i i
I \
MAY 80 1911
BV 1471 .
K46
1911
Kent, Charles Foster,
1867-
1925.
The great
, teachers of
Judaism
and
Christianity
MODERN SUNDAY SCHOOL MANUA
Edited by Charles Foster Kent in
Collaboration with John T. McFarland
The Great Teachers of
Judaism and Christianity
By CHARLES FOSTER KENT
NEWYORK: EATON & MAINS
CINCINNATI : JENNINGS & GRAHAM
Copyright, 191 1, by
CHARLES F. KENT
CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface 5
CHAPTER
I The Secret of Israel's Conquering Power. . . 7
II The Real Character and Aims of the
Prophets 13
III The Prophets as Story-Tellers and Preachers 2 1
IV. The Teaching Methods of the Prophets. . . 34
V. The Duties and Aims of the Priests 42
VI. The Teaching Methods of the Priests 49
VII. The History and Aims of the Wise Men or
Sages 60
VIII. The Methods of the Wise Men or Sages. . . 74
IX- The History and Aims of the Scribes and
Rabbis 86
X. The Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis. . . 95
XI. The Training and Aims of the Great Teacher i o 7
XII. Jesus's Way of Making Men 118
XIII. The Aims of the Early Christian Teachers 131
XIV. The Methods of the Early Christian Teachers 139
XV, The Larger Prophetic and Christian Con-
ception of Religious Education 148
Appendix
59
PREFACE
The nucleus of this book was a series of lec-
tures on 'The Aims and Methods of Israel's
Teachers" given at Berkeley, Oakland, and San
Francisco at the invitation of the Sunday School
Commission of the Episcopal Diocese of Cali-
fornia. The same course of lectures has also
been given wholly or in part at the University
of North Dakota, Washburn College, Yankton
College, the University of Kansas, the University
of Missouri, the Hebrew Union College, the
University of Cincinnati, and the Syrian Protes-
tant College at Beirut, Syria, as well as before
many groups of Sunday-school workers. The
original treatment of the subject has been en-
riched by the results of inspiring conferences
with those actively engaged in the work of re-
ligious education. One fact has constantly come
to the front: it is that the Christian Church at
large and even the great majority of its active
teachers are only partially acquainted with the
deeply significant educational traditions which
gather about the beginning of Judaism and
Christianity. An intimate acquaintance with the
character, aims, and methods of the great re-
ligious teachers who have recorded their work
not only in the Bible, but also in the very
bone and marrow of our modern civilization, is
the first requisite in the practical equipment of
a modern religious teacher. The wonderful
5
6 Preface
teachers of the past haA^e a message full of in-
spiration and suggestion for those dealing with
the same human problems. To present these
historic facts briefly but clearly, and to interpret
the message of these early teachers to their suc-
cessors to-day, is the aim of this volume.
Westmore, Vermont, C. F. K.
July, 191 o.
THE SECRET OF ISRAEL'S CONQUERING
POWER
It is a profoundly significant fact that the
roots of the two great expanding rehgions of to-
day— Christianity and Islam — sprang from the
soil of Judaism. The truths first enunciated by
Israel's prophets, priests, and sages among the
secluded hills of Palestine have permeated the
whole world and molded the faith of nearly half
the human race. What is the explanation of this
mighty power which has not only preserved the
Israelitish race intact through centuries of op-
pression and persecution, but also conquered the
hearts and minds of the most advanced nations
of the earth? The first reason is to be found in
the character of Israel's faith as it unfolded
under the influence of the remarkable expe-
riences through which the nation passed. But the
character and growth of Israel's faith only par-
tially explain its conquering power. To retain
its hold upon a race, as has Judaism, a religion
must be effectively instilled into the minds of
each succeeding generation. It must also be ever
developing, so as to adapt itself to the needs of
each age and individual. In the fact that the
great founders and interpreters of Israel's re-
ligion have been from the first faithful and
skilled teachers doubtless lies the reason why it
still dominates, in ever-increasing measure, the
ideals and beliefs of mankind.
Teachers the
Founders of
Israel's Religion
8 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Judaism's
Emphasis on
Teaching
Highest Honor
Paid to the
Teacher
Judaism has always been in the truest sense a
teaching religion. It has depended primarily for
its perpetuation and extension not upon preach-
ing, or upon creeds, or upon the mere forms of
worship, but upon the personal touch of the
teacher and those taught. It has also strongly
emphasized the supreme importance of the defi-
nite and continuous education of the individual,
beginning with earliest childhood. "These
words, which I command thee this day, shall be
upon thy heart ; and thou shalt impress them
upon thy children, and thou shalt talk of them
when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou
walkest by the way, and when thou liest down,
and when thou risest up. Thou shalt bind them
as a reminder on thy hand, and have them as
bands on thy forehead between thine eyes, and
thou shalt mark them on the posts of thy house
and on thy doors" (Deut. 6. 6-9).
Moreover, the religious teachers of ancient
Israel were fully awake to the importance of
question and answer: "When thy son asks thee
in the future. What mean the testimonies, and
the statutes, and the judgments, which Jehovah
our God hath commanded you? then shalt thou
say to thy son, We were Pharaoh's slaves, in
Egypt ; but Jehovah brought us out of Egypt
with a strong hand ; and Jehovah performed be-
fore our eyes great and destructive signs and
wonders, upon Egypt, upon Pharaoh, and upon
all his household ; and he brought us out from
there, that he might bring us in to give us the
land which he sware unto our fathers" (Deut. 6.
20-23). The result was that among the Israelites
The Secret of Israel's Power
the practical science of education was developed
as among no other ancient people, except possibly
the Greeks. In no other nation was such high
honor and respect paid to the scholar and teacher.
The pictures of the rich and noble youth sitting
deferentially at the feet of some famous rabbi, as
he plied his humble trade and at the same time
taught his disciples, are among the fairest and
most significant that come to us from classic
Judaism. To-day there still remains in the mind
of every faithful Jew an instinctive and deep re-
spect for the learned teacher and rabbi. The
well-known zeal and skill of the Jew in the pur-
suit of learning are in all probability the fruits
of this same hereditary instinct.
A further explanation of Israel's conquering Aim to Educate
power lies in the fact that its teachers sought
not merely to instruct but to educate. Abstract
theology was to them practically unknown.
Their creed was expressed in laws intended to
develop a right personal attitude toward God
and man and to lead to worthy and effective
action. As the Great Teacher truly said : to love
the Lord with all one's powers and might and
the neighbor as one's self was the essence of
Israel's law. It was upon the development of the
individual man that the ultimate emphasis was
placed.
To make his development complete and The Three
rounded different classes of teachers were re- Classes of
1 1 ' -11 <-T->i Teachers
quired to meet his many-sided needs. Ihree
distinct types of teachers arose in early Israel,
each with its distinct tasks and contributions to
the development of the individual and the nation,
10 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Didactic
Character of
Israel's
Scriptures
In threatening- the Hfe of the prophet Jeremiah
his foes incidentally brought these three classes
into close connection and contrast: "For the
teaching shall not depart from the priest, nor
counsel from the wise, nor the word from the
prophet" (Jer. i8. i8). By specific instructions
in regard to each man's obligations to God, to
the state, and to his fellow men, by personal
counsel and practical instruction and by authori-
tative message the priests, the wise men, and the
prophets not only molded Israel's faith and
ideals, but also guided the thoughts, the morals,
and the acts of each individual. Their character
and work alone explain how a mixed group of
rude Semitic nomads in time became a prophetic
nation at whose feet the most progressive races
of the earth have learned the fundamental truths
of ethics and religion.
The scriptures of the Old Testament as a
whole are the clearest indices of the character,
aims, and methods of Israel's religious guides,
for they are the notes from the classroom.s of
these early teachers. It is only in the light of the
aims and methods of these teachers that the Old
Testament writings can be fully understood.
An intensely practical, didactic purpose charac-
terizes them all. It was the educational motif,
the desire to develop character by the presentation
of truth in efl:*ective form, that gave rise to the
Old Testament. If Israel's religion had not been
a teaching religion and its guides teachers, there
would have been no Old Testament.
Later Judaism, recognizing the true character
of these writings, rightly designated them col-
The Secret of Israel's Power
11
lectively as ^'The Torah." This word, which
comes from the verb meaning, to guide, to teach,
is commonly translated, The Lazv, but it is better
represented by the broader and more exact term.
The Teaching. The word ''torah" occurs more
than two hundred times in the Old Testament.
It is used to designate, (i) the counsel and in-
struction which the wise men or sages gave to
their disciples (Prov. 13. 14; 28. 4, 7, 9); (2)
the authoritative or the detailed directions given
to the people by the priests (Hag. 2. 11; Mai.
2. 6-9; Psa. :^y. 31 ; 40. 8) ; and {^^ the teachings
of a certain prophet or of the prophets as a whole
(Isa. 8. 16; 42. 21, 24; Jer. 9. 13; 16. 11; Zech.
7. 12). To some one of these three classes of
teaching belong all the writings of the Old
Testament, and this basis of division furnishes
by far the most satisfactory and illuminating-
classification of these earlier scriptures.
The same strongly didactic purpose character-
izes the writings of the New Testament. It con-
sists for the most part of teachings from the Great
Teacher and from the lips of the apostles who
followed in his footsteps. The oldest source
found in the Gospels is held by modern biblical
scholars, as well as by the traditions of the
Church, to have been a collection of Jesus's
teachings. With these were early blended the
narratives regarding the Master that were told
by his disciples in order to instruct their hearers
concerning his character and work. The strong
didactic purpose that inspired the epistles of the
New Testament is plainly written on every page.
Debarred for various reasons from speaking per-
The Different
Types of
Teaching
Educational
Aim of The
New Testament
■Writings
1 2 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
sonally to the groups of disciples whom he
wished to teach, Paul put in his letters what he
would have said had he been present in their
midst. Other disciples followed his example,
and thus arose the earliest New Testament writ-
ings. The New Testament is the Christian
ToraJi or Teaching, just as the Old Testament
is that of the Jews. Paul brings out very clearly
the teaching character of the biblical writings:
"Every scripture inspired by God is also profit-
able for teaching, for reproof, for correction,
for training in righteousness, that the man of
God may be perfect and perfectly equipped for
every good work" (2 Tim. 3. 16, 17). The
development of perfect and efficient manhood
and womanhood is the supreme object for which
the Bible was given to man. Doctrines, laws,
creeds, and forms of worship are also of value
simply as they conserve this divinest of all aims,
the making of men. Jesus and his apostles unite
with the earlier prophets, priests, and sages in
declaring by word and lifework that it is more
blessed to make men than to save men, and that
the best, indeed, the only sure way of making
men, and thus effectively uplifting mankind, is
through the personal touch of the religious
teacher.
II
THE REAL CHARACTER AND AIMS OF THE
PROPHETS
The True
The prophets are the most famihar, and yet,
in many ways, the least understood, of Israel's Pat"otsof
^ T-T r 11 " Ancient Israel
teachers. Unfortunately, the common usage ot
the English word "prophet" is misleading. It
suggests that his chief function is that of a pre-
dictor. While the Hebrew prophets did at times
predict, prediction was only a small and com-
paratively insignificant part of their work. In-
stead of being visionaries, intent only on the
future, they were preeminently men of their day,
in closest touch with existing conditions. In-
stead of idly waiting for some distant consum-
mation, they put forth all their energies to real-
ize in their own day, and in the life of their
people, the practical ideals which filled their
souls. They were, indeed, the great patriots of
Israel, alert, efficient citizens not only of their
own nation, but also of that larger common-
wealth the founding of which was the object of
their earnest endeavors.
A certain element of mystery envelops the Genesis of the
personality of the Hebrew prophets, and yet their Prophet
growth is no more mysterious than that of the
plant or of the human being, whose development
may now be traced at each successive stage.
The foundation of the work of the earliest proph-
ets was the innate, universal desire of the primi-
13
1 4 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
tive peoples to know the will of the Deity
in order to make it the g-uide in their individual
action. Inasmuch as the ancients were igno-
rant of natural laws and of God's way of work-
ing-, the future for them w^as filled with appre-
hension and dread. The result was that they
always paid high tribute to the soothsayers,
augurs, necromancers, prophets, and prophetesses
who w^ere supposed to be able, with authority, to
interpret the various signs which were regarded
as indices of the divine will. While these popu-
lar interpreters of the Deity were found among
most, if not all, primitive peoples, the immediate
forerunners of the Hebrew prophets arose, as
might be expected, amid the peculiar life and
atmosphere of the desert. The long, dangerous
m.arches, the constant fear of attack, the sense of
loneliness and dependence gave the ancient
kahin, or seer, a commanding place in that early
nomadic world. This kahin — the man with the
veil — who was able to render an oracle and thus
authoritatively proclaim the will of the Deity,
was ever held in highest honor. Usually his
oracle was cast in poetic, epigrammatic form.
To him chieftains resorted, as did David to the
priest Abiathar, before they went out to battle,
that they might ascertain the outcome. To him,
also, men went with their questions of private
concerns, that they might through him receive
a divine answer.
Developed by In the light of the very old narrative preserved
in the ninth chapter of i Samuel, it is clear that
originally Samuel, the seer of Ramah, was closely
related to the ancient kahin. To him Saul and his
National Crises
and Needs
Character and Aims of the Prophets 1 5
servant went with a gift in order to learn wlierc
the lost asses were, and were not disappointed.
This old narrative regarding Samuel also sug- ^
gests the way in which the primitive seer was
transformed into the prophet. The great crises
through which Israel was passing as a result of
the cruel Philistine dominance opened his eyes
to the need of some one to rally and to lead
forth to victory the scattered Hebrew tribes.
Spurred on by his appreciation of this need,
Samuel, the seer of Ramah, sought and found
Saul, the son of Kish, and kindled within him a
consuming zeal to become the defender of his
people, when the favorable moment should ar-
rive. In performing this task, with its far-
reaching significance, Samuel not only became,
in a sense, the founder of the Hebrew kingdom,
but from being a mere seer became a true
prophet. In the same way, the appreciation of
the needs of her nation transformed Deborah,
who enjoyed a popular local reputation similar
to that of Samuel the seer, into a true prophetess
who guided her nation through a great crisis to
victory, thereby inaugurating a new era in the
religious life of Israel.
Each of the great prophets gives clear indica- Amos's Caii to
tions of the wav in which he was called to ^'^ Prophetic
Task
his great task. The personal experience of
Amos is richly suggestive. Trained as a shep-
herd, accustomed to be constantly on the watch
against the attack of wild beasts, quick to sound
the note of alarm, skilled in putting his flock in
a state of defense, ready to risk his own life, if
need be, to protect those intrusted to him, it was
1 6 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
a natural step which transformed him from the
watchman over a flock of sheep and goats into
Jehovah's watchman sounding the cry of alarm
in the ears of the northern Israelites. Keen in
scenting danger from afar, he had foreseen the
ominous approach of the Assyrian armies. He
had heard the growl of the Assyrian lion. The
significance of the danger had suddenly dawned
upon him, and, faithful to his training, he did
not hesitate a moment in proclaiming aloud
the coming danger. His own words reveal
the impression that Assyria's advance made
upon him :
Surely the Lord Jehovah doeth nothing,
Unless he revealeth his purpose to his servants the
prophets.
The lion has roared; who does not fear?
The Lord Jehovah hath spoken ; who can but prophesy ?
(Amos 3. 7, 8.)
Isaiah's Call Similarly Isaiah, the young noble of Jeru-
salem, in the critical year when the strong hand
of Uzziah, the king, was relaxed by death, felt
stirring irresistibly within him the divine call to
rise from the ranks of the nation, "unclean of
lip," and proclaim the inevitable judgment which
he saw approaching. With this keen sense of the
guilt of his people and of the magnitude of the
danger which impended, there came to his open
mind a new and nobler and larger appreciation
of the real character and demands of Jehovah.
Henceforth his task was to spare no effort to
lead his race out of its guilt and to inspire it to
rise to the full realization of Jehovah's righteous
demands.
Character and Aims of the Prophets 1 7
The influences which transformed Hosea, the Hosea's caii
poet-prophet of the northern kingdom, into a and Training
herald of righteousness came not so much
through the experiences of his nation as through
the pathetic tragedy of his own private life. The
infideHty of his W'ife revealed to him the unspeak-
able pain w^hich the sin of the one loved brought
to him who loved. It gave him a new conception
of the depth and breadth of human love toward
the sinner; it made clear the need of stern dis-
cipline in order to arouse penitence in the heart
of the wrongdoer ; it disclosed the absolute neces-
sity of true penitence as a basis for forgiveness
and reconciliation. Through his own private ex-
perience Hosea also gained a new appreciation of
the divine readiness and eagerness to forgive the
penitent sinner. Thus upon Hosea's inner con-
sciousness were branded the elemental, eternal
truths which are the basis of life and religion.
These truths he naturally employed in interpret-
ing Jehovah's relation to his unfaithful nation
Israel. Thus expressed they became a universal
message, the foundations of the teachings not
only of the prophets, but of Jesus himself.
The great Hebrew prophets were the con- Many-sided
science of their race. They were the men with Activity of the
open mind, the discoverers of new and eternal
truths, Jehovah's willing and faithful heralds to
all mankind as well as to their own nation. In-
stead of being passive mouthpieces of Jehovah,
they were the most intelligent and best educated
men of their day, the keenest students of political
and social conditions, the most unselflsh patriots
and the most courageous heroes. According to
Prophets
1 8 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Their First Aim
to Point Out and
Counteract the
Evils of Their
Day
their own peculiar gifts and the exigencies of
their age, some of them were social reformers
and others were practical statesmen intent upon
guiding the nation safely through its great crises.
Some, like Isaiah, combining all these many-
sided attributes, were statesmen, social and
moral reformers, and practical theologians.
Usually they spoke not to the individual but to
the people as a whole ; they appealed not to party
prejudice but to the conscience and reason of the
nation ; they set forth principles rather than
policies.
Whatever was their individual method of
work, all of the Hebrew prophets strove in com-
mon to attain certain definite aims. Their first
aim was to hold up a mirror before their nation
that its errors and its worst evils might be made
perfectly clear. No pet crime or favored class
escaped their keen vision and their fearless de-
nunciations. By many of their contemporaries
they were regarded as pessimists and muck-
rakers. In the twenty-eighth chapter of Isaiah
one hears the complaints of the rulers because
he was constantly speaking of ''the overwhelm-
ing scourge" that was coming. They ironically
mimicked his continuous harping upon the so-
cial and political evils of his day and by their
tatmts roused hmi to a sharp retort. Owing to
the willful blindness of the people, a large part of
the recorded sermons of the prophets were de-
voted to making clear the menacing evils of that
day and to pointing out, in dramatic and im-
pressive form, the certain consequences that
would overtake the nation unless those to whom
Character and Aims of the Prophets 1 9
the prophets spoke heeded and fundamentally
changed their policies and acts.
The second aim of the prophets was positive:
it was to impress upon their countrymen those
eternal principles of justice and mercy which
had been gradually revealed to them in the stress
of their national and personal experiences, so as
to lead men to accept and apply those principles
in their social and individual relations. Here
the earlier prophets placed the great emphasis
in their work. To lead their nation and their
fellow countrymen to do what was right was
their consuming ambition.
The third aim of the prophets was closely con-
nected with the second. It was to give their
hearers a truer and larger conception of the
character of Jehovah and of his practical de-
mands upon his people. Jehovah's character
was to them the ultimate reason for right doing.
Injustice, insincerity, and cruelty were, accord-
ing to their teachings, disloyalty to Jehovah.
Justice, mercy, and true reverence were the only
valid evidences of true loyalty. Ceremonial
forms and external acts of worship were by them
esteemed but lightly. Thus the early Hebrew
prophets ethicized religion and spiritualized
ethics, and in so doing blended both.
The ultimate aim of the Hebrew prophets was
to broaden and deepen the definition of religion
and to make it a real and guiding influence in
the daily life of men. Thus they sought to real-
ize in their nation the will of God, and through
that realization to touch and transform the aims
and ideals and acts of all mankind. Even though
Second: To Lead
Men "to Act
Justly and Love
Mercy"
Third: To Make
Clear Jehovah's
Character and
Demands
Fourth: To
Have God's Will
Done on Earth
20 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
not fully appreciated by the earlier prophets, the
final goal of all their work was to establish Je-
hovah's eternal and gracious rule in every heart
and to build up a spiritual kingdom which would
be universal and eternal.
Ill
THE PROPHETS AS STORY-TELLERS AND
PREACHERS
Inasmuch as the aim of the Hebrew prophets Practical
was not merely to appeal to the feelings and in- diplomacy
tellect of their hearers, but io influence their will,
these wise teachers employed every possible
means whereby they might make clear and im-
pressive their divinely given messages. The
earlier prophets depended largely upon practical
measures. They worked primarily through men.
Thus Moses, in freeing his people, appealed
directly to Pharaoh. Deborah, the prophetess,
aroused the northern leader, Barak, to action
and through him rallied the scattered Hebrew-
tribes. Samuel inspired Saul to rise and lead his
people against their common foe. Nathan co-
operated with Bathsheba in putting Solomon
upon the throne. Ahijah, in seeking to deliver
Israel from its grave religious and social dangers,
kindled the ambition of Jeroboam. Elijah called
and commissioned Elisha to take up his work;
and Elisha, in turn, anointed the energetic and
ruthless Jehu to carry through the revolution
which overthrew the house of Ahab and its com-
promising policy. In the great crisis of 734
B. C. Isaiah turned first to the king and the
nobles in order to influence them not to involve
Judah in entangling alliances. Later the same
great prophet inspired Hezekiah to undertake
important reforms. Jeremiah constantly sought
21
22 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
to guide the policy of his nation by advising
kings hke Jehoiakim and Zedekiah. Ezekiel ap-
pears to have ever been in closest touch with the
elders of his people. Thus one of the most com-
monly used and effective methods of the proph-
ets was to direct by wise diplomacy the influ-
ential men of their nation.
Being wise teachers, the prophets also appre-
ciated the great value of story and illustration
in impressing their teachings upon the mind of
the child nation. The result is that much of the
Old Testament consists of prophecy of the past
as well as of the present and future. Amos, in
his appeal to the people of northern Israel, re-
corded in Amos 2, recalls the past experiences
of the people, using these experiences as power-
ful illustrations of the principle he was endeavor-
in to establish :
And 3^et it was I who brought you up from the land of
Egypt,
And led you forty years in the wilderness,
And brought you hither to possess the land of the
Amorites.
It was I who destroyed from before them the Amorite,
Whose height was like that of the cedars, and he was
strong as the oaks ;
Yet I destroyed his fruit from above and his roots from
beneath.
Moreover, I raised up some of your sons to be prophets
and some of your youth to be Nazirites.
Is not this indeed so, O Israel? It is the oracle of
Jehovah.
But ye made the Nazirites drink wine, and upon the
prophets ye laid a prohibition. (Amos 2. 10-12.)
Hosea, also, in seeking to emphasize the im-
portance of the nation's loyalty to Jehovah's de-
The Prophets as Story-Tellers 23
mands, draws his illustrations from an earlier
chapter in their national history:
Like grapes in the wilderness I found Israel;
Like the first fruit on a fig tree I saw your fathers;
But as soon as they came to Baal-peor, they consecrated
themselves to Baal,
And became as abominable as the object of their love.
Jacob fled to the territory of Aram
And Israel served for a wife,
Yea, for a wife he herded sheep.
In a man's strength he contended with God,
He contended with the angel and prevailed.
He wept and besought mercy of him.
At Bethel Jehovah found him
And there he spoke with him.
And Jehovah is the God of hosts,
Jehovah is his name.
Thus thou shouldst by the help of thy God return.
Keep true love and justice,
Wait on thy God without ceasing. (Hos. 9. 10; 12.
12, 3b-6.)
The vivid narratives that fill the historical True character
books of the Old Testament give a full and Testament
faithful picture of Israel's national life; but Narratives
they are more than history. No mere historian,
for example, would have devoted — as does the
author of Samuel — many chapters to the descrip-
tion of David's sins and their consequences and
but two or three to the great political and military
achievements of his brilliant reign. This pre-
dominant interest in men rather than in facts re-
veals the didactic purpose of the authors of these
historical books. They realized that by seeing
the disastrous effects of sin as well as the de-
sirable fruits of right doing men could be led to
reject the evil and choose the good. The keen
popular interest in the narratives greatly en-
24 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Didactic Value
of Story and
History
Larger
Significance of
the Biblical
Stories
hanced their teaching value. Through frequent
repetition they had become exceedingly familiar
to the people. The prophets by adapting these
stories to their purpose made them a medium of
teaching, which was all the more effective be-
cause the truths were conveyed unconsciously.
These stories are told simply, concretely, and
dramatically. They appeal as strongly to the
modern reader as to the hearer of olden time.
The characteristics portrayed are true to human
nature in any age or race. They vividly illus-
trate those elements of strength and weakness
which are the inspiration and peril of all who
are in the stream of life. The accounts of
Israel's experiences in Jehovah's school of train-
ing reveal in marvelously clear, dramatic form
God's eternal character and purpose and the con-
sequences of ignorance and disobedience.
The question of whether or not these stories
were historical in every detail did not concern
the prophets. They took and utilized them as
they were handed down from the past. The
great and vital value of these narratives lay in
the fact that they illustrated important and
eternal principles. Instead of being mere records
of past events, they thus became molding forces
in the life both of the individual and the nation,
revealing Jehovah's character and will, and shap-
ing the religious and ethical ideals of the race.
For the making of men to-day, they are among
the most valuable heritages from Israel's
teachers. Adapted as they are to the childhood
of the race, they are preeminently fitted for use
in primary religious education.
The Prophets as Story-Tellers 25
By taking- illustrations that were familiar and use of Familiar
of interest to the people the prophets adapted
their methods to the point of view and capacity
of their hearers. The prophetic forerunners of
Amos and Hosea appear to have depended
largely in conveying their moral and spiritual
teachings upon this story method.
The most characteristic method of the great Direct Address
prophets was, however, the direct address. In
this way the prophet impressed by voice, by ges-
ture, and by his own personality his God-given
message upon the leaders and upon the entire na-
tion. Sometimes he appeared in the court before
the king and princes ; sometimes he appealed
from the rulers to the people. Often the temple
court, where the people assembled, as they did
three times each year for united w^orship, was
the scene of the prophet's teaching. Sometimes
he spoke to the many, and sometimes to the few
gathered close about him. There is evidence in
their recorded addresses that the great prophets
frequently directed questions to their auditors
and in turn were ever open to receive and answer
earnest questions presented by their hearers. As
in every Oriental audience, the relation between
the speaker and those addressed was especially
close and personal. The prophets were pre-
eminently Israel's preachers, but they were more
— they were also teachers.
The addresses of the preexilic prophets bear J^°^*''^ J°f"^ °^
all the marks of careful preparation. To the
form as w^ell as to the content these great
teachers of Israel gave careful heed. Following
the example of the ancient seers, they cast their
'heir Addresses
Meter to
Didactic Ends
26 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
messages in poetic form. Poetry alone was fitted
to convey the great truths which filled their souls.
The result was that the form and sound of their
words as they fell upon the ears of their hearers
appealed powerfully to the senses of those who
Adaptation of heard. Hebrew poetry in itself was uniquely
adapted to this end. Its fundamental character-
istic— the repetition of the same idea in succeed-
ing lines in slightly variant form — drove home,
as with repeated blows, the essential message of
the poet-prophet. This parallelism, or repetition
of idea, frequently extended to succeeding stan-
zas, thus making it possible by reiterating again
and again the same vital message to appeal at
the same time to the highly developed poetic
sense of the Oriental audience. The prophets
also chose with great care the meter best adapted
to their theme. If it was a strenuous theme, a
clarion call or a warning of some impending
danger, they used the sharp, quick two-beat
measure employed by the watchmen when they
announced the sudden appearance of a hostile in-
vader. Ordinarily they used the three-beat
measure with its regular cadence, interrupted
occasionally for the sake of effectiveness by a
closing line of two beats. Thus the prophecy of
Nahum, in describing the last decisive attack of
Nineveh's foes, illustrates forcibly the use of
these two meters:
Keep careful watch !
Guard the way !
Gird up the loins !
Gather all thy strength !
The shield of his heroes is colored red.
The warriors are clad in scarlet.
The Prophets as Story-Tellers
27
The steel of the chariots gleams like fire.
In the day of preparation the horses are prancing.
On the streets the chariots rattle ;
They go galloping across the squares.
Their appearance is like torches,
Like lightnings they dart to and fro.
He musters his nobles,
They succeed in their onset,
They rush to the wall.
They set up the covering;
The water gates are opened ;
And the palace goes down in ruins !
(Nah. 2. 1-6.)
Sometimes in logical reasoning they used the Meter of Logical
more deliberate four-beat measure, as, for ex- Reasoning
ample, when Amos sought to appeal to the in-
telligence of the people of northern Israel:
Surely the Lord Jehovah doeth nothing.
Unless he revealeth his purpose to his servants the
prophets.
The lion has roared; who does not fear?
The Lord Jehovah hath spoken; who can but prophesy?
(Amos 3. 7, 8.)
IMore frequently the prophets ttsed the effective
five-beat measure, consisting of three beats fol-
lowed by two, which suggested the strong tension
under which the prophet spoke. It was the meter
employed by the wailing women as they sang
over the bier of the dead. It also expressed
great joy, as for example that of the warriors
when they came home triumphant from battle.
In every case it was the meter which expressed
deep emotion. Amos employed it when he sang
the death dirge over northern Israel, whose fail
he saw to be iiiiminent :
Hear the word which I take up against you, even a
dirge, O house of Israel:
Of Deep
Emotion
28 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Fallen, no more to rise, is the virgin Israel !
Prostrate upon the ground she lies, with none to raise
her! (Amos 5. i, 2.)
Prophetic Oracle 111 their appeal to the minds, hearts, and wills
of men the prophets marshaled practically every
figure of speech and of feeling known to the
ancient writers. Frequently they presented their
message in the form of the stirring oracle, which
carried with it the time-honored authority at-
tributed to the words of the ancient seers. The
oracle was addressed to some individual or class
ill the community, or else to the nation as a
whole. The personal element was strong, as, for
example, in Amos's oracle addressed to the
luxury-loving, cruel, heartless wives of the nobles
of northern Israel :
Ye kine of Bashan, who dwell in the mountain of
Samaria,
Who oppress the poor and crush the needy.
Who say to your husbands, "Bring that we may drink."
The Lord Jehovah hatli sworn by his holiness ;
"Behold, days are coming upon you.
When ye shall be taken away with hooks, even the last
of you with fish-hooks.
And through the breaches shall ye go out, each woman
straight before her.
And ye shall be cast toward Harmon," is Jehovah's
oracle. (Amos 4. 1-3.)
Invective Sometimes their message took the form of
bitter invective ; like a plaintiff or judge they
formulated the charge against the guilty classes
or crime-laden nation. A powerful example of
this type of sweeping charge is found in the
opening verses of the fourth chapter of Hosea:
Hear the word of Jehovah, O Israelites,
For Jehovah hath a charge against the inhabitants of
the land:
The Prophets as Story-Tellers 29
For there is no fidelity nor true love
Nor knowledge of God in the land;
But perjury, lying, and murder,
Stealing, committing adultery, and deeds of violence,
And acts of bloodshed quickly follow each other.
(Hos. 4. I, 2.)
At times the prophets cast their message in woes
the form of woes, which described the guilt of
the culprits and the nature of the judgment which
Jehovah pronounced upon them. For example,
m the fifth chapter of Isaiah, these woes fall in
succession, like sledge-hammer blows, upon the
guilty classes in the nation:
Woe to those who join house to house,
Who add field to field,
Until there is no space left,
And ye dwell alone in the midst of the land.
In mine ears Jehovah of hosts hath sworn.
Surely many houses shall become a desolation,
Though great and fair, they shall be without inhabit-
ants ;
For ten acres of vineyard will yield but one bushel.
And ten bushels of seed but one bushel of grain.
Woe to those who call evil good and good evil,
Who put darkness for light and light for darkness,
Who put bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter !
Woe to those who are wise in their own eyes !
And prudent in their own conceit !
Woe to those who are heroic in drinking wine,
And valiant in mixing strong drink !
Who for a bribe vindicate the wicked
And strip the innocent man of his innocence.
(Isa. 5. 8-10, 20-23.)
At times the prophets sang a doom song tell- Doom songs
ing, by the aid of graphic figures, the inevitable
disaster that would soon sweep, like a cyclone,
over the nation :
Human pride shall be brought low,
And the haughtiness of men shall be bowed down.
30 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
And in that day shall Jehovah alone be exalted.
For a day of judgment hath Jehovah of hosts
Upon all that is proud and haughty,
And upon all that is lifted up and high,
Upon all the cedars of Lebanon, the haughty,
And upon all the oaks of Bashan, the lifted up.
And human pride shall be bowed down,
And the haughtiness of men brought low ;
And in that day shall Jehovah alone be exalted,
And the idols — completely shall they pass away,
(Isa. 2. 11-13, 17, 18.)
Paranomasia At timcs, iiot facetiouslv, but 111 grim earnest,
the prophets employed solemn plays on the sound
of words. In the names of the cities about his
home in western Judah Micah found suggestions
of the approaching devastation which would be
visited upon them as they fell a prey to Jehovah's
agent of judgment, Assyria:
Tell it not in Gath [Tell-town] !
In Giloh [Exult-town] exult not!
In Bochim [Weep-town] weep !
In Beth-le-aphrah [Home-of-dust] roll in the dust!
Pass away! O inhabitants of Shaphir [Fair-town]
naked !
The inhabitants of Zaanan [March-town] shall not
march forth.
Beth-ezel [Nearby-house] shall be taken from its
standing-place.
How do the inhabitants of Maroth [Bitterness] wait
for good,
For evil hath come down from Jehovah to the gates of
Jerusalem.
Harness the horse to the chariot, O inhabitants of
Lachish [Horse-town]
For in thee are found the crimes of Israel.
(Mic. I. 10-13.)
Argument Logical prophets like Amos depended at times
upon close-knit argument, reasoning from effect
to cause and cause to effect in order through the
intellect to appeal to the wills of their hearers :
The Prophets as Story-Tellers
31
Do two walk together unless they be agreed?
Does a lion roar in the forest when there is no prey
for him?
Does a young lion cry out in his den unless he has
taken something?
Does a bird fall to the earth if no bait is set for it?
Does a snare spring up from the ground without
catching anything?
Can a trumpet be blown in a city and the people not
tremble ?
Can a calamity befall a city and Jehovah not have
caused it? (Amos 3. 3-6.)
Frequently, however, the appeal was not Exhortations
through the intellect but through the feelings of
the people, as, for example, in Jeremiah's won-
derful exhortations :
Return, O apostate sons, and I will heal your apostasy.
If thou wilt return, O Israel, thou mayest return to me,
And if thou wilt put away thy violence, thou shalt not
be banished from my presence.
And thou shalt swear by the life of Jehovah, in truth,
in justice, and in righteousness.
And in him shall the nations bless themselves and in
him shall they glory.
For thus saith Jehovah, to the men of Judah and
Jerusalem :
Break up the fallow ground and do not sow among
thorns.
Circumcise yourselves to Jehovah, and take away the
foreskins of your heart. (Jer. 3. 22a; 4. i-4a.)
In powerful lyrical passages Jeremiah, in the Monologues
form of a monologue, reveals the tempest which
frequently raged within his own soul, and the
deep grief that the people's guilt aroused within
the heart of the prophet:
Oh that my head were waters and mine eyes a fountain
of tears,
That I might weep day and night for the slain of my
people !
32 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Oh that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of
wandering men,
That I might leave my people and go from them !
For they are all adulterers, an assembly of deceivers.
And they bend their tongue as though it w^ere their bow.
Falsehood and not truth prevail in the land,
For they proceed from evil to evil, and me they know
not. (Jer. 9. 1-3.)
Dialogues The prophcts also presented their teaching
with dramatic effectiveness in the form of a
dialogue. For example, in Isaiah 3 the prophet
and Jehovah each speak in turn, thus setting
forth the sweeping judgment which was about to
overtake the impious heathen. Even so in Jere-
miah 15. 10-21 the great prophet of Anathoth
bewails his lot and Jehovah replies with words
of comfort and assurance.
Visions At times the prophets abandoned the direct
address and illustrated their messages by put-
ting them in the form of visions. In this way
they painted pictures which were so vivid that
through the eye of the imagination their hearers
could see a great scene spread before them which
brought out in clearest outlines the vital truths
inherent in the prophets' sermons. The seventh
and eighth chapters of Amos contain a series of
impressive pictures of this type:
Thus the Lord Jehovah showed me,
And behold, a basket of summer fruit.
Then he said, "What dost thou see, Amos?"
And I said, "A basket of summer fruit."
And Jehovah said to me,
"The end has come to my people Israel,
I will not again pass them by." (Amos 8. i, 2.)
Rhapsodies Sometimes in imagination the prophets rose
above the petty problems and sins which con-
The Prophets as Story-Tellers 33
fronted them and lifted themselves and their
hearers high above earth in such wonderful
rhapsodies as are found, for example, in the im-
mortal lines of Isaiah 40-66.
Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of Jehovah ;
Awake, as in the days of old, the generations of ancient
times.
Is it not thou that didst cut Rahab m pieces, that didst
pierce the monster? (Isa. 51. 9.)
IV
THE TEACHING METHODS OF THE
PROPHETS
True teachers that they were, the prophets
fully realized that preaching was in many ways
an ineffective method of imparting truth. It was
the arrow shot at a venture which frequently
fell short of its mark. In a significant passage
found in the eighth chapter of his prophecies,
Isaiah voices his conviction that his preaching
had been largely in vain. The background was
the great crisis of 734 B. C, when he had ap-
pealed in turn to king and people and had met
only with rebuff. Then we hear him saying to
himself: "Binding up the admonition and seal-
ing up the instruction among my disciples, I will
wait for Jehovah" (Isa. 8. 16, 17a). This signifi-
cant passage reveals the fact that the great
prophets gathered about them groups of disciples
upon whose open minds they stamped their mes-
sage and to whom they intrusted its preservation.
Experience had taught the prophets the value of
the personal, intimate touch, of the closer inter-
change of question and answer, and of the in-
carnation of the teacher's aims, ideals, teachings,
and zeal in the life of the disciple.
To this method of teaching is largely due not
only the preservation of the messages of the
earlier prophets, but their influence upon their
own, and especially upon succeeding generations.
By most of their contemporaries the prophets
34
Teaching Methods of the Prophets 35
were persecuted and their messages spurned. It
was onh' as their teachings sank into the minds
of a few earnest hearers, Hke Jeremiah's faithful
disciple Barak, that they were transmitted and
became effective in the life and thought of the
many. This important truth is well illustrated
in the experience of Isaiah. . The hope which he
placed in his disciples was not disappointed.
Even though the reactionary rule of Manasseh
overthrew the work of the great prophets of the
Assyrian period, their teachings survived in the
minds and lives of the few to burst again into a
flame which swept throughout Judah under the
leadership of Josiah and the men who rallied
about him. The book of Deuteronomy is the
record of the fact that the great principles of
these earlier prophets, at last embodied in de-
tailed laws, became the guiding force in the
thought and life of later generations.
In their zeal to appeal by every possible means Names
to the men of their nation the prophets often of children
resorted to what might be called, were they not
so intensely in earnest, sensational methods.
Thus Hosea gave to his children names which
suggested the essence of his teaching, and were
calculated to arouse curiosity and questions
which would open the mind of the people still
further for the understanding and acceptance of
his doctrines. Lo-ruhamah (Unpitied) was a
grim name to give to a baby girl, but it was richly
suggestive, as Hosea interpreted it, of the divine
judgment awaiting guilty Israel. Similarly the
name Shear-jashub (A remnant shall return),
which Isaiah gave to his little boy, suggested not
36 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
only the distant hope of restoration, but also the
coming conquest and exile which awaited cor-
rupt, defiant Judah. With the same earnest zeal
Isaiah gave the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz
(Spoil speedeth, prey hasteth) to another child.
He also wrote it on a tablet, setting it up in the
temple before the eyes of the people that they
might never forget that spoil was speeding and
prey was hasting, as Assyria, the dread agent of
Jehovah, was drawing nearer and nearer to their
borders.
Object Lessons In teaching the child nation, the prophets also
appreciated the great value of object lessons.
In the earlier days Ahijah, the prophet, tore
his garment into twelve pieces, giving ten to
Jeroboam as a suggestion of the honors
which awaited the young adventurer in the great
crisis that was approaching. To make clear to
his countrymen that captivity would surely
overtake them if they persisted in rebelling
against Assyria, Isaiah went barefooted about
the streets of Jerusalem for three years, through
summer and winter, in the garb of. a captive.
Later, to prevent a similar disastrous rebellion
against the Babylonian rule, Jeremiah appeared
in public with a wooden yoke about his neck,
thus symbolizing the yoke of Nebuchadrezzar.
When his rival, Hananiah, broke the wooden
yoke Jeremiah forged one of iron, telling the
people in this graphic way that there was no
escape from the rule of the Babylonian con-
queror. At another time he took the elders of
Jerusalem one day to the south of Jerusalem,
and in their presence shattered in pieces upon a
of Dramatic
Illustrations
Teaching Methods of the Prophets 37
great rock an earthen vessel as a symbol of the
way in which guilty Judah should be broken.
On another occasion he brought the Rechabites,
whose loyalty to the commands of their ancestor,
Jonadab, was well known, into the temple and
offered them wine, which they, of course, re-
fused. On the basis of this signal example of
the obedience to the commands of a human an-
cestor, the prophet turned to denounce the people
for their infidelity to Jehovah's divine commands.
Brought up under the shadow of the temple Ezekiei's use
and accustomed to the use of symbols, Ezekiel
surpassed all the earlier prophets in his use of
dramatic object lessons. Thus, for example, in
order to prevent the Jews of distant Jerusalem
from again rebelling against Nebuchadrezzar,
the prophet, in the plastic clay, drew a plan of
Jerusalem in a state of siege and before the eyes
of his fellow exiles portrayed the inevitable con-
sequences of rebellion. On another occasion he
cut off his hair and scattered part to the winds.
Another part he smote with a sword ; then,
gathering a very small portion, he declared that
this represented the scattered few of his country-
men who should survive the consequences of
their rash and guilty policy. On another occa-
sion, dragging out his household goods, he dug
in hot haste through the soft clay wall which
encircled the Jewish colony in their exile home
in lower Babylonia ; then, carrying his posses-
sions through the breach thus made, he aroused
in superlative measure the curiosity of his people.
In the soil thus thoroughly prepared he sowed
the seeds of earnest warning and counsel which
38 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
he hoped would bear fruit in a saner attitude to-
ward the pohtical problem upon whose solution
depended the fate of Jerusalem and Judah. At a
later time Zechariah, another priest-prophet, il-
lustrated the strong hope within him that Zerub-
babel, the scion of the house of David, would
again be raised to the kingship by giving com-
mand that a crown be prepared and laid aside
imtil the opportune moment should arrive when
the Jewish community would arise and reassert
its independence.
Written Tracts It was inevitable that in time the prophets
and Epistles should put their messages in v/ritten form. Amos
appears to have been the first to take this step.
That which influenced him was probably the
fact that he was prevented by Amaziah, the priest
of Bethel, from speaking in public to the men of
northern Israel. The earlier prophets appear,
like Paul of a later day, to have regarded writ-
ing as an inferior substitute for the direct per-
sonal address. Most of the preexilic prophets
seem to have given little attention to the col-
lection of their prophecies. As in the case of
Jeremiah, the preservation of their sermons in
writing is due to the work of their disciples to
whom they committed their message. At first
these prophetic writings were cherished and ap-
predated by a limited few within the nation.
When the exile, however, scattered the different
survivors of the race throughout the then known
world, the importance of the written message be-
came paramount. Henceforth the prophets de-
pended almost entirely upon this method of teach-
ing.
Teaching Methods of the Prophets 39
Apocalypses
As the prestige of the prophets waned, it be-
came more and more the custom for them to
issue their predictions anonymously. The pre-
dictive element also became much more promi-
nent. The prophets again became seers. With
this loss of the personal touch and the abandon-
ment of the teaching method, prophecy began to
lose its vital touch with life and to become more
vague and therefore less direct. Their teachings
were presented in symbolic form. The apocalypse
took the place of the direct, simple address. The
appeal was to the imagination rather than to
the will of men, and with this decline from its
earlier and nobler traditions Hebrew prophecy
lost its hold upon the lives of men. The result
was that the prophet almost entirely disappeared,
and his place was filled by the priest and the sage.
In the light especially of the study of the intense Moral
great preexilic prophets, it is possible briefly to ^^''"^_^_*_"^^^^ °^
summarize the prophetic method. Its first char-
acteristic was an intense moral earnestness be-
gotten by profound personal conviction. The
prophets spoke not dogmatically, but out of the
depths of their own and their nation's experience.
Their one ambition was to reach the wills and
transform the lives of their contemporaries.
From beginning to end, the true prophets were
also characterized by their complete devotion to
their task. The lives of men like Hosea and
Jeremiah were one long martyrdom, and yet they
never flinched or turned back, however great the
danger, however great the cost. Fearlessly they
went about their God-given task, refusing to
compromise their ideals.
the Prophets
40 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Their At the same time the prophets were practical
Superlative Tact [y^ their mcthods. They even sought as far as
possible to utilize existing- men and measures.
Confronted by hostile audiences, they used super-
lative tact in gaining the public ear. Thus,
Amos, confronted as he was by the corrupt and
cruel rulers of northern Israel at a great feast
day in the royal sanctuary at Bethel, not only
disarmed all opposition, but gained with mar-
velous skill and effectiveness a unanimous assent
to the fundamental principles which he was seek-
ing to establish. Instead of beginning with an
attack upon northern Israel, he pointed out the
crimes and brutality of their hated foes, and the
certain judgment that Jehovah would bring upon
these guilty peoples. While his hearers were
still rejoicing over the just judgment that was
about to overtake the heathen, like a flash the
prophet set before them the even greater crimes
that were perpetrated by them against Jehovah's
own people, and pointed out, with resistless logic,
the inevitable judgments that awaited them.
Similarly the young prophet Isaiah came before
the rich vineyard owners of Jerusalem with the
story of a friend who carefully prepared and
planted a vineyard. The story was cast in the
fascinating form of a vineyard song. Even as
Isaiah's hearers, charmed by the story, were nod-
ding assent to the justice of destroying this vine-
yard which bore only bad fruit, he suddenly
applied the parable to them, for they were Je-
hovah's carefully nurtured vineyard. With
courage equaled only by his superlative tact, he
pointed out the crimes of land monopoly, intern-
Teaching Methods of the Prophets 4 1
Prophets
perance, skepticism, and disregard of public re-
sponsibility, the worthless fruits which Judah
was bringing forth.
Characteristic of the prophets are their mar- /Re'sum/ of the
velous simplicity and directness, their dramatic Work oj the
emphasis on essentials, and their close, intelligent
touch with the conditions and problems of their
day. They were the heralds of divine truth who
spoke not so much to the individual as to the
nation, and through their nation to all mankind.
They were the watchmen on the mountain tops
whose keen eyes detected the significant move-
ments within their nation and in the larger world
without. With eyes open to the divine truth,
they grasped the eternal principles which are the
basis of all political, social, and moral life.
Possessed of these great facts and principles,
with equal devotion and skill and tact, they im-
pressed them upon the consciousness of their
own and succeeding generations. These men
were the great pioneers in the field of moral and
religious truth w^hose teachings make the Old
Testament unique, for they molded the life of
ancient Israel, and gave to the other teachers of
their race that which is the essence of their mes-
sage. Above all, they, like John the Baptist,
were forerunners, who prepared the way for that
larger and fuller interpretation of life and re-
ligion proclaimed by the Great Prophet of
Nazareth,
V
Role of the
Early Priests
Origin of the
Levitical
Priesthood
THE DUTIES AND AIMS OF THE PRIESTS
The word ''priest" ordinarily calls up a vision
of a long-robed official presenting a sacrifice at
the ancient altar. This, however, is only an im-
perfect picture of the real functions of the pre-
exilic Hebrew priests. The early history of the
order is veiled in much obscurity. The ancient
story preserved in Judges i8 throws some light
upon this early history. It tells us of a certain
Ephraimite by the name of Micah who reared a
family shrine and put it in charge of his oldest
son. When his son tired of the task, Micah
secured a wandering Levite, who took charge of
the sanctuary and in return for his services re-
ceived a definite salary. Later the Levite was
consulted by the Danite spies when they sought
a home far in the north. Subsequently he was
carried off to the north by them, together with
the paraphernalia of the ancient shrine. There
he and his. descendants presided over the temple
at Dan, which, after the division of the Hebrew
empire, became one of the two royal sanctuaries
of the north.
In connection with this narrative the significant
statement is made that this Levite was a de-
scendant of Moses. In the narratives of Genesis
34 and Exodus :>y2. 25-29 the Levites are dis-
tinguished by their zeal in preserving the purity
of Jehovah's religion. Their zeal appears to have
called down upon them a signal disaster at the
42
Duties and Aims of the Priests 43
hands of the ancient Canaanite inhabitants of the
land. This event is the most satisfactory ex-
planation of the reason why the tribe of Levi, as
in the days of the Judges, was only a remnant
and had no permanent place of abode. The facts
that Moses belonged to this tribe and that it had
no definite place of abode perhaps explain why
to the sons of Levi was intrusted the care of
the local sanctuaries from the days of the settle-
ment onward.
Even though many of the descendants of the Broader content
early Canaanites probably remained at these an- °so^nof L^vi"
cient sanctuaries, all ministering priests were
apparently in time designated by the common
term soji of Levi, In the book of Deuteronomy
the terms priest and so]i of Levi are interchange-
able. Like the kindred terms sons of the proph-
ets and sons of the Held, or the modern Arab son
of the zi'ay (used to describe a traveler), the
term son of Levi did not necessarily indicate
lineal descent from a common ancestor, but
rather described the class of officials who were
associated with the different sanctuaries through-
out Israel.
The centralization of all worship in Jerusalem its Later
in the days of Josiah, and the abolition of all
other sanctuaries, doubtless gave rise to that
distinction which was first made by Ezekiel be-
tween the priests and the Levites. With him the
priests are the descendants of the old Jerusalem
priesthood, while the Levites are the descendants
of those who cared for the ancient sanctuaries
outside Jerusalem. By Ezekiel, and still further
by the later priestly writers, the Levites are as-
Limitations
The Fourfold
Duties of the
Priests
Greater
Prominence of
the Teaching
Function
44 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
signed to a secondary and menial position and
the priests, the sons of Aaron, are alone regarded
as fitted to perform the more important acts of
sacrifice.
The distinction between the duties and aims of
the preexilic and post-exilic priests is, therefore,
clearly marked. In the light of the oldest refer-
ences, it is evident that the preexilic priests were
more than mere custodians of the temples and
ministers at the altar. In an obscure but sug-
gestive passage found among the songs pre-
served in Deuteronomy 33, the fourfold func-
tions of these early priests are clearly stated:
Thy Tlnimmim and thy Urim are for the Holy One,
They show Jacob thy judgments,
And Israel thy instruction ;
They bring to thy nostrils the savor of sacrifice,
And whole burnt offering to thine altar.
This passage indicates that, in the first place,
they were the guardians of the oracle ; secondly,
that they acted as judges, teaching the people by
means of the decisions whicli they rendered ;
thirdly, that they were the ordinary teachers of
the people; and, finally, that they directed the
presentation of the sacrifices at the altar.
Of these four functions, that of teaching was,
in the days before the exile, by far the most im-
portant and significant. With this thought in
mind Micah (3. 11) complains that the "priests
teach for hire," implying that their chief duty
was to teach, but that they were under obligation
to do so freely rather than for mercenary mo-
tives. Hosea, who was the first of the Old Testa-
ment prophets to appreciate fully the importance
Duties and Aims of the Priests 45
of teaching- as a means of developing the re-
hgious Ufe and character of the race, declares
that Jehovah will destroy both priest and people
because the priests have been faithless to their
task as teachers. In ]\Ialachi 2. 6, 7 is found the
clearest portrait extant of the early priest:
True instruction was in his mouth.
And unrighteousness was not found in his lips ;
He walked with me in peace and uprightness.
And turned many from iniquity.
For the priest's lips should keep knowledge.
And men should seek the law at his mouth,
For he is the messenger of Jehovah of hosts.
It was not until after the exile that the priests gave
up their important teaching functions, and became
simply custodians of the oral traditions, guardians
of the sanctuary, and ministers at the altar.
In the preexilic Hebrew life the priests exer- importance of
cised an exceedingly important influence in de-
veloping the life of the nation. Their connection
with the sanctuaries gave them a position of
great authority in the community. They were
the class who taught to the masses the great
principles of the prophets and by word and
symbol made them clear, intelligible, and ap-
plicable to the ordinary life of the people. The
original text of Jeremiah 5. 31 makes this rela-
tion very clear, although the words are those of
denunciation :
The prophets prophesy falsely,
And the priests teach according to their directions.
The priests spoke to the individual rather than to
the nation, and their authority was acknowledged
by kings and people. Their opportunities for in-
Their Influence
46 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
fiueiicing the masses were, therefore, exceedingly
great, but with these opportunities came equally
strong temptations. The prophets often com-
plained that some of these priests yielded to mer-
cenary motives and thus betrayed their high
office. There is reason to believe, however, that
the great majority of the early priests were faith-
ful to their task. Abiathar, in the days of David,
Jehoiada, in the days of Joash, and Hilkiah,
under the rule of Josiah, are a few of the strong
men who by their character and personality ex-
alted the office of the priest. Inasmuch as the
people came to the priests rather than the priests
to the people, they stood in a unique relation to
those whom they taught. Their contact with
the people was also closer and more continuous
than that of the prophets. Without these teach-
ers of the common people it is clear that the
great principles enunciated by the prophets
would in a majority of cases have failed to reach
their true goal.
Aimed to Guard Briefly fomiulatcd, the aim of the early priests
Sacred ^^.^s, first, to guard the sanctuaries and to pre-
serve the religious traditions and institutions
which gathered about these ancient shrines.
Doubtless through them originally many of
Israel's earliest traditions were handed down,
being retold from year to year at the great an-
nual festivals, until, in tim^e, they were collected
by the prophetic and priestly historians and com-
mitted to writing. While the temple still stood,
the priests also transmitted to their sons the de-
tailed ritualistic laws which governed the cere-
monial life of the sanctuary.
Institutions
Duties and Aims of the Priests 47
The second task of the priests was to teach To Teach People
the people how rightly to worship. The evi- How to worship
dence, on the whole, indicates that the early
priests rarely offered sacrifice. Even the com-
paratively late law of Deuteronomy provides that
each man shall bring his offering to the sanctu-
ary, slay it with his own hand, prepare it for the
altar, and then participate in the family feast
which he was to share with his household and
dependents. The task of the priest appears to
have been to instruct the people how to perform
the sacrifice, and in general to guide them in the
details of the ritual and in the different forms of
worship. Ezekiel charges the priests of his day
with having neglected this important duty : "Her
priests have done violence to my law, and have
profaned my holy things ; they have made no dis-
tinction between the holy and the common,
neither have they caused men to discern between
the unclean and the clean, and have hid their eyes
from my sabbaths, and I am profaned among
them" (Ezek. 22. 26).
The third aim of the priests was to teach the To Teach People
people how to live rightly and to perform their How to Live
duties one to another. This led the priests to
apply the principles not only of ceremonial but
of civil law to the individual needs and problems
of the people who resorted to them. It made
them teachers of the individual as well as of the
nation, and led them, like the prophets, to define
religion in terms not only of the ritual but of life,
of love, and of service. Thus, in their early de-
velopment, the aims of the priests and prophets
were in many ways closely parallel. Both appear
48 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
to have developed from the ancient Arabic kahin.
The same common Semitic root is retained in
the Hebrew term kohen, which is the common
designation of the priests. The word means
''minister." While the prophets broke away from
the local shrines and the customs which had
gathered about them and devoted themselves to
large questions of political, social, national, and
later of universal import, the priests ever re-
tained their close connection with the sanctuaries
and devoted their attention to the details of wor-
ship and personal conduct.
VI
THE TEACHING METHODS OF THE PRIESTS
Throughout their history the priests re- useoftne
mained preeminently the guardians of the divine Oracle
oracles.' This appears to have been the chief
function of the son of Levi employed by Micah
in the ancient story of Judges 17 and 18. The
early kings, like Saul and David, always kept
within their court priests to whom they turned
for an answer in the name of Jehovah before go-
ing out to battle. Thus, according to i Samuel
23. 8-12: "Saul summoned all the people of war
to go down to Keilah to besiege David and his
men. And when David knew that Saul was de-
vising evil against him he said to Abiathar the
priest, Bring here the ephod. And David said, O
Jehovah, the God of Israel, thy servant hath
surely heard that Saul is seeking to come to
Keilah to destroy the city because of me. Will
Saul come down, as thy servant hath heard? O
Jehovah, God of Israel, I beseech thee, tell thy
servant. And Jehovah said. He will come down.
Then David said, Will the men of Keilah deliver
me and my men into the hand of Saul? And
Jehovah said. They will deliver thee up." Again,
according to i Samuel 30. 7, 8: ''David said to
Abiathar the priest, the son of Ahimelech, Bring
here to me the ephod. And Abiathar brought
thither the ephod to David. And David inquired
of Jehovah, saying,
49
50 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Shall I pursue this marauding band?
Shall I overtake them ?
And he answered him,
Pursue,
For thou shalt surely overtake,
And thou shalt surely rescue."
Nature of the From tlicsc and other references it seems clear
^'■^''^^ that the question propounded to the priest was put
in a form so that it could be answered either by
*'Yes" or "No." Fortunately, the superior Greek
text of I Samuel 14. 4ib-42a throws clear Hght
upon the nature of these ancient oracles: "If the
guilt be in me or in Jonathan my son, Jehovah,
God of Israel, give Urim : but if the guilt is in
my people Israel, give Thummim. Then Jona-
than and Said were taken and the people escaped.
And Saul said. Cast the lot between me and
Jonathan my son. He whom Jehovah shall take,
must die." From this passage it is clear that the
ancient oracle consisted of some form of sacred
lot. Apparently the ephod was a pouch in the
garment of the priest in which were probably
found two stones, the one marked Urim (which
means lights), the other Thummim (which
means perfections). The question was answered
according as one or the other of these sacred
stones or tablets was drawn forth. This was
evidently the usual method of appealing to Je-
hovah by means of the lot. Even so to-day the
Moravians in the South use the lot in deciding
such serious questions as marriage or the choice
of a bishop.
In interpreting the significance of the lot the
priests were able to exert a great influence.
Teaching Methods of the Priests 5 '
From Haggai 2. 11-13 it is clear that in later opportunity for
times the torah or decision depended upon the influencing the
judgment of the priests : "Thus saith Jehovah of
hosts: Ask of the priests a decision, saying. If
one bear holy flesh in the skirt of his garment,
and with his skirt touch bread, or pottage, or
wine, or oil, or any food, shall it become holy?
And the priests answered and said, No. Then
said Haggai, If one that is unclean by reason of
a dead body touch any of these shall it be un-
clean? And the priests answered and said. It
shall be unclean." Thus the popular belief in
the authority of the oracle gave to the priests rare
opportunities for guiding the life of the people.
Another exceedingly important way in which Judicial
the priests taught the people was by means of the
judicial decisions which they were called upon to
render. In the classic passage of Exodus 18.
13-16 light is thrown on the fundamental nature
of Moses's earlier work and on his vital re-
lation to Israel's later legislation : "Now on the
next day Moses sat as judge to decide cases for
the people, and the people stood about Moses
from morning until evening. But when jMoses's
father-in-law saw all that he was doing for the
people, he said. What is this thing that you are
doing for the people? Why are you sitting all
alone while all the people stand about you from
morning until evening? And Moses answered
his father-in-law. Because the people keep com-
ing to me to inquire of God. Whenever they
have a matter of dispute, they come to me that
I may decide which of the two is right and make
known the statutes of God and his decisions."
52 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Moses's
Relation to the
Laws
Judicial
Functions of the
Priests
In deciding these difficult questions which
presented new problems and involved new prin-
ciples, jMoses w^as thus able to establish prece-
dents which became the basis of definite laws.
Whatever is the final conclusion regarding the
date at which the different Old Testament laws
were committed to writing, they will always be
recognized as truly Mosaic. Standing as Moses
did at the beginning of Israel's national life, he
left his mighty impress upon all its laws and in-
stitutions. As the first great prophet, priest, and
judge, he taught the Hebrew race by word of
mouth, by object lessons, and by just decisions,
and thus established those fundamental principles
which are the basis of Israel's legal system.
Later Jewish tradition, therefore, is right in
ascribing to Moses a place of commanding au-
thority in Israel's legislation.
According to Deuteronomy 17. 8, 9 all diffi-
cult cases were referred to the priests as a court
of final appeal : ''If a case involving bloodshed or
conflicting claims or the plague of leprosy — sub-
jects of dispute within thine own city — be too
difficult for thee to decide, then thou shalt set out
and go up to the place which Jehovah thy God
shall choose ; and thou shalt come to the Levitical
priests and the judge who shall be in office in
those days ; and thou shalt inquire and they shall
make known to thee the judicial decision." The
priests were regarded as Jehovah's representa-
tives : "If the thief be not found, then the master
of the house shall come before God to prove
whether or not he hath taken his neighbor's
goods. In every case of breach of trust, whether
Teaching Methods of the Priests 53
it concern ox, or ass, or sheep, or clothing, or
any kind of lost thing of which one saith, This is
it, the case of both parties shall come before
God: He whom God shall condemn shall make
double restitution to his neighbor" (Exod. 22.
7-9)'
The opportunities thus offered to the priests Opportunities
not only for illustrating the principles of justice, ^o^'thus
u..ri ^- 1 1 1 • Teaching the
but tor educatmg the people, cannot be overesti- peopie
mated. As individual problems of daily life
were laid before them, they were enabled to
study the needs of the people, to apply in most
practical form the high principles proclaimed by
the prophets, and at the same time to lead the
people to accept and follow them in their own
daily life. Their position in the midst of a child
nation, whose moral standards and religious
ideals were only gradually being formed, was
very similar to that of the wise and efficient
judge in charge of a modern juvenile court.
They became the specialists in dealing with so-
cial and moral ills. They were able to heal effec-
tively those disorders which retarded the natural
and normal development of the moral and re-
ligious health of society. They were in position
to deal directly and personally with those who
w^ere a menace to the welfare of the community.
Inspired by a strong religious impulse and by
the spirit of the teacher as well as that of the
judge, it is obvious that the faithful priests of
ancient Irsael w^ere exceedingly powerful fac-
tors in the development of the national character
and ideals.
The priests, however, did not merely admin-
54 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
The Catechetical istcr justice. There is clear and convincing evi-
Method dence in the Old Testament laws that they for-
mulated the essential principles governing the
relation of man to man and man to God, and as
teachers impressed these principles upon the
consciousness and memory of the people. From
Deuteronomy 27. 14, 15 it is also evident that
they sometimes used the catechetical method:
"And the Levites shall answer and say to all the
men of Israel with a loud voice: Cursed be the
man that maketh a graven or molten image, an
abomination to Jehovah, the work of the hands
of the craftsman, and setteth it up in secret. And
all the people shall answer and say. Amen."
Twelve important definite duties are thus im-
pressed in the form of responses upon the minds
of the people.
Most students of the Old Testament are fa-
miliar with the wonderful prophetic decalogue in
Exodus 20. Not all, however, have discovered
the remaining nine decalogues preserved in
Exodus 21-23. Of these, the first five decalogues
contain civil and social laws. The last four
(probablv originally five) contain ceremonial
and religious laws. The following titles are de-
scriptive of the contents of these decalogues:
Civil Decalogues: (i) Rights of Slaves. (2)
Assault. (3) Domestic Animals. (4) Respon-
sibility for Property. (5) Social Purity. Cere-
monial AND Religious: (i) Duty of Kindness.
(2) Justice in Legal Matters. (3) Duties to
God. (4) Ceremonial Duties. Each decalogue
consisted originally of ten short sentences or
words. Each law illustrates a fundamental prin-
Teaching Methods of the Priests 55
ciple applicable to all kindred cases. These an-
cient laws were doubtless arranged in the form
of decalogues as an aid to the memory. Each
consisted of two distinct pentads, that is, two
groups of five laws. Each law in a decalogue
was, therefore, presumably associated with a
certain finger or thumb of the hand, and in turn
each one of the ten decalogues was likewise fixed
in the memory of the learner. It takes little im-
agination, therefore, to see the faithful priests at
the annual feasts — in fact, whenever the people
came up to sacrifice — teaching them, old and
young alike, these fundamental principles, and
helping them to remember by association with
the fingers of the hand.
The decalogue which defines the duties of a Typical
witnesses and judges in legal matters is typical ^"aiogue
of the group, and possesses a perennial value as
well as interest. The last law of the first pentad
seems unusual, until it is remembered that the
witnesses came from the ranks of the common
people and that therefore their sympathies wxre
with the poor. The first law of the following
pentad, which deals with the duties of the judges
who were drawn from the rich and ruling class,
naturally emphasizes the importance of regard-
ing the cause of the poor. The following is a
modern interpretation of this ancient decalogue:
First Pentad: Duties of Witnesses
I. Thou shalt not spread abroad a false report.
II. Do not enter into a conspiracy with a wicked
man to be an unrighteous witness.
III. Thou shalt not follow the majority in doing what
is wrong.
56 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
IV. Thou shalt not bear testimony in a case so as to
pervert justice.
V. Thou shalt not show partiality to a poor man in
his case.
Second Pentad: Duties of Judges
VI. Thou shalt not prevent justice being done to thy
poor in his cause.
VII. Keep aloof from every false matter.
VIII. Do not condemn the innocent nor him who hath
a just cause.
IX. Do not vindicate the wicked.
X. Thou shalt take no bribe, for a bribe blindeth the
eyes of those who see and perverteth the cause
of the righteous.
Symbolism of
The Ritual
The Temple
Ritual in the
Greek Period
The priests were fully aware of the value of
objective symbolism in teaching a child nation.
The principles underlying Israel's ceremonials
are those of the prophets : the holiness of Jeho-
vah, the importance of loyalty to him, the defiling
character of wrongdoing, and the necessity of
public confession. No one can read certain of
the later psalms, which breathe passionate de-
votion to the temple ritual, and fail to appre-
ciate how effectively the priests impressed these
great principles upon the minds of the people.
To the ordinary citizens the obligations of the
ritual were not a burden but a joy. In the faith-
ful performance of them and in the sense of har-
mony with their Divine King they found supreme
peace and happiness.
Ben Sira has preserved a highly colored but
vivid picture of the temple ritual in the later
Greek period. The occasion was probably the
service on the day of atonement led by the high
priest, Simon:
Teaching Methods of the Priests 57
How glorious was he when he looked forth from the
temple,
At his coming forth out of the sanctuary !
As the mornmg star in the midst of a cloud.
As the full moon on the da}^ of the passover feast!
When he put on the robe of glory,
And clothed himself with the splendid garments.
And ascended to the holy altar,
He made glorious the precincts of the sanctuary.
And when he received the portions from the priests'
hands.
Himself also standing by the altar-hearth,
His brethren as a garland round about him,
He was as a young cedar on Mount Lebanon,
And as stems of palm trees they encompassed him
about.
All the sons of Aaron in their glory,
With Jehovah's burnt offering in their hands.
In the presence of all the congregation of Israel,
Until he had finished the service at the altar.
And the offering to the Most High, the Almighty,
He stretched out his hand to the cup.
And poured out the blood of the grape ;
He poured it out at the foot of the altar,
A sweet-smelling savor to the Most High, the King
of all.
Then shouted the sons of Aaron,
They blew on the trumpets of beaten work,
They blew and sent forth a mighty blast.
As a remembrance before the j\Iost High.
Then all the people together hasted,
They fell down with their faces to the ground.
To worship their Lord, the Almighty, God Most High.
The singers also praised him with their voices;
In the whole house was there made sweet melody.
And the people besought the Lord Most High,
In prayer before him who is merciful.
Until the service at the altar was ended ;
And his due had been rendered to him.
Then the high priest went down and lifted up his hands,
Over the whole congregation of the Israelites,
To give blessing to the Lord with his lips.
And to glory in his name. (B. Sir. 50. 5, 6, 11-20.)
The priests were also fully alive to the im- ceremonial
portance of teaching through the eye as well as Customs
38 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
"Written Laws
Traditional
Precedents and
Histories
through the ear. They appealed effectively to
the aesthetic sense and to the spirit of worship
so strong in the early history of the race. To
this end they bound themselves by certain cere-
monial customs, such as the acts of purification
and the wearing of spotless white garments, which
illustrated effectively the holiness of Jehovah
and the requirement that his people should be
holy. By abstaining from certain kinds of food
and from all that was unclean they became con-
stant object lessons before the eyes of the people.
In time also tlije priests took the pen and col-
lected the laws of their race wdiich had been
transmitted from father to son, or else first im-
pressed their teachings upon the minds of all
through the concise decalogues, and then put
them in written form. When the temple was de-
stroyed there was great danger that the cere-
monial customs, which had been transmitted
from father to son and had received constant
illustration in the temple ritual, would be for-
gotten. Therefore the priestly scribes recorded
these customs in written laws, such as are found
in the leg^al sections of Exodus and Numbers
and especially in Leviticus.
They also collected the traditional precedents
which, like the case law of other nations, became
of binding value in guiding judges in deciding
similar questions. To provide an introduction
and a setting to Israel's laws, the priests followed
the example of the prophets and, collecting the
current traditions, wrote a priestly history of
their race, beginning with the majestic story of
the creation, found in the first chapter of Genesis,
Teaching Methods of the Priests 59
and culminating- in the accounts of the great
covenants and institutions which they beHeved
were estabHshed at different periods in their his-
tory. Still later, a Levite wrote a history of the
nation parallel to the prophetic history found in
Samuel and Kings. The interest in Chronicles
naturally centers about the temple and the origin
of Israel's religious institutions. Some of the
later priests, with the spirit of the poet, voiced
their intense appreciation of the law and devotion
to it in the form of psalms. The result is that
a large portion of the writings of the Old Testa-
ment come from Israel's priestly teachers.
The priests of ancient Israel, therefore, antici- Risume of the
pated many of the principles emphasized in Methods of the
modern education. They expressed their thought
concretely and objectively. They appealed to
the eye and to the aesthetic sense, as well as to
the reason. They were fully alive to the value of
suggestion as a means of teaching. In their use
of symbol and ceremonial they were the early
exponents of the manual and illustrative method.
They also put their vital teachings in clear, com-
pact form, easily understood by the people, and
then impressed them indelibly upon the popular
mind by means of oral decalogue, written law,
and stately ritual.
VII
Background of
the Work of the
Sages
Sages in the
Ancient East
THE HISTORY AND AIMS OF THE WISE MEN
OR SAGES
In the primitive Semitic East there were ap-
parently no distinct classes of lawyers, physi-
cians, or philosophers. The needs, however,
which these different classes to-day conserve
existed in the past as in the present. The neces-
sity for men to preserve the stored-up experience
and wisdom of succeeding generations, and to
impart it in practical form to all who might
apply to them, was largely met by the ancient
wise men or sages. For the sake of convenience
and effectiveness this wealth of experience was
ordinarily treasured in the form of proverbs.
From the old Egyptian kingdom there comes
a collection of such proverbs, popularly at-
tributed to Ptah-hotep and Kegemne, famous
viziers of their day. On the back side of one of
the creation tablets is found a reference to a
corresponding class of wise men among the
ancient Babylonians :
Let the elder enlighten.
Let the wise, the learned meditate together;
Let the father rehearse, make the son apprehend.
Open the ears of the shepherd and the flockmaster (the
king).
First Kings 4. 30, in describing the wisdom of
Solomon, alludes incidentally to the sages of
other nations, for it states that his wisdom "ex-
celled the wisdom of all the children of the East
60
History and Aims of the Wise Men 6l
and all the wisdom of Egypt." The book of Job
likewise bears testimony to the presence of the
wise among Israel's neighbors, for Job himself
was of the land of Uz and his friends who con-
versed with him in the characteristic language
of the wisdom school were Eliphaz, the Tema-
nite, Zophar, the Naamathite, and Bildad, the
Shuhite. The lands here described lay to the
east of Palestine. Teman was an Edomite city
famous in antiquity for its sages.
Among the Arabs, and especially those living in the Modem
far out in the desert, many men noted for their East
practical wisdom may still be found. The
pointed proverb is to-day constantly and effec-
tively used in ordinary intercourse throughout
the Semitic world.
It was in this favorable atmosphere and to in Israel's
meet universal human needs that Israel's sages History
arose. Inasmuch as their appeal was not to the
nation but to the individual, and as their work
was done quietly and unostentatiously, they do
not figure prominently in the records of the Old
Testament. Only rarely and incidentally are
they referred to in the literature which comes
from the earlier periods. In the post-exilic
period, when their activity and influence reached
the zenith, they are not once alluded to in the
historical records. Their presence and work is
evinced only by their writings. It is exceedingly
difficult, therefore, to reconstruct their history
with any degree of assurance.
The earliest traces of the work of the sages are Early Traces of
found in the words of the popular hero, Samson, wisdom
After finding honey in the skeleton of the lion, °"^
62 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
which he had earher slain, he propounded at his
wedding feast the following riddle, cast in the
rhyme peculiar to early popular Semitic poetry :
Out of the eater came something to eat,
And out of the strong came something sweet.
(Judg. 14. 14.)
To this riddle his guests made answer:
What is sweeter than honey?
What is stronger than a lion?
Samson, in turn, referring to the way in which
they had extracted the meaning of his riddle
from him through the agency of his wife, re-
plied :
If with my heifer you did not plow,
You had not solved my riddle now.
(Judg. 14. 18.)
Wise Women The carlicst representative of the wisdom
school to figure in Hebrew history was not a
man but the famous wise woman of Tekoa.
According to 2 Samuel 14. 1-20 she was em-
ployed by the Hebrew commander, Joab, to bring
about a reconciliation between King David and
his banished son Absalom. It is significant that
she came from the little Judean town which
later sent forth Amos the prophet, who was
famous for his clear, convincing logic and the
terse, epigrammatic form in which he cast his
powerful appeals. By the use of a skillfully
prepared story or parable the woman influenced
David to commit himself to a principle which
she forthwith urged him to apply in the case of
his own son. In a later period Joab again won
his point through the services of a wise woman ; it
History and Aims of the Wise Men 63
"Wise Men in the
Days of David
was while he was besieging the town of Abel, in
northern Israel, where the rebel Sheba had taken
refuge. When the fate of the city seemed sealed,
because of the obstinate resistance of its inhabit-
ants, one of its wise women came forth to make
terms with Joab. When she had secured favor-
able terms from the sturdy warrior, "the woman
went to all the people in her wisdom" and per-
suaded them to cut off the head of the rebel and
thus save their own heads.
Two wise men appear among David's trusted
counselors. The one was Ahithophel, who cast
his fortunes with the rebel Absalom and later
committed suicide when his counsels were re-
jected. The other was Hushai, who remained
loyal to David, and by his crafty counsel and
effective acting undermined the influence of
his rival Ahithophel and at a critical moment
saved the cause of the king. While not yet
recognized as a distinct caste or order, these
wise men and women, even in the days of the
United Kingdom, appear to have been regarded
as a class by themselves, and like Solomon, the
great representative of the wise men of early
Hebrew antiquity, to have enjoyed great popular
favor and a far-famed reputation. Their meth-
ods were those of the later sages, and are very
distinct from those of the priests and the proph-
ets. It is exceedingly probable that many such
wise men and women were to be found in the
cities and villages of early Israel.
By his contemporaries, and even more by later Nature of
generations. King Solomon was regarded as the f°/.°^*^
most conspicuous representative of this early
Wisdom
64 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
His Relation to
the Book of
Proverbs
wisdom school. His wisdom, however, was evi-
dently very different from that of the later sages
who have given us the majority of the proverbs
now found in the Old Testament. His wisdom
appears to have been of the clever, versatile type
which might be more exactly defined as sagacity
or cunning. The stories preserved by tradition
to illustrate this quality reveal a brilliant, clever
mind, like that of a keen modern detective, able
quickly to interpret evidence overlooked by the
ordinary observer. That he was lacking in the
deeper qualities of wisdom is demonstrated by
the signal follies which characterized his reign.
The majority of the Old Testament proverbs
are written from the point of view of men of the
middle class, and do not fit in the mouth of a
tyrannical, splendor-loving king, who was chiefly
famous for his disregard of the laws of the
simple life, and for the magnitude of his harem.
There is, however, in all probability, some his-
torical basis for the statement in i Kings (4.
32) that "he spoke three thousand proverbs."
That he embodied the products of his versatile
wit in the form of proverbs need not be doubted,
even though the tradition in the present form is
exceedingly late. The added statement that "he
spoke of trees, animals, birds, and fishes," prob-
ably means that he used these as illustrations in
parables, even as did the later wise men. Solo-
mon's fame as a proverb-maker doubtless ex-
plains why later generations were inclined, in
ever-increasing measure, to attribute all ancient
proverbs to him. In view of the well-known
tenacity with which favorite proverbs are re-
History and Aims of the Wise Men 65
tained in the popular mind and transmitted from
age to age, it is exceedingly probable that cer-
tain of the maxims in the book of Proverbs came
originally from Solomon. It is impossible, how-
ever, to distinguish these from the many which
came from the lips of later sages, for the value
of a proverb depends upon the fact that it em-
bodies common human experience rather than
upon the authority of the one who first formu-
lated it.
The preexilic prophets refer occasionally to References to
the wise. In condemning the spirit of his age
Isaiah declared:
the "Wise in the
Days Before the
Exile
Jehovah saith, Because this people draw near with
their mouth,
And honor me with their lips, while their heart is far
from me,
So that their fear of me is nothing more than a precept
taught by men,
Therefore, behold, I will proceed to do a thing so
wonderful and astonishing,
That the wisdom of their wise men shall perish, the
discernment of their discerning ones shall be
eclipsed. (Isa. 29. 13, 14.)
The reference in Jeremiah to the teaching of
the priest, the counsel of the wise, and the word
of the prophet has already been quoted (p. 10).
Ezekiel in a closely parallel passage substitutes
the elders for the wise: ''They shall seek a vision
of the prophet; but the teaching shall perish
from the priest, and counsel from the elders."
The book of Job also contains many references
to the accumulated wisdom which the wise men
have transmitted from their fathers. The pres-
ence of proverbs and parables in the preexilic
literature gives an additional basis for the con-
66 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Their
Prominence
After the Exile
Portrait of a
Later 'Wise Man
elusion that a class of wise men or sages flour-
ished in the days before the exile and exerted
a quiet but powerful influence in shaping the
ideals of the race, especially in molding the char-
acter of the individual.
The wise, however, first come into prominence
in Israel's life in the days following the Baby-
lonian exile. The destruction of the nation
brought the individual and his problems to the
front. The passing of the prophet threw added
responsibilities upon the wise men or sages. The
failure of the ancient Hebrew state spurred on
the faithful priests and sages to new and more
strenuous efforts to realize Jehovah's will in the
life of the restored community. The enforced
leisure of the exile and of the periods which fol-
lowed gave ample opportunity for meditation on
the problems of the individual. Contact, even
though indirect, with the thought of other na-
tions turned the minds of Israel's teachers into
new channels and thus brought to the front the
class which corresponds most closely to the
philosophers and the ethical teachers of Greece
and Rome.
Ben Sira (in 39. i-ii) has given us the most
vivid picture extant of the wise man of the later
day:
He seeks out the hidden meaning of proverbs.
And is conversant with the subtilties of parables,
He serves among great men,
And appears before him who rules ;
He travels through the land of strange nations ;
For he hath tried good things and evil among men.
He applies his heart to seeking earnestly the Lord who
made him,
And makes supplication before the Most High,
History and Aims of the Wise Men 67
And opens his mouth in prayer,
And makes supplication for his sins.
If the great Lord will,
He is filled with the spirit of understanding,
He pours forth the words of his wisdom,
And in prayer gives thanks to the Lord.
He directs his counsel and knowledge,
And in his secrets doth he meditate.
He shows forth the instruction which he has been
taught.
And glories in the law of the covenant of the Lord.
Many shall commend his understanding,
And so long as the world endures, it shall not be
blotted out.
His memorial shall not depart.
And his name shall live from generation to generation.
Nations shall declare his wisdom.
And the congregation shall tell out his praise.
If he continue, he shall leave a greater name than a
thousand,
And if he die, he addeth thereto.
This description is a true portrait of Ben Sira character of
himself, whose thought and character are clearly ^^" ^^^^
revealed in the remarkable collection of practical
and philosophical teachings found in the book
which bears his name. He was evidently a man
of wide experience, of broad sympathies, was
possessed of a keen insight into human nature,
and had a large fund of practical information.
He was thoroughly familiar with the scriptures
of his race, as well as with the vital problems of
his day. Above all, he was inspired by an in-
tense desire to make his knowledge and expe-
rience of practical service to all, especially to the
young. His references to the law and his em-
phasis upon its careful study and observation
reflect the spirit of his age ; but in other respects
he may be regarded as a type of the wise of the
post-exilic period.
68 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Usually Men of
Mature Years
Spoke to the
Individual
From the allusions in the books of Proverbs,
Job and Ecclesiastes it is possible to gain a very
definite idea of the real character of these won-
derful teachers of Israel. Usually they were
men of mature years. As has already been
noted, Ezekiel uses the term "elders" as a
synonym for wise men or sages. Elihu's elabo-
rate apologies for speaking in the council of the
elders because he was young further illustrates
this point :
I am young, and you are very old ;
Therefore I held back, and did not show you my
opinion. (Job 32. 6.)
Like the prophets, they came from many
dififerent classes. The recognition of the needs
of humanity and the consciousness of a message
tested by personal experience and fitted to meet
those needs constituted their divine call. In gen-
eral their ideals and their doctrines were those of
the great ethical prophets of the preexilic period.
In addressing their message directly to the
people they stood squarely on the platform
of the prophets; but while the prophets spoke
for the most part to the nation as a whole,
they spoke also to individuals. In this connec-
tion it is significant that the word "Israel" is
found nowhere in the book of Proverbs. The
v/ise do not appear to have concerned themselves
with the political problems of their day. The
problems, the possibilities, and the development
of the individuals with whom they came into
personal contact apparently demanded all their
attention.
They were the custodians of the practical ex-
History and Aims of the Wise Men 69
perience gleaned from the past as well as from Practical
their own personal observation. This treasured teachers
experience they were able to impart in clear and
practical form :
The tongue of the wise uttereth knowledge aright,
But the mouth of fools poureth out folly.
(Prov. 15. 2.)
They were also inspired by an ardent desire to
impart their knowledge:
The lips of the wise disperse knowledge,
But the foolish have no desire to do so.
(Prov. 15. 7.)
Association with them meant to their dis-
ciples knowledge and power :
He who walks with the wise shall be wise,
But he who associates with fools shall suffer for it.
The teaching of the wise is a source of life.
That one may depart from the snares of death.
(Prov. 13. 20, 14.)
The sages of Israel were true lovers of men comparison
and winners of souls (Prov. 11. 30). Amid with the
the changed conditions of a later age they were priJlts^^
the real successors of the earlier prophets. In
their close touch wdth the individual and in their
zeal to influence by personal instruction and
direction the youth wdth whom they came into
contact they resembled more closely the faithful
priests of the earlier days. They were boun'l
together by common aims, teaching, and methods
of work. The book of Job contains a suggestive
picture of the sages reasoning together upon cer-
tain universal human problems (12. 2; 13. i, 2;
32. 1-6). It also illustrates the fact, which is
further confirmed bv the book of Proverbs, that
70 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
they did not always agree with each other ; but
regarding the great practical questions of life
they were in evident accord.
Aims of the The preface to the book of Proverbs clearly
^^^^ defines the aims which this class of teachers set
before themselves:
To acquire wisdom and training.
To understand rational discourse,
To receive training in wise conduct.
In uprightness, justice, and rectitude.
To impart discretion to the inexperienced,
To the young knowledge and insight ;
That the wise man may hear and add to his learning,
And the man of intelligence gain education.
To understand a proverb and a parable,
The words of the sages and their aphorisms.
To Develop a Briefly recapitulated, their aims were, first, to
Receptive Mind inspire in the minds of their disciples a right
attitude toward learning and practical instruc-
tion. They placed great emphasis upon the im-
portance of a receptive mind :
The way of a fool is right in his own eyes :
But he that is wise gives heed to counsel.
(Prov. 12. 15; cf. also Prov. 10. 8.)
Ben Sira insists equally upon this fundamental
requirement for practical education :
My son, if thou wilt, thou mayest be instructed.
And if thou wilt yield thyself, thou shalt be ready to
do anything.
If thou love to hear, thou shalt receive,
If thou incline thine ear thou shalt be wise.
Stand thou in the multitude of the elders.
Whoever is wise — cleave thou to him.
Be willing to listen to every excellent discourse;
And let not the proverbs of understanding escape thee.
If thou seest a man of understanding, bestir thyself
and go to him.
And let thy foot wear out the steps of his doors.
(B. Sir. 6. 32-36.)
History and Aims of the Wise Men 7 I
The second aim of the wise was to inculcate to Teach
practical knowledge and wisdom in the minds Practical
of men, especially the young and inexperienced.
Personified wisdom, speaking in behalf of the
sages as a whole, cries out in Proverbs 8. 4, 5 :
To you, O men, I call.
And my appeal is to the sons of men ;
Learn, O ye simple, to know nnderstanding,
And ye fools, to understand wisdom.
The wise felt that their first great task was
to transmit to every individual the heritage of
practical, ethical, and religious experience which
had come down to them from the past. They
realized that knowledge was necessary for right
action, and they therefore spared no effort to
make the truth inherited from the past appear
attractive to their disciples, whether voung o^-
old.
The third aim of the wise was to develop in To Create a
the minds of men a right attitude toward God. ^^^^^ t"'*!''*^
T M 1 1 1 111-1 1 Toward God
Like the prophets, they were both ethical and
religious teachers. One of their fundamental
doctrines was that "the fear of the Lord is the
beginning of wisdom." In Proverbs 14. 2 the
sense in which the word "fear" is used is clearly
defined :
He that walks in his uprightness fears Jehovah ;
But he that is perverse in his ways despises him.
Fear , in the language of the sages contained
no suggestion of terror, but meant reverence and
loyalty expressed in right acts. The familiar
proverb,
Trust in Jehovah with all thy heart.
Lean not upon thine own understanding;
72 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
In all thy ways acknowledge him,
And he will make plain thy paths.
(Prov. 3. 5,6),
voices one of the chief aims of these earnest
wisdom teachers. The small collection of
proverbs found in Proverbs 22. 17 to 24. 34 opens
with the suggestive quotation :
Incline thine ear and hear the words of the wise,
And apply thy heart to my knowledge.
That thy trust may be in Jehovah,
I have made them known to thee this day, even to thee.
The fourth aim of the wise was to inspire
right and noble actions. Their ultimate appeal
was not to the feelings or to the reason, but to
the will. All their instruction was but a means
to this practical end :
Let not kindness and truth forsake thee;
Bind them about thy neck,
Write them upon the tablets of thy heart;
So shalt thou find favor and good repute
In the sight of God and man.
(Prov. 3- 3, 4)
The wise men sought to define the duty of the
individual in all his social relations. The right
use of the ear and tongue, the duties of children
to parents and of parents to their children, the
responsibility of a king to his subjects and of
subjects to their king, the evils of falsehood,
pride, cruelty, and intemperance, and the value
of truth, honesty, courage, and charity are but
a few of the practical subjects which they dis-
cussed from many dififerent points of view.
In general the aim of the wise was to make
sane, happy, efficient men and women. Their
aims, therefore, were practically identical with
History and Aims of the Wise Men 73
those of the modern progressive Sunday school
teacher and educator. By example, as well as by
precept, they defined the aims and laid down
those fundamental educational principles which
we are to-day again striving to apply. Histori-
cally they are the forerunners of the present
world-wide movement for a broader, deeper, and
more effective religious education.
VIII
Breadth and
Practical
Character of
Their Teachings
Their Theory of
Education
THE METHODS OF THE WISE ^lEN OR SAGES
The wise men, like the Hebrew prophets,
recognized no distinction between that which
we to-day call secular and religious. They were
fully aware that education is a unit and that
everything which vitally concerns man or in-
fluences his conduct is of real ethical and re-
ligious value. Nothing of real interest to the
individual was too petty for their consideration.
In their teachings they aimed to touch life on
every side. In the same sections in which they
defined men's duties to God they discussed man's
legal obligations and that which afifected his busi-
ness. Thus they blended closely ideal and
utilitarian questions and motives. While the
reasons that they urged for right doing were
often selfish and material, they were clearly
adapted to the intellectual and moral culture of
the classes whom the wise were seeking to in-
fluence.
In the vocabulary of the wise folly stood
for the lack of knowledge or of the desire to
acquire and use it. Wisdom was the opposite
of folly and represented not only knowledge but
also the ability to apply it practically in life. In
the thought of the wise it included all the prac-
tical virtues, from the fear of God, "which is the
beginning of wisdom," to moral courage and tem-
perance in eating and drinking. The aim of edu-
cation, therefore, according to the wise, was to
74
Methods of the Wise Men
75
Emphasis on
Primary
Education
deliver the individual from the evils of folly by
enabling him to acquire insight (that is, the open
and intelligent attitude), knowledge, and wisdom
(that is, not only knowledge, but the ability to
apply it practically in lite).
The wise men also fully appreciated the im-
portance of primary education. A great ma-
jority of their teachings are addressed to the
young. Here they found their most promising
sphere of influence.
Train up a child in the way in which he should go,
And even when he is old he will not depart from it.
(Prov. 22. 6),
was the guiding principle in all their activity,
even as it is the watchword of modern educa-
tional psychology. They also strongly empha-
sized the responsibility of parents in the educa-
tion of their children :
The father hath shame, having begotten an uninstructed
son,
And a foolish daughter is born to his loss.
(B. Sir. 22. 3.) *
The wise depended entirely upon personal public
counsel and teaching for the attainment of their Counselors
aims. There are a few references which indicate
that at times they were consulted regarding ques-
tions of state. The famous counselors in David's
court, Ahithophel and Hushai, belonged to this
class. No important policy was adopted by the
king without consulting them, and their counsels
were received with great respect. In Proverbs
20. i8 is found the suggestive maxim:
Every purpose is established by counsel,
And by wise guidance make thou war.
and Instruction
76 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
In Proverbs 8. 14-16 personified wisdom is made
to declare in behalf of the wise as a class:
Counsel is mine and sound knowledge;
I am understanding, I have might.
By me kings reign,
And princes decree justice.
By me princes rule.
And nobles, even all the judges of the earth.
Personal Advice As 3. mlc, howcvcr, the wisc taught the small
g-roups of disciples which gathered about them.
To these they gave the familiar name of sons.
The place of these ancient religious schools was
usually just inside the city gate. Here were held
the primitive courts, and here the people gathered
for the discussion of public and private questions
as well as for purposes of barter. This place gave
a good opportimity for the wise to come into close
personal contact with the people ; here also the
youthful learners could readily consult their
teachers. Question and answer probably figured
largely in the teachings of the wise. In the light
of similar usage in the East to-day, especially at
the great Mohammedan school at Cairo, it is
easy to reconstruct the scene. An aged sage,
with a long flowing beard and a face which ex-
presses the love and interest which he feels for
the young, as well as the pleasures and the sor-
rows which have come to him in his long life-
experience, sits cross-legged on the ground.
About him in the same posture are his disciples.
Their faces express varying degrees of interest
and appreciation of the words of counsel and
exhortation which fall from the lips of the an-
cient sage. In the form in which he puts his
teachings and in his attitude toward those taught
Methods of the Wise Men 77
IS revealed his intense zeal to attract and help
the ignorant and foolish.
The book of Proverbs as well as the writings zeai to Reach
of Ben Sira show how eagerly the wise sought to ^"** ^^^p Those
draw within the circle of their influence the andMoraUy^
youth who most needed their teaching: Destitute
Neglect not the discourse of tlie wise.
And be conversant with their proverbs ;
For of them you shall learn instruction,
And how to minister to great men.
Hear, O children, the instruction of a father,
Give heed that ye may comprehend wisdom.
For good counsel I give you,
Forsake ye not my teaching.
Wiien I was of tender age.
Beloved by my father.
He used to teach me and say to me :
"Let thy mind retain my words.
Keep my commandments and live ;
Get wisdom, get understanding.
Forsake her not, and she will preserve thee,
Love her and she will keep thee.
Prize her and she will exalt thee,
She will honor thee if thou embrace her ;
She will encircle thy head with a chaplet of beauty.
Bestow on thee a crown of glory."
(Prov. 4. 1-9.)
From the vivid description of wisdom's ban-
quet it may also be inferred that the wise were
inspired by missionary zeal and went forth in
quest of disciples :
Wisdom has built her house.
Set up her seven pillars.
Killed her beasts, mixed her wine,
And prepared her table.
She has sent forth her maidens to cry
On the thoroughfares of the city :
"Whoso is simple, let him turn in hither !"
To him who is void of understanding she says :
Reception of
Their Teachings
7 8 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
"Come, eat of my bread,
Drink the wine I have mixed !
Forsake folly and live,
And walk in the way of understanding !"
(Prov. 9. 1-6.)
Sometimes the wise met with rebuff and ridi-
cule from a class in the community known as the
scorners, but as a rule their counsels were highly
appreciated. Like the priests, they probably re-
ceived remuneration for their counsels, espe-
cially in regard to questions of personal and
economic nature. One proverb contains the ex-
hortation :
Buy the truth and sell it not;
Yea, wisdom, and instruction and understanding.
In another the scornful yet suggestive question
Vv^as raised :
Why hath the fool money in his hand to buy wisdom,
Seeing he hath no understanding?
Ben Sira's picture of the later wise men is also
indicative of the high esteem which these moral
specialists and practical counselors enjoyed in
his day.
Throughout their history the wise, like the
scribes, depended almost exclusively upon the
spoken word as the means of reaching and teach-
ing their disciples. They were fully alive to the
imiportance of the close personal relation be-
tween themselves and the ones taught. There
came a time, however, when they felt compelled,
like the other teachers of Israel, to resort to the
written word, as a means of preserving and con-
veying their teachings. The product of this
method of teachinsf is the so-called wisdom liter-
Methods of the Wise Men
79
Their Attention
to Literary
Form
ature of the Old Testament and Apocrypha. It
is found in the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Job, portions of the Psalter, in the Wisdom of
Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus, and in the Wisdom of
Solomon.
This literature reveals the great attention
which the sages gave to the form in which they
presented their teachings. It reflects the influ-
ence of long oral transmission, as well as careful
literary revision. It reveals the intense eager-
ness of the wise to make their teachings so at-
tractive that they would prove irresistible even to
the foolish, ignorant, and inattentive. They are
well fitted to arrest the attention, to appeal
to the imagination, to provoke question and
thought, and to make a deep impression upon
the memory.
The literary unit throughout all the wisdom The Proverb
literature is the proverb. In its simplest form
it is a couplet, repeating in the second line in a
slightly different form the thought contained in
the first. Thus by reiteration the essential
thought is made clear and fixed in the memory.
This characteristic of Hebrew poetry added
greatly to the effectiveness of Semitic proverbs.
It enabled the teacher to bring out his truth by
means of strong comparisons or sharply drawn
contrasts or to introduce a number of parallel
figures and illustrations. The proverb itself is
the embodiment of crystallized experience, ex-
pressed in the most concise and vivid form. It is
like a barbed arrow which sticks in the memory.
By virtue of its brevity it is especially adapted
to the moral instruction of the young. By an
8o Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
apt use of figures it appeals to the imagination,
which is so responsive in the minds of children
and of a child-nation. By the use of familiar
figures drawn from the everyday life of the peo-
ple it also enabled the wise to utilize the power
of association. Moreover, the proverb, like the
words of a decalogue, was admirably adapted
to memorization, and it is probable that this
method of teaching was much used by these
early teachers.
Similitude Closcly related to the simple proverb is the
similitude, of which there are many examples in
the book of Proverbs :
The door tiirneth upon its hinges,
So doth the sluggard upon his bed.
Fervent lips and a wicked heart
Are like an earthen vessel overlaid with silver dross.
(Prov. 26. 14, 23.)
The similitude was probably one of the earliest
forms of teaching employed by the wise. Peda-
gogically, it was one of the most effective, for it
associated the most important truths with the
commonest objects and experiences of life.
Riddles Among early peoples, as among children to-
day, riddles were greatly enjoyed. The element
of mystery and the appeal to the love of compe-
tition and of achievement attracted the attention
and held the interest of the young. The value
of this form of teaching was appreciated and ap-
propriated by the wise. Most of their riddles
have been lost, but in the thirtieth chapter of
Proverbs and in a few passages in Ben Sira,
remnants of these have been preserved, together
with their answers. They are also cast in the
Methods of the Wise Men 8l
poetic form, which characterizes practically all
of the wisdom literature. A question would be
propounded, as for example :
For what three things doth the earth tremble,
And for four which it cannot bear?
and the answer would be :
For a servant when he is king,
For a fool when he is filled with food;
For an odious woman when she is married ;
And a handmaid that is heir to her mistress.
(Prov. 30. 21-23.)
The question is simple, almost childish, and yet
one cannot fail to realize its superb adaptation
to the mental limitations of the ones taught and
to the didactic end desired. It is easy to im-
agine the spontaneous discussion that would
arise regarding the correct answer, and the im-
pression, all the more effective because uncon-
scious, which would be made upon the sage's
disciples.
Akin to the riddle was the paradox. Its Paradox
thought-provoking value was fully appreciated by
the wise and was probably frequently used by
them. It was developed by placing two anti-
thetic proverbs side by side, as, for example, in
Proverbs 26. 4, 5 :
Answer not a fool according tc his folly.
Lest thou also be made like him.
Answer a fool according to his folly,
I>est he be wise in his own conceit.
The parable was used by the prophets, as, for parabie
example, by Nathan in his condemnation of
David's sin. Isaiah also used the parable, when
he appeared before the corrupt rulers of Jeru-
82 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
salem, as recorded in the fifth chapter of his
prophecy. But the parable appears to have been
even more characteristic of the method of teach-
ing of the wise. Many such parables have been
handed down from the classrooms of the later
Jewish wise men. In its form and content the
parable is closely connected with the similitude,
for it represents the use of something real in life
or nature for the purpose of moral instruction.
Like the riddle and paradox, it appeals strongly
to the imagination, curiosity, and power of asso-
ciation, and provokes independent thought on
the part of the learner.
Gnomic Essay In dealing witli the larger questions of life
and morals the wise made use of their primary
literary unit, the proverb. By combining a va-
riety of proverbs, dealing with the same subject,
they were able to treat it on many sides. The
result was what may be called the gnomic essay,
of which there are several examples in the book
of Proverbs and many more in the writings of
Ben Sira and in the Wisdom of Solomon. In
some of these the wise teachers appeal efifectively
to the sense of the ridiculous, as, for example, in
Proverbs 26. 13-16:
The sluggard says : 'There is a roaring beast vv^ithout,
A lion is on the street."
The door turns on its hinges
And the sluggard in his bed.
The sluggard dips his hand into the dish —
To bring it to his mouth costs him an effort !
The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit
Than seven men who can answer intelligently !
In the elaborate gnomic essay regarding the
drunkard, found in Proverbs 23. 29-35, the effect-
Drama
Methods of the Wise Men 83
ive method of question and answer is combined
with tlie dialogue, making it the strongest treat-
ment of the subject to be found in the Old Testa-
ment. The most beautiful example of the gnomic
essay is the noble and elaborate description of
personified wisdom found in the eighth and ninth
chapters of Proverbs. The late book of Eccle-
siastes is a collection of similar essays dealing
with the more fundamental problems of the
meaning of human life and suffering and the re-
lation of God to his universe. The large body of
reflective psalms found in the Psalter are also
written from the point of view of the wise.
The highest product of the literary art of the Philosophical
wise is the philosophical drama found in the
book of Job. Taking an ancient prose story, the
great poet-sage, who was the author of the
present book of Job, has introduced, in a series
of powerful dialogues between Job and his
friends, a fundamental treatment of that most
difficult of all philosophical questions, the reason
why the righteous are allowed to suff'er. In a
series of dialogues the friends are made to re-
hearse the current solutions of this vexed prob-
lem, while Job, in his replies, points out the in-
sufficiency of these popular explanations. The
hero of the book then goes on to present the
problem of suffering in its most perplexing form
and to struggle with the larger question of how
a God who thus allows his innocent children to
suffer can himself be just and loving. The tran-
scendent poetic power of this unknown wisdom
teacher has been recognized by all ages. The
frankness and scientific accuracy with which he
84 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
presents the problem assures him a place among
the greatest philosophers of the world. It is,
however, his consummate didactic skill that com-
mands our highest admiration. The book of Job
stands as the supreme example to the religious
teacher of the absolute importance of recogniz-
ing frankly the grave and perplexing problems
of life and of meeting them, not by dogmatic
assertions but, if need be, by a confession of in-
ability to give a final and satisfactory answer.
It is significant, however, that although the
author of the book of Job offers no final solution
of the problem of innocent sufifering, he does far
more : he leads his perplexed, baffled, and at times
intemperate hero out into the great world of
nature. There confronted by the marvelous phe-
nomena of God's tmiverse. Job's spirit is soothed,
his problem is almost forgotten, and his faith
rises triumphant over his doubts, until at last he
declares :
I know that thou canst do all things,
And that no purpose of thine can be restrained.
Who is this that hideth counsel without knowledge?
Why have I uttered that which I understood not,
Things too wonderful for me which I knew not ?
Hear, I beseech thee, and I will speak;
I will demand of thee, and declare thou to me.
I had heard of thee by the hearing of the ear;
But now mine eye seeth thee ;
Therefore I abhor myself,
And repent in dust and ashes. (Job. 42. 2-6.)
Perennial It is clcar, in the light of the study of their
Significance of ^j^-^^g ^^^ mcthods, that tlic wisc men of ancient
the\Vise . 1 c ^i r
Israel are, m a very true sense, the fathers ot
the present religious educational movement. That
for which the modern Sunday school stands is
Methods of the Wise Men 85
new only in certain details of its organization.
Every religious teacher also has much to learn
from these early lovers and teachers of men.
They were keenly alive to the importance of a
close sympathetic touch with those whom the\'
aimed to teach. They recognized and applied the
great truth that the early impressionable years
of childhood and youth present by far the most
promising opportunities for shaping ideals and
habits and for molding character. They realized
that the aim of their work was not only instruc-
tion but education, and that true education was
the development of the whole man. Therefore
all that concerned and influenced the individual
was of divine significance. They were keenly
alive to the importance of appealing to the in-
terest, imagination and curiosity of their dis-
ciples. They also utilized with remarkable skill
the power of association. They possessed the
rare art of putting their teachings in simple,
vivid, and yet universal form, so that they be-
came the teachers, not only of their own age, but
of all generations. Finally their zeal to reach
out and help the simple and inexperienced and
tempted and to make strong, efficient men and
women is a perennial guide and inspiration to all
who would undertake the divinest of tasks, the
making of men.
IX
The Preexilic
Scribes
Influence of the
Exile on the
Scribes
THE HISTORY AND AIMS OF THE SCRIBES
AND RABBIS
The earliest reference in the Old Testament
to the scribes as a class is found in Jeremiah
8. 8:
How can you say.^ "We are wise, and the law of Jehovah
is with us"?
But, behold, the deceptive pen of the scribes hath
rendered it deceptive.
The Hebrew word interpreted "scribes" means,
literally, nioi of books, that is, the editors and
interpreters as well as the copyists of the writ-
ings of Israel's earlier teachers. In this im-
portant passage Jeremiah condemns those who,
in the name of Closes, set the law, which they
have freely revised, above the spoken words of
the prophet. This reference, as well as the ex-
• istence of the preexilic writings, shows clearly
that scribes were found in Israel before the days
of the Babylonian exile. Like the scribes of
Babylonia and Egypt, they probably belonged to
the priestly class and their work was purely
literary.
The Babylonian exile wrought a great revolu-
tion in Israel's internal organization, as well as
in its life and thought. Contact with the intense
literary activity of the Babylonians and the con-
stant use of writing as a means of communica-
tion between the scattered exiles and their new;
86
History of the Scribes and Rabbis 87
appreciation of their ancient writings trans-
formed the Jews into a Hterary people. The de-
struction of the temple and the overthrow of the
nation not only left the priestly class without
occupation, but also called for a written formu-
lation of the customary laws and institutions
which had hitherto been transmitted orally and
constantly illustrated by practice. Hence the
work of the scribe suddenly became of the high-
est importance, for Israel's inherited traditions,
laws, and institutions constituted the strongest
bond that, during this period of severe stress
and trial, kept alive the faith and preserved the
integrity of the race. The result was that many
of the more faithful priests became scribes and
devoted themselves to the task of copying, unify-
ing, and codifying their inherited laws and tra-
ditions. The changed conditions which followed
the destruction of Jerusalem and the nation also
made necessary new laws, fitted to meet these
needs. The task of expanding the older laws
and of applying the principles of the prophets to
the altered life and point of view of the people
fell naturally to these priestly scribes.
When the canon of the written law was finally Extension of the
closed, some time after 400 B. C, the expansion influence and
- , ' . , , . , . - , ^ Functions of the
of the law contmued, but m the form of oral tra- scribes
ditions, which were transmitted by word of
mouth from generation to generation, until they
were ultimately committed to writing about the
end of the second century of the Christian era.
They were then known as the Mishna, or sec-
ond version of the law\ Thus there arose in
the centuries immediately following the Baby-
88 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Ionian exile a large and powerful class of scribes,
whose influence in the Judean community over-
shadowed that of the prophets and the priests.
Probably the majority of the scribes still came
from the ranks of the priests. The high priest,
Simon the Just, who lived about 300 B. C, was
one of the most famous of these earlier scribes.
But as time went on laymen were to be found
more and more in their ranks, and the distinction
between the priestly class and the scribes became
more clearly drawn. In this reorganization the
scribes largely assumed the teaching functions of
the earlier priests. As the written law grew in
importance and in public esteem, its custodians
were naturally regarded as its interpreters. The
scribes were also keenly alive to the necessity of
inculcating the truths in the minds of the people
as well as of interpreting the specific laws.
Ezra the Typical The portrait of Ezra, found in the seventh
chapter of the book which bears his name, is
typical of the class: ''He was a scribe skilled in
the law of Moses, which Jehovah the God of
Israel had given. . . . And he came to Jerusalem,
since the good Lord was with him, for Ezra had
set his heart to seek the law of Jehovah and ob-
serve it, and to teach in Israel its statutes." The
account of his work which follows illustrates
clearly the aims and methods of these early
scribes. He is represented first as appealing in
powerful exhortation to the feelings and con-
sciences of the people, and then as arousing the
community to adopt the new law-book which he
brought with him, even though it meant great
sacrifice. In carrying through this sweeping
Scribe
History of the Scribes and Rabbis 89
reformation, the law-book was read before the
people and interpreted to them. The account of
this ancient synagogue service also contains a
long and fervent prayer in which the lessons
taught by Israel's earlier experiences as a nation
are reviewed and the people led to make a com-
mon confession of their guilt.
It was almost inevitable, as a result of the in-
creasing emphasis which Judaism placed upon
the written law, that the wdse men or sages
should ultimately be drawn into the ranks of the
scribes. In his description of the typical wise
men Ben Sira (about 200 B. C.) furnishes clear
evidence that in his day this process was far ad-
vanced. He significantly remarks that:
The wisdom of the scribe comes by opportunity of
leisure,
He that is relieved from business shall become wise.
He then goes on to point out how impossible it
is for the farmer, the ox-driver, the artificer, and
the other manual workers in the community
to acquire the learning of the scribe. He con-
cludes :
All these put their trust in their hands ;
And each becomes wise in his own work.
Without these a city cannot be inhabited,
And men cannot sojourn or walk up and down therein.
They shall not be sought for in the council of the
people,
And in the assembly they shall not mount on high;
They shall not sit on the seat of the judge,
And they shall not understand the covenant of judg-
ment ;
Neither shall they declare instruction and judgment;
And where parables are they shall not be found.
But they will maintain the fabric of the world;
And in the handiwork of their craft is their prayer.
(B. Sir. 38. 31-34.)
Transformation
of the Wise into
Scribes
90 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Influence of the
Scribes in the
Maccabean and
Roman Periods
By the beginning" of the Christian era the wise
had completely passed over into the ranks of
the scribes. Henceforth the term zvise is con-
stantly used as the designation of the famous
scribes or rabbis. This fusion of the earlier wise
with the scribes greatly enriched and broadened
the thought and methods of the latter. In the
reported teachings that have been handed down
from the scribes and rabbis there is a large
didactic element relating to the common prob-
lems of humanity. In the epigrammatic, gnomic
form in which many of the later scribes put their
teachings it is also easy to recognize the power-
ful influence of the sages. This broader human
element remains the permanent contribution of
the scribes to the world's religious heritage.
Under the later Maccabean rulers the scribes
became so numerous and their influence" so
strong that they were granted representation in
the Sanhedrin, the great legislative and judicial
body of the Jewish state. From the reference in
I Maccabees 7. 12, 13, it is clear that the scribes
from the first were closely associated with the
Pharisees. Doubtless there were Sadducean
scribes, but most of these later interpreters and
teachers of the law belonged to the more popular
party of the Pharisees. In the New Testament
the terms are used almost interchangeably. It is
probable that the great majority, if not all
of the Pharisees, were also scribes. The fidelity
of the scribal class to the law, as is illus-
trated by the story of the martyrdom of the aged
scribe, Eleazer, in 2 Maccabees 6. 12-31, en-
deared them to the people and gave them that
History of the Scribes and Rabbis 9 1
position of commanding influence which the}*
en joyed during the New Testament period. This
influence was increased by the zeal with which
they devoted themselves to the task of instructing
the people in the details of the law. The great
majority of them were doubtless inspired by a
noble purpose. Their aims and ambitions be-
came those of the nation. In realizing these
aims in the lives of the people their work was
certainly crowned with success.
Jewish wu'iters recognize three distinct stages The Early
in the history of scribism. The first, beginning sophenm
with Ezra and extending to the Alaccabean
period (450 to 150 B. C), is represented by the
Sopherim, or scribes. A'ery little is known about
the personality and work of these early teachers.
A few characteristic teachings attributed to them
are found in the opening sections of the Mishna,
known as the Ahoth, or Sayings of the Fathers.
Their great task was the completing and editing
of the written laws of the Old Testament and
the closing of the legal canon. From them also
comes the suggestive precept, ''Raise tip dis-
ciples," indicating that they were teachers as
well as revisers and interpreters of the law. To
this early group belonged the high priest, Simon
the Just, to whom is attributed the characteristic
teaching: "On three things the world is stayed:
on the Torah, and on worship, and on the be-
stowal of kindnesses." He was followed by
Antigonos of Soclio, who lived late in the Greek
period. He is the author of the noble teaching,
''Be not as slaves who minister to the lord with
a view to reward, but be as slaves who minister
92 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
The Pairs of
Teachers
Hillel and
Shammai
to the master without a view to receiving a re-
ward" (Aboth I. 3).
The second period is represented by the
Zugoth, or Pairs, who labored during the later
part of the Maccabean and the earlier part of the
Roman age (150-10 B. C). The names of five
such pairs of teachers are preserved in the rab-
binical literature. Many precepts and sayings
are attributed to them. Each appears to have
gathered about himself a large following of dis-
ciples.
The most famous pair was Hillel (the Elder)
and Shammai (The Elder), who flourished a
little before the beginning of the Christian era.
Hillel was born in Babylon and, although, ac-
cording to tradition, a descendant of the royal
house of David, he was forced to struggle with
poverty during his earlier years. It is said that
he was forty years of age before he came to
Jerusalem for the purpose of studying the law
under the great teachers of his day, Shemaiah
and Abtalyon. It is related that on one occasion,
lacking the fee required for entrance to the
rabbinical college, he climbed up on the window
sill in order to hear the lectures. There he be-
came so interested in listening that he did not
notice the snow which fell upon him. At last
the attention of those inside was attracted by the
early darkening of the room. On investigation
they found him insensible with the cold and with
difficulty restored him to consciousness. Hillel
became the founder of a famous school which
was very influential in the development of Jewish
national character and faith. He was noted foe
History of the Scribes and RaiDbis 93
his meekness, tolerance and breadth of view,
while his rival, Shammai, was exceedingly con-
servative and possessed of a hasty temper. To
him is attributed the saying, "Make thy Torah a
fixed thing, say little and do much, and receive
every man with a cheerful countenance" (Aboth
I. 15). Hillel was the author of the famous
summary of the law which is so often compared
with that of Jesus: "What is hateful to thyself,
do not to thy fellow-man ; this is the whole
Torah, the rest is only commentary" (Shabbath
30b). The discussions between these two great
teachers and the schools founded by them fill
many pages of the Talmud and reflect the widely
different beliefs and points of view of the
Judaism of the day.
The third period is represented by the Tdii-
naim, or teachers, who flourished during the
first two centuries of the Christian era. To these
for the first time was given the title Rabbi, my
Master, or simply, Rabban, Master. The rabbis,
therefore, were the great teachers who rose from
the ranks of the scribes. It was a term of honor
and distinction, being derived from the Hebrew
word meaning great. The best known rabbis
were Gamaliel (the Elder), a son or grandson of
Hillel, Johanan, also of the school of Hillel, who
founded the famous rabbinical school at Jamnia,
and Gamaliel H, who succeeded Johanan.
The activity of the scribes was so many-sided Aims of the
that it is difficult briefly to formulate their aims. Scribes
Their first aim was to interpret and to apply the
teachings of Israel's earlier teachers to the life
and needs of their own day. Their second aim,
The Later
Teachers
94 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
akin to the first, was to rear up a nation which
should conform in every detail to the demands
of the Torah, which they held to be the full and
complete expression of the will of Jehovah. To
this end they aimed, in the first place, to regulate
in minutest detail the conduct of each individual,
and thus to make servants of God by producing
servants of the law. Finally they aimed to train
up disciples who as teachers would carry on this
work and realize in the life of the nation the will
of Jehovah, as defined by the law. While the
scribes were interested in the individual, they
were preeminently interested in attaining their
ideal through the nation. This ideal was con-
crete and definite, yet from its very nature im-
possible of complete realization ; for an extreme
emphasis upon law obscures fundamental prin-
ciples and arrests the development of that in-
dividual moral and spiritual sense which is the
essence of all religious progress and growth.
X
THE METHODS OF THE SCRIBES AND RABBIS
The scribes, like the earlier wise, depended The Great
almost exclusively on teaching- for the realiza- Opportunity of
•^ *. the Scribes
tion of their aims. They occupied a unique van-
tage ground for performing their tasks. They
enjoyed the highest respect and regard of the
people. They were the custodians of the law and
its authoritative interpreters. They were fully
represented in the Sanhedrin, the great adminis-
trative, legislative, and judicial body of their na-
tion. They were thus able as legislators to enact
laws, as lawyers to interpret them, as judges to
apply them, and as the chief rulers of their people
to execute them. To this was added the even
more potent function of teacher, in that they
were able to inculcate the laws into the minds of
the people and thus through the will to control
the springs of action. Powerless in the grasp of
imperial Rome, spurred on by contact Vv^ith the
great civilizations of the ancient world, the
Jewish race was in a uniquely receptive attitude
toward the message of its great teachers. The
interest and belief in educational methods was
never stronger in any other age or race except
possibly among the civilized Christian races of
to-day.
The scribes, heirs of the earlier wise, showed
themselves masters of most of the so-called
''modern" pedagogical principles. That they did
not fully realize their aims was not because of
Their W^eakness
not as Teachers
but as"
Interpreters
96 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Their Direct
Instruction of
the People
Public
Discussion
the defects in their methods. The causes lay
deeper. It was as interpreters of the law that
they suffered from the lack of the as yet unborn
historical and scientific spirit. The loose, alle-
gorizing methods, inherited from the Greeks
through Alexandria, led them far afield from the
true meaning of their scriptures. Fanciful con-
jecture— a characteristic Oriental heritage — too
often took the place of logical reasoning. It was
as interpreters, therefore, and not as teachers,
that the Jewish rabbis failed.
As teachers the scribes and the rabbis appear
to have touched the mass of the people directly
in three ways. The first was as readers and in-
terpreters of the law in connection with the
synagogue service. Mark i. 22 contains a sug-
gestive reference to this practice. Although the
service in the synagogue was thoroughly demo-
cratic, when a learned scribe was present, he,
like Jesus at Nazareth, was undoubtedly asked
to read and explain the passages from the law
and the prophets which were read each Sabbath
in connection with the synagogue service. Thus
a rare opportunity was given them to teach the
young as well as the leaders of the community.
The second means was through the primary
S3'nagogue schools which, according to tradition,
were established near the close of the Macca-
bean period. The third opportunity was through
their disciples who came to them in great num-
bers and in turn went forth as teachers of the
people.
In teaching the young disciples, the scribes,
especially the great rabbis, showed remarkable
Answer
Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis 97
skill and versatility. One common method was by
piiblic discussion between the masters of the
different schools. These discussions were ex-
ceedingly free and the most varied opinions were
expressed. Often, the subjects considered were
trivial, but frequently they dealt with the most
fundamental principles of faith and practice. By
this method a theme was treated from many
points of view and the individual was obliged to
use his own judgment in arriving at the final
conclusion.
The rabbis also depended largely on the Question and
method of question and answer. Seated upon a
raised platform, usually within the temple pre-
cincts, with their disciples gathered about them,
these skilled teachers of Judaism always held
themselves open to questions and frequently
in turn presented concrete cases for discussion
and treatment by their disciples. Alany illustra-
tions are found in the Talmud of this seminar
method. A disciple once inquired of his teacher,
''What is real wisdom?" The teacher replied,
"To judge liberally, to live purely, and to love
thy neighbor." Another teacher, possibly influ-
enced by the Socratic philosophy, answered,
''The greatest wisdom is to know thyself." The
following are some of the typical questions pro-
pounded and the answers given by the members
of this school: ''Who gains wisdom? He who is
willing to receive instruction from all sources.
Who is the mighty man? He who subdues his
temper. \Mio is rich? He who is content with
his lot. \M"io is deserving of honor? He who
honors mankind. How can you escape sin?
98 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Memorization
Exact Verbal
Reproduction
of the Master's
Teaching
Think of three things : whence you corne, whither
you go, and before whom you must appear."
The rabbis depended wholly upon oral instruc-
tion. Until near the close of the second Chris-
tian century, the rabbinic authorities were all op-
posed to committing the oral law to writing.
The result was that the rabbis cast most of their
teachings in brief, often epigrammatic form so
that they could be easily remembered. They
placed great emphasis upon memorization. Their
ideal disciple was one "quick to hear, and slow
to forget" (Aboth 5. 18). "When a scholar of
the wise sits and studies and forgets a word of
his Mishna, they account it to him as worthy of
death" (Aboth 3. 12) was one of the favorite
maxims of the rabbinical school.
The disciples were also strenuously warned
not to teach, in form or content, anything differ-
ent from what they had learned from their
masters. In this latter injunction is foimd one
of the chief defects of the rabbinical teaching.
It destroyed all originality and checked the ex-
pression of personal conviction, which constitutes
the great charm and power of a real teacher. It
explains the surprise of the multitude that Jesus
"taught with authority and not as the scribes."
This rule was well calculated to preserve intact
the heritage of the past, but it was fatal to the
development of the true religion, which must be
constantly adjusted to the point of view and
needs of each succeeding generation. It was be-
cause the great rabbis themselves disobeyed this
injunction that Judaism is to-day a living and
developing religion.
Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis 99
the Halachic
Type of
Teaching
To aid the memory and the imagination the stones, or the
scribes frequently illustrated their teachings by ^^^^^^^^^J/^^
means of stories. These were most commonly
used in connection with their explanation of the
historical and didactic books. This blend of doc-
trinal teachings, exhortations, parables, and sto-
ries is called Hdggddd, and constitutes a large
part of the Talmud, which, with its twelve huge
volumes, is a compendium of rabbinic teachings.
The rabbis put a large part of their teachings orai Laws, or
in the form of concise precepts. By their con-
temporaries and later generations these oral laws
were regarded as supplemental to the written
law and of equal authority with it. These pre-
cepts and legal traditions were known as the
Halacha, literally, zvay, that is, usage, rule. This
was the fence, or hedge, which the rabbis sought
to construct about the written law. By means of
these oral laws they endeavored to answer every
possible question that might arise in regard to
conduct, so that an infringement of any of the
written laws, in spirit or in letter, would be im-
possible. The aim was excellent, but in practice
this method broke down with its own weight. It
loaded the race with a mass of enactments which
obscured the really vital principles and blunted
the individual's sense of right and wrong.
In the midst, however, of a mass of petty rules Precepts
there are found many noble moral precepts, some
legal and some embodying the fruits of universal
human experience. The latter are the product of
the fusion of the wise men and the scribes. In
depth of thought, in beauty of form, and in per-
ennial value many of them are comparable with
1 OO Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
the teachings of the Old and "New Testament.
'Three friends," said the rabbis, ''has man : God,
his father, and his mother. 'He who honors his
parents,' saith God, 'honors me, even as though
I Hved among them.' " Again they taught, "The
place honors not the man, it is the man who gives
honor to the place." "He who mixes with un-
clean things becomes unclean himself ; he whose
associations are pure becomes more holy each
day." "Despise no man and deem nothing im-
possible ; every man has his hour, and everything
its place." "Men should be careful lest they
cause women to weep, for God counts their
tears." "He who possesses a knowledge of God
and a knowledge of man, will not easily commit
sin." "The best preacher is the heart; the best
teacher is time ; the best book is the world ; the
best friend is God." "He who is loved by man,
is loved by God." One of these precepts vividly
recalls the teaching of Jesus: "Alan sees the
mote in his neighbor's eye, but knows not of the
beam in his own."
Proverbs The provcrb was also a favorite form of teach-
ing of the rabbis. In this respect, as in many
others, they showed themselves the faithful dis-
ciples of the earlier wise. Thus they taught:
If a word spoken in its time is worth one piece of
money,
Silence in its time is worth two.
Another voices that high appreciation of indus-
try and honest labor which has always char-
acterized the Jew :
Rather skin a carcass for pay in the public streets,
Than lie idly dependent on charity.
Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis 1 0 1
Another proverb reveals a keen appreciation of
human nature, and recalls the brilliant aphorism
of the book of Proverbs concerning the fool:
The foolish man knows not an insult.
Neither does a dead man feel the cutting of a knife.
Also:
There are three crowns: of the law, the priesthood, and
the kingship ;
But the crown of a good name is greater than them all.
The following proverb also expresses that high
estimate of primary education which was the
glory of the Jewish race :
The world is saved by the breath of school children ;
Even to rebuild the temple, the schools must not be
closed.
The scribes were also adepts in putting their Epigrams
thought in epigrammatic form. Thus they
taught :
The ass complains of the cold even in July.
A small coin in a large jar makes a great noise.
The sun will set without thy assistance.
Commit a sin twice and it will not seem to thee a
crime.
What is intended for thy neighbor will never be thine.
A thief who finds no opportunity to steal, considers
himself an honest man.
The rabbis also appreciated the value of prayer prayer
as a vital factor in the education of their dis-
ciples. They not only taught their disciples cer-
tain prayers, but gave many wise teachings con-
cerning the nature of prayer :
Look not on thy prayers as on a task;
I^et thy supplications be sincere,
1 02 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
To pray loudly is not a necessity of devotion ;
When we pray we must direct our hearts toward
heaven.
One need not stand upon a high place to pray,
For it is written, "Out of the depths have I called to
thee, O Lord."
Prayer is Israel's only weapon,
A weapon inherited from its fathers ;
A weapon proved in a thousand battles.
To make their teachings impressive, the rabbis
sometimes put them into the form of woes and
beatitudes, as did the Great Teacher of Naza-
reth :
Woe to the country which has lost its leader;
Woe to the ship when its captain is no more.
The Rabbi Johanan also taught :
Happy are you, O, sons of Israel ;
As long as you perform the will of God, naught can
conquer you ;
But if you fail to fulfill his wishes, even the cattle are
superior to you.
The following beatitude is of profound and prac-
tical significance:
Blessed is the son who has studied with his father,
And blessed is the father who has instructed his son.
The scribes and rabbis made a large use of the
parable as a means of illustrating their teachings.
Alany of them are suggestive of Jesus's use of
the similar literary form. Rabbi Levi, in illus-
trating the meaning of the proverb, "Wisdom is
too high for a fool" (Prov. 24. 7), related the
following parable : "A man once hired two serv-
ants to fill a basket with water. One of them
said, 'Why should I continue this useless labor?
I put water in on one side, and it immediately
Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis 1 03
leaks out of the other; what profit is it?' The
other workman, who was wise, repHed, 'We have
tlie profit of the reward which we receive for our
labor.' It is the same in studying the law. One
man says, 'What does it profit me to study the
law, when I must ever continue it or else forget
what I have learned?' But the other man re-
plies, 'God will reward us for the will which we
display, even though we do forget.' "
The famous Rabbi Jehuda, who lived between
136 and 217 A. D., to illustrate the fact that a
man must be judged alike for the acts of his soul
and the acts of his body, gave the following par-
able : "There was once a king who had a charm-
ing park in which were beautiful fruit trees. He
placed in charge of this park two watchers ; one
was lame and the other blind. Then the lame
man said to the blind : 'I see beautiful fruit in
the park. Come, take me up on your shoulder
and we will get some of the fruit and eat.' Then
the lame stood on the shoulder of the blind man
and they brought down some fruit and ate it.
After some time the owner of the park came.
He said to them : 'Where are the beautiful first
fruits?' Then the lame man said to him: 'Have
I any legs with which to climb?' The blind
man said to him : 'Have I any eyes with which
to see^' What did the owner of the park do?
He made the lame man stand on the shoulders of
the blind man and thus judged them both to-
gether."
Another favorite form of teaching with the Allegories
rabbis was the allegory. Each factor in the
story symbolized some phase of truth. While it
1 04 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
commanded the interest and aroused the thought
of the pupils, the aUegory usuahy required in-
terpretation. The fohowing is an example of
this literary form of teaching: "A traveler upon
his journey passed through the forest upon a
dark and gloomy night. He journeyed in dread;
he feared the robbers who infested the route he
was traversing. He feared that he might fall
into some unseen ditch or pitfall on the way, and
he feared, too, the wild beasts, which were about
him. By chance he discovered a pine torch, and
lighted it, and its gleams afforded him great
relief. He no longer feared brambles or pit-
falls, for he could see the way before him. But
the dread of robbers and wild beasts was still
upon him, nor left him until the morning's dawn,
the coming of the sun. Still he was tmcertain of
his way, until he emerged from the forest and
reached the crossroads, when peace returned to
his heart.
Interpretation *'The darkuess in which this man walked was
the lack of religious knowledge. The torch he
discovered typifies God's precepts, which aided
him on his way until he obtained the blessed sun-
light, compared to God's holy word, the Bible.
Still, while the man is in the forest (the world),
he is not entirely at peace ; his heart is faint, and
he may lose the right path ; but when he reaches
the crossroads (death), then we may proclaim
him truly righteous, and exclaim : 'A good name
is more fragrant than rich perfume, and the day
of death is better than the day of one's birth.' "
No one can deny the value of the teaching
methods of the scribes, nor the sincerity and de-
Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis 1 05
votion of many of their number. Their weak- strength and
nesses are equally patent. Their eves were Weakness of the
1 . 11 , ,' 1 Teaching of the
turned too much to the past rather than to the scribes
present and future. Their teachings lacked that
note of authority and originality which comes
from a close touch with the vital problems and
needs of mankind. Forgetting the teachings of
the earlier prophets, they exalted the ritual and
ceremonial acts above character and deeds. They
exemplified their own aphorism : "Unhappy is
he who mistakes the branch for the tree, the
shadow for the substance." Many of them, how-
ever, placed a strong emphasis upon moral acts
and character, as is well illustrated by the teach-
ing: "He that has more learning than good deeds
is like a tree with many branches but weak roots ;
the first great storm will throw it to the ground.
He whose good works are greater than his
knowledge is like a tree with fewer branches but
with strong and spreading roots, a tree which all
the winds of heaven cannot uproot." They made
the further mistake of defining religion, not as
the personal relation of the individual toward
God, but as conformity to certain detailed laws.
Above all, they made the mistake common to
the teachers of many religions, of not distin-
guishing clearly between that which was vital
and eternal and that which was trivial and
ephemeral.
The great need of Judaism, therefore, was for The Great Need
some one to distinguish between the gold and of Judaism
the dross in their inherited teachings, to adapt
these ancient teachings to the lives of the masses,
to shake off the clouding casuistry of the schools,
1 o6 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
and to present the teachings simply and directly.
A great teacher was needed to speak positively
and with authority, to arouse within the hearts
of men a deep love for God and an unselfish
enthusiasm for his service, to inspire the common
people with faith in their own powers and to set
before them definite and practical ways in which
they could express their religious devotion.
Most of all, the race and age needed one who'
w^ould teach not merely by w'ord but by deed,
demonstrating in his ow^n character and life the
vital, eternal truths hidden in Israel's sacred
writings. In Jesus of Nazareth that ancient
Torah found its complete expression and fulfill-
ment.
XI
THE TRAINING AND AHIS OF THE GREAT
TEACHER
To the men of his day Jesus was known under jesus's Different
three different titles. By many he was addressed '^^^^^^
as The Physician, and in his work he certainly
proved himself a healer of men's bodies as well
as men's souls. This healing ministry, however,
was only a means to an end, and that end was
religious. By many he was called a Prophet, and
this title truly describes the spirit with which he
taught and the content of his message. He stood
on the platform of such great prophets as Amos,
Isaiah, and Jeremiah, and, like John the Baptist,
during the first part of his ministry preached
with great success and effectiveness. It is evi-
dent, however, that Jesus preached simply that
he might attract to himself those with whom he
might enter into the more intimate relation of
teacher and disciple.
Rabbi, or Teacher, is, therefore, the most exact Preeminently
and distinctive title which Jesus bore, and the one
most frequently on the lips of those closely asso-
ciated with him. Its counterpart is disciple or
learner, the word constantly used to describe
those whom he taught. Even the so-called
''Sermon on the Mount" is introduced by the
significant statement that ''when Jesus had sat"
"and his disciples had gathered about him, he
taught." The words which follow are the words
of a teacher rather than of a preacher.
107
the Teacher
1 o8 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
His Emphasis
Upon the
Teaching
Method
Gospel
Testimony
Regarding
His Youthful
Training
Jesus fully appreciated the importance of an
intimate acquaintance with those whom he taught.
His work illustrates the value of that personal
contact and close adaptation of the message to
those receiving it which distinguish the method
of the teacher from that of the preacher. The
record of Jesus's brief ministry bears strong testi-
mony to the fundamental emphasis which he
placed upon his work as a teacher. During the
closing days of his lifework he turned aside
almost completely from the multitudes, and,
abandoning the method of the preacher, devoted
himself to teaching the small group of disciples
who gathered about him. By this act Jesus prac-
tically said to all the world, "My method is pre-
eminently that of the teacher." The history of the
opening Christian centuries is the vindication of
the superlative wisdom and efifectiveness of
Jesus's method. The small group of disciples
upon whose minds he impressed his spirit, teach-
ings, and personality went forth as teachers and
within three or four -centuries conquered the
great Roman Empire. It is also important to
note that in the later history of Christianity the
periods of great advance have come when the
Church, as at the time of the Protestant Refor-
mation, has placed the Bible in the hands of the
masses and laid its supreme emphasis on the
teaching ministry.
The Gospels devote only a few verses to the
account of Jesus's training as a teacher. Their
testimony, however, is exceedingly valuable and
suggestive, for it states that "he advanced in
wisdom and stature, as well as in favor with God
Training and Aims of the Great Teacher 1 09
and man." This testimony leaves no doubt that
Jesus's growth in knowledge, experience, and
skill as a teacher was gradual and progressive,
even as was his. physical growth. This conclu-
sion is confirmed by the rare portrait of the boy
when at the age of twelve he went up with his
parents to worship at the temple. It reveals not
an egotistical youth, as some careless interpreters
would suggest, but a thoroughly normal boy,
keenly intent upon acquiring knowledge, improv-
ing to the fullest extent the opportunity offered
by asking questions of the accepted teachers of
his race. The insight and interest revealed by
his questions alone excited surprise. His zeal
for knowledge was so intense that in pursuit of
it he even called down upon his head the reproof
of his parents.
It takes little imagination, in the light of the influences of
records of Jesus's later work and teaching, to
trace the different influences which, in keeping
with God's good purpose, entered into the train-
ing of the Great Teacher. Nazareth, situated
in the midst of one of the garden lands of
Palestine, furnished a fitting background. Here
he was in closest touch with nature and the
exquisite revelations of God's divine care and
love for his children. The height just above the
town commanded a view of the wide, level plain
of Esdraelon, of Mount Gilboa, of the hills of
Samaria, and of Mount Carmel, jutting out into
the great sea at the west. To a loyal student of
Israel's past, this view suggested many of the
great battles and crises in Israel's unique history.
Nazareth itself, instead of being a provincial
Nazareth
I 1 0 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Of the Home at
Nazareth
Of the
Synagogue at
Nazareth
little town, was one of. the larger cities of Galilee.
It was intersected by the great highways
which ran across Galilee from the north and
east, and was only a few miles from Caper-
naum, the metropolis of the north. In Naz-
areth, the different currents of Semitic, Greek,
and Roman life and culture met and blended.
The town, with its teeming life, was like
Galilee, a type of the larger world to which
it belonged. The town itself still possessed the
characteristics of an oriental village, in which
the affairs of all its members were common
property and the book of life, revealing the vari-
ous human motives, temptations, ambitions, and
needs, was spread out wide before the eyes of
him who would read.
The home at Nazareth also presented even
greater opportunities for the intimate study of
the heart of man. Apparently the early death
of the father brought the oldest son, Jesus, to
a position of responsibility, and through the lips
of his brothers and sisters, and his strong love
and loyalty to them, he gained a perfect and
unique knowledge of the psychological char-
acteristics of man, so that, as one of the gospel
writers truly states, there was no need that any-
one should tell him what was in the heart of
men, for that knowledge was his already.
The Sabbath services at the synagogue intro-
duced him from early boyhood to the great writ-
ings of the prophets and the priests, and brought
to him the illuminating interpretations of resi-
dent and visiting scholars. It is probable also
that at this time the synagogue schools were al-
Training and Aims of the Great Teacher 1 1 I
ready established throughout the more important
cities of GaHlee, so that when Jesus at twelve
went up to Jerusalem he was accustomed to sit-
ting at the feet of the teachers of the law and
the prophets and of asking those questions which
aroused the admiration of the bystanders.
Jesus lived in a literary age, and there is little of Israel's
doubt that he was able to read and had access to ^^^'^
the scriptures of his race. At every point he
shows thorough acquaintance with these ancient
writings. It is the acquaintance not merely of
the hearer, but of the student. Jesus was so
familiar with the contents of Israel's law, that
in answer to the sudden question, "Which is the
great commandment in the law?" he was able to
synthesize the entire ancient system by singling
out two laws, one in Deuteronomy 6. 5 and the
other in Leviticus 19. 18, which embodied all that
was most vital in the legal literature of his race.
With the events of Israel's history he was of the Historical
intimately acquainted. The words and messages and Prophetic
of prophets, like Isaiah and Jeremiah, were on
his lips and in his heart. Although there is little
direct evidence, it is clear that the marvelous
ideal of service contained in the fortieth and
following chapters of Isaiah exerted a great
influence in shaping the ideals of the young man
of Nazareth. In all his lifework and teaching
he illustrated that conception of unselfish, un-
flinching service which hesitated not in the face
of misunderstanding, opposition, and shame, but
was ready to give all in order to touch the hearts
of men and so lead them into intelligent love
and service of the Divine Father.
Of the Psalms
and Wisdom
Books
Of the Methods
of the Sages
Use of Proverbs
Question and
Answer
1 1 2 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
In the great crises of his hfe his feehngs were
expressed in the language of those psahriists who
had, hke himself, passed through the shadow of
the valley of death. The sages, also, exerted a
powerful influence upon the one who described
himself as ''the greater than Solomon." In many
of the Old Testament proverbs are found those
figures and germinal ideas which are so exqui-
sitely developed in the familiar parables of the
New Testament.
It was, however, in the form of his teachings
that Jesus drew most from the sages, of Israel's
past. Like them, he spoke not to the nation but
to the individual. His appeal was to the young
as well as to the old. He endeavored by the lit-
erary form as well as by the content of his teach-
ings to arrest men's attention, to kindle their
imagination, and to shape their ideals.
During the early part of his ministry most of
his teachings were cast in the form of proverbs
which stick forever in the memory. Thus he
declared :
If any one would be first.
Let him of all be the last,
And of all the servant.
Salt is good, but if salt lose its saltness
Wherewith will ye salt it?
Have salt in yourselves.
And have peace with each other.
The stirring figures of speech which he used,
as, for example, "the leaven of the Pharisees,"
or, "sounding the trumpet before thee," or the
"lost sheep of the house of Israel," suggest the
pregnant symbols employed by Israel's sages.
Training and Aims of the Great Teacher 1 1 3
Like the sages and rabbis, he also frequently
flung a question into the midst of his disciples to
arouse their interest and to make them think.
''Who do the multitudes say that I am?" is fol-
lowed by the still more suggestive question, *'But
what say ye that I am?"
Like the sage who has given us the first psalm Beatitudes
with its opening beatitude, Jesus also endeavored
to set definite goals before his disciples, and, like
the ancient decalogue-makers, to embody in a
few vivid statements the essential truths of life.
A beatitude was in its original form an exclama-
tory sentence which left little opportunity for
difference or discussion. It simply called atten-
tion to a fundamental principle of life, as, for
example, "Oh, the blessedness of the pure in
heart, for they shall see God," or (as it may
riiore properly be read in the original), "for they,
indeed, are seeing God" ; or, "Oh, the blessed-
ness of the whole-makers, the harmony-makers,
the completeness-makers (developing the original
meaning of the Aramaic verb), for they shall be
called, and indeed are, the children of God."
Sometimes, like the rabbis, Jesus taught his Prayers
disciples prayers to guide them, to inculcate the
spirit of worship, and to embody the essence of
his teaching.
During the latter part of his ministry he com- Parables
monly employed the parable, which was really an
amplified comparison and contained a story in-
tended to set forth a definite spiritual lesson. Its
aim was not to conceal but to reveal truth. It is
important to note that a parable is not an alle-
gory with all parts equally . symbolic and signi-
Allegories
Paradoxes
Hyperboles
Debt to Earlier
Teachers
1 I 4 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
ficant, but that it simply emphasizes one central
teaching. Thus, for example, in the story of the
sower who went out to sow, the whole emphasis
is on the importance of the right disposition and
use of true instruction.
It is only in the Fourth Gospel that the reader
gains the impression that Jesus at times used
the allegory, as, for example, that of the true
vine with its branches, in which a definite signifi-
cance is attributed to each element.
Like the sages, Jesus also appreciated the value
of the paradox as a means of arousing men's
curiosity and compelling them to think. Thus,
he declared, ''Whoever wishes to save his life
will lose it," and "Whoever for my sake and for
the sake of the gospel will lose his life shall
save it" ; or, ''If anyone wishes to be first, he
must be last of all and servant of all."
Finally, in his zeal to emphasize that which was
vital, Jesus did not hesitate to use the hyperbole,
as, for example, the figure of the camel passing
through the eye of a needle, or of cutting off the
hand if it proved a snare. He trusted to his
teaching at other times to correct the wrong im-
pression that might be conveyed through the use
of the hyperbole.
Thus, while Jesus blended all that was vital
and eternal in the teachings of prophets, priests,
and sages and brought their imperfect teachings
to perfect expression, he employed most fre-
quently the methods and literary forms of those
quiet, earnest lovers of men, the sages of ancient
Israel.
In formulating Jesus's aims as a teacher one
Training and Aims of the Great Teacher I 1 5
is impressed with the absence in the oldest records Definiteness
of any aUusion to certain aims which have in ^^^
. ' . . 11-111 Concreteness
the past been given a central place m the thought of His Aims
and creeds of many of the Christian churches.
There is no suggestion, for example, of an en-
deavor to appease an angry God. The God of
Jesus's teaching was the Father revealed in the
parable of the Prodigal Son, intensely eager
to receive back and pardon the sinner if only he
turned in the attitude of sincere repentance. As
Jesus himself distinctly declared, his mission was
primarily to "the lost sheep of the house of
Israel." These were the humble, common people
of Judea and Galilee, who because of their occu-
pations and lack of knowledge and training were
unable to conform to the rigorous, almost im-
possible demands of the ceremonial laws of later
Judaism. His mission, therefore, was not some-
thing abstract and impersonal, but to teach and
help certain men and women whose great moral
and spiritual needs appealed to him and whose
lives he was able to transform, and through their
transformed lives to teach and so reach humanity.
Hence Jesus's first aim was to save certain Aimed to
men and women, some of whose names w^e know, deliver Men
from the pain and physical suffering which handi-
capped them in the quest of that greater happi-
ness which he declared to be one of the supreme
goals of life.
In the second place, he aimed to save them to Give Them
from that ignorance of God's character and pur- the La^rger and
poses which could be dispelled only by true
knowledge. As a result of the changed political
conditions amid which thev found themselves
Truer Idea of
God
1 1 6 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
To Inspire a
Serene Trust in
God
To Help Men to
Overcome Their
Individual
Temptations
in the days following the exile, the Jews, and
even their acknowledged teachers, had largely
lost sight of the God of the earlier prophets.
Jehovah, like the monarchs who ruled from dis-
tant Persia or Rome, was conceived of as living
apart from his people and communicating with
them only through his angelic messengers. His
demands were also interpreted largely in the
terms of form and ceremony and ritual, so that
ordinary men and women had little hope of enter-
ing into the presence of this Divine King of
popular belief. Jesus aimed, therefore, to sweep
aside this barrier and, again like the ancient
prophets, to introduce each individual to the
Divine Father. He sought to present God as
the embodiment of truth and love, the one su-
preme personality seeking to express himself not
merely in the realm of external nature, but
through the hearts and lives of faithful men and
women.
Jesus's third aim was to save men from false
and paralyzing fears, to teach them to take no
anxious thought of the morrow, to recognize the
harmonious purpose which guided all life, ever
to trust implicitly the all-wise and loving Father,
and thus to find peace and harmony and strength.
His fourth aim was to save men from yielding
to the temptations which come thick and fast
to every man and woman ; to help them to over-
come the passions which swept over them ; to save
the haughty tax-collector from his greed; the
woman of the streets from those influences that
had laid an almost irresistible hold upon her, and
to enable strong men, like Judas Iscariot, to listen
Training and Aims of the Great Teacher 1 1 7
to the higher and diviner ideals that were striig-
ghng within them against the lower ideals and
tendencies. He sought to save men from that
selfishness and pettiness which was character-
istic of the life of the fishermen, and of the men
who tilled the fields, and to implant within them
nobler and transforming ideals, that thus they
might have life, and that abundantly.
In the fifth place, Jesus sought to arouse those To Make
whom he tauoht to an appreciation of the dutv Effective
, . , r ' 1 1 1' Citizens of the
and the beauty of servmg not themselves, but Kingdom of c-od
their fellow men ; of striving not for their own
wealth, but for the commonwealth ; of finding
their life by losing it. In these definite ways he
aimed to train up citizens for the kingdom of
God, that world-democracy, that universal fel-
lowship in which all should be bound together
by the common love and service of a common
Father.
Finally, Jesus sought to train, as the active to Train
agfents in realizing: his aims in the life of the indi- Teachers Liks
?, , 1 . , ,-r r • 1 1-1 Himself
vidual and ni the life of society, teachers like
himself, inspired with his spirit, possessed of his
teachings, stirred with his enthusiasm, and en-
dowed with his courage to go forth as the incar-
nation of all for which he lived. He gave his
life that they might in turn, by the quiet yet
invincible methods of the teacher, win those with
whom they personally came into contact, and thus
through an ever-widening circle teach and trans-
form all mankind.
XII
Jesus' Supreme
Skill as a
Teacher
His Refusal to
Commit His
Teachings to
"Writing
JESUS'S WAY OF MAKING MEN
The study of Jesus's work as a teacher con-
firms the conckision that he gave careful attention
to the methods which he employed. His skill
was the result of no chance, but of a deliberate
choice of methods. In his knowledge of what
was in the heart of man and in his superb adapta-
tion of his teachings to individual needs and pos-
sibilities and to the ultimate ends which he wished
to accomplish, he was indeed a great pioneer in
all that is best in the modern educational move-
ment. A study, therefore, of his teaching meth-
ods is supremely suggestive and illuminating.
At first glance the student is surprised to note
that, although he was undoubtedly familiar with
writing, Jesus apparently never employed this
means of imparting his message. Most of the
earlier teachers of his race had trusted largely
to the written word. The contemporary plii-
?.osophers and teachers of Greece and Rome,
through the services of slaves who acted as copy-
ists, published thousands of copies of their works
and scattered them widely throughout the great
empire. The age in which Jesus lived was pre-
eminently a literary era. He, however, deliber-
ately refrained from trusting his message to
stereotyped literary molds. In so doing he fol-
lowed the methods of the Jewish rabbis of his
day. His action was clearly not due to imita-
tion but to deliberate intention. He knew, by
118
Jesus*s Way of Making Men 1 1 9
observation and hearing, how easy it was to mis-
interpret the written words even of the earHer
teachers of his race. He probably also knew how
often the written text had suffered corruption or
else had been made the medium in the hand of
later scribes and teachers for establishing the
creeds and doctrines current in his own days.
Jesus's reason, therefore, for not committing Teachings
his teachings to writing- is perfectlv evident. It inscribed on
1 11 T 1 • ir 1- -' r 1 1 J. Human Hearts
IS also clear that Jesus himself dia not feel that and Lives
he was promulgating a new system of teaching.
Rather his purpose was to give a fuller and more
complete expression to all that was of vital and
lasting value in the teachings of the earlier
prophets, priests, and sages. In the minds and
hearts and lives of men he wrote down his mes-
sage to humanity, and upon the disciples whom
he gathered about him he stamped the ideals
which he sought to impress upon the sons of
men. Set forth in living forms, incarnate in
human lives, the teachings of Jesus were im-
perishable. Even if the early Christians had not
at a later time collected the memorabilia and say-
ings of Jesus, those teachings and the fruits of
his lifework would still continue to touch and
transform the life of humanity. Long before
the child born in Christian homes to-day is able
to read the written word, the ideals and the
teachings of the Great Teacher shape the unfold-
ing life, and stamp the fundamental principles of
Christianity upon the impressionable spirit of
the child.
The first characteristic of Jesus's method as a
teacher was the result of his unique insight into
1 20 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Recognition of
the Divine
Possibilities in
Each Man
the divine possibilities latent in those men and
women whom he in time gradually transformed
into disciples and ultimately into teachers. To
the other men of their day, James and John
seemed but rude, commonplace fishermen, who
had reached a period of life when habits and
ideals are ordinarily crystallized. Simon the
Zealot, with his dreams of a great uprising against
Rome and his eagerness to resort to violence,
was the anarchist of his day. No other man
would have seen in him aught besides the possi-
bilities of revolution and ultimate self-destruc-
tion. For the fallen woman of the street there
seemed no hope. Zaccheeus the tax collector, who
held the same place in public opinion as does the
saloon keeper of to-day, seemed only bent on
attaining his own selfish ends at the expense of
society. Yet Jesus saw the possibility that all
these outcasts might become martyrs for a great
cause. In others he recognized teachers of such
efficiency that they would conquer the seemingly
impregnable Roman world. ]\Iore than that,
Jesus was able to impress upon their unawakened
consciousness the possibility and the glory of thus
finding life by losing it. By his simple yet mar-
velous method of training he was also able to
prepare them for their great lifework — to trans-
form the mercenary James and John into fishers
of men, the fiery Simon Zelotes into a conqueror
by the sword of the Spirit, and Zacchseus, the
corrupt tax-collector, into a man whose supreme
ambition was to discharge his obligations to his
fellow men.
The second characteristic of Jesus's method as
Jesus* s Way of Making Men 1 2 1
a teacher of men was to establish between himself The Basis of
and those whom he would teach a close personal Personal Trust
relationship of simple trust, friendship, and love. ^ re s ip
With superlative wisdom he never attempted to
reach the hearts of men when physical and mental
barriers made that attempt impossible of realiza-
tion. If a man or woman was afflicted by some
mental disorder^ the first step was to bring sanity
and harmony into the disordered mind. If a
physical trouble clouded the mental and spiritual
vision, Jesus exerted all the powers of his own
personality to remove this obstacle and, in remov-
ing it, to establish that relationship of trust and
gratitude which was essential to his healing min-
istry.
In the light of this higher aim in all of his work, Meaning of i-iis
it is easy to appreciate the real significance of the ^""'^ of Heaimg
miracles attributed to him in the Gospels. The
variations between these dififerent narratives leave
little doubt in the mind of the careful student
that they have often been modified in the process
of oral transmission or by the mistaken popular
interpretation of Jesus's actual work and aims.
Yet back of these variant traditions lie historical
facts whose reality cannot for a moment be ques-
tioned. In the light of modern psycholog}- and
mental hygiene, the scientific world, which a
generation ago was inclined to reject the gospel
miracles, is beginning to discover the deeper
foundations upon which they clearly rest. The
fundamental principles of which they are but
the illustration, as, for example, the mighty power
of a commanding mind over one mentally dis-
abled, are to-day widely accepted facts. Clearly
1 22 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Adaptation of
Teachings to
Disciples
one of Jesus's primary aims was to gain the con-
fidence of the men and women whom he would
help, and thus, in the language of psychology, to
render them suggestible. In accomplishing this
end, his knowledge of the characteristics and the
possibilities of the human heart and mind, his
commanding love for all his fellow^s, and his own
unique personality gave him a mighty power over
both the mental and the physical ills of men. It is
important, however, to note in this age, when so
much emphasis is being placed, and not without
reason, on physical and mental healing, that Jesus
always regarded this w^ork simply as the first
essential in setting right men's souls. His
recorded acts and teachings always carried with
them the implication that the only absolute es-
sential was the righting of men's attitude toward
God and their fellow men.
A third characteristic of Jesus's method is that
he always adapted his teachings to the point of
view of his hearers. By keen observation and
deep personal experience he knew what was in
the hearts and minds of men. He always felt
keenly the individual needs of those to whom he
at the moment was speaking. He met universal
needs primarily by devoting himself to meeting
the immediate needs of the men and women
before him. The greater the height to which he
wished to carry his disciples, the more careful he
was to start on their own level and to impress
his teachings in language both familiar and in-
telligible to them. If they were fishermen, he
began with a figure drawn from the ordinary life
of a fisherman. If they were tillers of the soil.
Jesus's Way of Making Men 1 23
he told them the story of the man who went out
to sow. If it was an oriental woman, with her
narrow, constricted vision of life, he began with
the home, and told of the anxiety and sorrow-
caused by the loss of a piece of money and the
zeal expended in its quest. Thus from everyday
experiences he led his hearers to the grasp of
eternal and universal principles. The ''point of
contact" is rightly a shibboleth in modern edu-
cation ; but its value is not a new discovery, for it
was fully appreciated by the Great Teacher, as
is shown in all his work.
Jesus also realized the superlative importance Puttting Truth
of expressing spiritual truths not in abstract but p„^°""^'^
in concrete form. The notes which come from
his classroom are illustrated on every page with
simple, graphic, suggestive pictures. Instead of
emphasizing in abstract terms the value of for-
giveness, he commanded his disciples, when they
were about to go up to the temple, first to turn
back and forgive the brother who had wronged
them, that they might be able to worship God
truly, in spirit and in deed, as well as in form.
Instead of emphasizing the beauty of humility, he
told his Jewish hearers, who were more familiar
with the synagogue than with any other institu-
tion in their midst, always to take not the higher
but the lower place. From a concrete illustra-
tion like this, he frequently rose to the statement
of the underlying principle. Even so he here
declared that everyone who exalts himself shall
be humbled and he who humbles himself shall be
exalted. Like the ancient priests in their definite
laws, he embodied the specific principle in a con-
1 24 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Teaching
Always Positive
Crete case, frequently leaving it to his hearers
to formulate the principle itself and to apply it
to the similar problems and conditions of life.
Like the prophets and priests, Jesus was always
keenly alive to the value of the objective method
of teaching. He realized that truth could often
best be conveyed not through the ear but
through the eye. JNIany of his acts of heal-
ing were clearly intended to be vivid object
lessons, appealing to the curiosity and imagina-
tion and wonderment of all classes. When he
desired to teach the necessity and beauty of
simple trust, he set a child in the midst of his
hearers. When he wished to stir the conscience
of the nation and to rebuke the grafters of his
own day for desecrating the temple, he did not
content himself with mere words, but with
scourge in hand overturned the tables of the
money-changers. When the disciples of John
the Baptist came to him with the question, "Who
art thou?" he did not make the mistake of giv-
ing a spoken answer which would be misunder-
stood, but invited them to listen to his teachings,
to watch his deeds of helpfulness and healing,
and thus through their eyes as well as their ears
receive that message which he wished them to
bear back to the intrepid herald of the new era.
Another striking characteristic of Jesus's
method is the fact that he always put his teach-
ings in positive form. The teachers of ancient
Israel had largely used *'Thou shalt not" ; but this
phrase is very rare among the recorded words
of Jesus. Only once or twice did he resort to
denunciation, and by some modern scholars the
Jesus*s Way of Making Men 1 25
authenticity even of these passages is questioned.
With superlative skill, he always presented the
larger and fuller truth, and trusted that the errors
and the half-truths would as a result find their
rightful place. His great watchword was, *'You
shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you
free." This cliaracteristic of Jesus's method is
one of the greatest sources of his surpassing
skill as a teacher. jNIaurice has truly said, "One
is usually right in his affirmations and wrong in
his negations." In the attitude of the acknowl-
edged teachers of Judaism and in the content of
their teaching, there was a vast amount of error,
and much to provoke attack and criticism. But,
with eye intent only on the vital needs of the men
and women wdiom he wished to reach, Jesus had
little time or desire merely to destroy or tear
down. He himself plainly declares that his aim
was not to destroy the Torah, the teachings of
Israel's prophets, priests, and sages, as well as
of the rabbis of his own day, but to substitute
perfection for imperfection, and thus to bring-
to its natural and complete fruition that divine
revelation which had gradually unfolded through
the enlightened consciousness of his race. It is
this strong positive note which characterizes
Jesus's teachings from beginning to end, and dis-
tinguishes him from the rest of the world's
teachers. It is one of the chief reasons why
Christianity's message is universally, perennially,
and supremely effective.
In the minds of his own contemporaries, the clear,
distinctive characteristic of Jesus's method was Authoritative
its ringing note of authority. It was not the
1 26 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
authority which rested simply on the testimony
of the past, giving to the ancient teachings the
commanding position in the thought and hfe of
the present and future ; nor was it the authority
of dogmatism which ordinarily conceals doubt
in the mind of the hearer and provokes suspicion
in the minds of those who hear. Rather it was
an authority based on a profound knowledge of
life and of human needs, on keen personal obser-
vation, and on a rich and varied personal spiritual
experience. Jesus's authority was akin to that of
the ancient prophets and sages, but superlative in
degree. He frankly declared, regarding the
future, "no man knows save the Father," but of
the great vital truths of life, as they had been
revealed to his wide-open mind, he spoke with
that calm, commanding authority which sug-
gested the eternal foundations upon which it
rested. To the rabbis, who exalted to a position
of supreme importance the words attributed by
tradition to Moses, he declared, in speaking of
certain laws, ''Ye have heard that it has been
said . . . but I say to you." Calmly, without
discussion, Jesus thus substituted the whole for
the part, the great underlying principles for their
earlier incomplete expression. From the open-
minded among his hearers the authority of his
message commanded immediate and complete
acceptance, not only because of the personality
back of it, but because it rang absolutely true to
the most enlightened experiences and met the
eternal and universal needs of the human heart.
Constant Appeal Again, ouc is profouudly impressed by the
to the Will f^(,^ ^i^^^ Jesus never contented himself with
Jesus*s Way of Making Men 1 2 7
appealing to the reason alone. His logic was
simple, clear, and irresistible. The scribes, the
most skillful dialecticians of his day, came to him
with very carefully prepared questions intended
to entrap him, but they ahvays went away van-
quished by his clear, powerful reasoning, even
though the battle was waged in their chosen field
and with their chosen weapons. He who knew
what was in the heart of man, w^ith his strong
commanding love for the individual, with his un-
stinted services in meeting the needs of those
w ho came to him, w"as able to appeal to the deep-
est feelings and to play wath marvelous skill upon
the strings of the human heart ; yet he was never
content with merely arousing the emotions.
With him the appeal to the intellect and feelings
was but a means to an end, and that end was to
command the wills of men.
He taught men many truths, bilt his aim was Character and
not primarily to make men learn, but to teach ^^^^ *^^ ^°^^ °^
them how to live and act. With him impression Teachings
was intended simply to lead to expression. The
rich young ruler, with his large knowledge of
truth and his well-developed emotions, was met
with the simple command to go out and do.
Jesus's aim in sending out his disciples that they
might preach the word was clearly not that he
might simply extend a little further the circle of
his influence in Galilee, but that they who had
heard his teachings might have the experience of
doing and might thus perfect their training as
disciples. Although their work was not alto-
gether successful, the joy on the part of the Great
Teacher as they came back with a report of real
I 28 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
achievement, was clearly because he saw in their
work evidence of the success of his teaching. In
all Jesus's work as a teacher, his supreme cri-
terion v\^as not what people thought or felt or
said, but what they did. "By their fruits ye shall
know them" was with him the ultimate test of all
character and life.
Directness and Another Striking characteristic distinguishes all
Simplicity ^j-j^^ Jcsus tauglit and did, namely, the rare and
all-important quality of directness and simplicity.
Pascal quaintly says, "Jesus Christ speaks things
so simply, that it seems he had never thought
upon them." His Csirliest advice to his disciples
Avas to be simple : "Let your words be simply
yes and no." This characteristic of the world's
greatest teacher is illustrated by all that he him-
self said and taught. Later transmission and
translation have in a few cases obscured the clarity
of his original utterances, but through all his
teachings there is a simplicity that ever discloses
the profoundest depths of his teaching and meth-
ods. He never wasted himself with long intro-
ductions. He first established a personal point of
contact and then led his hearers on at once to the
highest spiritual vantage point. In their com-
plete absorption in the theme his hearers lost
themselves, later to find themselves mastered by
a commanding ideal and purpose, and launched
upon their great lifework.
The Above all, Jesus proved himself the great
^"^^^^i"^e^* °^ teacher of men because he did not merely pro-
claim truths, as did Israel's earlier teachers, but
was himself the embodiment and the complete
illustration of all that he taught. "Be ye perfect
His Teachings
Jesus*s Way of Making Men 1 29
even as I am perfect" was one of the new and
strong notes which stirred the world. ''Follow
me" was his constantly implied, as well as ex
pressed, command. Jesus himself was the supreme
demonstration of all the truth that he taught.
It was this complete demonstration that man-
kind needed as the crowning and convincing proof
of all that the earlier teachers had proclaimed.
Jesus became the Saviour of men, and established
his right to that highest of titles, not only because
he was the greatest teacher that the world has
ever seen, but also because he showed by his own
acts and life that men wath human limitations
could attain to the divine life. In the light of this
great truth, Paul's unequivocal declaration that
Jesus 'Svas tempted in all points as we are" be-
comes O'le of the most significant statements in
all the New Testament. It throws a clear light,
not only upon the character of Jesus, but also
upon his work as a teacher. It reveals Jesus as
the one normal man among all the sons of God.
He was torn by real temptations, yet victorious;
he was joyful in the face of opposition and unjust
malignant persecution ; he was true at every crisis
to the highest and divinest ideals of life and
service. In discordant Palestine he lived serene
and happy and in perfect harmony with God, as
well as in loving and helpful touch with every
human being with whom he came in contact.
The oldest records reveal a mind unclouded by
sm, ever open to the divine message, and a per-
sonality developing from day to day into the
unique, the divine man, the goal and crown of
God's creation.
Men
1 30 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Saviour Because Jcsus liimsclf clcarly felt that it was God's
a^Teacherof purpose that he should not stand alone, but that
he should in turn be the Teacher and Saviour of
men. While he claimed unique divine sonship
for himself, he declared plainly that the ultimate
goal of all his work was that his disciples and
those who followed him should become indeed
"one wnth God even as he was one." Further-
more, he proclaimed without hesitation that they
should do greater works than he had done. To
realize this supreme and larger ideal of develop-
ing the divine qualities in every man Jesus de-
voted himself completely and with God-given tact
and skill to the task of the teacher. By virtue of
his own work as a teacher and that of his faith-
ful disciples, he stands in all ages as the uni-
versal Saviour of mankind.
Teaching
/
XIII
THE AIMS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN
TEACHERS
It was inevitable that the followers and dis- Reasons for the
ciples of the Great Teacher would give the teach- Emphasis on
ing- ministry a central place in their work. Most
of the leaders in the early Christian Church, like
Paul, sat at the feet of the Jewish rabbis. The
example of their Jewish teachers intensified still
further the tendency to depend almost entirely
upon teaching as a means of extending the influ-
ence of the Master and of spreading abroad his
teachings. The signihcant title ''disciple" or
"learner" long continued to be used in the early
Church as the most common designation of a
follower of Jesus. The early Christian liter-
ature, such as the Epistles, the records in Acts,
and the Didache or Teachings of the Apostles,
are all the products of the teaching motive, and
all bear testimony to the prominence of the
teacher and his work. The marvelous spread of
Christianity in the early centuries, when the
emphasis on the teaching ministry was stronges
is undoubtedly largely due to this prominence
given to teaching.
Paul, the earliest writer in the New Testament, Teaching work
distinguishes four or five different groups of of the Apostles
leaders. In i Corinthians 12. 28 he speaks of
apostles, prophets, and teachers. In Ephesians
4. II he refers to five distinct classes — apostles,
prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers —
131
1 32 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
as having been appointed by Jesus to "fit his
people for the ministry and for the building up
of the body of Christ." The exact character and
functions of each of these classes of teachers are
not entirely clear. In its narrower definition the
term ''apostle" was applied only to the twelve dis-
ciples selected by Jesus himself. Paul, however,
by virtue of having seen the Christ, claimed a
place in this limited group, and his claim was
universally recognized by the early Church. The
term is also applied in Acts 14. 4, 14, to Barnabas,
as well as to Paul. Paul called other missionaries
like himself apostles, as, for example, Andron-
icus and Junia, in Romans 16. 7 (see also Gal.
2. 7-9; I Cor. 9. i). In the Didache or Teach-
ings of the Apostles, the term is equivalent to
itinerant teachers. They are instructed not to
stay in one church more than two days, not to
receive money, not to have more than a day's
rations for their services. Paul, however, con-
stantly called himself a teacher as well as an
apostle (for example, 2 Tim. i. 11) and desig-
nated his work as teaching (i Cor. 4. 17; Rom.
16. 17). In Acts 2. 40-42 Peter's preaching is
called teaching. According to Acts 4. 18 John
and Peter were publicly ordered not to speak and
teach. It is evident from these references, as
well as from reports of their utterances, that not
only were the apostles teachers as well as
preachers, but that their public preaching was
influenced, both in content and in form, by the
aims and methods of the teacher.
The evangelists, like the apostles, appear to
have been traveling teachers and preachers.
Aims of the Early Christian Teachers 1 33
Of the
Evangelists and
Prophets
Philip the evangelist, whose work is recorded in
Acts 8, is the best example of this class. The
prophets in the early Church wxre really preach-
ers and exhorters. This form of service also ap-
pears to have been performed by many different
members of the Christian communities and to
have been a blending of emotional and didactic
elements. Paul's tieatment of the subject in I
Corinthians 14 is exceedingly illuminating. He
concludes with the counsel of the prophets [or
preachers], let two or three speak and let the
others weigh what is said. But if a revelation is
m.ade to another sitting by, let the first keep
silence. For 3^ou can all preach in turn, that all
may learn and all be comforted. And the spirits
of the prophets [or preachers] are subject to the
prophets, for God is not a God of confusion, but
of peace (14. 29-33).
The pastors, or early bishops, were connected of the Pastors
with the local churches. According to i Timothy
3. 2 one of their most important qualifications
was that they must be ''apt to teach." In the
epistles which bear their names, Timothy and
Titus, who are typical bishops or pastors, are
constantly urged by Paul to teach and in turn to
train their successors for this work (2 Tim. 2. 2).
Furthermore, in i Timothy 5. 17, the great
apostle lays down the principle that the presby-
ters or elders, "who labor in word and doctrine,"
are to receive double remuneration for their
services. According to the Didache (15. i), even
the deacons in the early Church were expected to
perform the work of teachers. Thus it is evident
that all the different classes of leaders in the early
Of the Lay
Workers
1 34 Teaohers of Judaism and Christianity
Church were especially trained and consecrated to
the ministry of teaching.
The Professional In addition to tliis organized teaching army
Teachers there was in the early Church a special class
which bore the title of teachers. They enjoyed,
together with the apostles and prophets, a posi-
tion of the highest honor in the community. It
is probable that, in contrast to the itinerant
teachers, they resided permanently in the local
churches. The author of the Epistle of James
identifies himself- with these teachers, and this
epistle doubtless clearly represents the content
and form of the teachings which they inculcated
in the minds of their disciples. In the same con-
nection the author of the Epistle of James advises
that there "be not many teachers, knowing as
you do that we w^ho teach shall be judged by a
more severe standard than others" (3. i). The
author of the Epistle of Barnabas modestly states
that he does not presume to write as a teacher
(i. 8; 4. 9).
Their Duties In fuuctiou and uicthods tlicsc profcssioual
teachers in the early Church corresponded to the
teaching scribes in the Jewish communities.
Their first task was to interpret the Old Testa-
ment scriptures in the light of the new revela-
tion. Their second duty was probably to instruct
the members of each church, and especially the
new converts, in the teachings of the IMaster and
in the laws and doctrines of the Church. The
First and Second Epistles of Timothy and that
of Titus are manuals for the guidance of pastors
in their work of teaching. The Didache, or
Teachings of the Apostles, is evidently, from its
Aims of the Early Christian Teachers 1 3 5
contents as well as from its title, a text-book tO'
"be used in instructing disciples. The public
services of the early Church were apparently
modeled after the services of the Jewish syna-
gogue. If so, teaching was made more promi-
nent than preaching, and it was in connection
with the public services that the teachers probably
did much of their work. There is no direct testi-
mony, but it is probable that they gave personal
instruction and also taught small groups of dis-
ciples, as in the m.odern Sunday school.
Because of their honorable and influential posi- The Danger of
tion in the Christian community, the teachers, ^^^^^ Teaching
like the prophets, were exposed to the temptation
of presenting misleading doctrines. Paul, in his
injunctions to Timothy, endeavored to guard
against this danger to the faith of the Church :
^'What you have learned from me in the presence
of many listeners, intrust to reliable men, who
will be able in turn to teach others." The Di-
dache (11. 2), as well as the Second Epistle of
John (10), intimates that some of these teachers
were spreading heretical views. That, as a rule,
the teachers of the early Church proved true to
their high calling is convincingly demonstrated
by the marvelous spread of Christianity through-
out the Roman world.
Their aims, as well as that of the larger group Aims of the
of teachers who were associated with them, are Teachers: (i) to
clearly stated in the Epistles. They first sought ^hrt^esus was
to make clear to the Jews that Jesus was the ful- the Messiah
fillment of the noblest Messianic hopes of the
race. Acts 9. 20 states that Paul, after his con-
version, began immediately at Damascus to pro-
1 36 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
claim Jesus the Son of God. This truth is the
basis of most of the popular sermons found in
the first part of the book of Acts. It is also the
main thesis in the Epistle to the Hebrews, which,
as the title suggests, was addressed especially to
the Jews.
(2) To Teach the Their sccoud aim was to teach Jew and Gen-
Facts Regarding ^-^^ ^j-j^^ ^^^ £^^^g regarding the character and
Jesus . .
work of Jesus in order to inspire personal faith
and devotion to him. These facts constituted the
Gospel, the Good News, which the early Chris-
tian missionaries carried to the ends of the known
world. Its basis was definite instruction. Its
goal was the extension of the faith in the Master.
The Jewish officials at Jerusalem, in the familiar
story of Acts 5. 17-32, charged Peter and the
apostles with having flooded Jerusalem with their
teachings. To this charge the apostles replied :
"We must obey God rather than men; the God
of our fathers raised up Jesus, whom you put to
death by hanging him on a cross. It is this Jesus
whom God had exalted to his right hand, to be a
guide and a saviour, to give Israel repentance
and forgiveness of sins. And we are witnesses
to the truth of this, and so is the Holy Spirit —
the gift of God to those who obey him." As
faithful witnesses to a great transforming truth
the apostles went forth in quest of disciples,
some to their Jewish kinsmen, and others, like
Paul, to the needy Gentile world. In Galatians
I. 16 and 2. 7 Paul plainly declares that the latter
was his especial field. In i Corinthians 2. 2 he
states that while at Corinth he had determined
that he would "know nothing save Jesus Christ
Aims of the Early Christian Teachers I 37
and him crucified." In I Timothy 2. 7 he calls
himself a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and
truth.
The third aim was to transmit and inculcate (3) To Transmit
the teachino^s of Jesus in their simplicity and ^^^ Teachings
cy -f ir ' of Jesus
purity. The author of the Second Epistle of
John is explicit on this point: "Every one who
goes beyond and does not keep to the teaching of
the Christ has not God. He who keeps to the
teaching has both the Father and the Son. If
anyone comes to you and does not bring this
teaching, do not receive him into your house nor
welcome hmi, for the man that welcomes him is
sharing in his wicked work" (9-1 1).
The fourth aim was to inspire in men a deep (4) To inspire
and commanding love for God. This aim is ^°^® ^°^ ^°^
formulated clearly in i Timothy 1.5: "The ob-
ject of instruction is to call forth that love which
comes from a pure heart, a good conscience, and
a sincere faith."
The fifth aim was to make noble, happy, and (5) To Make
efficient men and women through faith and devo- M^nand'^vvomen
tion to Jesus. To the Corinthians Paul declared :
"What we pray for is, that you may become
perfect" (2 Cor. 13. 9). To the Colossians
he wrote : "Since therefore you have received
Jesus, the Christ, as Lord, walk in him, rooted in
him and building up your characters in him,
growing stronger through your faith, even as
you were taught" (Col. 2. 6, 7; see also 3.
12-16). Again to Tim^othy he wrote: "Aim at
righteousness, faith, love, endurance, gentleness."
Throughout all the epistles there is the same
powerful emphasis on character and individual
1 38 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
(6) To Train
Effective
Teachers
Ultimate Aims:
The Making of
Men
efficiency as the ultimate goal of all Christian
preaching and teaching.
The sixth aim was to train disciples who
would, in turn, become successful teachers. In
Ephesians 4. 12 Paul states that Jesus gave to
the Church the different classes of teachers "in
order to fit his people for the ministry, for the
building up of the body of Christ." He also
exhorted the Colossians to "teach and admonish
each other with psalms and hymns and sacred
songs, singing to God with grace in their hearts"
(Col. 3. 16).
Thus the aims of the early Christian teachers
were closely identical with those of the Great
Teacher. As was natural they placed greater
emphasis than had he upon personal devotion to
him. While they gave more attention to faith
and articles of belief, they did not make the mis-
take, so often committed by the Church in later
ages, of failing to appreciate the fundamental
importance of personal character and deeds.
Their consuming desire was not to propagate a
doctrine, but to make men. To the accomplish-
ment of this divine task all else was purely sec-
ondary.
XIV
THE ^lETHODS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN
TEACHERS
In realizing their aims the early Christian
teachers at first trusted little to the written word.
From his epistles it is clear that Paul resorted to
the use of letters only when unable to go and
speak in person to his disciples in the various
cities which he had visited. Then he wrote as
he would have spoken had he been present in
their midst. As the circle of his influence broad-
ened, he was obliged to depend more and more
upon writing. The noble epistles which consti-
tute so large a part of the New Testament are the
result of this necessity. Other apostles followed
his example, putting in this permanent form the
teachings which they wished their disciples to
emphasize. As the horizon of the Church wid-
ened in the succeeding centuries, the Church
fathers depended more and more upon the pen as
the means of conveying and perpetuating their
teachings.
The earlier Christian teachers were fully alive
to the importance of the personal touch and the
influence of their own personality upon those
whom they wished to reach and instruct. As a
rule, they dealt with the vital questions of faith
and practice which directly concerned those
whom they were teaching. Their instruction was
therefore always direct and practical. On the
basis of this close touch with the needs of the
139
Limited Use of
the Written
Word
Importance of
Oral Instruction
1 40 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
individual, they built up a body of teachings
which they committed to their disciples, instruct-
ing them in turn, as did Paul, to transmit them to
others. Central in all their instruction were the
teachings of the iNIaster, which were at first
handed down orally. Later these were collected,
as, for example, in Matthew's so-called "Sayings
of Jesus," which was the chief and probably the
oldest source from which the authors of our pres-
ent Gospels of Matthew and Luke drew their
teaching material. This strong emphasis upon oral
instruction in the early Church, strengthened as
it was by the example of Jesus and the great
teachers of Judaism, explains why a long period
elapsed after the death of the Master before any
attempt was made to prepare written records of
his life and teachings.
Training of It is also evident that, like Jesus, each great
Disciples Christian teacher sought to train a group of dis-
ciples. Among this inner group of followers who
gathered about Paul were John Mark, Luke the
physician, Timothy, and Titus. Between himself
and these young men Paul established a close
bond of afifection and friendship. At the same
time he inspired them with confidence in their
own powers. He expected much of them, as he
plainly declared, and this expectation was not dis-
appointed. He gave especial attention to their
training, followed them with his letters, and was
careful to open to them as far as possible the door
of opportunity. Not only did he take them with
him in his journeys, and thus instruct them by
actual experience and under his personal direc-
tion, but also, as they entered upon their inde-
Methods of the Early Christian Teachers 1 4 1
pendent work, he gave them minute directions as
to what and how they should teach. This sys-
tematic, thorough, practical training of its teach-
ers contributed largely to the invincible conquer-
ing power of the early Church.
Preaching was also a prominent factor in the Teaching
early history of Christianity, especially in the ^^^"^^"t ^" *^«
• VI • • 1 \ • Ku 1 • Preaching
niitial missionary work. As 111 the early min-
istry of Jesus, it was the net spread broadcast to
draw the responsive into the closer relation of
discipleship. Paul called himself both a preacher
and a teacher, but in all the sermons of the great
apostle to the Gentiles, as well as those recorded
in the opening chapters of the book of Acts, there
is a strong teaching element. There was ever
a close personal touch between the preacher and
those addressed. He w^as keenly alive to the
problems which concerned them. Questions
were constantly interjected by him, as well as by
his hearers. In the Christian communities public
preaching in the modern sense was apparently
less common. The traditions of the synagogue
still dominated the public services of the church.
The prophets, who corresponded to the modern
preachers, came largely from the ranks, accord-
ing as each man was gifted; and preaching never
overshadowed the teaching ministry.
Another characteristic method of the early interpretation
Christian teachers was the public interpretation °J ^^^ °^'^^''
. ^ . ^ , Scriptures
of the Old Testament scriptures, thus, accord-
ing to Acts 8. 32-36, Philip led the Ethiopian
treasurer to faith in Jesus through his interpre-
tation of the great servant passage in Isaiah 53.
The apostolic sermons recorded in the second
1 42 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
chapter of Acts are simply interpretations of the
earHer prophecies in Hght of the new faith. In
Acts 17. 2 we are told that Paul, following his
usual custom, met the Jews in their synagogue at
Thessalonica and for three Sabbaths reasoned
with them, drawing his arguments from the
scriptures. The Jewish synagogues, scattered
throughout the Roman w^orld, were the scenes of
most of Paul's early teachings (see Acts 9. 20;
13- 5' 15)- Ii"i Philippi he sought out the Jews
at their place of prayer by the river. In every
case the ancient scriptures of his race were the
common ground on which he met his Jewish
hearers and, in interpreting these, he led them to
the acceptance of the new and larger truths.
Exhortations As was natural w4th men completely filled with
and Warnings their subjcct and inspired with a deep love, ex-
hortations and earnest warnings were often used
by these early teachers. Through these they
appealed to the emotions and wills of those whose
confidence and love they had already won. The
New Testament epistles are shot through with
these fervent appeals, which reveal the aft'ection
and noble purpose of the apostles. Thus Paul
wrote to the Corinthians : "Therefore, my beloved
brethren, stand firm, unmovable, always diligent
in the work of the Lord, for you know that your
labor in the Lord is not in vain" (i Cor. 15. 58).
In the same spirit the author of the First Epistle
of Peter exhorts his readers : "Beloved, I be-
seech you as sojourners and pilgrims to refrain
from indulging fleshly lusts which war upon the
soul ; make your behavior among the Gentiles
so upright that, whenever they malign you as
Methods of the Early Christian Teachers 1 43
evildoers, they may, because of your good works
which they behold, praise God in the day of visi-
tation" (2. II, 12).
Being wise teachers, these early makers of men commendation
were fully aware of the value of judicious com-
mendation. Thus Paul, in the beginning of his
letter to the Romans and in his second letter to
the Corinthians, speaks at length and in strong-
est terms of their virtues before he goes on to
consider questions of conduct or to censure his
readers.
The Christian teachers constantly used ques- Questions and
tions and answers in developing and presenting Answers
their teachings. They appreciated the value of
this method of fixing the attention of their dis-
ciples upon the subject under consideration. In
the first part of the ninth chapter of his first
letter to the Corinthians Paul asked fifteen ques-
tions in ten short verses. In the Epistle of James,
which illustrates most clearly the methods of
the early Christian teachers, questions are con-
stantly asked, som.etimes with a view to fixing
the thought in the mind of the disciple and some-
times to present vividly a question for their con-
sideration, even as the Jewish scribes outlined
possible cases to test the skill of their pupils. It
is clear from these indications that the question
method was much used wherever the early
Christian Church was trained.
These questions often led to discussions which Discussions
were encouraged by the wise teacher. The
Epistle of James (2. 14-25), in its treatment of
the relation of faith to deeds, contains a good
example of the value of discussion as a means of
1 44 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
bringing out truths. The presentation is so clear
that the questions can still be heard as they came
from the lips of the religious teacher, as well as
the conclusions advanced by the different mem-
bers of his class. As in modern classrooms to-
day, these discussions sometimes ceased to be
profitable, so that the wise counsel is given to
Titus to "have nothing to do with foolish dis-
cussions, or with controversy, or with disputes
about the law, for they are useless and futile"
(3-9. lo)-
Arguments Somctimcs the Christian teachers employed
logical arguments to convince their disciples.
The first part of the Epistle to the Romans and
the Epistle to the Hebrews are excellent examples
of this method, of teaching. As with the sages
and Jesus, the appeal was always through the
reason to the will, and the ultimate aim of each
argument was to develop faith or to arouse
action.
Summaries Another characteristic method of the early
Christian teachers is the frequent introduction of
comprehensive summaries of their previous
teachings. They appreciated the importance of
fixing the vital truth in the minds of their dis-
ciples by means of clear restatement. A good
example is found in i Cormthians lo. 31-33.
After discussing at length what should be the
attitude of Christians toward the things ofifered
to idols, Paul embodies the heart of his teach-
ing in the pregnant words : "Whether, there-
fore, you eat or drink, or whatever you do,
do all to the glory of God. Give no occasion of
stumbling either to Jews or Greeks or to the
Methods of the Early Christian Teachers 1 45
church of God, even as I also please all men in
all things, not seeking mine own profit, but the
profit of the many, that they may be saved."
In the literary form in which the Christian Precepts
teachers put their message there are many indi-
cations of the influence of Israel's early sages.
The teaching was universal, adapted alike to all
ages and races. All traces of the nationalistic
thought of the earHer priests and prophets had
disappeared. They dealt simply and directly
with the problems common to all mankind. They
put their teachings in a form adapted to this
end. One of the most frequently used forms was
the precept, which could be easily memorized and
readily applied. Examples of this form of teach-
ing appear on every page of the epistles. That of
James contains the greatest number of examples.
Thus in i. 19 he teaches: ''Let every man be
quick to hear, slow to speak, and slow to get
angry." Again in 5. 12 he commands: "Above
all things, my brothers, take no oath, either by
heaven, or by earth, or by anything else. With
you let 'Yes' suffice for yes, and 'No' for no, so
that you may not fall under condemnation."
Paul's familiar words: "Bear ye one another's
burdens, and so carry out the law of Christ,"
(Gal. 6. 2) well illustrate the use of the precept.
Many of these precepts were also cast in poetic, Proverbs and
proverbial form, as, for example, Paul's apho- similitudes
rism in Galatians 6. 8:
He that sows to his own flesh shall of the flesh reap
corruption ;
But he that sows to the spirit shall of the spirit reap
eternal life.
Beatitudes and
Allegories
Clearness, not
Literary Form,
the Aim of the
Early Teachers
1 46 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
Sometimes the similitude was also used, as in
James 2. 26:
Even as the body apart from the spirit is dead,
So faith without works is dead.
Like their Master, the Christian teachers ap-
preciated the value of the beatitude. A noble
example is found in James i. 12: "Blessed is the
man who remains firm under temptation, for
when he has stood the test he shall receive the
crown of life^ which the Lord hath promised to
those who love him." In Galatians 4. 21-27 Paul
employs an extended allegory.
As a rule, the literary forms used by the early
Christian teachers were exceedingly simple.
Their one aim was not to embellish the truth but
to make it clear and effective. The literature
which comes from them is barren compared with
that found in the older Jewish scriptures. Their
writings were not the product of leisure or of the
spontaneous literary vigor of a primitive people,
but rather of the burning desire to instill prac-
tical and helpful truths into the minds of
men who, burdened with sin and ignorance, were
struggling amid mighty temptations and bitter
persecutions. Li his wonderful apostrophe to
love in the thirteenth chapter of I Corinthians,
Paul reveals a masterly literary style. It is the
spontaneous expression of the experience of a
lifetime. It reveals the literary possibiHties of
the great apostle. Ordinarily he had no time to
give attention to the form in which he expressed
his teachings. In most of his utterances the
thoughts rushed upon him so rapidly as he medi-
tated upon the needs and problems of those
Methods of the Early Christian Teachers 1 47
to whom he was writing, that he could scarcely
stop to finish one sentence before beginning an-
other. As he wrote, so he probably taught, ex-
pressing by face, gesture, and intonation what
he did not put into words.
Above all, Paul, and the class of early teachers
which he represents, knew that the supreme suc-
cess of the teacher depended upon the personality
back of the message. The author of the Epistle
of james surely had this great truth in mind
when he said that teachers must be judged by
another standard than that by which ordinary
men were tested. Paul often, not boastingly, but
in order to appeal to his hearers, held up his own
character and life and work as the ultimate proof
of the truth of his teachings. To the Corinthians
he declared : "Truly the marks of an apostle
were exhibited among you in constant endurance,
as well as by signs, by wonders, and by mighty
works" (2 Cor. 12. 12). When Titus was about
to enter upon his work as pastor and teacher,
Paul's concluding injunctions were : 'Tn all things
show thyself an example of good works. In your
teaching show sincerity and a serious spirit. Let
what you say be sound and above reproach, that
the enemy may be ashamed, having nothing bad
to say of us" (2. 7, 8). Thus in aim, spirit,
micthods, and life the early Christian teachers
proved faithful followers of the ^Master, leaving
to the Christian Church a clear example of how
it also can follow in his footsteps and perform its
God-given task, not only of
Importance of
the Personality
of the Teacher
saving but making
men.
XV
Misleading
Definitions
of Religion
Its Larger
Content
Its Normal
Development
THE LARGER PROPHETIC AND CHRISTIAN
CONCEPTION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
All ages, races, and individuals have their
own definition of reHgion. Early races defined it
as loyalty to the Deity expressed by certain cere-
monial forms of worship. The theologians of
the past generation and many to-day define it as
a dogma, and make its primary demand the ac-
ceptance of a creed. Some put the emphasis
solely on the emotions and states of mind; others,
on character and deeds. Each and all of these
definitions are narrow and incomplete. They fall
far short of the requirements of the great teachers
of Judaism and Christianity. Religion is a union
of all these varied elements. Because they have
been defined so narrowly the words "religion"
and ''religious" have become wayworn. To many
they suggest only sectarianism or the creeds of
a church. Inasmuch as no newer and fresher
term is to be found in the English language, the
word ''religion" must again be given its original
meaning.
Defined objectively and simply, religion is the
individual's attitude toward God and man, ex-
pressed in faith, in worship, in life, and in
service. It is the impelling force in all that a
man thinks or feels or does.
Religion in some more or less complete form
is the possession of everyone. In its richness and
completeness it is the result of the normal de-
148
Larger Conception of Religious Education 1 49
velopment of the divinely implanted impulses
found in every human soul. The difference be-
tween the pagan and the true Christian is pri-
marily a difference in the degree of development.
The normal man is one whose religious impulses
have been naturally and fully developed under
the influence of the proper training and environ-
ment. The growth of religion is as mysterious
and yet as natural as that of the plant or the
human body. Men who seem to be totally with-
out religion are those whose normal spiritual
growth has been arrested through unfavorable
environment or lack of the proper teaching and
direction. As physical strength is "developed,
so spiritual health and vigor come through proper
exercise. They are the product of action and
experience, as well as of study and meditation.
Hence the personal application of religious truths
is as essential as instruction ; in fact, expression
and impression are the complements of each
other.
Inasmuch as religion is something inherited as The Keiigious
well as personal, its primary inspiration is the Rentage
message and life and work of the great heroes of
the faith. Our individual faith to-day represents
the united efforts of countless millions to know
the character and will of the Deity, and God's
response to that effort. This cumulative reli-
gious knowledge corresponds to the inherited
wealth of observation, experience, and experi-
mentation in the fields of art, science, and prac-
tical invention. The prophets of the race were
the great spiritual inventors, who with open
minds and intense zeal sought first to know the
Personal Faith
1 50 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
divine truth and then to transmit it in intelHgible
fonn to their fellow men. Faith in God, in his
love, in his revelation of himself through the lives
of men and in his guidance of the individual, is the
rightful heritage of every human being. Hence
the first duty of the enlightened is to transmit this
inestimable heritage, in its simplest and most
impressive form, to each new, unfolding life.
Moreover, only as the truths won by the expe-
riences of the race are reincarnated in the life of
an individual can religion be made an abiding,
etTective force.
Growth of In the normal child faith is a natural growth.
It rests on the bedrock of common human expe-
rience and belief, and is the result of normally
developed human impulses. With this naturally
developing faith comes a corresponding growth
of character. As Emerson has said, *'^Ian is a
part of all with which he associates." As in the
chemical world, certain agents produce certain
reactions. If the individual comes only into con-
tact with the errors or crude beliefs of heathen-
ism, or with the barbarous practices of savages
or of the criminal class, the religious impulses
within him remain undeveloped; the egoism and
selfishness of the child continue to rule in the
life of the man, even though he be physically
mature. On the other hand, wholesome contact
with the heroes of the faith and careful instruc-
tion in the vital truths inherited from the noblest
religious teachers of the race are the forces that
make strong religious character, as well as stead-
fast faith.
The contributions of modern psychology are
Larger Conception of Religious Education 1 5 1
Light from
Modern
beginning to throw light on that most nitricate
of subjects— the development of the human mind p^y^^Tiogy
and soul. It has been demonstrated beyond ques-
tion that to insure desired results the teaching
must be thoroughly adapted in both content and
form to the mental and spiritual capabilities of
the child, the youth, and the man in each stage
of his development. In the light of this principle
religious education is ceasing to be a groping in
the dark. Here the laws of cause and effect
apply as rigidly as in any field of human expe-
rience. Through the great door which has been
but recently opened, we can now see clearly that
the fully rounded religious character is neither
a miracle nor the product of a moment. It is
rather the result of growth. Beginning with the
earliest years of infancy, it gradually unfolds
until in the case of the normal man and woman
it reaches its richest development in the later years
of life after the bodily and mental powers have
reached their culmination. Certain periods, as, for
example, the ages from six to thirteen, are char-
acterized by their rich receptiveness. At another
period, that of early adolescence (from thirteen
to sixteen), the reason and the emotions unite
under the right influences in leading to great and
important decisions, which determine the indi-
vidual's relations both to God and his fellows.
The larger conception of religion and the re- The Larger
cent contributions of practical psychology have Definition of
revealed the real significance of religious educa-
tion. It is not mere instruction in certain doc-
trines or in the forms of worship. Its ultimate
goal is to develop individual character and efii-
Religious
Education
1 5 2 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
ciency. It seeks to create the Christlike attitude
toward God and man, which comes from a simple
clear faith, a spirit of true reverence, a normally
developed character, and trained powers, entirely,
enthusiastically consecrated to the service of one's
fellows. It is the education not of a part but
of the whole man. It is the task not of a moment
but of a lifetime. It is the work not merely of
parents or teachers or pastors, but the united
product of all the influences that affect the phys-
ical or mental powers, the habits, the beliefs,
and the ideals of the individual. One of the
supreme tasks of religious education is to co-
ordinate all these influences so that they will
harmonize in producing the highest results.
The object of all religious education is not con-
formity to arbitrary standards, but to train
the individual child in harmony with his divinely
unfolding possibilities. This broader concep-
tion of religious education emphasizes the pro-
found importance of a scientific study of the
impulses, the tendencies, and the possibilities of
the child at each stage in his development. It
demands a careful weighing of our religious heri-
tages with a view to ascertaining the relative
values as aids in religious culture. It also clearly
reveals the necessity for a thorough grading and
adaptation of this material.
Rediscovery of lustructiou in rcHgion is to-day easier and
the Bible morc definite than ever before because our knowl-
edge of the great religious teachers of the past
and of their message is more exact. As the result
of the work of careful, consecrated . biblical
scholarship the late Jewish and Christian tradi-
Larger Conception of Religious Education 1 5 3
lions, which have hitherto obscured the records
of the faith, are being set aside. What many
faithful Christians feared was to be the destruc-
tion of the Bible has already proved to be its
rediscovery. Again the early heroes of the faith
stand forth and speak to us almost as distinctly
as they spoke to their contemporaries. Their
messages, which come from hearts aflame with
love for God and their fellow men, are evoking
a new response in the hearts of men. That which
is of secondary value is being turned over to the
historian and archaeologist ; while the vital, abid-
ing truths stand forth in their original strength
and beauty. Never before in the world's history
were men consciously or unconsciously reaching
out with greater eagerness for that divine heri-
tage. ^ . . . ■
In a sense it is a new Bible which is being re- its Large Place
vealed to the present generation — not new because ^" Modem Life
any of its truths have been changed or set aside,
but because our attitude toward it is fundamen-
tally different. Beauties hitherto unnoticed are
now clearly perceived. Truths overlooked or
only half appreciated are transforming the life
and faith and ideals of mankind. The example
as well as the words of such a prophet as Isaiah
are inspiring thousands of men and women
to study the social and economic conditions of
their day and to unite with the devoted spirit of
the Hebrew prophets in an heroic endeavor to
realize in the life of the community the divine
ideals of justice and fraternity.
Of all the many astounding discoveries which The Rediscovery
have made glorious the century just passed, none °^J®^"^
1 54 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
The Simpler
Theology
The New Social
Sense
in its effect upon the world's civilization will com-
pare with that of the discovery of the real Jesus.
To-day the misinterpretations of early Chris-
tian tradition, the powerful influence of Greek
thought upon the beliefs of the early Church,
the effects of the ignorance and barbarity of the
IMiddle Ages, and the crudities of the philosophies
and theologies of the past generations are being
set aside with the spirit of reverence but of fidel-
ity to the truth. The result is that Jesus as he
was known to his daily companions and revealed
by the earliest records is clearly seen by the
present generation. Instead of being borne
further away on the current of time, the Great
Teacher to-day speaks to men more distinctly
and directly than ever before.
In the light of Jesus's teaching and example,
the faith of his followers is becoming wonder-
fully simple. Instead of the transcendental God
of post-exilic Jewish theolog}^ far removed from
the everyday life of his children, they behold one
supreme personality pervading the entire universe.
Above all, he is a God who is ever seeking to re-
veal himself in and through the lives and hearts
of men. The one supreme problem of religious
education, therefore, is to open the mind of each
individual so that God's personality, which is
truth and love, may find full expression, even as
it did in the spirit, character, and deeds of the
divine Son of man.
With this simpler and truer conception of God
and his relations to men, there is to-day dawning
upon the consciousness of the Christian world a
new social sense. In place of the prevailing over-
Larger Conception of Religious Education 1 55
accentuated individualism is coming a fuller
recognition of the unity of the race. Through
study and keener observation, men are beginning
to perceive how closely the well-being of the indi-
vidual is bound up with that of the community and
state. They are realizing that it is far better to
strive for the common good than for the indi-
vidual good, for the commonwealth than for per-
sonal wealth. Practical sociology and kindred
sciences are revealing, as never before, the rights
and needs of the dependent classes and the obli-
gation of the strong to the weak. They are also
makmg clear the scientific methods whereby the
needs of society may be satisfactorily met. The
result is that the spirit of service, the noblest and
ultimate expression of religion, no longer wastes
itself in mere feeling or blind effort, but bears
rich and practical fruits.
With this larger definition of religion, with this The Enlarged
new and broader interpretation of the Bible, with ^1^^^^°''"^"
this clearer vision of Jesus, and with this vastly
enlarged field of service, it is inevitable that the
Church, which is the recognized agent for the
development of religion in the life both of the indi-
vidual and of society, should enter upon a new
and nobler mission. Its first task, as of old, is
to transmit to the individual the messages of the
great religious heroes and teachers of the race
and thus to aid in the development of personal
faith. Its second task is to foster the spirit of
reverence and worship. It is also called to pro-
claim the good news ''to the lost sheep of the
house of Israel" and to lead them back into the
way of truth and service. But in the light of
Importance
of the Teaching
Ministry
Adjustment of
the Church to
Its Great Task
1 56 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
modern psychology and the example of the Great
Teacher its larger task is not merely to save men,
but above all to make men. Thus its great mission
is to cooperate with God himself in developing
by right environment and wise teaching the divine
potentialities latent in each individual.
Doubtless in the future, as in the past, preach-
ing will always occupy an important place in the
life of the Church, for it is by no means anti-
thetic, but rather supplemental, to the ministry
of teaching. If, however, the Church is true to
the traditions of its founders and to the needs of
the present situation, it will give to teaching at
least an equal place with the ministry of preach-
ing and of worship. In America to-day, direct
religious instruction is left almost entirely to the
Church. Here lies its great responsibilit}^ and
opportunity; for the development of the ideals
and character of each rising generation is the
noblest and most important task of all. If
through its Sunday school and other educational
agencies the Church meets this great need of our
modern civilization, it will win thereby greater
honor and more loyal support than ever before
in its history.
Before it can discharge this divinest of mis-
sions there must be a fundamental readjustment
within the Church itself. The membership of
the Church must awaken to the magnitude of its
responsibility and to the transcendent importance
of religious education. Its officers must not only
give liberally of the Church funds, but also of
their influence and energies in perfecting the
equipment and standards of the Sunday school,
Larger Conception of Religious Education 1 5 7
the great teaching body of the Church, They
must also reorganize the other agencies of the
Church on an educational basis. Through trained
Sunday school superintendents and directors of
religious education they must raise its teaching
ministry to a far higher degree of efficiency. The
Church must again sit at the feet of the Great
Teacher and learn to apply more perfectly his
methods of making men. At the same time, it
must build on the established results of modern
psycholog}^ and education. It must meet the
alert, critical youth of to-day with a constructive,
modern interpretation of the Bible and with
standards and doctrines that will guide them in
the hour of doubt and temptation and satisfy
the cravings of their souls. Furthermore, the
Church must draw to itself and feed with life-
saving bread the millions of children who are
still untouched by its influence. These great
tasks call, as never before, for a united Church
of Christ to minister to the religious needs of
each community, even as does the public school
in the field of secular education. To do its real
work the Church must become what now it is
not — a communal institution. Thus through the
peculiar needs of the present age Jesus is call-
ing to his Church and to his faithful ones to
find their life by losing it in the most fruitful and
noble of services — the making of men.
APPENDIX
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY
APPENDIX
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY
I. The Secret of Israel's Conquering Power
I. What two great religions are rooted in Judaism?
2, Why did the religion of the Israelites make so deep
an impression on the faith of mankind? 3. In what
sense was Judaism a teaching religion? 4. What was
the standing of the teacher among the Jews? 5. What
is the attitude of the modern Jew to education ?
6. What was the chief aim of Israel's teachers? 7.
What three distinct classes of teachers were found
in ancient Israel? 8. What purpose led the authors
of the Old Testament books to write? 9. What three
types of teaching are found in the Old Testament?
10. What was the purpose that led the authors of the
New Testament books to write? 11. Formulate your
own definition of the Bible.
11. The Real Character and Aims of the Prophets
I. What was the real character of the Hebrew
prophets? 2. Were they primarily predictors? 3.
What universal human desire gave rise to the prophets?
4, Describe the ancient kahin. 5. What national crises
called forth Samuel and Deborah? 6. Describe the
way in which Amos became a prophet. 7. Isaiah's call.
8. What personal experiences gave Hosea his message?
9. Did any great prophets arise in Israel unless called
forth by some political, social or religious crisis?
10. In what different ways did the prophets perform
their work? 11. Define their four great aims?
III. The Prophets as Story Tellers and Preachers
I. Cite examples of the use of practical diplomacy by
the prophets in realizing their aims? 2. What illus-
trations drawn from Israel's history were used by
Amos and Hosea? 3. For what purpose were most
of the stories in the opening books of the Bible intro-
duced? 4. Why are they of great teaching value? 5.
What are some of the important prophetic truths
that they illustrate? 6. What was the most common
161
1 62 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
method by which the prophets appealed to the people ?
7. Picture in imagination the way in which Amos
addressed the people assembled at Bethel. 8. Why
did the prophets put their messages in poetic form?
9. What was the significance of the different meters
that they used? 10. In what different literary forms
did they present their teachings? 11. Give illustrations.
12. Why did they give so much attention to the form
in which they expressed their messages?
IV. The Teaching Methods of the Prophets
I. What evidence is there that the prophets aimed
to train disciples? 2. What is the especial value of
this method of teaching? 3. What symbolic names did
Hosea and Isaiah give to their children? 4. What
object lessons were used by the prophets? 5. Describe
some of Ezekiel's dramatic illustrations. 6. What led
the prophets to write down their messages? 7. Com-
pare the prophetic apocalypse and the direct address.
8. What are some of the indications of the moral
earnestness of the prophets? 9. On what occasions
did Amos and Isaiah show great tact? 10. What were
the chief characteristics of the teaching methods of the
prophets? 11. How far are these characteristics im-
portant to-day?
V. The Duties and Aims of the Priests
I. What evidence regarding the position and duties
of the preexilic priests is found in the early narrative
in Judges 18? 2. Why were the Levites probably at
first intrusted with the care of the ancient shrines?
3. What was the early use of the term son of Levi?
4. How was the term later used ? 5. What were the
fourfold duties of the priests? 6. Which was their
most prominent duty before the exile ? 7. Why was
the influence of the priests upon the people especially
strong? 8. What were the distinct aims of the priests?
VI. The Teaching Methods of the Priests
I. How prominently did the priestly oracle figure in
early Hebrew history? 2. What was the oracle and
how was it probably used? 3. What opportunities did
the priests have to influence the people in connection
with the oracle? 4. How as judges? 5. In what way
was Moses Israel's great lawgiver? 6, What evidence
Appendix 1 63
is there that the priests used the catechetical method?
7. How many decalogues are found in Exodus 20 to
23? 8. With what subjects do they deal? 9. What
was the value of the decalogue as a means of teaching?
10. What was the real significance of the ritual? 11.
Describe the growth of ceremonial and written law.
12. What were the characteristic teaching methods of
the priests?
VII. The History and Aims of the Wise
]\Ien or Sages
I. What needs gave rise to the class of the wise?
2. Among what other ancient people were the wise
found? 3. Where in the East to-day? 4. Why is so
little knowm about the Hebrew wise? 5. What are the
earliest traces of their thought in the Old Testament?
6. Describe the work of the two wise women who
aided Joab. 7. Of the two wise men in the court of
David? 8. What was the real character of Solomon's
wdsdom? 9. Cite illustrations. 10. Why was the book
of Proverbs later attributed to him? 11. What pre-
exilic prophets refer to the wise? 12. Why were the
wise especially prominent after the exile? 13. What
are the characteristics of the wise man described by
Ben Sira? 14. What was the source of the authority
and teaching of the wise? 15. What were the five
distinct aims of the wnse? 10. Compare their aims
with those of the modern Sunday school teacher.
VIII. The ]\Iethods of the Wise Men or Sages
I, What subjects especially interested the wise? 2.
What was their theory of education ? ^ 3. How far did
they appreciate the importance of primary education?
4. Is there any evidence that they ever spoke in public?
5. What was their ordinary place and manner of teach-
ing? 6. What classes did they seek especially to
reach? 7. How did the people of their day express
their appreciation of their w^ork? 8. What Old Testa-
ment and Apocryphal books are from the w^ise? 9.
Define a proverb and indicate its value as a means of
instruction. 10. Give examples of similitudes in the
book of Proverbs. 11. What advantages did the riddle
and parable possess as a means of instruction? 12.
How did the wise deal with the evils of laziness and
drunkenness? 13. What is the problem and the great
1 64 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
teaching- of the book of Job? 14. What pedagogical
principles may be learned from the example of the
Hebrew wise ?
IX. The History and Aims of the Scribes
AND Rabbis
I. What is the nature of the earliest reference to the
scribes in the Old Testament? 2. How did the Babylo-
nian exile affect the work of the scribes? 3. What
methods did Ezra use in teaching the people? 4. What
transformed the wise into scribes, and what effect
did this transformation have upon the scribes? 5.
How were the early scribes regarded by the people? 6.
What was the work of the Sopherim? 7. Contrast
the character and teachings of Hillel with those of
Shammai. 8. What were the chief aims of the scribes?
X. The Methods of the Scribes and Rabbis
I. What great advantages as teachers did the scribes
possess? 2. What fatal weakness lay at the founda-
tion of their work? 3. In what three ways were they
able to reach and teach the people? 4. How far did
they depend upon public discussion and question and
answer? 5. Upon memorization? 6. Upon didactic
stories? 7. Define Haggada and Halacha. 8. Quote
some of the nobler precepts and proverbs of the scribes.
9. What was their teaching regarding prayer? 10.
Discuss their use of beatitudes, parables, and alle-
gories. II. What were the chief defects in their teach-
ings and what was the great need of Judaism?
XL The Tr.\ining and Aims of the Great Teacher
I. Under what three titles was Jesus addressed by
the men of his day? 2. Which is the most exact title
and why? 3. What was the supreme vindication of
Jesus's emphasis upon teaching? 4. Describe the in-
fluences of Jesus's home at Nazareth. 5. WHiat oppor-
tunities did he have for studying the scriptures of his
race? 6. With what different parts of the Old Testa-
ment was he intimately acquainted ? 7. What books
made the deepest impression upon him? 8. What class
of Israel's teachers influenced Jesus's method most
deeply and why? g. Give examples of Jesus's use of
proverbs and questions. 10. What were the special
advantages of beatitudes as a method of teaching?
Appendix 1 65
II. When and why did Jesus use parables? 12. What
was his purpose in employing the paradox and hyper-
bole? 13. What were Jesus's aims as a teacher? 14.
To which would you say he gave the central place?
XI I. Jesus's Way of Making Men
I. What were Jesus's unique qualifications as a
teacher? 2. Why did he not commit his teachings to
writing? 3. What was his chosen way of perpetuat-
ing them ? 4. What fundamental characteristic of a
truly great teacher did he illustrate ? 5. What was the
object of his acts of healing? 6. Cite illustrations of
Jesus's adaptation of his teachings to those whom he
wished to teach? 7. Did he present his teachings in
abstract or concrete form? 8. How far did he em-
ploy abjective illustrations? 9. Why did he always
put his teachings in positive form? 10. What was the
basis of the note of authority which characterized all
his teachings? 11. To what in man did he ultimately
appeal? 12. What was his test of each man's religious
life? 13. Discuss the effect of Jesus's character and
life upon his disciples. 14. In what sense is he the
universal Saviour of mankind?
XIII. The Aims of the Early Christian Teachers
I. Why did Jesus's disciples go forth as teachers?
2. What were the teaching functions of the apostles?
3. Of the evangelists and prophets? 4. Of the pastors
and lay-workers? 5. What were the character and
duties of the professional teachers in the early church?
6. What was the primary aim of the early Christian
apostles, as illustrated by the opening chapters of Acts ?
7. How did they transmit the facts regarding Jesus's
life and teachings? 8. In what respects were the aims
of the early apostles identical with those of Jesus?
9. In what respects did they differ?
XIV. The Methods of the Early Christian
Teachers
I. Why did the early church place strong emphasis
on oral instruction? 2. What led Paul to write his
epistles? 3. How far did Paul devote himself to train-
ing disciples? 4. Was Paul preeminently a preacher
or a teacher? 5. Cite examples of Paul's use' of exhor-
tation, warning, and commendation. 6. How far did
1 66 Teachers of Judaism and Christianity
the early Christian teachers employ questions and dis-
cussions? 7. Cite examples of the use of arguments
and summaries. 8. What types of teaching charac-
teristic of the wise were used by the apostles? g. What
New Testament book has sometimes been called the
Christian book of Proverbs? 10. What importance did
Paul attach to the personality of the teacher?
XV. The Larger Prophetic and Christian Concep-
tion OF Religious Education
I. What are some of the current false definitions
of religion? 2. In the light of the example and teach-
ings of the prophets and Jesus formulate your own
definition of religion. 3. How does the religious life
of the individual normally develop? 4. What is the
nature of the common religious heritage of the race?
5. How far does environment affect the growth of in-
dividual faith? 6. What are some of the practical
contributions of psychology to our knowledge of re-
ligious growth? 7. What are the chief aims and
methods of religious education? 8. In what sense has
the Bible been rediscovered? 9. How is its value
to the present generation thereby increased ? 10. What
obstructions that have hitherto obscured the true char-
acter and work of Jesus have been removed? 11.
What is meant by the new social sense? 12. What is
the teaching mission of the Church? 13. How is it
to meet this responsibility? 14. How can your in-
dividual church adjust itself to its special task?
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