 224a~b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6a-b; 39a-40a; 410a-c
414d-416c; 431c-432d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors, ACT v, sc
[68-86] 165d-166a/ Two Gentlemen ofVerom
ACT n, sc iv [126-142] 237c-d; sc vi 239a-c
Lotte's Labour's Lost, ACT HI, sc i [175-20;
264a-b; ACT iv, sc in [290-365] 271c-272a
Romeo and Juliet, ACT n 293c-300d / Mit
summer -N ight1 s Dream 352a-375d esp Act
sc i [226-251] 354d-355a / Merchant ofVenic
ACT n, sc vi [1-19] 415b-c / Much Ado Aboi
Nothing, ACT n, sc i [379-405] 51 la; sc i
511d-514b; ACT in, sc i [104-116] 515c / /
You Lit^e It, ACT in, sc 11 [420-425] 613c
27 SHAKESPEARE : Twelfth Night la 28d esp ACT i
sc iv [82-127] llb-d, ACT in, sc i [161-176] 15
/ Trotlus and Crcssida, ACT in, sc i [io6-i4<
119c-120a; sc n [8-30] 120b-c; [87-90] 121i
ACT iv, sc iv [11-50] 128b-c; ACT v, sc
[154-181] 136c-d / Othello 205a-243a,c / Kit
Lear> ACT v, sc HI [257-273] 282b / Antor
and Cleopatra 311a-350d / Cymbeline, ACT 11
sc iv 466d-468d / Sonnets, XVII-CLIV 588c
609d passim
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 79d-80j
120b-137d; PART n, 381c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 44 437c-43£
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK ix [990-118'
269a-273a / Samson Agonistes [999-106
361b-362b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 453a-456a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 14c-d; 30a-32a; 68<
167c-169c; 237b-c; 334b-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345c-346b
44 Rosw ELL: Johnson, 169d-170b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 323b
47 GOBTHE: Faust, PART i [3025-3072] 73b-74!
[4460-4612] lllb-114b; PART n [8339-848
203a-206b; [9192-9944] 223b-241b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic^ 370b-371a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 70d; BK n
116c-117a; 141b-d; 159b-161b; BK iv, 184<
185b; BK vi, 235a-238c; 262b-271c; BK vn
316b-c; 327c-d; 340c-341a,c; BK ix, 377b-
BK xi, 525c-527a; BK XH, 541d-542b; 557b-<
560a-561c; BK xiv, 608a-b; BK xv, 616a-618
esp 617a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov* BK i
26a-27d; BK vi, 167b-168c; BK vni, 200<
201c
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 65 7c-
/ Group Psychology, 678a-c / Ego and L
708d-712a passim, esp 708d-709a, 711c
Cwilization and Its Discontents, 791a-d
1064
THE' GREAT IDEAS
I/. The power of hat^
OtD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4 '1-9; 37 / // Samuel,
*3:i5-39— (D) H &n8s* 13:15~S9 / Esther,
3:2-5; 5:9^14 / Proverbs, IO.T?
NBW TESTAMENT: I John, 2:9^*11; 3:12-15; 4:20
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 312a-224a,c esp. {463-662]
216a<217c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 34a-b; BK m,
100b401b; BK vn, 258d-259a
6 THUCYDIDBS: Peloponnesian Wat, BK n, 403c-
404a
7 PLATO: Apology, 205c-d / PhaedQ, 237b
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK vii, CH 7^1328*1-16]
5321* / Rhetoric, BK 11, CH 4 [1382*1-16] 628a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART MI, Q 29,
A 3 746b-747a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH v, 8c; CH xix 26a-
3Qa
23 HOBBBS: Leviathan, PART n> 141a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT i, sc in
73d-74b; AOT in, sc it [146-195] 87d-88a;
ACT v, sc vi [61-93] 103d-104a / Richard 111
105a-148a,c esp ACT i, sc i 105b,d-107b,
ACT v, $c in [119-206] 144d-145d / Merchant
of Venice, ACT iv, sc i [35-62] 425d-426a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello 205a-243a,c esp ACT n,
sc i [1-81] 213b-214ty [295-321] 216c/ Corio-
htnus, ACT iv, sc v [70-152] 380b-381a / Timon
of Athens 393a-420d esp ACT iv, sc i 409c-d,
sc in 410c-416d / Cymbelmc, ACT m, sc v
[70-150] 469d-470c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK i [81^-105] 95a-b /
Samson Agomstes [819-842] 357b-358a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 30a-32a; 124d; 237b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dicl^ 119a-121a; 134b-136a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312b,d [fn 27]
51 TOLSTOY j War and Peace, BK iv, 183d-186c;
188a-190c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
137c-142c; BK xn, 393a-394a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 717a-720b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 32S«-b /
Group Psychology, 677c-678a / War and
Death, 764d*765d / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 787a~788d; 790a-791d esp 791b-c
2. The kiods of love
7 PLATO: Symposium, 153b-135c; 165b-167d /
' LAWS> BK vni, 73Sc-736c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ermead, TR v 100c-106b /
Stxtk Enntad, TR ixt CH 9, 359b-c
18 AOGUSTINB: City of God, BK xiv, CH 7 380c-
381c / Christian Doctrine, BK in, CH 10 661c-
662a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Thealogica, PART ir Q 20,
A 2, REP 3 121b-122a; Q 60, AA i^ 310b-
312b; Q 82, A 5, HEP i 435o436c; PART Mi,
Q 26 733d- 73 7a esp AA 3-4 735c-737a; Q 27,
A 3, ANS 738c-739c; Q 28, AA i-a 740b-
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theoiogica, PART I-H, Q 66,
A 6, REJ».a 80c-81b; PART u-n, Q 23, A i, ANS
482d-483d; A 4, ANS 485d-486b
21 DANTE: Dwme Comedy > PURGATORY, xvn
[82-139] ?9b-d
22 CHAUCER: Troilui and Crcssida, BK n, STANZA
128 38a
23 HOB BBS: Leviathan, PART i, 63a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 83a-8Sa; 399a-b; 424d-
42Sc
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 381c-382a
31SWN02A: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xix*xx
449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK vm [500-617]
243aX245b; BK ix [990^1189] 269a-273a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 522a^525a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 14C'd; 167c-169c; 198d-
199a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346b; 348d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 289c-290b; 303c;
305c-309a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 50a; BK vi,
269c-d; BK vii, 276c-277a; BK xi, 520a-521b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
27c-d
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 673b-d; 681c-682a
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 783 b-c
la. Lustful, sexual, or selfish love: concupiscent
love
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 39:6-20 / Exodus,
20:14,17 / Leviticus, 1 8 / Numbers, 25:1-9 /
// Samuel, n; 13:1-14 — (D) II Kings, n;
13:1-14 / Proverbs, 5:1-20; 6:20-35; 7? 23:26-
35 / Ecclesiastes, 7:26— (D) Ecclesiastes, 7:27
/ Ezefol, 23 ~^(D) Ezechiel, 23
APOCRYPHA. Judith, 11:21-23; 12:11-20; 16:7-9 —
(D) OT, Judith, 11:19-21; 12:10-20; 1628-11 /
Ecclesiasticus, 9:3-9; 25:21; 47:19-20— (D)
OT, Ecclesiastic^ 9:3-13; 25528; 47:21-22 /
$usanna—(B) OT, Danid, 13
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:27-32 / Romans,
6:12^13; 7:14-25; 13:13-14 / / Corinthians,
6:9-7:11 / Colossians, 3:5 / / Thessalonians,
4:4-5 / Hebrews, 13:4 / James, 1:13-16 / 7
Peter, 2.11 / I John, 2:15-17
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK vm [266-366] 224d-
225d
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c esp
[776-835] 11*4, (980-1073] 13b-14«,c /
Agamemnon [68 1-78 j] 59b-60b / Chotphoroe
[585-651] 75d-76bj [892-930] 78d-79b
5 EURIPIDES: Electra [98^-1122] 336a^337b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK ix, 311b-312d
7 PLATO: Charmukf, 2b< / Phacdrus, 117*-122a
/ Symposium, 153b-155c / Republic, BK in,
3a4b; we ix, 417b^418a /
f, 474b-d; 476b-d / Laws, we VMI,
735b-738c
8 ARISTOTLE : Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 22
89d*90a / Topics, BK vit CH 7
; BK vn, CH i [i52b6-9] 207c
2a to
CHAPTER 50: LOVfi
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK vi, CH 18
[57ib5-i°] 97b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Na/ure of Things, BK iv [1037-
1120] 57d-58d; [1192-1208] 59d-60a; BK v
[962-965] 73c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [657-756] 121a-123b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 64b-c; BK xi, 103b-c;
107b-108c; BK xm, 137b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH 1-2 lOOc-
102a
18 AUGUSTINE. Confessions, BK i, par 25-26 7a-c,
BK n, par 1-8 9a-10d; BK in, par 1-5 13b-14b,
BK iv, par 2 19d; BK vi, par 18-26 40d-43a /
City of God, BK xn, CH 8 346d-347b, BK xiv,
CH 16-18 390a-391c; CH 26 395d-396c; BK
xv, CH 22-23 416a-418c / Christian Doctrine,
BK in, CH 10 661c-662a; CH 18-21 664d-666b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, P\RT i, Q 98,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 517d-519a; PART I-H, QQ
26-28 733d-744d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q 15,
A 3 453c-454c; Q 46, A 3 604d-605a,c; PART in,
Q 65, A i, REP 5 879c-881d
21 DANTE: Divme Comedy, HLLL, v 7a-8b; xi
[76-90] 16a; PURGATORY, vin [67-84] 65a;
xvn [127-139] 79d; xix [1-69] 81c-82a; xxv
[io9]-xxvi [148] 92c-94c; PARADISE, VIH-IX
116d-120a esp ix [103-108] 119d
22 CHAUCER- Troilus and Crcsstda, BK in, STANZA
172-219 77a-83a / Miller's Tale 212b-223b /
Reeve's Tale 225a-232a / Squirts Tale [10,813-
943] 347a-349a / Physician's Tale 366a-371a /
Manciple's Tale [17,088-103] 490a / Parson's
Tale, par 19 507b-508b; par 74-86 535b-544a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 63a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK n,
106a-107c; BK HI, 164d-166a; 188d-193c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 6a-b; 36c-40a; 83d-85a;
297d-299c, 398c-399c; 406a-434d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Titus Andromcus 170a-198d
esp ACT n 176a-181d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc v [40-91]
37b d; ACT in, sciv [40-96] 55a-c/ Troilus and
Cressida 103a-141a,c esp ACT iv, sc i [51-79]
126b-c, sc v [13-63] 130a-c, ACT v, sc n 134c-
137a/ Measure for Measure 174a-204d esp ACT
n, sc i [234-257] 181a-b, sc n [162-187] 183d-
184a / Othello, ACT i, sc in [306-388] 212b-
213a / King Lear, ACT iv, sc vi [109-135]
274c-d; ACT v, sc i 277d-278d / Pericles,
ACT i, PROLOGUE-SC i 421b-423c; ACT iv, sc
v-vi 441a-443b / Sonnets, cxxix 606a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 35 406d-
407bj THE AFFECTS, DBF 48 421b-d', PART IV,
APPENDIX, xix 449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [443-450] 185a;
BK vin [500-643] 243a-246a; BK ix [990-
1133] 269a-272a esp [1004-1098] 269a-271a /
Samson Agomstes [373-419] 347b-348b; [766-
842] 356b-358a
33 PASCAL: Pen sees, 402-403 241a; 451-461 253b-
255a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 513a-516a; 521a-b;
525a-526a; 554b-556a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 9b-c; 58b-59b; 130b-c;
138b-d; 289 b- 2 90 b; 321b-322a; 352d-353a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xiv, 103c-
104a; BK xvi, 118a-b; 119a-b; 119d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346b; 348d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92c-d; 649d-650c
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 301c-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 162
58b-d
47 GOETHL: Faust, PART i [2605-2677] 63b-65a
49 DARWIN Descent of Man, 371c-372c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
n, 76a-b; 86b-87b; BK in, llla*118d esp
113d-115a, 122b-c; BK v, 201a-c, 204a-206c
passim; BK vin, 318a-341a,c; BK xi, 476c-480a
52 DOSTOLVSKY. Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
20a-b, 39a-40a; BK in 46a-82a,c esp 53c-54b
54 FREUD: "Wild" Psycho-Analysis, 128d-129a /
Narcissism 399a-411a,c esp 404d-406c, 409b-
410d / Instincts, 418c-421a,c esp 420b-c /
General Introduction, 569c-585a esp 569d-
570a, 574c-d, 580a-581b; 615b-618a esp
616d-618a / Group Psychology, 673b-674a;
681c-683d; 693a-695b / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 782a-b,d [fni]; 783c; 784a-785a
esp 785a-b [fn i] / New Introductory Lectures,
854a 863d esp 862b 863c
2a(l) The sexual instinct: its relation to other
instincts
7 PLATO: Symposium, 157b-159b, 165b-c /
Timaeus, 476c-d / Laws, BK iv, 685a-c; BK
vi, 712b
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK v, CH 8
[542ai7~b4] 68d-69a; BK vi, CH i8-BK vn, CH
2 97b-108c passim, esp BK vi, CH 18 97b-99c,
BK vn, CH i 106b,d-108a / Generation of
Animals, BK iv, CH i [764^-7] 305c / Rhetoric,
BK n, CH 7 [1385*21-25] 631d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1037-
1057] 57d
22 CH \UCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue [5697-
5744] 258a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 414d-416c; 424d-425b
28 HARVEY. On Animal Generation^ 346a-347d;
349a-350a; 402a-d; 405c-406a; 476c-477a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 555a-556a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 287d
53 JAMES, Psychology, 734b-735b
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 401a-402c / Instincts,
414d-418c esp 414d-415d / General Introduc-
tion, 574a-576a esp 574a; 580a-d; 587d-588b;
590a-593b; 615b-616b; 618d-619a / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 651d-662b esp 653b-d,
654c-d, 657c-659a, 662b,d [fn i] / Ego and
Id, 708d-709c; 710c-712a / Civilization and
Its Discontents, 789c-790c / New Introductory
Lectures, 846a-851d esp 847b d, 849c 850c,
851b-c
1066
THE GREAT IDEAS
to 2b
(2*« Luitfnl, sexual, or selfish love: concupiscent
love.)
2<*(2) lofantile sexuality: polymorphous per-
versity
54 FREUD; Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 15a-l£a esp 15d-16c / Hysteria,
Il3d-114b / Sexual Enlightenment of Children,
119d-120b / General Introduction, 530d-53ld;
572d-576d; S78b-585a esp 578c-580d / Group
Psychology, 693a-b / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 847c-848d; 855d-861c
2<*(3) Object-fixations, identifications, and
transferences: sublimation
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1058-
1072] 57d-58a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 10b-llb; 191c-192d;
398c-399d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT in, sc n
[123-195] 87c-88a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 13-17 400c-
402a; PART iv, PROP 6 426a; PROP 44, SCHOL
437d-438a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345d-346a
53 FAMES: Psychology, 734b-735b
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 16b-20d esp 17b-c, 19a-c, 20a-d /
Narcissism 399a-411a,c esp 399d-400b, 404d-
406c, 409d-410d / Instincts, 414 b / General
Introduction, 551a-589c passim, esp 574c-d,
581 b-c, 583c-d, 587d-588a, 589a^b; 594d-
597b; 599d600d; 616d-622c; 627b 630d;
634b-d / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 644d-
645d / Group Psychology, 678d-681a; 68lb,d
[fn 4]; 685c-686a; 691c-692a; 693a-694b /
Ego and Id, 703c-706c esp 704d-705c; 711b-c;
712b-c / New Introductory Lectures, 832 b-
834b esp 832d-833b; 847a-849b; 856a-863d
esp 856b-d, 862d-863c
2 a (4) The perversion, degradation, or pathol-
ogy of love: infantile and adult love
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 19:4-13; 38:6-10 /
Exodus, 22:19 / Leviticus, 18; 20-13-16 /
Deuteronomy, 27:21 /Judges, 19:22-30
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:24-27
7 PLATO: Symposium, 170b-171c / Laws, BK i,
645d-646a; BK vni, 735d-736a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vn, CH 5 399a-d pas-
sim
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, vi [45-60] 20a-b / Aencid>
BK vi [23-30] 211b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par i 13b-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xv-xvi 21a-
23d; PURGATORY, xxvi [25-87] 93b-d
25 MONTAIGNE: EsfaySj 36c-40a; 84b-85a; 225a;
427b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Pericles 421a-448a,c esp ACT i,
PROLOGUB-SC 1 421b-423e
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 349b-c
31 SPINOZA? Ethics^ PART iv, PROP 44, SCHOL
437d-438a
32 MILTON; Paradise Lost, BK n [629-870] I25a-
130a
36 SWIFT- Gulliver, PART iv, 163b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XH, 87c-
88a; BK xvi, 117d; BK xxvi, 219d-221c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93d-94c; 169a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419b [fn i]
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART n [11,676-843] 284a-
288a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 24a-25a; BK
iv, 177c-d; BK vi, 271c-d; BK vn, 292b-296a;
BK vni, 305b-307d; 322c; BK ix, 355c-d;
357a-b; 357d-358b; BK xi, 520a-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
4a-d; BK n, 39a-40a; BK in 46a-82a,c esp
53c-54b, 58d-59b, 69d-70c; BK iv, 95b-100c;
BK vni, 200c-201c; BK x, 282b-283c; BK xi,
324a-b; BK xn, 366a-368c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 735a-b; 802b; 804a-
805b
54 FREUD- Origin and Development of Psycho-
Analysis, 14b-15a; 16d-17a; 18a-b / Hysteria,
84a-86c; 90d-96a; 97d-106c esp 97d-99d;
llla-118a,c esp lllb-115a / Narcissism, 409c-
410d / Instincts, 415d-418c / General Introduc-
tion, 547b-549d esp 548d-549a; 569c-573a;
577a-578c; 583d-591d; 593d-599b; 604c-606a;
611a-d; 619b 622b esp 620d-622& / Beyond
the Pleasure Principle, 659b-d / Group Psy-
chology, 680c-d / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and
Anxiety, 718b-d; 724a-728b esp 725d-726c,
728a-b, 733c-735a / Civilization and Its Dis-
contents, 789d-790c / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 847c-850c; 859c-d; 861c-862a
2b. Friendly, tender, or altruistic love: fraternal
love
OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 19:17-18,33-34 /
Deuteronomy, 10:18-19 / / Samuel, 18:1-4;
19:1-7; 20; 23-15-18— (D) I Kings, 18-1-4;
19:1-7; 20; 23:15-18 / // Samuel, i — (D)
II Kings, i / Psalms, 133— (D) Psalms, 132 /
Proverbs, 17:17-18; 18:19,24; 27-6
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 6:1,13-17; 7:18-19;
9:10; 25.1; 27.16-21; 29:10,15; 37:1-2,6;
40:23-24— -(O) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 6:1,13-17;
7:20-21; 9:14-15; 25:1-2; 27:17-24; 29:13,19;
37:1-2,6; 40-23-24
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:21-26; 19:19;
22:39 / Mar^, 12:31 / Lufy, 10:27 / John,
15:13 / Romans, 13:9 / Galattans, 5:14 /
Colossians, 4:7-18 / 7 Thessalonians, 4:9-10 /
// Timothy, 4:9-22 / James, 2:8 // Peter, 3:8 /
II Peter, 1:5-7 / I John, 3:11-17
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK iv [153-183] 25c-d; BK vi
[212-236] 42b-c; BK xvi 112a-121d; BK xvin
130a-136d; BK xix [276-368] 139d-140c; BK
xxni [1-261] 161a-163d / Odyssey > BK vni
{581-586] 228c
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [666-683] 148d-149a
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
5 EURIPIDES: Iphtgenta Among f/U Tauri [578-
616] 416a-b; [674-715] 416d-4l7b
7 PLATO! Lysts 14a-25a,c / Protagoras, $2b /
Phaedrus, 124a-129d esp 128d-l29c / Sym-
posium, 153b-155c / Laws\ BK vm, 735e*738c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin-ix 406b,d-426a,c
/ Rhetoric, BK n, CH 4 626c-628b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK nt CH 22 167d-170a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid^ BK ix [168-449] 283b~291a
14 PLUTARCH: Alcibiadcs, 156c-158b / Pehpidas,
233b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a; BK vi, par 11-26 38b-43a passim / City
of God, BK xix, CH 7-8 515a-5l6a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART H-II, QQ
23-33 482c-558d passim
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, n 2c-4a; xv
21a-22c; PURGATORY, xm [i]-xv [81] 71d-
76a; xvn [82-139] ?9b-d; xxi [i]-xxn [129]
85a-87d; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale 174a-211a esp [1092-
1186] I78a-179b, [1574-1627] 186a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 82b-88d; 396a-398c pas-
sim; 446d-448c; 472a-473b
26 SHAKESPEARE! 3rd Henry VI, ACT v, sc vi
[61-93] 103d-104a / Richard 11, ACT n, sc in
[46-49] 333a-b / Merchant of Venice, ACT i,
sc i [119-160] 407c-408a, ACT HI, sc n [223-
330] 422b-423b / As You Like It, ACT n, sc
vn [174-200] 609a-b, ACT iv, sc In [120-133]
620c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE' Hamlet, Act i, sc HI [62-65]
35a; ACT in, Sc n [57-95] 49c-d; [206-225] 51 °5
[360-389] 52d-53a / Troilus and Cresstda, ACT
n> sc in [iio-in] 116d / Othello, ACT in, sc m
[142-144] 223c / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT v,
sc i [13-48] 345b c / Conolanus, ACT iv, sc iv
[12-22] 379b / Ttmon of Athens, ACT I, sc n
{91-107] 398a-b / Henry VIII, ACT n, sc i
[126-131] 559b-c / Sonnets, i-cxvt 5B6a-604a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 428b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d; PROP 29-40 43ld-437a; PROP 73 446c-
447a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK n, CH xx,
SECT 5 176d-177a
42 KANT: Fund, Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
259a; 262a-d / Practical Reason, 326a-b /
Pnef. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 375d-
376b
44 Bos WELL -.Johnson, lOla-c; 199a
46 HEOEL: Philosophy of Rtght, ADDITIONS, 101
I33b / Philosophy of History, PART iv, 341a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic{, 36b-39b; 381a
51 TOLSTOY; Wtit and Peace, Bit t, 15a-b; 28c-
31a; 49a; 51d; 56b; BK n, 69a-6J 95d-96c;
BK in, 127d-128d; I35e-I37c; 140<;-142d; BK
iv, 167c-d; Ii3d-166c; I88a-190c; BK v,
220b-C5 222d-223a; BK vi, 262b-t; 266c-267c;
271a-bJ BK vin, 303b-d; 305d-306a; 3lla-b;
327a-333a{ 334d-341a,c passim; Bk x, 465a-c;
BK xi, 502b-503a; *& Xii, 5B?b-c; rtk xiv,
1067
BK xv, 617b-618a; 625c-
597a-598a;
626d; 631c-633a
$2 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers KaramazoV, RK vn,
180a-189a; BK x, 281b-297d; EPILOGUP, 408a-
412d
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 673b-c; 681 d-
fl82b; 693b-694b / Civilization and Its Dis-
c&ntentt,
The relation tetw«*fc lov« and friendship
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [666-683] 148d-149^
7 PLATO: Lysis 14a-25a,c / Phatdrus, I15<-118c
/ Laws, BK vm, 736a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK n, CH 21 [68*
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 6
373d; BK vni, CH 2-3 407a-408c; CH 5 [ii57b
28-37] 409c-d; CH 8 4llb-d; Bk ix, CH 4-5
419a-420c passim; CH 10 [1171*11-15) 424d-
425a; CH 12 425d-426a,c / Politics, BK vn, CH 7
[I327b4o-i328*i7] 532a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK H, CH 22 167d-
170a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a
19 AQUINAS: Sttmrha Theologica, PART i, Q 20,
A 2, REP 3 121b-122a; Q 60, A 3, ANS 3lld-
312b; PART r-n, Q 16, A 4 736b-737a; Q 27,
A 3 738c-739c; Q 28, A i 740b-741a; A 2, ANS
741a-742a; A 3, ANS and REP 2-3 742a-d, A 4
742d-743c; Q 29, A 3, REP a 746b-747a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Thcologica, PART i-n, Q 65,
A 5, ANS 74c-75a; Q 66, A 6, REP 2 80c-81b;
PART ii-n, Q 19, A 6 469a-d; Q 23, A r 482d-
483d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 82b-88d esp 83d-85a;
4lOa-4l3a; 472b-473b
37 FIELDING: Tom ]ones> 291d-292a
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
375d-376b
44 BoswELL:/oA>wofl, 257b; 392b>c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vm, 339d-
341a,c; BK ix, 373c-374a; BK xn, 553a-c; BK
xv, 6l7b-d
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 693d-694b /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 783 b-c
26(2) Self-love in reladob to the love of others
OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 19:18,33-34
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:5-7— (D) OT,
Ecclesfastitus, 14:5-7
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-47; 19:19;
21:39 / Maf{, 12:31 / Lufy, 6:27-3^ 10:27 /
Romans, 13:9 / Galatians, 5:14 / James, 218
5 EukipltbEs: Alcestis [614-740] 242c>243c
7 PLATO: Laws, BK v, 689b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH 7 [if58b2Q-
1159*12] 4lOd-411a; CH 12 [h6kbi6-33]414a-b;
Bk ix, CH 4 4l9a-420a; CH 8-9 42ld-424b esp
CH 9 [1170*1 4-^19} 423d-424b; CH 12 fii7ib33-
tty2*i] 425d / fbtitics, BK it, CH 5 tia^o-1^]
458c / Rhetoric, riK i, ttt t< [t37ibii-25l 6l5a-b
1068
THE GREAT IDEAS
(2b. Friendly, tender, or altruistic love: fraternal
love. 2b(2) Self-love in relation to the love
of others.)
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 19 125b-
126c; BK ii, CH 17 158d-161a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK iv, par 7-14 20d-
23a; BK x, par 58-64 86a-87d / City of God,
BK xiv, CH 28 397a-d / Christian Doctrine,
BK i, CH 22-27 629b-631d; CH 35 634c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 20,
A i, REP 3 120a-121b; A 2, REP i 121b-122a;
Q 60, AA 3-5 311d-314c; Q 63, A 2 326c-327b;
PART i- ii, Q 27, A 3 738c-739c; Q 28, A i 740b-
741a; A 2, ANS 741a-742a; A 3, ANS and REP 3
742a-d; A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 742d-743c; Q
29, A 3, REP 2 746b-747a; A 4 747a-c; Q 32,
AA 5-6 762a-763c; Q 40, A 7 797a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 62,
A 4, ANS and REP 3 62b 63a; Q 66, A 6, REP 2-3
80c-81b; Q 73, A i, REP 3 119c-120c; Q 77, A 4
148b-149a; Q 84, A 2 175b-176a; PART II-H,
Q 23, A i 482d-483d; Q 25, AA 4-5 503c-504c;
A 7 506a-d; A 12 509c-510b; Q 26, AA 3-13
511d-520d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xvn
[82-139] 79b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 83c; PART n, 104d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 486b-489b
26 SHAKESPEARE : 3rd Henry VI, ACT v, sc vi
[80-84] 104a / Ibchard III, ACT v, sc in [177-
206] 145c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Twelfth Night, ACT i, sc v
[97-104] 5b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 46 438c-d;
PROP 48-49 439a-b
33 PASCAL: Penstcs, 100 191a-192b; 455-457
253b-254a; 471-477 256a-257a; 492 259b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 5 26a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 70b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 58d-59a; 167c-170a
csp 169d-170a; 291d-292a; 305 d; 330b-c;
354c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331b; 343d-345c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. MetQphysic of Morals,
262a-d; 268d~270a / Practical Reason, 297a-
314d esp 298a-300a, 304d-307d; 321b-327d
csp 325a-327d / Pref, Metaphysical Elements
of Ethics, 376b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 70, 212a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 367d-368a /
Utilitarianism, 451 b-c; 453a-c
44 BoswELL:/otoo», 169d-170b; 310d-311a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 101
133b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308d-309a; 310a-d;
316d-317a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 31a-32a; BK
HI, 146d-147c; 159d-160a; BK vi, 254b-c;
267d-268c; BK vm, 323b-324b; BK ix, 354a-
355c; BK xn, 545b-547a; BK xv, 617b~d;
EPILOGUE i, 6514-652a; 656d-657a
2b(l) to
53 JAMES: Psychology, 204b-211a
54 FREUD: Narcissism 399a-411a,c csp 404d-
406c, 409b-411a,c / General Introduction,
528d; 616c-618a esp 617c-618a / Group Psy-
chology, 677d-678c / War and Death, 758c-d
23(3) The types of friendship: friendships
based on utility, pleasure, or virtue
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 14.20, 17:17-18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 6:1-17; 9:I°I 12:8-9;
37-1-9; 40-24— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 6-1-17;
9 14-15; 12.8-9; 37.1-11; 40:24
5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [319-478] 206a-207b /
Heracles Mad [55-59] 365c-d; [1214-1228]
375c / Orestes [356-806] 397b-402c / Iphi-
genia at Auhs [334-401] 427d-428b
6TnucYDiDEs: Peloponnesian War, BK n,
397b-c
7 PLATO: Lysis 14a-25a,c / Symposium, 153b-
155c / Gorgias, 285d-286b / Republic, BK i,
299b-c / Seventh Letter, 805b-c
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK vm, CH 2-8 407a-411d;
CH 13-14 414d-416d; BK ix, CH i 416b,d-417c
passim; CH 5 [1167*10-20] 420b-c; CH 9
[ii69b22-ii7oai2] 423b-d; CH 10 424c-425a
passim, esp [i 170^3-31] 424c; CH u 425a-d
esp [1171*20-33] 425a-b; CH 12 [1172*2-8]
425d-426a; BK x, CH 3 [i 173^2-1 174*1]
428a-b / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 [i36ib35~4o]
602c; BK n, CH 4 [1380^4-1381^38] 626d-
627d; CH 12 [i389*35~b3] 636d
12EpiciETUs: Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-
170a; BK in, CH 16 191a-d; BK iv, CH 2 223d-
224b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 16-17 12c-
13a; BK iv, par 12-14 22a-23a; par 21-23
24c-25a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 4,
A 8, ANS 636a-c; Q 26, A 4, REP 3 736b-737a,
Q 27, A 3 738c-739c; Q 31, A 6, REP 3 756d-
757c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q
23, A i, REP 3482d-483d; A 3, REP i 485a-d;
A 5, ANS and REP 3 486b-487a
22 CHAUCER: TakofMelibeus, par 20-21, 409a b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvn, 24a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 77b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 82b-88d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Two Gentlemen of Verona,
ACT ii, sc vi 239a-c; ACT iv, sc i 245b-246b
/ Richard II, ACT v, sc i [55-70] 345d / Mid-
summer-Night's Dream, ACT in, sc n [192-219]
364d-365a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT v, sc v 501 b-
502c / Julius Caesar, ACT iv, sc ii [10-27]
587d / As You Lify It, ACT n, sc vii [174-190]
609a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc n [57-99]
49c-50a; [206-225] 51b; [360-389] 52d-53a /
Troilus and Cressida, ACT n, sc in [no-in]
116d / Timon of Athens 393a-420d csp ACT
i, sc H 397a-400a> ACT iv, sc i 409c-d, sc in
[464-543] 415d-416d
CHAPTER 50: LOW
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning > 84a-b; 89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethic*, PART iv, JROP 70-^1 445c-
446b; APPENDIX, ix 44Sa; xxvi 449c
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b466a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jontt, 167c-170a esp ISSd-
170a; 364d-365a
40 GIBBON: Decline and fall, 92a-c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metophysic of Morals,
262c-263a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 193a; 423c-d; 533b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 28c*29d; BK
in, 137c-140c passim; BK vm, 322c; 329c-332a
passim; BK xv, 6l7b-d; 639a-b
2b(4) Patterns of love and friendship in the
family
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:1-16; 9:18-29; 16;
21:9-21; 22:1-19; 24> 25:2*~34 CSP 25:28; 27;
29-21-30; 32-34; 37; 42-48; 50:15-23 / Exo-
dus, 2:1-8 /Judges, 11:30-40 / Ruth, 1:3-18 /
I Samuel, 1:1-8; 18-31— (D) / King*, n-8;
18-31 / // Samuel, 13:1-20; 14; 18:33— (D)
II Kings, 13:1-20; 14; 18:33 / Proverbs, 10:1;
15:20 / Micah, 7:5-6 — (£>) Micheas, 7:5-6
APOCRYPHA: Tobit passim, esp 4:1-4— (D) OT,
Tobias passim, esp 4:1-5 / Ecclestasticus, 25.1;
4O'23~-(D) OT, Ecclestasticus, 25:1-2; 40*23
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10.21,35-37; 12:46-
50; 19:297 Mar\, 3:31-35; 13:127 Luke, 8-19-
21 ; 12:51-53; 14:26; 15:11-32; 18:29-30
4 HOMER- Iliad, BK xxn [1-98] 155a-156a; [405-
515] 159c-160d; BK xxiv [159-804] 172d-I79d
/ Odyssey, BK 11 188a-192d; BK xi [458-540]
247c-248b; BK xiv-xv 260a-271d; BK xvi
[167-225] 273d-274b; BK xvii [31-60] 277b-c;
BK xxni [1-245] 312a-314d; BK xxiv [290-
361] 320a-d
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [956-1078]
37d-39a,c / Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [212-305]
72b-73a, [892-930] 78d-79b / Eumenides
[653-666] 88a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c
esp [324-460] 117a-118b, [1150-1446] I24d-
127b / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1290-
1315] 154a-b / Electra 156a-169a,b / Trachimae
170a-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c esp (976-1270]
220b-222d / Alcesth 237a^247a,c esp [614-
740] 242c-243c / Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp
[990-1113] 267a-268a / Trojan Women [740-
798]276c-d; [1156-1255] 279d-280c / Androm-
ache [309-420] 318a-d r Elettta [988-1122]
336a-337b / Hecuba [383^443] 356a-d /
Heracles Mad [562-584] 369d-370a; [632-
636] 370c / Phoenician Maidens 378a-393d /
<* Orestes 394«-410d esp (211-^15) 396a-397a,
[1012-1055! 404a-c / Iphigeraa Among the
Tauri 411a-424<i tip {769-908} 4l7d-4l9a /
Iphigenia at Atdis 425a-439d
^HflRODoTust History, »K i, 7a-b; 8a-10a;
aaa-t; BK li, 73b*24d^ 76l^d; BR HE, 89d;
95d-96c; lOOb-lDlb; 114d'II5a; 116a; BK iv,
1069
; BX vi, 194d-l95b; 212c-213a; BK
IX, 3llt>'3l2d
d THtJcvbtDEs: Petopottrtcsian Waf, BK n,
398c-d
7PtATOJ Republic^ BK i, 296d-297a; BK v,
9 ARISTOTLE :' Generation of Animals, BK in,
CH 2 [753*7-15] 294a-b / Ethics, BK vii, CH 4
[ii48B46^>4] 398d; BK nil, CH i [i 155*1 6-21]
406b,d; CH 7 [1158*12-24] 410c-d; dn 8
[1159*26-32] 411b-c; CH 9-12 411d-414d pas-
sim; GH 14 [n63bi2-27] 416c-d; BK ixi CH 2
417c-418b; CH 4 [1166*1-9] 419a-b; CH 7
[1168*21-27] 421d / Politics, BK i, OH 12-13
453d-455a,c; BK H, CH 3-4 456c-458a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
1018] 74b
12 EPicTETus: Discourses, fttt i, CH 23 128c-d
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, iv [60-64] 15b / Aeneid,
riK m [692-715] I66a-b; BK v [42-103] I88a-
l90a; BK vi [679-702] 229a-b; BK vm [554-
584] 273b-274b; BK ix [280-302] 286b-287a;
BK x [822-828] 324b-325a; BK xi [29-71] 328b-
330a; [139-181] 331b-333a; BK xit [409-440]
365a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-63c / Solon,
66b-d; 71d-72aV Pericles, 139a-140a / Con-
olanus, 174b,d-l76b; 189d-191d / Tvnoleon,
196b-198b / Marcus Cato, 286b>287b / Alex-
ander, 542a-545b / Onto the Younger, 623c-
624ft / Agis> 654c-655a / Demetrius, 727a-b;
740d-741c / Marcus Brutus, 807b-d; 8llc-d
15 TAcrtus: Annals, BK i, lOc-d; BK xi, I07b-
108c; BK Xii, 115a-c; 118d-119b; 128a-131b;
BK xiv, 14lb-143d; BK xvi, 183a-c / Histories,
BK iV, 2fc2b>d
18 AUGUST IN* : Confessions, BK m, par 19-21
18b-19b; BK v, par 15 31a-c; BK ix, pdr 17-37
66a-7lb / City of God, BK xix, CH 14 520a-d
19 AQUINAS: Surnma Theohgica, PAHY i, Q 60, A
4, ANS 312c-313b; 0 96, A 3, REP 2 512a-c
20 AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologica, PART »~ti, Q 26,
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxn [i]-
xxxiil [96] 47c-50c; PARADIsfe, XV-XVH I28b
133d passim
22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath's Prologue (5893-
5914] 261a-b / Clerks Tale 296a-318a
23 MACHIAVELLI', Prince, CH xvii, 24b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 155b
24 RABELAIS J (targantua and Pantagfuel, BIC i
11, 81a-83b( BK ni, 144b-c; 196b-d
IV, 243b*244d; 248d-2500
; 184a-
410a-422b; 472a-473a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc v-vu
23d-26a / 3rd tienfy Vl, ACT fi, sc V [55-*!$
82b-d / Richard //, ACT i, sc n [1-41] 322d
323a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT i-f, 6c in 477d-478c
A«t iv, sc rv-v 492<M4(6d / ]uUu$ CaAar
ACT n, sc i [234-309] 577a-o
1070
THE GREAT IDEAS
2c
(2b. friendly, tender, or altruistic fave: fraternal
love, 24(4) Patterns of love and friendship
in the family.)
27 SHAKESPEARE : Hamlet, ACT i, sc in [5-51]
34c-d; [84-136] 35b-d; ACT iv, sc v (115-216]
60d-62a / King Lear 244a-283a,c / Conolanus,
ACT i, sc in 355b-356b; ACT n, sc i [110-220]
362a-363b; ACT v, sc in 387a-389b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 84b-c
32 MILTON. Paradise Lost, BK iv [720-775] 168a-
169a / Samson Agonistes [1476-1507} 371 b-
372b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 17d-19a,c; 22d-25a;
44b-d; 65b-c; 126c-127c; 235b-238d; 304a-c;
405a,c
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xvi, 117c;
BK xix, 140a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326c-d; 327c-d; 350b;
364d-365b / Political Economy, 368b-c /
Social Contract, BK i, 387d-388a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 92d-93a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419a>420b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 57a; 57d-58a; 90c; 305b;
424d-425a; 510b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 158
58a; ADDITIONS, no 134d; 112 135a / Philoso-
phy of History \ INTRO, 172b-d; PART i, 211d-
212c; PART in, 288c-289b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3620-3775] 88b-
92a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dict(, 387a-388b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 2c-3a; 7d-8d;
13a-14b; 25a-31a; 37d-47b; 55c-59a; BK in,
119a-131c; BK iv, 165a-168d; 179b-180d;
183d-184b; 192b-193d; BK v, 203a-d; 210b-
211a; BK vi, 247a-248a; 251a-b; 252d-254c;
270b-274a,c; BK VH, 276b-277a; 290b-291a;
BK vni, 305b-310d; 314c-316a; 326b-329c;
BK ix, 357a-b; BK x, 406c-410c; 412d-
414b; 416c-417b; BK xi, 485a-486d; BK xn,
553c-d; BK xv, 614a-618b; EPILOGUE i, 650d-
674a,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
90b-92b; 100c-109a,c; BK v, 117c-12ld;
137a-c; BK vi, 148d-150d; BK x, 285a-297d;
EPILOGUE, 408a-412d
53 JAMES: Psychology, 189a; 190a; 717b; 735b-
736b
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 240d-248a /
Narcissism, 406b-c / General Introduction,
528d-530b; S81b-583d / Group Psychology,
685c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 783 b-
784a / New Introductory Lectures, 856b-861c;
862d-863c
Ic. Romantic, chivalric, and courtly love: the
idealization and supremacy of the beloved
7 PLATO: Lysis, 15c-d; 18b
42 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1141-
1191] 59a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, n 2c-4a; v 7a-
8b; PURGATORY, ii [106^133] 55c-d; xiv [91-
126] 74o75a; xxiv [49-63] 90a-b; xxx~xxxi
99b-102b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida la-15Sa /
Knight's Tale 174a-211a esp [1092-1186] 178a-
179b, [1574-1627] 186a-b / Tale of Wife of
Bath 270a-277a csp [6832-6846] 276b-277a /
Franklin's Tale [11,099-125] 352b; [11,754-
7668] 363a / Sir Thopas 396a-400a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK 11,
106a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 82b-88d csp 84b-85d;
307a; 416d-419b; 426c-431c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Taming of the Shrew 199a-
228a,c esp ACT i, sc i [151-181] 204a-b, ACT 11,
sc i [115-326] 209b-211c / Two Gentlemen of
Verona 229a-253a,c esp ACT n, sc iv [126-177]
237c-238a, ACT in, sc i [169-187] 242b, sc n
[66-98] 245a-b / Love's Labour's Lost 254a-
284d esp ACT iv, sc in 268b-272c, ACT v, sc n
[762-888] 283a-284b / Romeo and Juliet 285a-
319a,c esp ACT n, sc n 294b-296b / Mid-
summer-Night's Dream 352a-375d esp ACT i,
sc i [128-179] 353d-354b / Much Ado About
Nothing 503a-531a,c esp ACT in, sc i-n 514b-
516d / Henry V, ACT v, sc n [98-306] 564b-
566a / As You Like It 597a-626a,c esp ACT n,
sc iv [22-56] 605c-d, ACT in, sc v 615c-617a,
ACT iv, sc i [93-108] 617d-618a, ACT v, sc n
[32-45] 622b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Twelfth Night la-28d esp ACT i,
sc i [1-15] la-b / Hamlet, ACT i, sc in 34b-35d
esp [5-51] 34c-d, [84-136] 35b-d/ Troilus and
Cressida 103a-141a,c esp ACT IIP, sc n 120b-
122c, ACT iv, sc iv 128b-129d, ACT v, sc 11
134c-137a / All's Well That Ends Well 142a-
173d esp ACT i, sc i [88-244] 143b-144c /
Othello, ACT 1, sc m [158-169] 210od /
Cymbeline, ACT i, sc iv [36-185] 453a-454b /
Tempest, ACT in, sc i 537b-538b / Sonnets,
cxxx-cxxxi 606a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART i, 3a-b,
32c-34d, 43d-45a, 80b-89c, 94a-98a, PART 11,
317a-331a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 33-36 406c-
407c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [172-340] 156a-
159b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 14b-16b; 55d; 68d-69a;
72a-73a,c; 76c-77,b; 84a-c; 108c-lllc; 124d;
199b-200a; 400a-402d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxvni,
244a-c _
44 Bos WELL: Johnson, 107a; 291a; 409c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART iv, 323b-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [3374-3413] 82b-83a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 23a-24a; 35b-
35c; 49b-c; 50a; BK m, 129d-130bp 160d-
161b; BK iv, 165a-168d; 183d-193d passim?
BK vi,, 249d-2SOa; 25Id,254c; 262b-271c; BK
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1071
vin, 3Hb; 316b-c; 318a-340c; BK ix, 367c-
369a; 373c-374a; 377b-d; 379a-381d; BK x,
417c-42lc; 439d; 443c-444a; BK xi, 520d-
521b; 522c-527b; BK xn, 539c-545a; 555d-
556a; BK xv, 635a-644a,c; EPILOGUE i, 652b-
654a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 190a
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 410c-d / Group Psychology,
682a-683a; 694c-69Sd / Civilization and Its
Discontents, 768a
2d. Conjugal love: its sexual, fraternal, and
romantic components
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:23-24; 24:67; 29:28-
30 / / Samuel, i:i-8-(D) / Kings, 1:1-8 / //
Samuel, n; 13:1-20— (D) II Kings, 11; 13-1-20
/ Proverbs, 5; 6:207:27 / Ecclesiastes, 9:9 /
Song of Solomon— (D) Canticle of Canticles
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 6:io-ij~(D) OT, Tobias,
6:11-22 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:19,26; 25*1; 40:23
—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:21,28; 25:1-2;
40:23
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:4-6 / Mar^,
10:6-9 / / Corinthians, 7:1-15,32-34 / Ephe-
sians, 5:22-33 / Colossians, 3:18-19 / / Peter,
3:1-7
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xiv [153-360] 99d-101d /
Odyssey, BK xxm [152-365] 313d-316a; BK
xxiv [191-202] 319a
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [681-781] 59b-60b
/ Choephoroe [585-651] 75d-76b; [892-930]
78d-79b
5 SOPHOCLES: Trachiniae 170a-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c esp [446-662]
215d-217c / Hippolytus 225a-236d esp [373-
481] 228b-229b / Alcestis 237a-247a,c esp
[152-198] 238c-239a, [329-368] 240a-b / Sup-
pliants [990-1071] 267a-c / Trojan Women
[634-683] 275c-d / Helen 298a-314a,c /
Andromache 315a-326a,c esp [147-308] 316c-
317d / Electra [988-1122] 336a-337b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,c /
Thesmophonazusae 600a-614d esp [383-532]
604d-606a
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK vi, 197a-c; BK ix,
311b-312d
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152d-153a / Republic,
BK v, 361b-363b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vin, CH 12 [1162*15-28]
414c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1192-
1287] 59d-61a,c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, iv [452-527] 95b-98a /
Aeneid, BK n [730-794] 144b-146b; BK iv
[1-361] 167a-177a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39d-40b / Lycurgus-
Numa, 62d-63c / Solon, 71d-72a / Demetrius,
731a-b / Antony, 756c-779d / Marcus Brutus,
807b-d; 811c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK iv, 64b-c; BK xi, 107b-
HOa; BK xn, 121c
17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR v, CH i lOOc-lOlc
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK n, par 2-8 9b-
lOd; BK iv, par 2 19d; BK vi, par 21-25 41c-
42d; BK ix, par 19-22 67a-d / City of God.
BK xiv, CH 16-26 390a-396c; BK xv, CH 16
411b-c / Christian Doctrine, BK ni, CH 12
663a-c; CH 18-21 664d-666b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 92
A 2, ANS 489d-490c; Q 98, A 2, ANS and REP 3
517d-519a; PART i-n, Q 28, A 4, ANS 742d-743c
20 AQUIANS : Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 105,
A 4, ANS 318b-321a; PART n-ii, Q 26, A 1 1 518b-
519a; PART in, Q 6, A i, REP 3 740b-741b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, vni
[67-^4] 65a; xxv [109-139] 92c-d
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Tale 212b-223b / Wife of
Bath's Prologue [5583-6410] 256a-269b / Tale
of Wife of Bath 270a-277a / Clerks Tale 296a-
318a / Merchant's Tale 319a-338a / Franklin's
Tale [11,041-125] 351b-352b / Manciple's Tale
[17,088-103] 490a / Parson's Tale, par 79-80
541a-542a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART n, 155b-c; PART iv,
272d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
8c-d; BK n, 73b-74b; 106a-108d; 109c<126d;
BK in, 144d-146a; 148d-150d; 154a-156c;
159d-163c; 166a-169d; 186d-188c; 196b-d;
197b-198b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 37c-39c; 84a-b; 89d-
90c; 306d-307a; 358b-362a; 406a-434d esp
410a-413a; 472a-473a
26 SHAKESPEARE: ht Henry VI, ACT v, sc in
[80-195] 28a-29b; sc v [48-78] 31d-32a /
Comedy of Errors, ACT n, sc 1 152a-153b; sc n
[112-148] 154c-d; ACT in, sc n [1-70] 157c-
158b; ACT v, sc i [38-122] 165c-166b / Two
Gentlemen of Verona, ACT i, sc n [1-34] 230d-
231b / Richard II, ACT v, sc i [71-102] 345d-
346b / Henry V, ACT v, sc n [98-306] 564b-
566a / Julius Caesar, ACT n, sc i [261-309]
577b-c / As You Like It, ACT iv, sc i [115-157]
618a-c; ACT v, sc iv [114-156] 625a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT i, sc n [137-159]
33a; sc in [5-51] 34c-d; sc v [34-91] 37b-d;
ACT in, sc i [120-157] 48b-c / Merry Wives of
Windsor 73a-102d / Othello 205a-243a,c esp
ACT iv, sc, HI 235d-237a, ACT v, sc n 238d-
243a,c / Cymbeline 449a-488d esp ACT n,
sc v 463a-c, ACT HI, sc iv 466d-468d, ACT v,
sc v [25-68] 483c-484a, [129-227] 484d-485d
/ Tempest, ACT iv, sc i [1-133] 542b-543a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 120b-
137d; PART n, 261c-262a; 270c-271a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xix~xx
449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK iv [440-504] 162a-
163b; [736-775] 168b'169a; BK v [443-450]
185a; BK vin [39-65] 233a-b; [491-520]
243a-b; BK ix [226-269] 252a-253a; [952-959]
268a; BK x [888-908] 293b-294a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 193b*194a; 522a-
523a
1072
THE GREAT IDEAS
3/o 3*
(3, Tbekindioflove. id. Conjugal levy itstttxual,
, fraternal, and romantic component,)
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 2b-c; 14b-16b; 17a-b;
30a-32a; 118d; 124a-125b; 130b-c; 167c,168d;
230a-231c; 283b-c; 289b-291a; 321b-322a;
332a-333a; 349b-350b; 352d353a; 360 b-d:
405a,c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 364d-365b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Pall, 92c-93a; 649c-652a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 419a-420b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 22a; 57a; 64a; 107a; 160b;
194a; 291a; 294d-29Sa
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART in, par 158
^ 58a; par 161-168 58b-60c; ADDITIONS, 101-108
133b-134c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART i [4243-4250] 104a;
PART ii [9356-9944] 227a-241b
51 TOLSTOY: Wat and Peace, BK i, 3a-c; BK in,
122b-c; BK iv, 177a-179d; BK vi, 245d-249d;
269c-d; BK vn, 287a-291a passim; 301b-302d;
BK vni, 3Ha-313a; EPILOGUE i, 660d-661b;
669d-672a
' 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i, 4a-
5b; BK n, 21b-24d; 39a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 735a-b
54 FREUD: Narcissism, 404d-406b / Group Psy-
chology, 694b-695a / New Introductory Lec-
tures, 862d-863c
3. Tne morality of love
£4. Friendship and love in relation to virtue
and happiness
5 SOPHOCLES; Ajax [666-683] 14$d-149a
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [955-1164] 266d-268c
/ Iphigenia at Auks [543-589] 429d-430a
7 PLATO: Lysis, 19d-24b / Symposium, 152d-
155c; 164c-167d / Republic, BK i, 299b-c;
308b-309b; BK in, 333b*334b, BK ix, 417b-
41 8a / Critias, 485c~d / Seventh Letter, 804c;
805b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH i [116*31-39]
162d; [n6b36~ii7»4] 163c; CH 2 (n8fti-7]
164d;cH3[ii8b5-9]165c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BKI, CH n 346c-347a; BK
iv,cH6373d'374bpassira; BXVIII,CHI (1155*
1-32] 406b,d; CH 2 [n55bi6-26] 407a-b; CH 3
[ii56h6-32] 408a-c; CH 4-5 408c-409d; CH 6
[1158*22-28] 410a<b; CH 7 [i 158*29-1 159*1 2]
410d-411a; CH 8 411b-d csp [u59b2~io] 411c;
CH i3414d-415d passim; BK ix, CH i [1164*33-
b6] 417b; CH 3 418c-419a passim; CH 4 419a-
420a; CH 6 [1167^5-15] 420d-421a; CH &*i2
42ld-426a,c / Rhetoric, BK i, CH 5 (i36obi9-
30] 60la-b; [i36ib35~4o] 602c; BK n, CH 4
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv {1058-
119*) 57d-59d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK n, CH 22 167d-
170a; BK in, CH 16 I91ard; BK iv, CH a 223d-
224b
IZ.AURKUUS; Meditations, BK xj, SECT 9 303b
. 14 PLUTARCH: Alctbiades, 156c*158b / Ptlapidas,
233 bd / Cato the Younget, 623a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par i 13b-c;
BK iv, par 7^-14 20d-23a; BK vi, par 11-26 38b-
43a passim / City of God, BK xix, CH 3,
510d, CH 5-9 513d-516c; CH 13-14 519a-520d
/ Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 27-30 631d-
633 b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60,
A 4, REP 3 312c-313b; PART I-H, Q 4, A 8
636a-c; Q 27, A i 737b-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q 23,
AA 3-8 485a-489c; Q 31, A i, REP 3 536d-
537c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [13-90] 15b-
16a; PURGATORY, xv (40-81] 75d-76a; xvn
[82]-xvin [75] 79b-80c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK n, STANZA
IH-II2 36a; STANZA 119-128 37a-38a; BK in,
STANZA 241-247 86a-b; STANZA 254-258 87b-
88a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvii, 24b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK i,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE. Essays, 82b-88d; 396a-398c pas-
sim; 431c-432d; 478b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT iv,
sc in 268b-272c / Richard H, ACT n, sc in
[46-49] 333a-b / Midsummer-Night's Dream,
ACT i, sc i [67-78] 353a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT in, sc n [57-99]
49c-50a / Othello, ACT iv, sc n [47-64] 233c-d
/ King Lear, ACT v, sc in [1-26] 279a-b /
Timon of Athens 393a-420d esp ACT i, sc n
[91-107] 398a-b, ACT in, sc n [71-94] 404c-d,
sc 111(27-42] 405b, ACT iv, sc i 409c-d, sc in
[249-305] 413c-414a / Sonnets, xxv 590a;
CXXXVII-CLII 607a-609c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics^ PART iv, PROP 46 438c-d;
PROP 70-73 445c-447a; APPENDIX, ix 448a;
xx 449a
33 PASCAL: Pen&s, 211 211b
36 SWIFT. Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 17a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-345c / Political
Economy, 373c-374a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 367d-368a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 83b-c; 107a; 423c-d;
490a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 101
133b
47G<I)ETHB: Faust, PART i [3125-3136] 76a-b;
[3374^-3413] 82b-83a; PART n (9356-9573]
227a-232a
48 MELMLLB: Moby Dic^ 36b-39b
49 DAKWiitr Descent of Man, 312a-3l4b; 317c d;
. 592dr593a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15b-16a; BK
Mi, 116c-117a; 122b-c; 127d-128d; BK iv,
183d-186c; BK v, 20U-C; PK vi, 266c-267c;
»K viu, 311ar313a; 327a-329c; 340c-341a,c;
\b to 3c
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1073
BK ix, 377b-c; BK x, 465a-c; BK xi, 476c-
480a; 525c-526b; BK xv, 641c-643b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
27c-d; BK in, 58d-59b; BK vi, 158b-159a,
165b-170b passim
54 FREUD: War and Death, 758c-d / Civilization
and Its Discontents, 774d-775a; 782d-783b;
792a-796c
b. The demands of love and the restraints of
virtue: moderation in love; the order of
loves
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens la-14a,c /
Agamemnon [681-781] 59b-60b / Choephoroe
[585-651] 75d-76b; [892-930] 78d-79b
5 EURIPIDES. Hippolyttts 225a-236d / Electra
[988-1122] 336a-337b / Iphtgenta at Auhs
[543-589] 429d-430a
7 PLATO: Symposium, 165b-167d; 170b-171c /
Republic, BK in, 333d-334b / Timaeus, 474b-c
/ Laws, BK v, 687b; BK vin, 735b-738c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK i, CH 6 [1096*11-16]
341b / Politics, BK vn, CH 7 [i327b4o-i328ai7J
532a-b
12 KPICIETUS. Discourses, BK i, CH n 116d-118d;
BK ii, CH TO 148c-150a; CH 18 161a-162b; BK
iv, CH 2 223d-224b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 39d-40a / Solon, 66b-d
/ Alexander, 550b-551a / Demetrius, 740d-
741c / Antony-Demetrius, 780c-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR in, CH 1-3 lOa-
lla; TR vi, CH 5 23b-24a / Third Ennead, TR
v 100c-106b / Sixth Ennead, TR ix, CH 9,
359b-c
ISAUGUSTINL: Confessions, BK n, par 1-8 9a-
lOd, par 16-17 12c-13a; BK in, pai i 13b-c;
BK vi, par 18-26 40d-43a; BK vn, par 1 1 47a-c;
BK vin, par 10-30 55c-61c passim; BK xni,
par 8 112b-c / City of God, BK xn, CH 8 346d-
347b; BK xiv, CH 7 380c-381c, BK xv, CH 22
416a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 27 631d;
BK in, CH 10, 662a
19 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 98,
A 2, ANS and REP 3 517d-519a; PART i-n, Q 26,
A 3, RLP 3 735c-736b; Q 28, A i, REP 2 740b-
741a; \ 5 743c-744b; Q 29, A 4 747a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 55,
A i, REP 4 26b-27a; Q 62, A 2, REP 3 60d-61b;
Q 66, A 6, REP i 80c-81b, Q 73, A i, REP 3 119c-
120c; Q 77, A 4 148b-149a; Q 84, A 2 esp REP 3
175b-176a, Q 86 184a-185c; PART H-II, Q 15,
A 3 453c-454c; Q 23, A 5, REP 1-2 486b-487a;
A 6, REP i 487a-d; Q 25, A 4, RLP 3 503c-504a;
A 5 504a-c; QQ 26-27 510b-527b; Q 45, A 6
602b-603c; Q 46, A 3 604d-605a,c; Q 184, A i
629a-d
21 DANTB: Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-8b; xi
[13-90] 15b-16a; PURGATORY, xvi [85-102]
77d; xvn [82]-xvin [75] 79b-80c; xix [1-69]
81c-82a; xxv [i09J-xxvi [148] 92c-94c; xxx-
xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, i [97-142] 107b-d;
vi [i 12-126] 114d-115a
22 CHAUCER: Troilusand Cressida, BK iv, STANZA
240 119b 120a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 63a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK in,
188d-191c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 89d-90c; 184a-d; 350d-
351b; 353c-354b; 398c-399d; 406a-434d esp
431c-432d
26 SHAKESPEARE. Romeo and Juliet, ACT n, sc
vi 300c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, xix-xx
449a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK v [443-450] 185a;
BK vin [500-617] 243a-245b / Areopagitica,
390b-391a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 8c-10c; 78c-d; 198d-
199a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345c-346d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 67c-68a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 106
134a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK in, 122b c;
127d-128d; BK v, 201a-c; BK vi, 249d-250a;
BK vin, 318a-340c; BK xi, 476c-480a; LPI-
LOGUE i, 660d-661b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Katamazov, BK n,
20ab
54 FRLUD: General Introduction, 624a-625b /
Group Psychology, 682 d
c. The conflict of love and duty: the difference
between the loyalties of love and the ob-
ligations of justice
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 22.1-19 / Exodus,
23.4-5 / Leviticus, 19 17-18 / Deuteronomy,
13 '6-i i ; 21:18-21 / Judges, 11*28-40 / //
Samuel, 11-13— (D) H Kin&> IJ-i3 / Proverbs,
20:22; 24:29; 25.21
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-48 / Romans,
12.17-21 / I Peter, 3.8-18
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK vi [369-502] 43d-45a
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [184-247] 54a*c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [1-99]
131a-132a, [162-210] 132c-d, [441-470] 134d-
135a / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c esp [895-1292]
190a-193c
5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus 225a-236d / Orestes
[356-806] 397b-402c / Iphigema at Aulis
425a-439d
5 ARISTOPHANES. Ly>istrata 583a-599a,c esp
[706-780] 592b-593b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 139a-b; BK vi,
197a-b; BK vn, 223c-d
7 PLATO: Euthyphro 191a-199a,c / Seventh Let-
ter, 813d-814a
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK in, CH i [116*31-39]
162d;cH2 [ii8ai-7] 164d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK iv, CH 6 373d-374b pas-
sim; BK vin, CH i [1155*22-28] 406d; CH 7
[ii58b29-ii59fti3] 410d-411a; CH 9 [115^25-
1160*8] 411d-412b; CH it 413b-d; BK vin, CH
12 [n62R29]-BK ix, CH 3 [n65b37] 414d-419a;
1074
THE GREAT IDEAS
(3* The morality of Uve. *>c. The conflict of
love and duty: the difference between the
loyalties of love and the obligations of
justice.)
BK ix, CH 5 [1167*10-20] 420b-c; CH 6 [n67b5-
15] 420d-421a
12 LITCKETIUS: Nature of Things, BK iv [1121-
1140] 58d-59a
12 AUKELIUS: Medttcttions, BK m, SECT ir 262a-b;
BK vni, SECT 39 288c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, Bk rv [333-361] 176a-177a
14 PLUTARCH: Pophcola, 77d-79c / Coriolanus,
189d-19!d / Timoleon, 196b-198b / Marcus
Cato, 278d-279c / Agesilaus, 482b-c; 486c;
491c-492b / Agis, 654c-655a / Antony, 756c-
779c esp 772b-c / Marcus Brutus, 816c-d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK m, 248c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 23,
A 5, REP 3 135d-I37d
20 AouiNAs: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 66,
A 4, REP i 78c-79b; Q 114, A 4 373a-d; PART
II-H, Q 23, A 3, REP i 485a-d; QQ 25-27
501a-527b; QQ 31-33 536d-558d; Q 44 592d-
596c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, x [70-
93} 68a-b; xv [85-114] 76b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 83a-87c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT rv,
sc in 268b-272c / Julius Caesar, ACT HI, sc n
[11-44] 583d-584a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Antony and Cleopatra 31 la-
350d esp ACT in, sc x-xi 332c-334a, sc xin
334c-337a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART i, 71b-c;
108c-109b; 177a-b; PART n, 332d-333b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 24b; 75d-
76a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [843-870] 358a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 27b-30a csp 29d; 77c-
78b; 79d-80b; 116d-ll7a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373a-b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals,
259a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
368c-d; 371b-372a; 375d-376b / Intro. Meta-
physic of Morals, 389c-390a,c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 466c-467a; 468b-469b;
474b-c
44 BOS-WELL: Johnson, 2d-3a; 392b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART rn, par 162
58b-d; ADDITIONS, 23 120d
51 TOLSTOY: War and foace, BK in, 123d-124a;
BK vi, 271d; BK vn, 291a-292b; 30Ib-302b;
BK vni, 338c-d; BK ix, 365d-366a; BK xi,
474a-b; 520c-d; BK xn, 545b-547a; 548d-
949c cisp 549b; EPILOGUE i, 655b-c; 670d-
671a
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psycho-
Anatyris, 20c-d / General Introduction, 45^c-d;
43»?/ War *nd Death, 757c-759d/ Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 7^c-784d; 785c-
786tJr 799a -«00a esp 800a; 801*
5d. The heroism of friendship and tht sacri-
fices of love
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 29:20 /Judges, 11:28-
40 / Ruth I I Samuel, 20; 23:15-18— (D)
I Kings, 20; 23 '15-18
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 6:14-16— (D) OT,
Ecclesiffsticus, 6:14-16
NEW TESTAMENT '.John, I5'i3
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xvi 112a-121d; BK xvm
[1-126] 130a-131c
5 AESCHYLUS. Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c / Prometheus Bound 40a-51d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [324-460]
117a-118b / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1266-
1315} 154a-b / Trachiniae 170a-181a,c esp
[1157-1258] 180a-181a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis 237a-247a,c / Heracleidae
[295-332] 251a-b; [500-601] 252c-2S3b /
Suppliants [990-1071] 267a-c / Heracles Mad
[55-59] 365c-d; [562-584] 369d-370a; [1214-
1228] 375c / Phoenician Maidens [929-1018]
386b-387b / Orestes [356-806] 397b-402c;
[1069-1097] 404d-405a / Iphigcnia at Aulis
425a-439d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK n, 73d
7 PLATO- Symposium, 152b-153b / Republic,
BK v, 366d-367a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vni, CH 7 [1158^9-
1159*12] 410d-411a; BK ix, CH 2-3 417c-419a;
CH 8 [ii6o*i8-b2] 422d-423a
13 VIRGIL- Aeneid, BK ix [168-449] 283b-291a
14 PLUTARCH- Theseus, 12a-b / Alabiades, 156c-
158b / Pelopidas, 233b-d; 238d-239d
15 TACITUS. Annals, BK xvi, 183a-c
20 AQUINAS. Summa Theologica, PART n-ii, Q 26,
A 4, REP 2 512c-513b; A 5 esp REP 3 513b-d;
Q 184, A 2, RFP 3 629d-630d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xxxii [124]-
xxxni [90] 49a-50c
25 MONTAIGNE- Essays, 358b-362a
26 SHAKESPEARE* 1st Henry VI, ACT iv, sc v-
vn 23d-26a / Merchant of Venice 406a-433d
esp ACT i, sc i [153-160] 407d-408a, ACT in,
sc n [295-299] 423a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Antony and Cleopatra 31 la-
350d / Sonnets, LXXXVII-XC 599c-600a
32 MILTON- Paradise Lost, BK ix [896-989] 267a-
269a / Samson Agonistes [871-902] 358b-359a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 30aj31a; BK
HI, 127<M28d; 135c-137c; 140c-142d; 159d-
160a; BK rv, 167c-d> 185b-186c; BK vn, 277d-
278a; 291a-292b; 301b-302b; BK vni, 327a-
330a; BK xii, 545b-547a; BK xv, 615a-6l6a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK iv,
96b-99a; BK v, 121d-122d; BK xn, 367c-368c
4. The social or political force of love, sym-
pathy, or friendship
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,e
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 31d-32a; BK in,
106a-c; BK iv, 126a-b; BK vi, 189c; BK vn,
225d-226b; BK vni, 281d-282a
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1075
6 TmjCYDtDBsr: Pclopormcsian War, BK. n,
395d-399af Bic HI, 419a; BK vi, 523c-524c;
534b-c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 152b-d; 154a-b / Repub-
lic, BK v, 360d-365d / Laws, BK iv, 678c-
679a; BK v, 692b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vm, CH i [1155*22-28]
406d; CH 4 [1157*25-27] 409a; CH 9-12 411d-
414d; BK ix, CH 6 420c-421a; CH 8 421d-423a
esp {1169*6-32] 422c-423a / Politics, BK n,
CH 3-4 456c-458a; CH 5 [i263*23~-b27] 458b-d;
BK in, CH 9 [i28ob33-i28i*4] 478c; BK iv, CH
ii 495b-496d; BK Vn, CH 7 [i327b40-i328*i7]
532a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BKUI, SECT 11 262a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 2la-24d / Lycurgus 32a-
48d / Numa Pompihus, 59d-60b / Pdapidas,
233b-d; 238d-239d / Agesilaus, 482b-c; 483d-
484a / Pompey, 521c-d / Demetrius, 737b-d /
Aratus, 835b-c, 844b-d
18 AUGUSTINE : City of God, BK xix, CH 24 528b-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, xi [13-90] 15b-
16a; xni [52-78] 18b-c, xxxn-xxxin 47c-
51b; PURGATORY, xvn [82-139] ?9b-d
22 CHAUCER: Trotlus and Cressida, BK in,
STANZA 4-5 55a; STANZA 250-253 87a-b
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH xvn, 24a-d; CH
xxi, 32a-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART i, 63a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 86d-87b; 396a-d; 467b-
470a; 486b-489b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART m, PROP 46 410c;
PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 29-40
431d-437a passim; PROP 73 446c-447a; AP-
PENDIX, ix-xn 448a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART n, 70b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 169d-170a
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK iv, 15d-
16a; BK v, 18d-19c; BK xn, 93d-94a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331b; 343d-
345c; 362c*d / Political Economy, 372b-377b
/ Social Contract, BK iv, 437c-438c
42 KANT: Fund. Pnn. Metaphysic of Morals,
269d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
375d-376b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 17
69a-70d; NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 46,
150c-151a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-425d;
428b-c / Utilitarianism, 453a-454a; 459d-461c
esp 460a; 469c-470c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 169d-170b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308a-310d esp
309a, 310b; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Pence, BK in, I35c-137c;
140c-142d; 146d-147c; 159b-161b; BK v, 214c-
216d; BK ix, 379a-388a,c; BK xi, 513d-521c;
527b-532a,c; EPILOGUE I, 669b-c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 717b-718a
54 PREFIX Group Psychology, 672a-695d esp
674a, 678a-c, 680b, 686b*c / Ego and Id,
707c-d / War and Death, 758c-759d / Civiliza-
tion and Its Discontents, 781 d- 791 d esp 782c,
783b-c, 785c d, 791c; 799a-d; 802c
4a. Love between equals and unequals, like and
unlike: tbe fraternity of citizenship
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1063-1084]
109a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK it, 87c-88a; BK vn,
258d
J6 THUCYDTDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 395d-
399a esp 396c-d
7 PLATO: Lysis, 19d-21b / Protagoras, 52b /
Republic, BK v, 360d-365d / Laws, BK vi,
707c-708a
9 ARISTOTLE. Ethics, BK vni, CH i [1155*22-28]
406d; [ri55*33-bi2] 406d-407a; CH 3 [ii56b7~
23] 408a'bTcH 6 [1158*27]-^ 7 [1159*12]
410b-411a, BK vni, CH 8 [ii59bi]~BK ix, CH 3
[n65b37] 411c-419a / Politics, BK iv, CH n
495b-496d; BK vn, CH 7 [i327b4o-i328ai7]
532a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 13 120b-c;
BK n, CH 22 167d-170a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK xi, SECT 9 303b
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 20d-21a / Lycurgus,
36a-b / Cato the Younger, 623a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK xn, 121d-122a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 15-16
521a-522a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60,
A 4, ANS 312c-313b; Q 96, A 3, REP 2 512a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART n-n, Q
26, A 8 516a-517a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, vi [58-
151] 61b-62c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART in, PROP 27 404b-d;
PART iv, PROP 29-40 431d-437a; PROP 73
446c-447a; APPENDIX, ix-xn 448a-b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH n, SECT 5 26a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART iv, 165b-166a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 113d-116d; 308a-314d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK v, 19a-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 372b-377b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 326b-327a / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 375d-376b /
Science of Right, 400b,d-401b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 459d-461c esp 460a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a;
PART iv, 341a-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dic\, 381a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK i, 15a-b; BK v,
214c-216d; BK vi, 242c-243c; 270b-c; BK vn,
278c-279b; 280b-281a; BK vin, 311a-313a;
314c-316a; 326b-c; 329d-330a; 330d-332a;
BK xi, 513d-521c; 527b-532a,c; BK xn, 543b-
544a; BK xni, 576a-b; BK xiv, 608d; BK xv,
617b-d; 621b-626d; 631c-633a; 640a; EPI-
LOGUE i, 652b-654a; 669d-672a
1076
THE GREAT IDEAS
43 to 4c
(4. The social or political force of love, sympathy,
or friendship. 4a. Love between equals ami
unequal*, like and unlike: the fraternity of
citizenship^)
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK vi,
165b-170b
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 674b-675a; 676c-d;
68 7d; 691d-692a
4b. The dependence of the state on friendship
and patriotism: comparison of love and
justice in relation to the common good
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xn [230-250] 84c-d
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c-d /
Philoctctcs 182a-195a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [929-1018]
386b-387b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK iv, 142c; BK vn,
225d-226b; 239a-c; 258b-d; BK vm, 273d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK n, 397d-
398c; 402b-404a; BK in, 419a
7 PLATO: Republic, BK i, 308b-309b / Laws,
BK v, 692b-c; 694d / Seventh Letter, 804b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK vni, CH i [1155*22-28]
406d; CH 9-12 411d-414d; BK ix, CH 6 420c-
421a; CH 8 421d-423a csp [1169*6-32] 422c-
423a / Politics, BK 11, CH 3-4 456c-458a esp
CH 4 [i262*40-b23] 457c-d; BK HI, CH 9
[i28ob33-i28i*4] 478c; BK iv, CH n 495b-
496d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [1011-
1027] 74b-c
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Pelopidas,
233b-d / Sertorius, 467d-469a / Dion, 784d-
785a; 798b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xix, CH 21-24
524a-528c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theohgica, PART i, Q 60,
A 5, ANS 313b-314c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 99,
A i, REP 2 245c-246b; A 2, ANS 246b-247a;
PART II-II, Q 26, A 3, ANS 511d-512c| A 8,
ANS and REP 3 516a 51 7a; QQ 37-42 570c-
584d; Q 45, A 6 602b-603c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 84b-85a; 382b-383d;
471a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT i, sc in [275-
309] 326c-d; ACT n, sc i [40-68] 328a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT v, sc in [94-
i7i]388a-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d; APPENDIX, ix-xvn 448a-d
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [843-870] 358a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, xxiia-d; BK
iv, 15d-16a; BK v, 18d-19c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323b-d; 325a-b /
Political Economy, 372b-377b csp 373c-374a
/ Social Contract, BK iv, 437b-438c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphy sic of Morals, 269d
/ Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 375d-
376b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 14,
62a-b; NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 45,
148b-d; NUMBER 62, 189b-c; 191b-c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 343a; 424c-
425d; 428b-c
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 253c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART HI, par 267-
269 84b-d / Philosophy of History, PART H,
283c-d; PART HI, 298c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-216d;
BK xi, 474a-b; 475b-476c; BK XH, 537b-538a
4c. The brotherhood of man and the world
community
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4 1-15 / Exodus,
12:48-49; 22:21; 23:9 / Leviticus, 19:17-
18,33-34; 24:22 / Deuteronomy, 10:18-19 /
/ Kings, 8:4i-43-(D) /// Kings, 8:41-43 /
Psalms, 22:27-31; 68:29-35; 103:19-22; 133:1;
145:11-13— (D) Psalms, 21:28-32; 67:30-36;
102.19-22; 132:1; 144:11-13 / Isaiah^ 2:1-4—
(D) Isaias, 2:1-4 / ]cremiah, 16:19-21— (D)
Jeremtas, 16:19-21 / Ezetyel, 37:26-28— (D)
Ezechiel, 37:26-28 / Micah, 4:1-4— (D) Mi-
cheas, 4:1-4 / Malachi, 2:10— (D) Malachias,
2:10
APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 25:1— (D) OT, EC-
clesiasticus, 25-1-2
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 12-46-50; 19:19;
22:39; 23.8-9; 25:34-40 / Mar{, 12:31-33 /
Lu^e, 10:27 /John, 1*12; 13:34-35; 15:9-17;
17-26; 18-36 / Acts, 17-22-34 esp 17:24-26 /
Romans, 8:14-19; 12; 13:8-10; 14-10 / Gala-
tians, 5:13-14 / Eph£sians, 2:13-22; 4:1-16 esp
4:13-16; 4:32; 5:1-2 / Phihppians, 2:1-2 /
Colossians, 3*9-17 esp 3:11 // Thessalonians,
4:9-10 / Hebrews, 13:1-3 / James, 2:8 /
/ Peter, 1-22; 3:8 / I John, 2-9-11; 3.2,10-18;
4:7-5-2 / II John, 5
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK vi [207] 216b; BK vn
[181] 220a; BK xiv [55-56] 260d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK i, 20b-d; 31d-32a;
BK iv, 137a-138c; BK vi, 189c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK i, CH 2 [i252b6-8] 445d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 9 114c-116b;
CH 13 120b-c; BK H, CH 10 148c-150a; CH 20,
164d-165c; BK HI, CH n 187a-b; CH 22,
199c-d; CH 24 203c-2lOa
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK in, SECT 4 260b-
261a; SECT n 262a-b; BK iv, SECT 3-4 263b-
264a; BK vi, SECT 44 278b-c; BK xi, SECT 9
303b; SECT 13 303d
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK i [254-296] HOa-llla;
BK vi [845-853] 233b-234a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xn, CH 21-22
357a-c; CH 27, 359d; BK xix, CH 7 515a-c;
CH 17, 522d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART iwi, Q
26, AA 6-8 514a-517a; Q 184, A 2, REP 3 629d-
630d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 31 5I7b-518b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 471a-c
5 to 5*(1)
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1077
27 SHAKESPEARE: Tanon of Athens, ACT iv, sc i
409c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 31d-32a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, ix-xvn
448a-d
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xxiv, 206c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c / Political
Economy, 369a-b; 373c / Social Contract, BK
iv, 437c-d
42 KANT: Science of Right, 449c-458a,c esp 455c-
456a, 457a-458a,c / Judgement, 586a-587a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-428a
passim, esp 426a-b / Utilitarianism, 45lb-c
44 Bosw ELL: Johnson, 392b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART i, 224a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317c-d; 318d
50 MARX-ENGELS : Communist Manifesto, 428a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK n, 69a-c; BK v,
198b-203a passim, esp 199b-200d, 202d; 217a;
BK vi, 244d-245d; BK ix, 375d; BK x, 466b-c;
BK xn, 548d-549c esp 549b; 555b-c; BK xin,
575d-577a; BK xv, 625c-626d; 632b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK i,
13c-d; BK v, 121d-122d; BK vr, 164b-170b
esp 166c-167b
54 FREUD. Group Psychology, 674c-d; 691d-692a
/ War and Death, 755a-761c esp 755b-757c,
761a-c / Civilization and Its Discontents,
783a-b; 785d-788d esp 786a-c, 788b-c
5. Divine love
5a. God as the primary object of love
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 6:4-9
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6.33 / Luke, 12:31
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK 11, CH 16, 158b-d;
BK in, CH 24 203c-210a; BK iv, CH 12, 243c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK i, par i la-b;
BK iv, par 7-20 20d-24c; BK VH, par 22 50a;
BK vni, par 10-30 55c-61c passim; BK ix, par
23-25 68a-c; BK x, par 8-n 73b-74b; par 38
81a; BK xii, par 10 lOlc; par 23 104b-c / City
of God, BK x, CH 18 310b-d; BK xii, CH 8-9
346d-348b; BK xiv, CH 7, 380c-d; BK xv, CH
22, 416c / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 3-4
625b-c; CH 9-10 627a-b; CH 22-23 629b-630c;
BK in, CH 10, 662a
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 12,
A i, ANS 50c-51c; A 8, REP 4 57b-58b; Q 60,
A 5 3l3b-314c; PART i-n, Q i, A 8 615a-c; Q 2,
A i, REP 3 615d-616c; A 8 621c-622b; Q 4,
A 8, ANS and REP 3 636a-c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART i-u, Q 109,
A 3 340c-341b; PART ii-n, Q 24, A 2, REP 2
490 b-d; Q 25, A 12 509c-510b; Q 26, AA 2-3
511a-512c; Q 27, A 3 522c-523b; A 8 526c-527b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xvii [82j-xvni [75] 79b-80c;
xxx-xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE, i [97-142]
107b-d; iv [ii5]-v [12] llld-112b; xxvi [1-81]
145d-146c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, m, 88c*89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv
447b-c; PART v, PROP 15-16 456c; PROP 18
456d; PROP 32-33 460b-c
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 325a-327d / Judge-
ment, 504b-505a; 611a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK ix, 373b-377b
passim; BK xi, 525c-526b; BK xn, 560a-561c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
5a(l) Man's love of God in this life: respect for
the moral law
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:5-6 / Deuteronomy,
5:9-10; 6; 7:9-11; 10:12; 11:1,13,22; 13:3;
19:9; 30:6,15-20 /Joshua, 22:1-6; 23:11— (D)
Josue, 22:1-6; 23:11 / Psalms passim, esp 18:1,
31:23, 97:10, 116:1, 119:132, 122:6, 145-20—
(D) Psalms passim, esp 17:2, 30:24, 96:10,
114.1, 118:132, 121. 6, 14420 / Ecclestastes,
12:13 / Isaiah, 29.8-9— (D) Isaias, 29:8-9 /
Jeremiah, 2:2— (D) Jeremias, 2:2
APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 13:12-14— (D) OT, Tobias,
13:16-18 / Ecclesiasticus, 2; 7:30; 10:19; 13:14;
25:11-12; 34:16; 47:8— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
2; 7:32; 10:23; 13 18; 25:14-16; 34:19; 47:9-10
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22.36-38 / MarJ(,
12:30-32 / Luf(e, 10:25-28 / John, 14:15,21,23-
24 / Acts, 20:22-24; 21:7-15 / Romans, 5:5;
8:28/1 Corinthians, 8:1-3 / Ephesians, 3:14-21
/ II Thessalomans, 3:5 / James, 1:12; 2:5 /
/ Peter, 1.7-8 / I John, 2:5,12-17; 4 '19-5:3 /
II John, 6
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK i, CH 16 121d-
122d; BK n, CH 16, 158b-d; BK in, CH 24
203c-210a; BK iv, CH 12, 243c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK in, par 15-16
17a-d; BK iv, par 14-19 22d-24b; BK vn, par
23-24 50b-51a; BK vni, par 10-30 55c-61c
passim; BK ix, par i 61c-d; BK x, par 8 73b-c;
par 38-70 81a-89b / City of God, BK x, CH i
298b,d-299d; CH 3 300b-301a; BK xn, CH 20
355b-357a; BK xiv, CH 28 397a-d; BK xv, CH
22 416a-c; BK xix, CH 20 523d-524a; BK xxi,
CH 15-16 572c-574a / Christian Doctrine, BK i,
CH 15-16 628b-d; CH 22-23 629b-630c; CH
26-27 631b-d; CH 29-30 632a-633b; CH 33
633d-634b; CH 35-37 634c-635c; BK n, CH
38, 654c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 62,
A 9, REP i 324a-325b; Q 82, A 3, ANS and REP
3 433c-434c; PART i-n, Q 27, A 2, REP 2 737d-
738c; Q 28, A 5 743c-744b; Q 35, A 5, REP i
775d-777a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 65,
A 5, ANS and REP 1,3 74c-75a; Q 67, A 5 85d-
86d; Q 73, A i, REP 3 119c-120c; Q no, A i
347d-349a; Q 114, A 8 376a-d; PART n-ii, Q
23, A i, REP i 482d-483d; Q 24, A 2, REP 2
490b-d; AA 4-12 491d-500d; Q 27 520d-527b
esp A 4 523c-524a; Q 34 558d-562d; Q 184, AA
1-3 629a-632c
1078
THE -GREAT IDEAS
(5a. God as the primary object of love. 54(1)
Man's love of God in this life: respect /or
the moral law.)
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b; PARADISE,
HI [91-108] llOb-c; xi 122a-123c; xxvi [1-81]
145d-146c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK v, STANZA
263-267 154b-155a / Parson's Talc, par 31
517b-518b
23 HOBBES: leviathan, PART in, 240d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning 80b-81a
31 DESCARTES, Meditations, HI, 88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv
447b-c; PART v, PROP 15-16 456c
32 MILTON. Sonnets, xiv 66a / Paradise Lost, BK
v {153-208] 178b-179b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 78b-80b / Pcnstes,
430 245a-247b; 463-492 255a-259b; 544 266a;
556 270b-272a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 321b-329a csp 326b-
32 7a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
370a-b; 375a-b / Judgement, 504b-505a;
S09a-c; 593a-d, 611a>c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART in, 307b-
308a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK xi, 525c-526b;
BK XH, 560a-561c, BK xiv, 608a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Biothers Karamazov, BK v,
127b-137c passim
5a(2) Beatitude as the fruition of love
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK ix, par 23-25
68a-c / City of God, BK xxn, CH 29-30 614b-
618d / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 15 628b-c;
CH 32-33 633c-634b; CH 38 635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologtca, PART i, Q 62,
AA 7-8 322d-324a; A 9, RLP i 324a-325b; PART
J-H, Q 2, A 8 621c-622b, Q 4, AA 1-3 629d-
631 d; A 8 csp REP 3 636a-c; Q 5, A 4 639a-640b
20 AQOINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-H, Q 65,
A 5, ANS and REP 1,3 74c-75a; Q 67, A 6 87a-c;
0 114, A 4 373a-d; A 8 376a-d, PART ii-n, Q
23, A i, REP i 482d-483d; Q 24, A 6, REP i
493d-494b; A 7, REP i 494b-495b; A 8, ANS
and REP i 495b-496a; A 9, ANS and REP 3
496a-d; A n, ANS 498b-499c; Q 25, A 10
508b-d, Q 26, A H 519d-520d, Q 28, A 3
528d-529c; Q 184, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 629d-
630d; PART in SUPPL, Q 90, A 3 1014d-1016a;
Q 93 1037c-1040c esp A 3 1039d-1040c; QQ
95-96 1042c-1066a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; PARADISE 106a-157d esp in
[34-90] 109d-110b, iv [ii5)-v [12} llld-112b,
xxi [19-102] 138c-139b, xxii [61-69] WOb,
xxvi [i-Si] 14Sd-146c, xxvin 148d-150b,
xxx [34-45] 152a-b, xxxm 156b-157d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iv, APPENDIX, iv
447b-c; PART v, PROP 21-42 4S8a-463d esp
PROP 32-37 460b-461c, PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xiv, 66a * , ' \ ,
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347c
5b. Charity, or supernatural love, compared
with natural love
NEW TESTAMENT: / Corinthians, 13
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VH, par 23-24
50b-51a; BK vm, par 10-30 5Sc-61c passim;
BK x, par 38-70 81a-89b; BK xiu, par 8
112b-c / City of God, BK xv, CH 22 416r-c /
Christum Doctrine, BK in, CH 10, 662a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, o/ 8,
A 3, ANS and REP 4 36b-37c; Q 60 310a-314c
csp A i, REP 3 310b-311a, A 5, ANS arid REP
4-5 313b-314c; Q 62, A 2, REP i 318d-319c;
A 7 322d-323b, Q 63, A i, REP 3 335c-326c;
PART I-H, Q 26, A i, ANS and REP 3 734&'d;
A 2, ANS 734d-735c; A 3, ANS and REP 4 735c-
736b; Q 29, A i, ANS and REP 3 745a-c; AA 4-5
747a-748b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q 62,
A 3, ANS and REP 3 61c-62b; Q 65, A 5, REP i
74c-75a, Q 109, A 3 340c-341b; Q no, A i
347d-349a; PART H-II, Q 24, AA 2-3 490b-
491d; A 10 496d-498a; Q 25, AA 7-8 506a-
507c; Q 26, A 3, ANS 511d-512c; A 5 513b-d;
A 6, ANS 514a-d; AA 8-n 516a-519a; Q 31, A 3
538b-539c, Q 32, A 9 548c-549b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; xxx-xxxi 99b-102b, PARADISE,
iv [n5]-v [12] llld-112b, vin-ix 116d-120a
23 HOBBES. Leviathan, PART in, 240d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c;
80b81a
32 MILTON Paradise Lost, BK xn [576-605]
331b-332a
33 PASCAL. Pensees, 793 326b-327a
37 FIELDING. Torn Jones, 26a-27a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 392 b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace* BK i, 50a; BK in,
128c-d; BK v, 214c-218b; BK x, 465a-c; BK
xi, 525o526b; BKXII, 560a-561c; BK xv, 61 7d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
121d-122d passim
54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 691d-692a /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 786a-d
The precepts of charity: the law of love
OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 19:17-18,33-34 /
Deuteronomy^ 6.5; 10:12,18-19; 11.1,13,22;
13:3-4; 19:9, 24:19-22; 30:6,16 / Proverbs,
10:12; 25-21-22
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:9; 6:17-18 —
(D) OT, Book °f Wisdom, 3:9; 6:18-19 /
Ecckstasticus, 4:1-10; 13:14; 28:1-8; 29— (D)
OT, Eccfaiatticus, 4:1-11; 13:18; 28:1-11; 29
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:20-26,38-48;
19:19; 22:34-40 / Mark 12:28-34 / Luke,
6:27-38; 10:25-37 /John, 13:34-17:26 passim
/ Romans, 8:35-39; 12:9-21; 13:8-10 / Corin-
thians, 8:1-3; 13; 16:14 /// Corinthians, 2:4-
u; 6; 8:7-8 / Galatians, 5 / Epfosians, 1:4;
**") to 5c
3:17-19; 4:1^2, 13-16,32;- 5 IT+I f PhUippians,
1:1-11; 2:1-2 / Colosstans, 3:12-15 / I Thessa-
Ionian^, 3:12; 4:9-10; 5:8/7 Tmothy, 1:5;
6:11 / // Timothy, 1:7 / Hebrews, 10124-25;
13:1-3 / James, 2:8 / / Peter, 1:22; 2:17; 3:8;
4:8-10 / // Peter, 1:7 / I John esp 2:5, 2*15,
3:10-23, 4:7-5:3 / II John
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK x, par 3-4 72a-b
/ City of God, BK x, CH 3 300b-301a; Bk xxi,
CH 22 576a-c; CH 27 583a-586a,c / Christian
Doctrme, BK i, CH 22-30 629b-633b; CH 33
633d-634b; CH 35 634c-d; BK n, CH 7 638d-
639c; BK in, CH 10 661c-662a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 60,
A 5, CONTRARY 313b-314c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q
65, A 3, CONTRARY 72d-73d; Q 91, A 5 21 Ic-
212c; Q 99, A i, REP 2-3 245c-246b; A 2, ANS
246b-247a; QQ 106-108 321a-337d; PART
n-n, Q 23, A 4, REP 3 485d-486b; QQ 25-
27 501a-527b; Q 44 592d-598c; Q 184, A 3
630d-632c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xi [1-30]
68d-69a; xm [22-39] 72a-b; PARADISE, xi
122a-123c
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [529-541] 168b / Tale of
Mehbeus 401a-432a esp par 55-78 426a-432a
/ Parson's Tale, par 31 517b-518b; par 68-69
533b-534b; par 91-92 547a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT iv,
sc i [182-205] 427c-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT n,
sc n [71-79] 182d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART n, 338b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK xn [576-605] 331b-
332a / Areopagitica, 409b-410a
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a / Pens^es,
663^70 293b-295b passim
35 LOCKE- Toleration, la-2c
37 FIELDING* Tom Jones, 26a-27a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 327c-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 312b,d [fn 27]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-215b;
BK vi, 271d; BK ix, 375d-376a; 377a-b; BK
x, 465c; BK xi, 525c-526b; BK xn, 557b-c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
26k-27d; 37c-38a; BK iv, 83c-84a; Bk v, I25d-
127b; 127b-137c passim; BK vi 146b,d-170d
passim; BK xn, 398a-b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 786a-d
5b(2) The theological virtue of charity: its rela-
tion to the other virtues
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:5 / I Corinthians, 13
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vi, par 7-20 20d-
24c; BK vn, par 23-24 50b-51a; BK x, par 40
81c / City of God, BK x, CH 3 300b-301a; BK
xiv, CH 7, 380c-d; BK xxi, CH 16 573b-574a /
Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 37-40 635b-
636a,c; BK n, CH 41 656a-c; BK in, CH 10
661c-662a
1079
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i, Q 59,
A 4, REP 3 309a-310a; Q 82, A 3, REP 3 433c-
434c; Q 95, A 4, ANS 509b-5lOa; PART i-n, Q
4, A 2, HEP 3 630b-631a; A 8, ANS and REP 3
636&-c; Q 26, A 3, ANS and REP 4 735c-736b;
Q 28, A 2, CONTRARY and ANS 741a-742a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 58,
A 3, RBP 3 43b-44a; Q 62, A 2, REP 3 60d-61b;
AA 3-4 61c-63a; Q 65, AA 2-5 72a-75a; Q 66,
A 6 80c-81b; Q 67, A 6 87a-c; Q 73, A c, REP 3
119c-120c; Q no, A 3, REP i 350a-d; A <f, ANS
350d-351d, Q 114, A 4 373a-d; A 6 374c~375b;
A 8 376a-d; PART ii-n, Q 4, AA 3-5 404c-
407a; Q 19, A 6 469a-d; A 10 472b-d; QQ 23-
46 482c-605a,c; Q 184, AA 1-2 629a-630d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, xv [40-
81] 75d-76a; PARADISE, in [34-90] I09d-110b;
xxi [34-102] 138c-139b; xxvi [1-81] 145d-146c
23 HOBBES: Lcvtathan, PART ni, 240d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-4c; 80b-
81a
32 MILTON: Sonnets, xiv 66a / Paradise Lost, BK
xn [576-605] 331b-332a / Areopagitica, 409b-
410a
33 PASCAL: PensSes, 793 326b-327a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, la-2c
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 26a-27a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 214c-218b
5c. God's love of Himself and of creatures
OLD TESTAMENT' Deuteronomy, 7-6-15; 10:15,18
/ Psalms passim / Proverbs, 3-12 / Song of
Solomon — (D) Canticle of Canticles / Isaiah,
43; 63:7-9— (D) Isaias, 43; 63:7-9 / Jeremiah,
13:11; 31— (D) Jeremias, 13:11; 31 / Ezelyel,
16— (D) Ezechiel, 16 / Hosea—(D) Osee /
Jonah, 4— (D) Jonas, 4
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 7:28; 11:22-
26; 12:13-16; 16:20-29— (D) OT, Boo\ of
Wisdom, 7:28; 11:23-27; 12*13-16; 16:20-29
/ Ecclesiasticus, 11:14-17; i6:n-i7'32; 33:10-
15— (D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 11:14-17; 16:12-
17:31 533:10-15
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:25-34; 7:7-11;
10:29-31 / LuJ^e, 11:1-13; 12:6-7,22-28 /
John, 3:16-21; 13:31-17:26 / Romans, 2:4;
5:5; 8:29-39 / H Corinthians, 13:11 / Ga-
latians, 2:20 / Ephesians, 3:14-20; 5:1-2 /
/ Timothy, 1:14 / Titus, 3:3-7 / Hebrews, 12:6
/ I John, 3:1-2,16; 4:7-5:5 / Revelation^ 3:19-
21— (D) Apocalypse, 3:19-21
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447c-448a
16 KEPLER: Harmonies of the World, 1050a-b;
1071 b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK vn, par 16, 48d;
BK xm, par 1-2 HOd-lllb / City of God, BK
vii, CH 31 261d-262a; BK xn, CH 9 347b-348b;
BK xix, CH 13 519a-520a; BK xxi, CH 15-16
572c-574a; CH 18 574c~575b; CH 24 577b-
579d; BK xxn, CH i 586b,d-587b; CH 24
609a-612a / Christian Doctrine, BK i, CH 31-
32633b-d
1080
THE GREAT IDEAS
5c
(5. Divine love. 5c. God's love of Himself and of
creatures!)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologies PART i, Q 3, A
i, REP i 14b-15b; Q 6, A 4 30b-d; Q 19, A 2,
ANS and REP 2-4 109c-110b; A 4, ANS and
REP i lllC'112c; Q 20 119d-124a; Q 27, AA 3-4
155c-156d; Q 37 197c-200c; Q 74, A 3, REP 3-4
375a-377a,c; Q 82, A 5, REP i 435c-436c; Q
93, A 4, ANS 494c-495b; PART I-H, Q 28, A 3,
CONTRARY 742a-d; A 4, CONTRARY 742d-743c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART i-n, Q 65,
A 5, ANS and REP 3 74c-75a; QQ 109-114 338a-
378a,c esp Q no, A z 347d 349a, A 4, ANS
350d 351d; PART H-II, Q 23, AA 1-2 482d-
484d; Q 24, AA 2-3 490b-491d; A 8, ANS 495b-
496a; A 12 499c-500d; Q 184, A 2, ANS 629d-
630d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, i [37-40] Ib-c;
PURGATORY, in [103-145) 57a-c; x [22-45]
67c-d; xi [1-30] 68d-69a; xv [40-81] 75d-76a;
xxviii [91-96] 97a; PARADISE, in [34-90]
109d-110b; vn [1-120] 115a-116b; x [1-27]
120b-c; xirt [52-87] 126a b; xix [86-90] 135d-
136a; xxvi [i-66J 145d-146c; xxvn [97-120]
148b-c; xxix [13-48] 150b-d; [127-145] ISlc-
d; xxxii (i39]-xxxni [145] 156a-157d
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK HI,
STANZA 1-7 54b-55b; STANZA 250-253 87a-b;
BK v, STANZA 263-267 154b-155a / Tale of
Melibeus, par 78 431b-432a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 229c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART v, PROP 17, COROL
456d; PROP 19 457a; PROP 35-36 460d-461c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK in [56-343] 136b-
143a; BK iv [4*1-439] 161b-162a
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT
3 405b-c; SECT 154 444a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 186c*d
42 KANT: Judgement, 592a-c
48 MELVILLE : Moby Dic{, 381a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK vi, 271d-272b;
BK ix, 373b-377b passim
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK n,
24a-c; BK v, 127b-137c passim; BK vi, 153a-d;
BK vii, 189a-191a,c passim
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: The basic psychological terms in the analysis of love, see DESIRE 3c; EMOTION i, 2-2c;
PLEASURE AND PAIN 73; and for the comparison of love and knowledge, see KNOWLEDGE
4d.
Other discussions of the objects of love, see BEAUTY 3; DESIRE i, 2b; GOOD AND EVIL la,
3c; TRUTH 8e; WILL 7d.
Other considerations of the sexual instincts, sexual love, and their normal or abnormal de-
velopment, sec DESIRE 4b~4d; EMOTION ic, 30-3^3); HABIT 3-33; PLEASURE AND PAIN
4b, 7b, 8b-8c; TEMPERANCE 2, 6a-6b.
Other considerations of conjugal love and its components, see FAMILY 73.
For the moral problems raised by love, see DUTY 8; JUSTICE 3; OPPOSITION 4d; PLEASURE
AND PAIN 8b; SIN 2b; TEMPERANCE 6a-6b; VIRTUE AND VICE 6e.
The role of friendship in the life of the individual, the family, and the state, see FAMILY 7c;
HAPPINESS 2b(5); STATE 36; VIRTUE AND VICE 6e; and for other discussions of the brother-
hood of man and the world community, see CITIZEN 8; MAN lib; STATE lof; WAR AND
PEACE nd.
Man's love of God, or charity, as a theological virtue, see DESIRE 7b; VIRTUE AND VICE 8d(3),
8f; WILL 7d; and for the fruition of this love in eternal beatitude, sec HAPPINESS jc-
70(2); IMMORTALITY 5f.
God's love of Himself and of His creatures, see GOD 5h; GOOD AND EVIL 2a.
CHAPTER 50: LOVE
1081
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed below are works not included in Great Booty of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings, which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
I.
PLUTARCH. "Of Envy and Hatred/' "How to
Know a Flatterer from a Friend," "Of Brotherly
Love," "Of Love," "Five Tragical Histories of
Love," in Moraha
AUGUSTINE. Of Continence
. Of Marriage and Concupiscence
AQUINAS. Quaesttones Disputatae, De Caritate
. Summa Theologica, PART n-nt QQ 106-107,
114-119, 151-154
. The Two Precepts of Charity and the Ten
Commandments
DANTE. La Vita Nuova (The New Life)
. Convwio (The Banquet)
F. BACON. "Of Love," "Of Friendship," "Of
Followers and Friends," in Essays
PASCAL. Discours sur les passions de V amour
HUME. A Treatise of Human Nature, BK n, PART n
A. SMITH. The Theory of Moral Sentiments
ROUSSEAU. Eloisa (La nouvelle Heloise)
GOETHE. Sorrows of Voting Werther
. Elective Affinities
TOLSTOY. The Law of Love and the Law of Violence
. Anna Karenina
. On Life
FREUD. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex
. "Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern
Nervousness
. Contributions to the Psychology of Love
II.
CATULLUS. The Poems
CICERO. Laehus de Amicitia (Of Friendship)
OVID. Amores
. The Art of Love
Amis and Amilon
Song of Roland
PETRUS ALPHONSI. Disctphna Clericalis, FABLES
I-H (Concerning the Complete Friend)
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX. On the Love of God,
CH 7
ABAILARD. Letters
WILLIAM OF SAINT-THIERRY. De Natura et Dignita-
tff Arnoris
Aucassin and Nicolette
CHRETIEN DE TROYES. Arthurian Romances
ANDR£ LE CHAPELAIN. The Art of Courtly Love
Tristan and Iseult
The Romance of the Rose
FRANCIS OF ASSISI. The Little Flowers of St. Francis
of Assist^ CH 21-22
PETRARCH. Sonnets
. The Triumph of Love
BOCCACCIO. // Ftlocolo
. Decameron
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
GOWER. Confessio Amantis
ALSO. The Bool( of Principles (Sefer ha-ll$arim)%
BK in, CH 35
THOMAS A KEMPIS. The Imitation of Christ, BK n;
BK in, CH 5-10
VILLON. The Debate of the Heart and Body of Villon
Valentine and Orson
G. Pico DELLA MIRANDOLA. A Platonic^ Discourse
upon Love
EBREO. The Philosophy of Love
ARIOSTO. Orlando Furioso
CASTIGLIONE. The Boof( of the Courtier
MICHELANGELO. Sonnets
R. EDWARDS. Damon and Pithias
P. SIDNEY. Astrophel and Stella
JOHN OF THE CROSS. The Living Flame of Love
DONNE. Songs and Sonnets
SPENSER. The Faerie Queene, BK iv
. Eptthalamion
. An Hymne of Heavenly Love
SUAREZ. DisputationesMetaphystcae, xxx (16), XLVII
(14)
BURTON. The Anatomy of Melancholy, PART in,
SECT I-HI
TIRSO DE MOLINA. The Love Rogue
CORNEILLE. La Place Royale
CAREW. A Rapture
CRASHAW. The Flaming Heart
MARVELL. To His Coy Mistress
J. TAYLOR "The Marriage- Ring," in Twenty-Five
Sermons
. A Discourse of the Nature, Offices and Meas-
ures of Friendship
MOLIERE. Le misanthrope (The Man-Hater)
MALEBRANCHE. De la recherche de la v£ru£t BK iv,
CH 5-13
RACINE. Andromaqut
. Phtdre
LA FAYETTE. The Princess ofCleves
DRYDEN. All for Love
CONGRBVE. The Way of the World
1092
THE GREATtlDEAS
RICHARDSON, Pamela
HURD, Letters on Chivalry and Romance
VOLTAIRE. "Charity," "Friendship/1 "Love,"
"Love of God/' "Love (Socratic Love)/' in A
Philosophical Dictionary
F. SCHLEGEL. Lucindc
SCHLEIERMACHER. SoUloqUteS
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL
in, SUP, CH 44
BYRON. Don Juan
MANZONI. The Betrothed
STENDHAL. On Love
. The Red and the Blac\
. The Charterhouse of Parma
EMERSON. "Love/' in Essays, i
BALZAC. At the Sign of the Cat and Racket
. Cousin Bette
C. BRONTE. Jane Eyre
E. J. BRONTE. Wuthering Heights
KIERKEGAARD. Either /Or
. Stages on Life's Way
. Works of Love
E. B. BROWNING. Sonnets from the Portuguese
HAWTHORNE. The Bhthedale Romance
FLAUBERT. Madame Bovary
MICHELET. U amour
TUROENEV. Liza
MEREDITH. Modern Love
E. HARTMANN. Philosophy of the Vncomcious, (c)
xni (3)
7;
PATMORE. Mystical Poems of Nuptial Love
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods of Ethics, BK i,
BK lMt CH 4
ROSSETTI. The House of Life
L. STEPHEN. The Science of Ethics
STEVENSON. Virginibuf Pwtrisque
C. S. PEIRCE. Collated Papers* VOL vi< par 287-317
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART i, CH 11-12
CHEKHOV. The Sea-Gull
ROSTAND. Cyrano de Bergerac
BRADLEY. Ethical Studies, vn
. Aphorisms
. Collected Essays, VOL i (3)
GOURMONT. The Natural Philosophy of Love
SHAW. Man and Superman
SANTA YANA. Interpretations of Poetry and Reltgion,
CH 5
' . Reason in Society, CH i, 7
GIDE. Strait Is the Gate
SYNGE. Deirdre of the Sorrows
ELLIS. Studies in the Psychology of Sex
J. R. HARRIS. Boanerges
SCHELER. Wesen und Formen der Sympathie
D. H. LAWRENCE. Women in Love
NYGREN. Agape and Eros
PROUST. Remembrance of Things Past
C. S. LEWIS. The Allegory of Love
ROUGEMONT. Love in the Western World
XIRAU. Amor y mundo
D'ARCY. The Mind and Heart of Love
THE U.S.A.
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