Full text of "Greece"
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at jhttp : //books . qooqle . com/
-|«KV
n
PRESENTED BY
RICHARD HUDSON
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY
1888-1911
\) ,/1
ENGLISH PHILOSOPHERS.
Though not issued in chronological order, the series will, f
when complete, constitute a comprehensive history of English
Philosophy. Two Volumes will be issued simultaneously at
brief intervals.
The following are already arranged : —
BACON.
Professor Fowler, Professor of Logic in Oxford.
BERKELEY.
Professor T. H. Green, Professor of Moral Philosophy, Oxford.
HAMILTON.
Professor Monk, Professor of Moral Philosophy, Dublin.
J. S. MILL.
Miss Helen Taylor, Editor of the "Works of Buckle," &c.
MANSEL. ,
Rev. J. H. Huckin, D.D., Head Master of Repton. \
ADAM SMITH.
Mr. J. Farrer, M.A., Author of "Primitive Manners and Customs.:
HOBBES.
Mr. A. H. Gosset, B.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford. *■
BENTHAM.
Mr. G. E. Buckle, M.A., Fellow of Aft Souls', Oxford.
AtTSTIN.
Mr. Harry Johnson, B.A., late Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
HARTLEY. JAMES MILL.
Mr.X S. Bower, B.A., late Scholar of New College, Oxford.
SHAFTESBURY. HUTOHESON.
Professor Fowler. ;
i
U
Preparing for Publication^ in Monthly Volume s, a Series of
ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS
OF
ART-EDUCATION.
£dited by EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.,
DIRECTOR FOR ART, SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.
The First Series of Illustrated Text-Books of Art-Education
will be issued in the following Divisions : —
PAINTING.
CLASSIC and ITALIAN.
GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH.
FRENCH and SPANISH.
ENGLISH and AMERICAN.
ARCHITECTURE.
CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN,
GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE.
SCULPTURE.
ANTIQUE : EGYPTIAN and GREEK.
RENAISSANCE and MODERN.
ORNAMENT.
DECORATION IN COLOUR.
ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT.
Each Volume will contain from Fifty to Sixty Illustrations, large crown. 8 vo,
and will be strongly bound for the use of Students. The price will be 5«r.
^wo Volumes will be issued shortly.
s
Digit
zed by G00gk
dw*We]ler.
GREECE.
By LEWIS SERGEANT.
i
I WITH ILL US TRA TIONS.
lonfcon :
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
l88o.
[All rights reserved.]
Digitized by VjOOQLC
LONDON :
gilbert and rivington, printers,
st. John's square.
Digit
zed by GoOgk
* PREFACE.
This little book aims at giving, in simple outline,
a geographical and historical description of the
kingdom of Greece, without wholly excluding the
provinces and islands of Turkey wherein the
Hellenic race predominates. If greater attention
seems to be paid to the historical element than is
7 contemplated in the general plan of the Series, the
*J reader will probably have no difficulty in admitting
^ that, in the case of Greece more than in that of any
other European country, geography apart from
^ history is unsatisfactory, not to say misleading,
S For years to come the map of the Balkan Penin-
^ sula must be subject to variations ; and it would be
idle, at such a crisis as the present, to define the
frontiers of Greece without having regard to the
bordering provinces, and to the historical facts
which involve the variations aforesaid.
The delimitation of the Turko- Hellenic frontier
tf-
l^O PJT *3JQ
iv PREFACE.
which was agreed upon in principle at the Congress
of Berlin, in the summer of 1878, has not been
completed at the moment when these words are
written. Some account is taken in the following
pages of those parts of Epeiros and Thessaly
which lie to the south of the Kalamas and Peneios
rivers ; but it is impossible to treat them with as
much detail as the actual territories of Greece,
which are already subdivided into eparchies and
demoi, and are described in elementary Greek
geographies with no less precision than the Eng-
lish counties in our own text-books.
If the geographical details and nomenclature
introduced in the third chapter appear somewhat
harsh in a book laying claim to be popular, it
should be remembered that a special interest
attaches to the political subdivisions of Greece.
Not only are many of the districts, towns, and
ruins peculiarly rich in historical association, but
the municipal institutions so carefully cherished by
the Greek race impart a dignity of their own to the
various communes and eparchies, sufficient to
warrant their enumeration even in a volume as
slender as this.
The proper names are spelt, in the text and in
the map, as nearly in accordance with Greek
spelling and pronunciation as appears to be
Digit
zed by G00gk
PREFACE, v
practicable. Entire uniformity is out of the ques-
tion, for, though in the majority of instances it
seems reasonable that we should approximate to
the original, there are other cases in which this
could not be done without a pedantic departure
from established practice. Thus as a rule the
Greek k has been adhered to, as in Korinth,
Makedonia, the Kyklades ; the diphthong at (pro-
nounced as in * pain ') is restored, as in Aitolia,
Achaia, Aigina. Strict accuracy would require us
to write Athenai for Athens, Korphoi for Corfu,
Thevai or Thebai for Thebes; but in these and
a few other instances the more familiar form
has been retained. Many western corruptions
of the names of Greek towns have sprung from
the Frank adoption of the accusative forms of
these names — as Athenas, Korphous, Thebas,
Patras, &c. The first n in Negrepont may be
accounted for in thfe same manner. The original
oi (pronounced like i in the Latin vinum, ofoov)
is retained, as in Euboia (Evvoia). The vowel
u is rendered, as pronounced, y ; the diphthong
ou is preserved, as in Arethousa ; au and eu
are rendered phonetically by av and ev> or by af
and cf> in harmony with the succeeding letter.
The original diphthong ei is retained, as in Pei-
raios, Epeiros ; whilst the termination os is restored
Digit
zed by G00gk
PREPACK.
in place of the Latin us, as in Pindos, Epi-
davros.
Amongst the works which have been found most
serviceable in the preparation of the following pages
are these : —
"Politike Geographia? by M. G. Demitsa; Part
I. Athens, 1878.
"La Gr&ce k TExposition Universelle de Paris
en 1878," by A. Mansolas. Athens, 1878.
"La Faune de Gr&ce," by Th. de Heldreich.
Athens, 1878.
" Catalogue des Eaux Min6rales de la Gr&ce."
Paris, 1878.
"Greek Antiquities, ,, by Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.
London, Macmillans, 1878.
" Ellenike Nomothesia? by MM. Deligianni and
Zenopoulos. Athens, 1863-7
Use has also. been made of Finlay's History, of
the copious work of MoraXtinis, of recent Consular
Reports, of sundry articles in English and French
periodicals dealing with the actual condition of the
country, the late antiquarian researches, &c, and,
incidentally, of many other authorities, whereof
a list will be found appended to "New Greece,"
published by Messrs. Cassell and Co. in 1878.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
General Description i
CHAPTER II.
Physical Geography n
CHAPTER III.
Political Geography 41
CHAPTER IV.
Race, Character, and Language . . . .71
CHAPTER V.
Modern History 85
CHAPTER VI.
Government and Politics 117
Digit
zed by G00gk
viii * CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
The National Defences 133
CHAPTER VIII.
Religion 143
CHAPTER IX.
Agriculture 152
CHAPTER X.
Trade and Finance 161
CHAPTER XI.
Education and Literature 169
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digit
zed by GOQgle
87
fc
Stamphantl^.
?
PHYSICAL MAP
— re — tfr
a a 10 *& 30
M E ■•
yljO *
ai
y.
£.*!*!> PPW
GREECE,
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
The kingdom of Greece consists of a double penin-
sula on the south-west of the Turkish dominions
in Europe (from which it was finally severed in
1832), together with the numerous adjacent islands.
The Ionian Islands were annexed to the kingdom
in 1864, when the total area was increased to
about 19,500 square miles. Though this area is
less than one-fifth of the British Islands, the Greek
coasts exceed in length those of any other Euro-
pean country.
On the west is the Ionian Sea, with its long
inlet, the Gulf of Korinth ; on the south is the
Kretan Sea, with the two wide gulfs of Messenia
and Lakonia ; on the east is the jEgean Sea, with
B
Digitized by VjOOQlC
on \1
1 GREECE.
the gulfs of Argolis, Aigina, and Volos, and the .
islands of Euboia (Evvoia), the Kyklades, and the
Sporades. The largest of the islands of Greece
is Euboia, which has a length of ioo miles. The
Kyklades are scattered over the western Archi-
pelago of the iEgean, and are partly a continua-
tion of the mountain chains of the mainland, and
partly the product of volcanic action. The
eastern Archipelago washes the coast of Asia
Minor ; and the principal islands, such as Lesbos,
Chios (Scio), Samos, and Rhodes, (with Cyprus
and the shores of the Levant,) were colonized
by Ionian and other settlers from continental
Greece, whose descendants people them to the
present day. The easternmost island belonging
to the kingdom as now constituted is Amorgos,
in longitude 26 east from Greenwich.
The northern frontier of Greece, when the
Romans first gave that name to the entire country
of the Hellenes, was the line which separated
Epeiros and Thessaly from the Illyrians, and
from Makedonia. Quitting the sea-coast on the
Gulf of Salonika, this line follows the crests of
Mount Olympos and the Kambunian range, above
the fortieth parallel, as far as the junction of this
latter range with that of Pindos ; then, after run-
ning northwards along the crest of Mount Pindos,
Digit
zed by G00gk
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
turns due west to the Akrokeraunian promontory.
Considered hydrographically,. instead of orograph-
ically, this line divides the watersheds of the
Salamvrias and the Voyussa (ancient Aoos) on
the south from those of the Haliakmon and the
Ergent on the north — save that the lower valley
of the Voyussa is excluded from Greece by the
line as above traced.
The northern boundary of the present kingdom
of Greece, as it was settled by the Powers in 1832,
extends from the middle of the Gulf of Volos
(Pelasgic or Pagasaian Gulf), along the crest of
Mount Othrys, to Mount Velouchi (the ancient
Tymphrestos), and so across the valley of the
Aspropotamos (Acheloos) to the Gulf of Arts
(Amvrakian Gulf), near Koprina. This boundary
cuts off, though not with historical accuracy, the
whole of Thessaly and Epeirps.
The plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Berlin
indicated a new line, nearly midway between these
two, and following the valleys of the Peneios and
the Kalamas (ancient Thyamis).
Of the three lines here traced, the outer, one is
historical, ethnographical, and strongly marked by
nature. The inner one had nothing historical to
recommend it at the time of its adoption, nothing
ethnographical, and only the Othrys range by way
B 2
Digit
zed by G00gk
4 GREECE.
of natural boundary. The middle line, however
it may ultimately be drawn, can be neither his-
torical, nor ethnographical, nor well defined.
The narrow portion of continental Hellas with
which the Greeks have had to be satisfied during
the first half-century of their existence as a king-
dom is about 48 miles broad (from Mount Othrys
to the Korinthian Gulf), and 200 miles long (from
the Ionian Sea to Cape Sounion). It is commonly
called Sterea (Continental) Hellas. Its area is
about 7700 square miles, and the number of its
inhabitants exceeds 450,000.
The secondary peninsula of Greece, called the
Peloponnesos (" Island of Pelops "), and, since the
twelfth century, the Morea, from the extensive
cultivation of mulberry-trees after the introduction
of silk-culture, is separated from Sterea Hellas by
the Gulf of Patrai, or Patras, the Korinthian Gulf,
and the Saronic Gulf. The connecting isthmus of
Korinth varies in breadth from about three and a
half miles upwards ; and, from its estimated length
or breadth, it has acquired the name of Hexa-
million.
The form of the Peloponnesos is that of a rhom-
boid, with four marked projections on the south
and east, and three minor ones on the north-west
On the east is the promontory of Argolis, having
Digit
zed by G00gk
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Argqs and Korinth near the extremities of its
base, and the Saronic and Argolic gulfs on either
side. The southern coast is broken into three
promontories, those of Lakonia, Maina or Mane,
and Messen&. The Lakonian promontory termi-
nates in Cape Malea ; the Maina, formed by the
extension of the Taygetos (Pentedaktylon) range*
terminates in Cape Matapan (Tainaron) ; and the
promontory of Messenfe, on the south-west, termi-
nates in Cape Gallo (Akritas). On the north-west
we have the promontory of Elis, terminating in
Cape Chelonatas; the promontory of Araxos,
dividing the Bay of Kyllene from the Gulf of
Patrai ; and the promontory of Drepanon, having
Patrai and Aigion at the extremities of its base.
The area of the Peloponnesos is about 8400 square
miles, and its inhabitants number about 700,000.
The latitude of Cape Matapan is 36 23' ; of
Cape Drepanon, 38 20' ; of Mount Othrys, 39 ;
of Janina (Ioannina), 39 45' ; of the mean northern
boundary of ancient Greece, about 40 20'. The
latitude of Athens is 37 59', and its longitude
23 44'.
The islands may be grouped under four heads :
— The Sporades, in the northern Archipelago ; the
Kyklades, in the southern Archipelago ; the Ionian
Isles on the west ; and the many larger and smaller
Digit
zed by G00gk
GREECE.
islands adjacent to various parts of the coast. The
first group, which continues the mountain range
of Magnesia, outside the gulf of Volos, includes
Skiathos, Skopelos, Pelagonesos, Gioura, Psathoura,
Piperi. At right angles to this line are Peristeri,
the Adelphoi, Skanzoura, and Skyros. Only the
larger ones are inhabited.
The Kyklades prolong the mountain ranges of
Euboia and of the Attic promontory respectively.
In the first line are Andros, Tenos, Mykonos,
Rheneia, Delos, Naxos, Amorgos. In the second
line are Helen&, Keos (Zea), Kythnos, Seriphos,
Siphnos, Kimolos, Melos. In a parallel line
between these two, but nearest to the Euboian line,
are Gyaros, Syra, Paros, Antiparos, Ios, Sikinos,
Thera (Santorini), Anaphe, &c.
The Ionian Isles run in a line parallel with the
principal mountain ranges of Epeiros, and with
the shores of Akarnania and Elis. They include
Kerkyra (Korphoi, Corfu), Paxos, Leukas (Lefkas,
Hagia Mavra, or Santa Maura), Kephallenia
(Cephalonia), Ithaka, and Zakynthos (Zante). To
the Heptanesos (Seven Isles), as the Greeks call
these islands, belongs Kythera, or Cerigo, off the
eastern promontory of Lakonia.
The coast islands are very numerous, especially
on the shores of Akarnania, Messene, Argolis, and
Digit
zed by G00gk
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Attika. The most important are Euboia, Spetzai,
Hydra, Poros, Salamis, and Aigina. Euboia runs
parallel with the eastern promontory of Continental
Hellas, facing the coasts of Lokris, Boiotia, and
Attika. It has a length of ioo miles, and
an average breadth of about fifteen miles, the
shortest distance from the mainland being about
ioo feet, between the town of Chalkis and the
opposite coast of Boiotia. The arm of the sea
is here called the Euripos (Evripos), from the
frequent and forcible currents observed at this
point. A modern form of the word, Egripo, gave
rise to the Frank name of the island and town,
which were long known as Negroponte. The
aggregate area of the islands of Greece is about
3300 square miles, and their population exceeds
460,000.
Population.
A census taken in 1879 returns the population
of the ancient provinces of Greece at 1,422,898,
and of the Ionian Isles at 231,174, a total of
1,654,072. The figures in 1870 were respectively
1,218,147 and 218,879, an( *> f° r ^e total, 1,437,026.
There has thus been an increase in the nine years
of 221,861, or at the rate of about 17 per cent, per
annum. The average density of the population is
Digit
zed by G00gk
GREECE.
about 85 to the square mile; an increase of 5
since the year 1870. Making every allowance for
the uninhabitable character of a large portion of
the country, these figures show that Greece is thinly
populated. The rate of increase has been above
the average, but the poverty of the State has pre-
vented it from offering inducements which might
have attracted a larger number of immigrants from
abroad. The Greeks themselves add other expla-
nations of the fact. " The existence of nations/'
says M. Mansolas, " resembles that of individuals;
and as these cannot perform their mission in the
world if their physical conformation is imperfect,
and out of harmony with their intellectual and
moral forces, so nations cannot have a complete
existence, and a life of national progress, if their
body is not in harmony with their spirit and des-
tiny." Some writers have opposed the claims of
Greece for extended territory by saying that the
people are over-educated and too ambitious, and
that they ought to confine themselves to developing
the land which they already possess. The Greeks
reply that their aspirations are an historical and
moral necessity, that their intellectual development
is an accomplished and irreversible fact, that their
right to a wider dominion springs out of their capa-
city for it, and that three-quarters of their race are
Digit
zed by G00gk
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
- still in the condition from which they themselves
have been liberated.
The island of Corfu is the most densely popu-
lated district of Greece, having more than 350
inhabitants to the square mile. Zante has about
300, the Kyklades 135, Attika with Boiotia about
90, and Aitolia with Akarnania about 50. The
population of the six largest towns {detnoi) may be
computed as follows : — Athens, about 70,000 ; Pa-
trai, 34,000; Corfu, 25,000; Hermoupolis, 21,500 ;
the Peiraios, 21,000; Zante, 18,600.
In 1870 the occupations of more than one-third
of the population (556,507) were ascertained —
wives, women not earning a separate livelihood,
children not at school, and nondescripts of the male
sex, accounting for the remaining 901,387. The
result showed that there were 218,027 cultivators
of the soil ; 44,532 shepherds, or keepers of flocks
and herds; 48,129 manufacturers and tradesmen;
22,665 workpeople of the male sex, and 5735 of
the female ; 31,234 owners of land {proprittaires) ;
18,952 merchants ; 25,178 sailors ; 28,290 domestics
of both sexes ; 6649 ecclesiastics ; 5343 public func-
tionaries ; 4109 municipal ; 13,735 in the army and
navy; 73,580 scholars of both sexes, and 2253
teachers of both sexes; 1141 lawyers ; 958 artists
of all kinds ; 797 doctors : and 4378 classed under
Digit
zed by G00gk
GREECE.
other heads. The total number of foreigners
residing in Greece at the same date was 19,958,
including 15,051 Turks, 2000 English, 1539 Italians,
1 105 Germans, Frenchmen, Russians, and Ameri-
cans, and 169 of other nationalities.
Of the actual subjects of King George, the
Christians of the orthodox Greek rite numbered
1,441,810 in 1870; the Christians of other com-
munions, 12,585 ; and the Jews and other non^
Christians, 3499. The Jews are most numerous at
Corfu, and they labour under no disadvantage
whatever in regard to their religious profession.
The same census ascertained as many as 67,941
persons whose ordinary language was not Greek.
Of these, 37,598 spoke Albanian, and 12 17 em-
ployed the Wallack patois known as Caragouni.
The majority of these understand more or less of
the Greek tongue, which tends rapidly to displace
the ruder forms of speech. And the same tendency
is observed over the greater portion of Epeiros,Thes-
saly and Makedonia, where the direct influence of
the Greek government and national spirit has not
yet been felt.
Digit
zed by G00gk
■ .
■ • If
^ Ncv
^^"CF ' "
%^^
^^ra^
u
\ihs^^^\f
^^Ss^-O^- \ /
&£ ^
K,^y^ A
CHAPTER II.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
The land of Greece, having regard to its size, has
a greater diversity of surface, a longer coast, more
harbours and inlets of the sea, more mountains and
valleys, and more islands, than any other country
which could be named. It is also one of the most
interesting portions of Europe from a geological
point of view ; for, though its mineral treasures
have not yet been thoroughly explored, the com-
position of its surface presents phenomena of
comparatively rare occurrence, and is constantly
being modified, either by the process of detrition
and deposit, or by the accumulation and dispersion
of inland waters, or by volcanic action.
A coast voyage from the Gulf of Salonike (Thes-
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
12 GREECE.
salonikfe) to the Akrokerauntan promontory would
exhibit to the voyager a remarkable panorama of
mountain and plain, gulf and cape, shore and
island. Sailing southward past the mouth of the
Peneios, where the slopes of Ossa sink down into
the valley of Tempfe, and along the hooked claw of
the Magnesian range, the vessel would leave Skia-
thos on the left hand, and pass into the smoother
waters of the Pagasaian Gulf. Here, if not before,
the traveller would be forcibly reminded that he
was circumnavigating a land of ruins. Methone,
Demetrias, the Pelasgic Thebes, Pteleon, a score
of desecrated temples and broken pillars, alternate
with the rude towns and villages of to-day, and
recall the heroic age of Greece. The same con-
trast is renewed as Mount Pelion fades behind him,
and, rounding the cape of Poseidon, he enters the
Maliac Gulf, and sees, not far from modern Lamia,
the ruins of Phalara and Stylis, and the broadening
Pass of Thermopylai. On his right hand recede
the wooded heights of Lokris, and sacred Opus,
and the marshy limits of KopaYs, until he finds
himself borne on the swift stream of the Evripos,
which the ancient Greeks spanned with a bridge
some score yards in length. Oropos is passed, and
Eretria, long the jealous rival of Chalkis, and then
the traveller, gazing behind him on " the Persian's
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digit
zed by G00gk
COTTAGE NEAR KORON.
Page 13.
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 13
grave " at Marathon, emerges upon the isle-strewn
waters of the ^Egean.
Round the u marbled steep " of Sounion; over the
busy highway of the Saronic Gulf, close by the
height where rose the temple of Zeus Panhellenios;
past the rapidly-reviving harbour of the Peiraios,
whither a new race of Athenians stroll down to the
sea ; skirting the glorious isle of Salamis, and on
through the narrow Eleusinian Strait ; round by
Epidavros and Troizen, and past the wealthy
islands of Poros, Hydra and Spetzai, never to be
forgotten by the grateful children of modern Greece;
up the bay to Nauplia (Nafplion) and Argos, and
back again down the coast of Lakonia — the tra-
veller reaches at length the southern shores of the
Peloponnesos. In and out of the deep gulfs he is
carried, along barren coasts, past the mouth of the
Evrotas, round the lowest spurs of Taygetos, up
the wild and rocky sea-line of the Maina, and so,
by the Messenian capes, to the harbours of Koron,
Modonand Navarino (the ancient Pylos). North-
ward now, by a comparatively unbroken coast, he
sails past the lagoons of the Kyparissian Bay, past
the mouth of the Alpheios, round the little pro-
montory of the Fish (Ichthys), past the Bay and
Cape of Tortoises (Chelonatas), from sacred Elis
to fertile Achaia, by bustling Patrai, between the
Digit
zed by G00gk
14 GREECE,
Castles of Rhion and Antirrhion, and eastward
along the smiling garden of the Korinthian Gulf.
Akrokorinthos greets him next,- and the narrow
isthmus — walled, and all but pierced, by Greeks and
Romans in succession.
Westward again, along the sinuous northern
shore, from the Sea of Kingfishers (Halkyonic),
almost under the shade of Helikon and Parnassos,
by Naupaktos (Nafpaktos) and Mesolonghion, by
the lagoons of Aitolia and Akarnania, past the
shelving delta of Aspropotamos, he is borne amidst
the hundred isles of the Ionian Sea. In and out
of the Amvrakian Gulf, past Aktion and Niko-
polis, rich with the memory of defeated Cleopatra,
by Preveza and Parga, our traveller sails, along the
coast of Epeiros, where Corfu still sighs for the
liberation of her sister Greeks, and so onwards to
the infantes scopuli of Akrokeraunia.
Such a voyage as this would enable us to form a
vivid idea of the general configuration of Greece ;
and at the same time it would prepare us to learn
that the inhabitants of the coasts and islands are
apt at maritime pursuits, bold and ready sailors,
the ocean carriers of the ^Egean and the Levant,
devoted to, and successful in, commerce. It would
account, also, for the fact that these thousand over-
hanging rocks and natural harbours, like the
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 15
western coasts of our own islands, became in other
days the resort of pirates and smugglers, who
carried on their illegitimate trade to comparatively
recent times. A similar result was produced by
the strongly-developed mountainous character of
the interior country, which, like the coasts and
islands, has in different age's insured to Greece so
many advantages and such great disturbance. The
surface of the land, on the continent and in the
Peloponnesos, is broken up into mountain and
valley, roads are few, locomotion is difficult, and,
amongst other consequences, the pursuit of crimi-
nals escaping from justice is a very arduous task.
When the government was tyrannical or unsettled,
advantage was taken of these facts by desperate
men to carry on the practice of brigandage.
Thus it came to pass that the geographical position
and configuration of Greece, combined with the
misrule to which she had for centuries been sub-
jected, made her a prey to pirates and land-robbers.
At length, however, it is possible to say that the
evil has disappeared. Brigands no longer count
on immunity from the government of the country,
but succeed in troubling it only by the weakness of
its frontiers. Within the kingdom itself there has
been no instance of brigandage since the year 1870,
and the lawless bands which have infested Epeiros
Digit
zed by G00gk
16 GREECE.
and Thessaly have rarely attempted to visit the
haunts which at one time they were wont to ravage.
The Greek Government has been able to effect
this all-important reform only by virtue of a firm
determination, and by maintaining a strong and
expensive frontier guard upon a boundary which
is most arbitrarily drawn, and which is cut trans-
versely by numerous mountain-gorges and torrent-
beds.
Mountains.
If we glance at an orographical map of Greece
(such as that which was prepared by the Chevalier
Lapie for the use of the diplomatists in 1826) we
shall be struck by the fact that the principal
mountain ranges have a uniform direction from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. ; and this direction is manifest
not only in the inland ranges but also in the coasts
and in the island groups. Starting from the west
we have the line of the Ionian Islands, the line of
coast from Cape Glossa to Messend, nearly all the
ranges of Epeiros, the great Pindos range, con-
tinued by Mount Tymphrestos, the mountain
chains which form the coast of Thessaly, Euboia,
Attika, the promontories of Argolis, Lakonia (the
Parnon range), Maina (the Taygetos range), the
promontory of Messenfe, and the double island
range of the Archipelago.
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
These parallel lines once laid down, we have a
-good initial idea of the configuration of Greece.
We may supplement it by adding the transverse
lines, runningeast and west, of theKambunian range,
north of Thessaly ; the range connecting Metzovo
and Ioannina ; the Othrys range, leaving the Pindos
at Mount Hellovo, and terminating in Cape Stavros
at the entrance to the Gulf of Volos; the CEta
(Oita) range, stretching from Mount Tymphrestos
along the coast of Lokris to Boiotia ; the broken
range extending from Mount Farnassos in a south-
easterly direction, through Helikon, Kithairon, Pen-
telikon and Hymettos, as far as Cape Sounion in
Attika ; and the Erymanthos and Kyllene ranges
in the northern Peloponnesos.
The most densely mountainous districts of
Greece are those of the Pindos-Tymphrestos
range, the section of continental Hellas from the
Pelion-Ossa line to Phokis on the Korinthian Gulf,
Northern Arkadia, and Messenfe, The highest
points are as follows : — Mount Liakoura (Parnas-
sos), 8000 feet ; Mount St Elias (Taygetos), 7600
feet; Mount Velouchi (Tymphrestos), about the
same height ; Aroania and Kyllene, in Achaia,
about 7800 feet. The Pindos reaches a height of
about 7000 feet.
When we have marked out on the map of
fu c
Digitized by VjOOQIC
j8 GREECE.
Greece all these mountain ranges and groups, a
small proportion of the surface remains. The
most extensive plain is that of Thessaly, which is
watered by the Salamvrias and its southern tribu-
taries. In Epeiros we have the plain of Amvrakia,
watered by the Arta (Arachthus). Of Boiotia the
southern portion is a plain, watered by the Asopos ;
of Attika, about one quarter. There are also fertile
but not extensive plains in Akarnania, in Argolis
(around Argos), in Lakonia (on the Evrotas), in
Messene, in Arkadia, and towards the shores of
Elis and Achaia on the north-west. To atone for
the scarcity of the plains, Greece has a large num-
ber of valleys interspersed amongst the mountains.
Many of these are watered by streams, and the
soil is exceedingly productive.
Rivers.
The following are the principal river-courses in
the Greek peninsula :—
The Peneios, or Salamvrias, falls from Mount
Lakmos, at the northern extremity of the Pindos
range, in Epeiros, and flows east and south-east
into Thessaly, receiving sundry tributaries on
either hand. The largest of these are the Trikka-
linos (Lethaios), the Komarkes, from the Kambu-
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 19
nian range, the Vlioufi (Pamitos), the Elassonitikos
(Evripos), and Phersalitikos (Apidanos). From
Larissa the Peneios turns in a north-easterly
direction, and flows through the vale of Tempfe,
between Olympos and Ossa, into the Thermaic
Gulf.
From the same watershed fall the Aoos, or
Voyussa, reaching the Adriatic near Aulon (Av-
lona) in Illyria ; the Arachthus, or Arta, flowing
south into the Amvrakian Gulf ; the Acheloos, or
Aspropotamos, which receives many tributaries
from the Pindos and Tymphrestos ranges, and
forms a large delta at the south-west of Akarnania ;
and also several other streams, flowing northwards
to the Haliakmon.
The Kalamas, or Thyamis, drains Lake Ioannina,
and flows (at first underground) into the Ionian
Sea, opposite to Corfu.
The Spercheios (Alamana) falls from the water-
shed at the junction of the Pindos, Tymphrestos
and Othrys ranges, and flows eastwards into the
Maliac Gulf, where it appears to have formed the
coast-line under the Oita range, known as the Pass
of Thermopylai.
The Kephissos (Cephisus) falls from the southern
slopes of the Oita range, taking tribute from Par-
nassos and Helikon, and flowing into and out of
C 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
30 GREECE.
the marsh of Kopa'is, to the Euboian channel.
The small stream of the same name in Attika,
with its tributary the Ilissos, is notable chiefly
for the site of Athens, which is built between the
two.
The largest river in the Peloponnesos is the
Alpheios, falling from Mount Taygetos, on the
southern border of Arkadia, and flow ing (occa-
sionally underground) through Elis into the
Kyparissian Bay, Amongst its tributaries are
the Erymanthos and the Ladon, from northern
Arkadia.
The Evrotas falls from the same watershed,
and flows southwards through Lakonia, into the
Lakonian Gulf.
There are innumerable petty streams in addition
to these, which assist in preserving the fertility of
the Greek valleys and plains ; but few of them are
of special practical importance. There is not a
single navigable river in Greece, and most of them
alternate, according to the time of the year and
the character of the season, between the conditions
of a swollen torrent and a dry bed.
The action of several of these rivers tends to
produce distinct modifications in the form of their
banks, particularly at their outlet into the sea.
The Spercheios has created, and continues to
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
enlarge, the Pass of Thermopylae The Aspropo-
tanios has had, and still has, a remarkable influence
of this kind upon the soil of both banks, and of
the alluvial promontory or delta at its mouth.
The land-building, and land-disturbing agency of
this river and its tributaries, which was noted by
the ancients, is further illustrated in the nume-
rous marshes and lacustrine formations of Akar-
nania. The lagoons on the northern shore of the
Gulf of Patrai, and, in a less marked development,
along the western coast of the Peloponnesos, are due
to the same processes. The Evrotas and other
parallel streams have, in the course of ages, broken
up the cretaceous and foliated rocks composing
their beds, and converted the angle of the Lata*
nian Gulf into a fertile alluvial plain. A like
result has been produced by the streams flowing
into the Messenian Gulf, the rounded extremity
whereof is a fairly exact copy of that formed by
the Evrotas.
A characteristic phenomenon of the schistose and
calcareous rocks of Greece is found in the subter-
ranean lapses {katavothrd) of some of the principal
streams, notably of the Alpheios, Peneios, and
Boiotian Kephissos. When these underground
channels have become choked, an inundation of the
upper banks has been the necessary result. Thou-
Digit
zed by G00gk
11 GREECE.
sands of acres of fertile land, once covered with
vegetation, have been lost in this way — as at
Tegea, Mantinea, and other places in Arkadia, at
Stymphalos in Achaia, and in northern Boiotia,
where Lake Kopa'is, now occupying an area of
eighty or ninety square miles, has been allowed to
swallow up historic cities. This lake was at one
time drained by twenty subterranean channels,
some of them being triumphs of engineering skill ;
but only one or two of these remained effective at
the date of the Revolution.
It is doubtless to a great extent through neglect
that the rivers of Greece have deteriorated in navi-
gable and fertilizing value. The Attic Kephissos
and Ilissos figure as important streams in the his-
tory of tw r o thousand years ago, but now the latter
is a dry bed, and the former is much shrunken.
The Evrotas was at one time navigable for galleys
at least as high as Sparta, and the Inachos as high
as Argos. The gradual drying up of springs, the
omission to seek and enlarge new ones, the want of
care in preventing the obstruction of water-courses
by the detritus from above, and the neglect of the
katavothra, have all contributed to diminish the
actual area of fertility in Greece, by submersion, or
by desiccation, or by denudation of soil. Hence it
is that the country is relatively less fertile now
than it was in the classical age.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
Digit
zed by G00gk
<
o
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY* 23
The total area of lakes and marshes in Greece is
computed at 850,000 stremmas, or 212,500 acres.
Lake Kopais, with the associated lakes Likeri and
Paralimni, covers 216,000 stremmas; Lake Phe-
neos, 7000; Lake Stymphalos, 5000; Lake
Agrinion (Vrachori) 75,000 ; Lake Angel okastron,
10,000. The marshes alone are estimated at
200,000 stremmas. The importance of draining
many of these watery watses is not overlooked, and
the drainage of Lake Kopais in particular has been
more than once contemplated, both by the Govern-
ment and by enterprising commercial men. The
conveyance of the waters to the Euboian Channel
would probably be the simplest mode of accom-
plishing this, and the restoration of the works of
Krates and others might suffice to clear the district
once occupied by the twelve cities overlooking the
lake. A plan has been suggested for utilizing the
water by carrying it in a canal to Athens, and if
this should be found to be practicable no doubt
the benefit would be very great.
That which is contemplated in regard to Lake
Kopais was performed by nature for Lake Phe-
neos, in Achaia. The two katavothra which
partially drained this lake were allowed to become
choked early in fehe present century. The waters
gradually rose, until a large tract of fertile territory,
with twelve inhabited villages, was submerged.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 GREECE^
On the first day of 1833 a shock of earthquake
was felt in Achaia, which had the effect of re-
opening the larger katavothron ; and thus as much
as 20,000 acres of land was regained on the borders
of the lake*
Perhaps in no other civilized country is there so
great a need of encouragement for the application
of skill in aid of natural resources. The waters of
Greece, for instance, are amply sufficient for the
irrigation of the soil, but they require to be pro-
perly distributed, and maintained in circulation by
a systematic expenditure of money and labour.
Minerals.
If the specially mountainous character of Greece
renders the country unproductive in an agricultural
sense, by comparison with lands in which the soil
is more abundant and fertile, yet the rocks them-
selves may be regarded as being fertile in a very
high degree. The application of labour and capital
would make these vast natural treasuries yield a
large revenue to the State.
The geological formation of the country is well
marked, and it presents distinct features in different
localities.
Continental Greece, and many of the Kyklades,
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 25
arc characterized by various forms of schist — that
is to say, of quartz, laminated by the presence of
some other mineral, such as mica or chlorite —
alternating with calcareous layers.
The Peloponnesos is chiefly cretaceous ; but in
the south, and in Mount Kyllene, we meet with
siliceous crystalline schists.
Most of the islands of the Archipelago, and
especially Delos, Mykonos, Naxos, and Tenos,
consist of metamorphosed rocks, or granites, which
also underlie the schists of the continent. Almost
the only place on the mainland where the granite
appears above the surface is near Lavrion.
The volcanic range of Greece extends from
Aigina, the peninsula of Methana, and Poros in
the Saronic Gulf, to Kimolos, Melos, Santorini, and
Anaphe. The volcanic action is not extinct, for it has
generated several small islands in the Bay of San-
torini during the present epoch. The circular form
of this insular group, the shape of the greater and
smaller Mount St. Elias, and the trachytes which
underlie and crop up from the soil, all bespeak a
distinct volcanic creation, the process of which has
not yet definitively ceased.
In the neighbourhood of this volcanic line we
meet, as we should expect to meet, with various
formations of metamorphic and crystalline rocks.
Digit
zed by G00gk
26 GREECE.
In the Isthmus of Korinth we have tufa ; in
Euboia, sandstone, porphyry, and serpentine ; in
the Morea, tufa, sandstone, and porphyry; in
Melos, Santorini, and Naxos, large quantities of
pure sulphur ; in Naxos, emery ; in Anaphe, as-
bestos ; in Corfu, saltpetre ; with granite, mar-
bles, and other igneous and semi-igneous rocks
profusely scattered over most of these localities.
Many other valuable minerals are or have been
raised in Greece. Considerable quantities of gold
were obtained from the island of Thasos, and also
from the mines of Lavrion, near Cape Colonna, in
Attika, notably in the days of Themistokles. The
latter district is now worked for silver and lead by
the Sounion Mining Company, for lead and zinc
by a Franco-Greek Company, and for lead by
the Perikles Mining Company. In addition to
these, there is the Greek Lead Mining Company
which purchased the rights of the Franco-Italian
concessionnaires in 1872, and which now employs
more than 2000 men, and turns out annually more
than 8,000,000 tons of metal.
In the island of Keos, a geological continuation
of Attika, there are deposits of silver-bearing lead,
side by side with abundant stores of lignites.
Veins of lead are also found at Anaphe and Melos,
and amongst the trachytes generally.
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 27
Iron compounds, magnetic ironstones, and mag-
nesites, occur in the serpentine and crystalline
rocks of the continent and Euboia.
Small quantities of gold have been discovered in
Euboia ; copper in Attika and the Morea ; jasper
in Euboia, and in some parts of the continent and
the Kyklades ; malachite in the Morea and a few
of the islands ; amethysts in Melos ; chalcedony on
the mainland and in Euboia ; obsidian in Melos
and other islands. The more valuable metals, if
they have not been obtained in large quantities,
are at least sufficiently manifested to show that
their yield may one day be a source of wealth to
the country.
The sedimentary rocks are rich in limestones,
plastic clays, gypsum, manganese, chalk, pipe-
clay, and lignites. The latter are specially abun-
dant in Euboia, and in some neighbouring districts
on the continent.
. Amongst the trachytes occur the porphyritic, the
glassy trachyte, or obsidian, the vesicular, or mill-
stone porphyry, the pumiceous trachyte ; and,
among3t the allied crystalline rocks, pitchstone and
mica.
The siliceous, metamorphosed limestones of
Greece, in the form of statuary marble, are the
most characteristic mineral productions of the
Digit
zed by G00gk
28 GREECE.
country. The marble of Paros is white, close in
texture, and semi-transparent ; that of Mount
Pentelikon, from which many of the finest sculp-
tures of Athens were chiselled, is of a like character,
though more liable to occur with red or green
veins ; in Naxos, Skyros, and a few other islands,
the same class of marbles exist ; in Lakonia are
found black, red, grey, and green marbles ; in Tenos,
marbles of every known shade. Many quarries are
being worked ; but increased capital is needed for
the development of this, as of all the other indus-
tries of Greece. Flag-stones have recently been
exported in abundance from Amorgos to the prin-
cipal centres of Greek population.
Rock salt is found in Melos ; and large supplies
of the same mineral are obtained by evaporation on
the coasts.
The mineral springs of Greece are numerous and
valuable. Cold sulphur springs occur on Mount
Kyllene and in Kephallenia ; sulphurous, ferrugi-
nous, muriatic, and other waters, abound in various
parts of the country. The most noted of these are
the springs of Thermopylai ; of Aidipsos (Lipso) in
Euboia ; of Methana, of Melos, of Kenchrea, of
Kythnos, and of Hypatfe, near Lamia. Some of these
thermal waters were celebrated in antiquity, and
were constantly resorted to for curative purposes.
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 29
Plutarch mentions that Sylla," during his military
operations in Greece, visited Aidipsos, in the hope
of shaking off the gout ; and possibly it was at the
baths of Kenchrea that Paul shaved his head, and
sought to rid himself of his " thorn in the flesh."
On the whole, Greece is decidedly rich in the
variety of its mineral deposits ; and the great age
and fecundity of the Attic mines, and of the marble
quarries of Pentelikon, Paros, and the Kyklades,
show that some of them, at all events, occur in
great abundance.
Flora.
Vegetation in Greece may be described as
natural luxuriance qualified by destruction and
neglect. Wherever,, under due influence of tem-
perature, sunshine, irrigation, and tillage, the soil
is put to a reasonable test, very valuable results are
obtained, as we shall find in considering the agri-
cultural statistics of the country. But unassisted
nature yields harvests of wealth which may be
reaped at any moment, and which must be regarded
as a noteworthy item of the national resources.
The forests of Greece have greatly deteriorated
since* the classical age, and especially in certain
localities. "The Athenians can no longer hunt
bears in the forests on Lycabettus ; and the
Digit
zed by G00gk
36 GREECE.
Nemaean lion would have much difficulty in these
days to escape observation, where he formerly
reigned secure in the impervious jungles of Argolis.
A modern traveller would be puzzled to cut even a
walking-stick in the forest which once furnished
the famous club of Hercules, whilst the wooded
haunts of the Erymanthian boar are at present
reduced to a few Arcadian shrubs of luxuriant
growth. The shady groves of Olympia and Epi-
daurus are now open plains ; and Hymettus pre-
sents the appearance of but the skeleton of a
mountain." {Strong)
The forests have suffered from the desiccation
or denudation of the soil, and from the wholesale
cutting-down of trees, which has not been compen-
sated by fresh plantations. Nevertheless, the
wooded districts of Greece, excluding Thessaly
and Epeiros, have an extent of about 6,000,000
stremmas, or 1,500,000 acres. A certain propor-
tion of these districts are State domains, and the
Government has rights of control over the re-
mainder ; but it cannot be said that adequate pro-
vision has yet been made, either for the safeguarding
of the forests or for their utilization as sources of
revenue.
The principal timber forests are those of Akar-
nania, of the slopes of the Oita range, of Parnassos,
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 31
of Taygetos, of the Pholoe range, between EHs
and Arkadia, of Mount Kyllene, of Boiotia, and
Euboia. The most valuable timber-trees are the
pine, oak, chestnut, and ash, which are distributed
as follows: —
The Italian pine (Pinus maritimd) is the
characteristic tree of the mountain forests, and
grows freely in Lakonia, Elis, Phokis, Lokris, and
Euboia. It requires little moisture in the soil, and
its wood is hard and highly resinous. It grows to
the height of seventy or eighty feet, and is used in
ship-building, in the erection of structures exposed
to the action of water, in the preparation of char-
coal, &c.
The white fir (P. abies) grows on the highest
slopes, of the mountains of Lakonia, Messenia,
Achaia, Phokis, Aitolia, &c. It is of slower growth,
and reaches a greater size, than the Italian pine ;
and, whilst it seeks a moister soil, its wood is only
serviceable for use under dryer conditions, as for
instance in house-building.
. Another pine (P. pined) grows plentifully ; as a
rule below the zone where the white fir begins
(1000 feet above the sea). Its growth is rapid,
and its full size is less than that of the Italian pine,
whilst its wood is less valuable for building pur-
poses. Its appearance approximates to that of the
Digit
zed by G00gk
32 GREECE.
palm, and its seeds {koukounarid) are eaten, alone
or in confectionery.
The Italian oak (Quercus esculed) is very abun-
dant in the Peloponnesos, and in the southern
portions of the continent. It prefers a deep soil,
and grows to a height of about sixty feet ; but
still finer specimens are found in Euboia. The wood
is hard, dark, and of great specific gravity, and is
useful for ship-building, machinery, &c. The bark
and smaller branches are employed in tanning, and
the heavy crops of acorns and galls make the
dense forests of Italian oak especially serviceable.
The chestnut (Castanea vesca) grows freely on
the mountain slopes, up to an elevation of 2000
feet Its wood is tough, and polishes beautifully,
so that it is useful for furniture, turnery, &c. The
fruit yields starch, and is occasionally consumed
as an article of food.
There is another species of oak, perhaps more
strictly indigenous to Greece than the Italian oak,
which occurs in considerable quantity. Its wood
is less dense, but it is applied to similar purposes.
Other trees are commonly found in various parts
of the country, though not in forests. The plantain
{Plat anus orientalis) attains great size and age,
measuring occasionally more than thirty feet in
circumference at a height of five feet from the
Digit
zed by G00gk
'PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 33
ground. Its wood is white, and is used for furni-
ture and carving, for charcoal, and (the smaller
branches) for basket-making. The Valonea oak
(Q. (Bgilops) is found in Lakonia, Messenia, and,
generally, in the same regions as the Italian oak.
It occasionally grows to a great size. Its acorn-
cups are very large, and are serviceable in the
tanning of leather. Under the name of valonea
they are an important item in the list of Greek
exports. The kermes oak (Q. cocci/era) produces
a red pigment (prinokokki) from its galls, which is
an article of commerce. The ilex oak and the
ash are valuable for their hard woods. The former,
like the elm, is rarely met with. The beech occurs
in oak forests in the Pelopbnnesos, and in districts
of Euboia.
There are also found in Greece the black erl,
the winter linden, the cypress, yew, poplar (Popn*
lus grceca), white willow, ahorn, Judas tree, laurel,
pomegranate, almond, walnut, plum, evergreen
cherry, wild cherry, pear and arbutus.
Fruit-bearing trees and bushes, which yield
abundant and increasingly valuable articles of com-
merce, are the currant, mulberry (black and white),
olive, fig, vine, orange, citron, bergamots, and other
" Hesperidean " fruits.
More or less recently has been introduced the
D
Digitized by VjOOQIC
34 GREECE.
culture of cotton, tobacco, rice, flax, opium, and
madder.
Corn, barley, maize, and other cereals, are largely
cultivated throughout Greece.
The wild plants and flowers, both of the main-
land and of the islands, on the hill-sides and in
the valleys, are very numerous, of rich fragrance,
and often of extreme beauty. Roses, balsams,
geraniums, heliotropes, hyacinths, jasmines, myo-
sotis, mignonette, lilies, thyme, and many more,
bloom in profusion during the greater part of the
year, and afford not only pasture for the bees but
also a constant charm for the lover of nature.
Fauna.
Wild animals are common in most parts of
Greece, and especially of continental Greece ; but
very few of them are beasts of prey. Wild boars
have been found in the forests of Akarnania, and
of the western Tymphrestos range. Wolves are
seen in the same districts, and in the Othrys
mountains. Jackals are more common, but it is
seldom that they trouble the agriculturist who
takes ordinary precautions to defend his flocks.
Wild cats are found in Attika and Arkadia.
Birds of prey, such as eagles, vultures, and
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 35
hawks, are frequently seen on the mountains, and
throughout most of the provinces and islands.
About forty species have been enumerated.
Game abounds in the country. In addition to
the beasts of prey, which may be classed under
this head, hares and rabbits are numerous ; and so
are quails, woodcock, and snipe. Birds of passage
(whereof there are about 165 species) appear in
due season. Wild fowl, swans, geese, turkeys,
quails, are observed in large flocks, as on most of
the Mediterranean shores, going to or returning
from the north. Pelicans, a few storks, and other
wading birds, are found in the marshy districts.
Pheasants are rarely found, but partridges are not
uncommon.
The smaller song-birds and others are not rare
in Greece. Nightingales frequent the Peloponnesos
generally, and abound in the Arkadian and Mes-
senian groves. As many as 135 species of the
order of perching birds (Passeres) have been ob-
served, 94 of them breeding within the country*
The larks, ortolans, loriots, merles, and a few others,
are much in request as articles of food ; but, as
there id no law to protect them, many of the birds
most serviceable to the agriculturist are ruth-
lessly killed. The sacred birds of Minerva are
yet very common, though the Akropolis of Athens
D 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
36 GREECE.
itself is not so highly favoured by them as was
once the case.
The domestic animals, and the quadrupeds used
for labour and for food, are mainly of the species
known in all temperate regions. Up to the esta-
blishment of the kingdom camels were employed
as beasts of burden ; but they have since died
out. Mules, horses, and asses, are now relied on
for the same purpose, whilst oxen and buffaloes
assist in the work of agriculture. Goats are kept
in large numbers ; and sheep and swine are fairly
abundant, the number of the former being esti-
mated at about 2,100,000.
Amongst fish, the tunny, sardine, anchovy, red
mullet, mackerel, and eel, are most abundant, and
are industriously taken, though the trade in them
scarcely extends beyond the country. Salmon are
found in the lakes of Aitolia, and the river
Acheloos. These lakes, and the lagoons on the
shore, are subdivided into fishing-grounds, which
are put up to auction by the State every ten years.
In the waters of Mesolonghion there are oyster
fisheries.
Reptiles are very common in Greece, and two
kinds of vipers are slightly poisonous.
Of insects the most characteristic, and at any
rate the most valuable, is the bee. Honey is still
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 37
found wild, as well as cultivated, on Mount
Hymettos, where the thyme and heather impart
to it a peculiar aromatic flavour. On the other
hand, honey procured by bees from certain plants,
as the Azalea pontica and Kalmia latifolia, is gene-
rally unwholesome. Excellent honey is also found
in other parts of Greece ; and that at Karysto,
in northern Lakonia, is highly valued. The gall-
producing insects (Coccus iticis, &c.) also contribute
to the wealth of the country.
Lions, hyaenas, and a few other wild animals of
the fiercer kind known to the ancient Greeks, have
disappeared. The cranes of Thessaly, mentioned
by Plato, the mouse-killing martens, the fighting
quails, the apes, peacocks, dolphins, and other more
or less authenticated inhabitants of the Greece of
two thousand yeai£ ago, have either entirely quitted
the country or ceased to be domesticated or
reverenced.
Climate and Health.
There are certain natural and fair deductions,
so far as regards the climate of Greece, which
may be made from the previously mentioned facts
as to the configuration of its surface. From the
great indentation of the coasts, whereby a remark-
Digit
zed by Google
38 GREECE.
■' ' ™^^^— .1 ■ ■ I. i ,
able proportion of the land is exposed to the
influence of the sea, from the equable character
of the Mediterranean and the Levant, from the low
latitude of the country, the effect of the southern
and south-western winds, the diversity of mountain
and plain, the aspect of the mountain slopes, as
well as from the composition of the rocks and
soil, we should be prepared to hear that the
climate of Greece was characteristically fine, mild,
regular, and dry, that the atmosphere was clear,
and, at a certain height, rarefied and bracing.
Such, in fact, is the case. Greece enjoys many
combined advantages of natural position, and the
consequence is that its inhabitants are specially
favoured by the salubrity of the conditions under
which they live.
With regard to the clearness of the atmosphere,
travellers have observed that an unusually wide
landscape is presented to the eye at almost any
elevated point. From Mount Hymettos the spec-
tator can see the whole of Attika, Boiotia, and
Euboia, and many of the islands of the Archi-
pelago. From Mount Ithome, in Messenia, it is
said to be possible during the greater portion of
the year to see the islands of Zante and Kephal-
lenia, at a distance of more than one hundred miles.
The brightness of the air prevails even in winter ;
Digit
zed by G00gk
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 39
mists are rare, and the sun shines on almost every
day of the twelvemonth.
The succession of the seasons, and the variations
of • heat from day to day, are notably regular.
From about the middle of June to the end of
August the heat is great, often varying from ioo°
to uo° Fahrenheit A few thunderstorms then
introduce the cooler months of autumn. The
winter season sets in towards the end of Novem-
ber. January is the coldest month, though the
mean temperature from December to February is
not lower than 6o° Fahrenheit during the day.
Snow falls on the higher mountain chains, but
rarely on or near the sea level. The Greeks con-
sider their summer to last from May to October,
allowing barely two months each for spring and
autumn. Cloudy skies are rare, and fogs almost
unknown in the plains ; whilst the average fall
of rain during a whole year is less than 15
inches.
" From observations made during a long series
of years it appears," says M. Mansolas, " that we
have annually an average of 203 clear days, 134
partly clear days, and 24 dull days ; whilst of the
latter there are only five on which the sun does
not show itself. The greatest number of clear
days occur in July and August, namely, 26 or 27
Digit
zed by G00gk
40 GREECE.
days, and the remaining days of these months are
partly clear. The number. of stormy days is about
20 in the year."
It follows that Greece is, generally speaking, a
healthy country. The mildness of its climate suits
invalids suffering from lung and bronchial diseases ;
whilst the hygienic conditions of certain particular
localities, of the air, of the soil, and of the mineral
springs, are very favourable. On the other hand,
some of the marshy and badly-drained neighbour-
hoods are malarious ; and the excessive heats of
summer are occasionally injurious to children and
weak persons.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER III.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
At the date of the last census, July, 1879, the
kingdom of Greece was divided into 13 nomar-
chies (provinces or departments), 59 eparchies, and
366 demarchies (communes).
The nomarchies are as follows : —
In Continental- Greece.
Attika and Boiotia
Phthiotis and Phokis .
Aitolia and Akarnania
chief town, Athens.
„ Lamia.
„ Mesolonghiop.
In the Peloponnesos.
Korinth and Argolis
Achaia and Elis
chief town, Nauplia.
„ Patrai.
Digit
zed by G00gk
42 GREECE.
Messenia .
. chief town, Kalamata.
Arkadia
„ Tripolis.
Lakonia .
„ Sparta.
In the Aigean.
Euboia
. chief town, Karystia.
Kyklades .
„ Hermoupolis.
/;/ the Ionian Sea.
Kerkyra (Corfu) . chief town, Corfu.
Kephallenia . . „ Argostolion.
Zakynthos (Zante) . „ Zante.
Attika and Boiotia.
The nomarchy of Attika and Boiotia contains
about 2450 square miles, and constitutes the
eastern portion of Sterea Hellas. Its population
is about 185,000/ distributed over the five eparchies
of Attika, Aigina, Thebes (Thevai), Megaris, and
Levadeia.
The eparchy of Attika has 1 16,000 inhabitants ;
the computation in classical times having been
480,000. Its mountains are Parnes, Pentelikon,
Lykavetos, Hymettos, and Lavrion, with the pro-
1 The population is taken (in round numbers) from the census
of 1879. The figures quoted in connexion with towns indicate the
number of inhabitants in the corresponding dcmoi.
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 43
montory of Sounion ; its plains, those of Athens,
Marathon, and Eleusis (Elefsis) ; its rivers, Ke-
phissos and Ilissos.
Athens (Athena<) is the metropolis of Greece,
and contains about 70,000 inhabitants (as com-
pared with 180,000 in the classical age). It is
built on the north side of the Ilissos, on a plain
stretching from the foot of Mount Lykavetos
westwards to the Gulf of Aigina. In the midst
of the ancient city, but near the south-west boun-
dary of the modern, is the Akropolis, an isolated
rock about 1 50 feet high, 1 1 50 feet long, and 500
feet broad. New Athens, extending towards the
slopes of Lykavetos, is built chiefly of marble,
with well-planned streets, squares, and gardens.
On the extreme east is the royal palace, on a
commanding site, fronted by a large square.
Running in a straight line from this square through
the city is Hermes Street, a broad avenue, the line
of which is continued by another road as far as
the Peiraios. Stretching right and left from the
palace are two fine boulevards, and between the
first of these and the foot of Lykavetos are the
University, with its museums, laboratories, and
national library, and the City Hospital. Amongst
the other public buildings in Athens are the
Odeion, the Polytechneion, the Archaeological
Digit
zed by G00gk
44 GREECE.
Museum, the Observatory, many benevolent in-
stitutions, including hospitals and asylums, the
magnificent edifice of the Academy of Sinas, the
Lyceum of Varvaki, the Parthenagogeion of
Arsakis, the Seminary of Rhizaris, and other
schools and municipal erections.
Of the ruins of ancient Athens, the most notable
are the Propylaia at the western extremity of the.
Akropolis, the Parthenon, and the Erechtheion, with
the minor temple of Nik&, on the same height. Be-
low, on the bank of the Ilissos, are to be seen sixteen
columns of the temple of Olympian Zeus, with the
Stadion on the opposite side of the river. Nearer
to the foot of the Akropolis are the monument of
Lysikrates, the recently excavated Theatre of Dio-
nysos, and the Odeion of H erodes Atticus, which
seated 6000 persons. Further to the west is the
temple of Theseus ; and, towards the centre of the
new town, the gate of the Agora, and the Temple
of the Winds.
The Peiraios is the largest and most important
of the three harbours of Athens, neither Mounychia
nor Phaleron having much trade, though the latter
has made considerable progress* since the com-
pletion of the railway from Athens to the Peiraios.
This rapidly increasing town, which is about four
3 Chiefly as a summer resort for the inhabitants of the capital.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
o
Digitized by VjVJvJV IV
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 45
miles and a half from the capital, contains now
some 21,600 inhabitants, and is a well-built and
wealthy place. In addition to its shipping trade,
it carries oh the manufacture of machinery, yarns,
glass, pottery, &c. ; it has iron furnaces and
works, large depots, with many municipal and
educational buildings, including the Military Aca-
demy, a Gymnasium, Hellenic Schools, and a
library.
Other places in the same eparchy are Menidi
(Acharnai), having 2000 inhabitants; Tatogi
(Dekeleia), containing a royal country residence
and having in its neighbourhood the fortress of
Phyl& ; Marathon, on the eastern coast of Attika ;
Kephisia (one of the twelve cities of Kekrops), a
favourite resort of the Athenians in the summer ;
Marousion ; Herakleion, founded by King Otho ;
Keratia; Lavrion (Laurium), the centre of a large
mining district ; and Thorikos, opposite to the
island of Helen&.
The eparchy of Aigina, containing 7000 in-
habitants, includes the island of that name, in the
Saronic Gulf, and the adjacent island of Ankistrion.
The town of Aigina has 3000 inhabitants, and has
a fair shipping trade. The majority of the islanders
are agriculturists, and the soil, both on the plains
and on the slopes of Mount St. Elias (2800 feet),
Digit
zed by G00gk
46 GREECE.
is fertile and well-wooded. On this island are the
ruins of the temple of Zeus Panhellenios.
The eparchy of Megaris (18,500) lies between
Mount Kithairon and the Saronic Gulf, between
Attika and Mount Geraneion — the last-named
chain dividing the Peloponnesos from Sterea
Hellas. The land is rocky, with the exception of
a small plain in the centre, and the inhabitants are
poor. The only town of any size is Megara, with
5000 souls; but it is ill-built, with small houses
and narrow streets.
Eleusis, over against the island of SalamiSj once
famous for the temple of Demeter and the
Eleusinian mysteries, still contains the ruins of
the ancient temple ; but the statue of the goddess
was brought to England in 1801. On the island
of Salamis is the town of the same name, contain-
ing 3200 inhabitants, engaged in agriculture, fishing,
and a small carrying trade.
The eparchy of Thebes contains about 23,000
inhabitants, about one-fourth of whom reside in
the commune of Thebes, the ancient capital of
Boiotia, now of comparatively slight importance*
A few miles west of the chief town is Thespiai
(Eremokastron), famous for having supplied Leo-
nidas with 200 men for his defence of Thermopylae
Between the two is Leuktra, now Leuka; and
Digit
zed by G00gk
A CAPITAL; ELEUSIS-
Page46.
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47
south of this line, on the northern slopes of
Kithairon, the modern representative (Kokla) of
the ancient Plataiai.
To the northward, in the same historic tract,
are Askr& (Palaiapanagia), the birthplace of
Hesiod ; Mazi and Moulki (formerly Haltastos
and Onchestos) ; on Lake Kopats, Tanagra ;
Delion, on the Euboian channel (where Sokrates
saved the life of Xenophon) ; and Avlis, the cradle
of the expedition against Troy.
The eparchy of Levadeia (20,000) is bounded by
Helikon and Parnassos on the south and north,
and includes the larger portion of the great lake
of Kopais. The shores of the lake are fertile, and-
produce considerable quantities of rice and cereals.
The town of Levadeia (5700) has a small cotton
industry. The plain of Chaironea, the scene of
Philip's victory, is still distinguished by the frag-
ments of the colossal lion 5 which marked the grave
of the Thebans and Argives. Kapraina is the
modern name of the village nearest to that famous
site. Arachova (3000), where Karaiskakis obtained
a victory over the Turks in 1826, has a fair trade
in wine. Orchomenos, on Lake Kopais, Davlia,
and Distomia, are places of some importance.
* Now about to be restored.
Digit
zed by G00gk
48 GREECE.
Phthiotis and Phokis.
The nomarchy of Phthiotis and Phokis contains
about 2250 square miles, and 128,000 inhabitants.
It includes the eparchies of Phthiotis, Lokris,
Parnassis, and Doris.
The eparchy of Phthiotis (53,000) lies between
mounts Oita and Oth rys, and stretches from Tym-
phrestos to the eastern coast. Its chief town is
Lamia (10,000), which has derived special note
from its strategic position near the first frontier of
modern Greece. It is partly fortified, and has a
citadel, the Akrolamia. It is connected by good
roads with Stylis and Hypate, and drives a
busy trade with the surrounding country. Stylis
(Phalara), on the Maliac gulf, has 4250 inhabitants,
and is a small manufacturing town. Hypat£, or
Neai Patrai (6000), near the right bank of the
Spercheios, is famous for its medicinal springs. It
is one of the many towns burnt by the Turks in
the war of liberation ; and it contains the ruins
of its ancient grandeur. Gardiki (near Kremast&
Larissa), Sourp&, and Nea Mizela (Amaliopalis),
are small towns on the coast of Levadeia.
The eparchy of Lokris (23,600) contains the
towns of Atalant& (3000), near which are the ruins
of the ancient Opus and Kunos ; Nea Pella (900),
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 49
colonized by Makedonians ; Elateia, Larymnfe,
Drymia, and Molos. The country is rich in corn,
well watered, and industriously cultivated. The
Pass of Thermopylai has been widened by the
action of the Spercheios and other rivers, from
barely twenty to as much as 1800 feet.
The eparchy of Parnassis (28,000) contains
Amphissa (6800), Delphoi (Kastri), once famous
for its oracle, for the spring of Kastalia, and for
the Pythian games ; Antikirra, on the Gulf of
Korinth, where grew the white and black helle-
bore, reputed to be efficacious for the cure of mad-
ness ; Krissa, Gravia, the scene of some of the
earliest exploits of Odysseus in 1821 ; Topolia,
Galaxeidion (5000), or Oianth&, on the Gulf of
Krissa, one of the largest naval depdts of Greece ;
Mavrolithari (4000), and Agoriani (1000).
The eparchy of Doris (22,700) occupies the
western corner of the nomarchy, between Aitolia
and the Gulf of Korinth. The principal towns are
Lidorikion, Vitrinitza, on the site of the ancient
coast town of Tolophon ; Granitza, and Artotina,
the centre of a busy agricultural district.
Aitolia and Akarnania.
The nomarchy of Aitolia and Akarnania con-
tains about 2850 square miles and 138400 in-
£
it zed by G00gk
5© GREECE.
habitants, divided amongst the eparchies of
Mesolonghion, Naupaktia, Trichoma, Evrytania,
Valtos, and Vonitza-Xeromeros.
The eparchy of Mesolonghion (22,000) has for its
chief town Mesolonghion (Missolonghi, 8ooo), on
a broad inlet of the Gulf of Patrai, the entrance to
which is barred by a long chain of islands. The
town is strongly fortified, and is specially famed
(being a place of modern origin) for the three
sieges of 1821, 1823, and 1826, on the last of
which occasions it made an heroic resistance to the
Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha. It was here that Lord
Byron spent the last few months of his career.
Mesolonghion enjoys a healthy climate, and is
frequented by invalids. Mavrommati is on the
site of the ancient Kalydon, on the slopes of
Mount Arakynthos, and on the right bank of the
Evenos. Many relics of antiquity are preserved
here, and on the sites of Plevron and Chalkis.
Aitolikon (4000), north-west of Mesolonghion, is
built on an island, connected with the main-
land by a stone bridge, and has a considerable
trade.
The eparchy of Naupaktia (25,500), east of the
last-named, includes the strip of coast on which is
the fortress of Antirrhion, and which yet bears the
name of Venetikon. The chief town is Naupaktos
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 51
(5000), well fortified by the Venetians ; Platanos
(1300), and Lompotin& (1000).
The eparchy of Trichoma (17,600) lies between
the rivers Evenos and Acheloos, and encloses the
lake or marsh of Trichonis. The principal towns
are Agrinion (Vrachori, 7000), in the midst of a
fertile plain ; Taxiarches, Chrysovitza, Petrochori ;
with the ruins of Thermon and Trichonion.
The eparchy of Evrytania (34,000), on the
borders of Epeiros, is a very mountainous district,
the inhabitants of which are more uncouth than
the Greeks of the plains, and include a small
number of Albanians. The principal town is Kar-
penesion (8400), inhabited mainly by shepherds
and goatherds. It was near this place that Markos
Botzares fell in 1823. Other smaller towns are
Krikellon, Amplian&, Prousos, Phournas, Granitza,
and Agrapha.
The eparchy of Valtos (16,000) touching the
Gulf of Arta, has few towns of any size, the prin-
cipal being Amvrakia (5100), near which are the
ruins of Limnaia and Amphilochikon Argos:
Lepenon, and Phloriada.
The eparchy of Vonitza-Xeromeros (22,000)
comprises the western promontory of Sterea Hellas,
and includes the towns of Vonitza (6750), near the
ancient Anaktorion, and Aktion, at the entrance of
E 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
52 GREECE.
the Gulf of Arta ; Zaverda, opposite to the island
of Leukas (Santa Maura) ; Katouna (Medeon),
Astakos ; Oineiadai, near the mouth of the Ache-
loos ; Rigani, Metropolis, and many minor places ;
whilst off the coast are a large number of islands,
mostly uninhabited, which form the group of the
Echinades.
Korinth and Argolis.
The nomarchy of Korinth and Argolis contains
about 1840 square miles and 136,000 inhabitants,
distributed over the eparchies of Nauplia, Argolis,
Spetzai-Hermionis, Hydrea-Troizenia, Korinth ,
and Kythera (Cerigo).
The eparchy of Nauplia (16,000) commands the
Gulf of Argolis, on which is the strong town of
Nauplion (9000), rebuilt by the Venetians. It is a
naval depdt of considerable importance, having
large gymnasia, a hospital, prison, broad streets,
and public buildings. It was the capital of Greece
under Capodistria, who built himself a palace, and
established several of the institutions to which it
owes its present standing. In the neighbourhood
are Pronoia, where the first National Assembly of
the whole of Greece elected Otho of Bavaria in
1832 ; Tiryns, the city of Proteus, Perseus, and
Herakles, with its famous Kyklopean walls;
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digiti;
zed by G00gk
k* "* «. - *> „»< w »» *■
• V * * • • * «- *
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digit
zed by G00gk
<
gitized by VjVJVJV IV
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 53
Epidavros, on the Saronic Gulf, where the Greeks
held their first Assembly after the outbreak of
1 82 1, and where are still preserved the ruins of a
theatre and temple of Asklepios. Cheli and
Ligourion are the remaining places of note.
The eparchy of Argolis (23,000) includes Argos
(11,000), a few miles from the head of the gulf,
which shows the ruins of its ancient larissa, or
citadel ; Mykenai, where is the tomb of Agamem-
non, and the treasury of Atreus, from whence a
number of interesting relics were recently trans-
ferred to the museum at Athens ; Achladokampos,
Karya, Bougiati, &c.
The eparchy of Spetzai-Hermionis (17,000) in-
cludes the western promontory of Argolis and the
flourishing island of Spetzai (6900), the inhabitants
whereof are engaged in shipbuilding and navi-
gation. The towns oi Hermion£ (2000) and
Kranidion (6700) are centres of a fair agricultural
and coasting trade.
The eparchy of Hydrea-Troizenia (17,000) in-
cludes the eastern promontory of Argolis and the
islands of Hydra and Poros, or Kalauria. Hydra,
the ancient Hydrea, contains the modern-built
town of the same name, with an industrious and
well-to-do population of about 6800. The pursuits
of the inhabitants are much the same with those
Digit
zed by G00gk
J4 GREECE.
of the Spetziotes — the two islands having con-
tributed notably to the liberation and commercial
advance of the country. The town of Poros has a
safe harbour, with a double entrance, in the channel
between the island and the mainland. Other
places of note are the ruins of Troizen and Saron,
and the town of Methana, on the promontory of
the same name.
The eparchy of Korinth (48,500) extends from
Megaris to the borders of Achaia, and includes
the ruins of the famous city of the same name,
which was estimated to have a circumference of
eighty stadia (over nine miles), and a population
of 300,000. The number inhabiting New Korinth
is about 7600. Other towns are Kraneion, Hexa-
million, with the ruins of the temple of Poseidon,
and the Stadion, where, every three years, the
Isthmian games were wont to be held ; Pera-
chora, Sophikon ; Vasilika, near the ancient city of
Sikyon ; Trikala, the centre of a currant-growing
district ; Hagios Georgios, an inland town on the
site of the ancient Phlius, &c.
The eparchy of Kythera (13,000), the smallest
eparchy in continental Greece, consists of the
islands of Kythera and Antikythera, which, for-
merly grouped with the Ionian Isles, are now con-
sidered as belonging to the nomarchy of Korinth,
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 55
though they are geologically a continuation of the
eastern promontory of Lakonia. The town of
Kythera (6600), with its harbour Kapsalion, does
a fair trade in oil, honey, and fruits,
Achaia and Elis.
The nomarchy of Achaia and Elis contains
about 1950 square miles and 182,000 inhabitants.
Its eparchies are those of Patrai (Patras), Aigialeia,
Kalavryta and Eleia.
The eparchy of Patrai (57,000) extends along
* the north-western coast of the Peloponnesos, from
the promontories of Drepanon, Rhion, Araxos and
Chelonatas, to the mouth of the Alpheios. Patrai
(34,000), is the largest and wealthiest town of
western Greece, being well built, with good streets
and public edifices, having gymnasia, a theatre,
and, a short distance from shore, a lighthouse.
It was a favourite town with the Romans, and
became one of the earliest centres of Christian
teaching in Greece, after the martyrdom of the
Apostle Andrew. It is now an important trading
town, shipping a large proportion of the currants,
oil, wine, and fruits produced in the north-western
Morea. Other towns are Prostovitza, Erymanthos,
and Chalandritza.
Digit
zed by G00gk
56 GREECE.
The eparchy of Aigialeia (17,000) includes the
plain of Aigion (Vostitsa), the slopes of Ery-
manthos, the valleys of a number of streams flow-
ing into the Gulf of Korinth, and the valley of
Krathis. Aigion (12,800), is almost the only town
of importance.
The eparchy of Kalavryta (41,500), south of
Aigialeia, includes the town of Kalavryta, Hagia
Lavra, the monastery where Bishop Germanos
raised the standard of insurrection in 1821 ;
Megalon Spelaion, a monastery founded in the
second century after Christ, containing venerable
relics and a rich library; and the towns of Leivar-
tsion, Sopoton, Kerpin£, &c.
The eparchy of Eleia (65,000) contains the
chief town Pyrgos (6000;, near the mouth of the
Alpheios, with its harbour Katakolo, a busy trading
town, receiving much of the produce of the southern
plain of Elis. Originally Pyrgos was, as its name
implies, a tower, built for refuge for the inhabitants
of this plain. Other towns are Gastouni, Lechaina,
Androvida, Dirvfe. The principal ancient towns
in this eparchy are Elis, Pylos and Olympia — the
scene of the Olympian games, where recent ex-
cavation has brought to light many interesting
relics of antiquity.
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, 57
Messenia.
The nomarchy of Messenia contains about 1260
square miles, and 155,800 inhabitants, in the
eparchies of Olympia^Triphylia, Pylia, Messene,
and Kalamai.
The eparchy of Olympia (29,000) contains the
towns of Andritsaina (7800), Agoulinitsa, Krestena,
Zacha, &c
The eparchy of Triphylia (35,500) contains
Kyparissia (6000), a new town of rising importance ;
Philiatra (7000), formerly Erana ; Gargalianoi, Li-
goudista, &c. The greater part of the western
coast is exceedingly fertile, producing large crops
of olives, currants, &c.
The eparchy of Pylia (25,500) contains the
seaports of Pylos (Navarino, 4500), with its
harbour, sheltered by the island of Sphakteria, and
capable of holding a thousand ships at a time ;
Methonfe (Modon, 4000), Koron (4000), on the
Messenian Gulf ; Petalidi, on the site of ancient
Koron&; and Mainaki. In addition to Sphakteria,
the Oinussai group of islands, and Venetikon,
south of Cape Akritas (Gallo), belong to the same
eparcby.
The eparchy of Messen& (35,000) contains
Nesion (Nisi, ancient Limnai) ; Mavrommati, on
Digit
zed by G00gk
58 GREECE.
the site of ancient Messeni; Garantsa, Poliane,
Meligala, and Diavolitsi.
The eparchy of Kalamai (29,700), between the
Pamisos and Mount Taygetos, contains the
manufacturing town of Kalamai, or Kalamata
(1 1,600), the emporium of a fertile plain, connected
with Nesion by a good road ; Aslanaga, Sitsova,
Kameria (Thouria, called by Homer Antheia) ;
Mikremana and Amphara.
Lakonia.
The nomarchy of Lakonia contains about 1640
square miles and 121,000 inhabitants, distributed
over four eparchies — Lakedaimonia, Oitylos, Gy-
theion, and Epidavros-Limera.
The eparchy of Lakedaimonia (52,500) includes
the plain of Sparta, the valley of the Evrotas, and
the two promontories ending in Capes Tainaron
(Matapan) and Malea. The chief town is New
Sparta (Nea Sparta, 12,000), on the right bank
of the Evrotas, handsomely built out of the ruins
of ancient Sparta. Mistra, a few miles west of
New Sparta, was built by the Franks out of the
same quarry in the thirteenth century, and had at
onetime a population of 25,000; but it was de-
va stated by the Egyptians in 1825. Other towns in
Digit
zed by G00gk
DOORWAY AT KALAMATA.
Page 58.
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITIC ALIGEOGRAPHY. 59
Lakedaimonia are Georgitsa and Kastania, on the
northern slopes of the Taygetos, Vamvakon, Ara-
chova (ancient Karyai), Hagtos Ioannes, Anavryte,
Levetova, Sklavokorion, on the site of the ancient
Amyklai, and Helos (Dourale) near the mouth of
the Evrotas, from whence in ancient times the
Spartans brought the first " Helots " as slaves.
The eparchy of Oitylos (30,000) includes western
Maina (the eastern coast of the Gulf of Messene),
and contains the towns of Areopolis, Oitylos, or
Vitylon, Pyrgos, Selitsa, Kardamyte, &c
The eparchy of Gytheion (16,000), or eastern
Maina, contains Gytheion (4000), from whence is
shipped a part of the produce of the district of
Sparta, with which it is connected by a good road ;
Panitsa, Lagia, Polyaravos, &c.
The eparchy of Epidavros-Limera (22,000) in-
cludes the town of Epidavros-Limera (Monem-
vasia, 4000), strongly built on a small island, which
is connected with the mainland by a bridge, and
at one time famous for its vine-culture, and its
brands of malmsey and malvoisie (from the cor-
rupted name of Malvasia) ; Boiai, Kremaste, Ma-
laoi, &c.
Arkadia.
The nomarchy of Arkadia, occupying the centre
Digit
zed by G00gk
60 GREECE.
of the Peloponnesos, contains about 1600 square
miles and 149,000 inhabitants, distributed over the
eparchies of Mantinea, Gortynia, Megalepolis, and
Kynouria.
The eparchy of Mantinea (51,500) lies to the
west of the Artemision and Parthenion mountains.
The chief town is Tripolis (14,000), so called
because it was built between the sites of the three
more ancient cities of Mantinea, Tegea, and Pallan-
tion. Tripolis is a trading and manufacturing
town, and is connected by a good road with Argos
and Nauplia. Other towns are Levidion, Tsipiana,
Isari, Kandila, Vlachokerasia, &c. ; and the most
notable ruins, in addition to those of the three
cities above named, are at the sites of Orchomenos
and Helisson.
The eparchy of Gortynia (46,000), between
Eleia and Mantinea, south of the chain of Ery-
manthos, contains the towns of Demetsana (5600),
noted for its Greek schools and library previous
to the War of Independence ; Karytaina, occupy-
ing a * strong natural position ; Stemnitsa, in a
mountainous district, the inhabitants of which are
mostly engaged in copper-mining ; Zatsouna, Lan-
kadia, Bytina, Valtesinikon, Vervitsa, &c.
The eparchy of Megalepolis (20,000) contains Me-
galepolis, also called Sinanon (5000), Vronthd, &c.
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 61
The eparchy of Kynouria, or Tsakonia (31,500),
includes the towns of Leonidion, a trading centre
near the shore of the Argolic Gulf ; Prastos, in the
immediate neighbourhood ; Astros, Hagios Petros,
Kastri, Hagios Ioannes, Vervaina; and the sites
of Pyramia, Eva, Thyrea, &c. Many of the in-
habitants of Kynouria, especially in Leonidion
and the neighbourhood, speak a dialect (Tsakonian)
in which the characteristics of the old Doric are
plainly recognized.
Enboia.
The nomarchy of Euboia contains about 1600
square miles, and 95,000 inhabitants, in the epar-
chies of Karystia, Chalkis, Xerochorion, and Skope-
los (with the rest of the northern Sporades).
The eparchy of Karystia (39,000), in the south
of Euboia, has for its chief town Kym& (5500),
near the Cape of Kym6, in a district producing
coal, and a dark species of wine. Karystos (7300)
is an ancient town on the slopes of Mount Ocha
(St. Elias). Other minor places are Alivari and
Avlonari. The island of Skyros, with the towns
of Skyros (3000) and Petalia, is included in this
eparchy.
The eparchy of Chalkis (33,000) has for its
chief town Chalkis (12,000), so called from the
Digit
zed by G00gk
62 GREECE,
copper found in its neighbourhood. The place
was altered or added to by its Mahomedan occu-
piers, and still retains some of the features of a
Turkish town, as well as a few Mahomedan resi-
dents. It has two strong forts, and is a trading
town of some importance. Other towns are Limn&
(the ancient Aigai, 3300), Sten&, Eretria or Nea
Psara, Hagia Anna, and Hagia Sophia.
The eparchy of Xerochorion (12,000), in the
north-west of the island, was formerly called
Hestiaotis, from the town of Histiaia (Oreos) on
the north coast. The chief town is Xerochorion
(6000), a short distance to the east. Aidipsos,
opposite to the coast of Lokris, is famous for its
warm springs. The sites of the ancient towns of
Dion and Athenai are in the peninsula of Lithada,
opposite to the mouth of the Maliac Gulf.
The eparchy of Skopelos (10,000) includes the
islands of Skopelos (5000), which exports wine
and fruits of various kinds ; Skiathos (3000), and
Heliodromia (400), the first two of these having
towns of the same names. The eastern islands of
this group are uninhabited.
The Kyklades.
The nomarchy of the Kyklades contains about
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 63
1000 square miles, and 135,000 inhabitants. The
group is sometimes called Dodekanesos — the
twelve principal islands being Andros, Tenos,
Mykonos, Delos, Naxos, Paros, Siphnos, Seri-
phos, Kythnos, Keos, Gyaros and Syros. The
nomarchy, however, includes also the remaining
islands of the jEgean, the chief of which are
Melos, Kimolos, Sikinos, Ios, Amorgos and Thera
(Santorini). The whole group is rocky, and the
southern islands are mostly barren and unprofita-
ble. But the mineral wealth of the Kyklades as a
whole is very great, and they have many service-
able harbours ; whilst some of them enjoy an
excellent climate, and are here and there ex-
ceptionally fertile. The eparchies are named
after Syros, Andros, Tenos, Naxos, Melos, Thera,
and Keos.
The eparchy of Syros (with Mykonos, Delos,
Rheneia, and Gyaros, 31,000), has for its chief
town Hermoupolis (21,500), one of the busiest
shipping ports, commercial depots, and manu-
facturing towns in the kingdom. It contains many
public and private schools, gymnasia, a hospital,
theatre, churches, &c, and has commercial rela-
tions with most parts of Europe. Mykonos (4500),
has for its chief town Mykonos. Delos, once held
sacred as the birthplace of Apollo and Artemis, is
Digit
zed by G00gk
64 GREECE.
now a quarantine station. It is uninhabited, as
also are Rheneia and Gyaros,
The eparchy of Andros (20,500), includes no
other island. Its towns are Andros (9800), which
has a good harbour, Lamara, Mesaria, Gavrion,
Korthion, &c.
The eparchy of Tenos (12,500), includes no
other island. The chief towns are Tenos (4200),
celebrated for a species of national festival held
there twice in each year ; Pyrgos, in the neighbour-
hood of which are white and coloured marble
quarries ; Kom£, Tripotamos, and Peraia.
The eparchy of Naxos (with Paros, Antiparos,
and minor islands, 22,300) is the most famous divi-
sion of the Kyklades group, and its noted for its
beauty, its climate, its excellent marbles, and good
wine. Its chief towns are Naxos (2200) which has
a mediaeval fortress, and two large monasteries,
with a community of about 300 Roman Catholics ;
Aperianthos, Philotion, Komiak&,Tripodes,Tragaia,
&c. on the island of Naxos; Paros (2800), Naousa,
and Leukai (Lefkai), on the island of Paros. On
Antiparos is a fine stalactite cave, about 600 feet
long.
The eparchy of Melos (with Siphnos, Kimolos,
Sikinos, and Pholegandros, 13,000) includes the
towns of Melos (3500) with a good harbour, Try-
Digit
zed by Google
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 65
pet&, Trissavalos, and Adamas ; Siphnos (5700)
noted for its pottery ; Apollonia, Artemon, and
Exampela; Sikinos (900), and Kimolos (1300).
The volcanic island of Melos produces wine, fruits,
salt, alum, brimstone, millstones, &c, and its in-
habitants are famous for their seagoing qualities.
Several islands of this eparchy have warm or
mineral springs. The soil of Siphnos is very
fertile ; and in old times its rocks yielded gold and
silver, which might still be found there in sufficient
quantities to repay the cost of working.
The eparchy of Thera (with Therasia, Amorgo,
Ios, and- Anaphe, 20,000) has for its chief towns
Thera (4000), Kontochori, Gonia, and Ios. The
first island is also called Santorini, from Santa
Eiren&, a martyr of the fourth century. It is a vol-
canic island, crescent-shaped, and embraces a small
group of rocks raised from the sea by volcanic
action, namely, Kaymen&, New Kaymenfe, Little
Kaymen6, Georgios, and Aphroessa. The inhabi-
tants of Thera cultivate some excellent varieties of
grapes, and export a considerable quantity of
wine.
The eparchy of Keos, or Kea (with Kythnos
and Seriphos, 10,200) includes the towns of Keos
(4300) the birthplace of Simonides, Kythnos (1500),
much frequented for its mineral waters, with its
F
Digitized by VjOOQlC
66 GREECE.
seaport Hagia Eiren&, Dryopis (1400), and Seriphos
(3000).
Kerkyra (Corfu).
The nomarchy of Kerkyra contains about 440
square miles and 106,000 inhabitants. Its epar-
chies are Kerkyra, Mes&, Oros, Paxoi, and Leukas
(Lefkas).
The eparchy of Kerkyra or Korphoi (Corcyra,
Corfu) occupies the central portion of the island,
having for its chief town the large and fortified sea-
port of Corfu (25,000) with theological and other
schools, a hospital, university, bank, asylum,
churches, and many fine public and private build-
ings. It has four suburbs, Mandoukion (4000),
Garitsa (1800), Hagios Rhokos (800), and Ane-
momylos (800). Corfu has a large trade in oil and
general merchandise, and is a seaport and postal
and telegraph station intermediary between Greece
and western Europe, Other towns are Xynarades
and Potamos.
The eparchy of Mesh (24,300), chief town Gas-
touri, occupies the south of the island of Kerkyra.
The eparchy of Oros (27,000) occupies the
north of Kerkyra. The principal towns are
Skriperon, Krasades, and the ancient Kassiop&.
To this eparchy belongs a small group on the
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 67
north-west, including Othonoi (1000), and Erikousa
(600), the inhabitants of which are chiefly fishermen.
The eparchy of Paxoi (Paxos, Antipaxos, and
other small islands, 5000) has for its chief town
Gaios, with a large and safe harbour.
The eparchy of Leukas (Hagia Mavra or Santa
Maura; 23,000), consists chiefly of the volcanic
island of the same name, which was probably once
a promontory of Akarnania. Its principal town is
Leukas (6500), a seaport in the north ; other towns
being Karya (3600), Sphakiotai (1900), Hagios
Petros and Stavros. The islands of Taphos, Kala-
mos, Kastros, and others, lie between the south of
Leukas and the mainland.
Kephallenia {Cephalonia).
The nomarchy of Kephallenia contains 400
square miles and 81,500-inhabitants. It is divided
into the eparchies of Kranaia, Sam&, Pal£, and
Ithaka.
The eparchy of Kranaia (34,000) includes the
towns of Kranioi (Argostolion, 8,000), a seaport
on the gulf of the same name, with an excellent
harbour; and Deilinata (3500).
The eparchy of Pate (17,000) occupies the
western division of the island. The chief town is
F 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
68 GREECE.
Lexourion (6200), the site of the ancient Pale, on
the western shore of the Gulf of Kranioi.
The eparchy of Sam& (18,000) occupies the east
of Kephallenia, and includes Sam&, Ainos, and
Pronoi.
The eparchy of Ithaka (with smaller islands,
12,500) includes the chief town of Bathy (5000),
near the site of the ancient Ithaka, now Thiaki,
which has a fine harbour. Other towns are Exogk,
Perachorion, Kionion, and Anog£, near which is
the fountain of Arethousa.
Most of the islands of this eparchy produce
olives, currants, and wine, whilst Kephallenia
grows several kinds of grain, in considerable
abundance.
Zakynthos (Zante).
The nomarchy of Zakynthos contains about
140 square miles and 44,500 inhabitants, and is
an eparchy in itself. The chief towns are Zante
(18,600), which has good streets and public build-
ings, a library, hospital, asylums, gymnasia, &c. ;
Pegadaki, and Katastari.
The bordering provinces of Turkey, from which,
as a result of the Treaty of Berlin, Greece acquires a
new accession of territory, are Epeiros and Thessaly,
Digit
zed by G00gk
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 69
which together contain about the same number of
square miles as Sterea Hellas and the Peloponnesos,
with less than four-fifths of the population.
Epeiros (Epirus) covers about 7000 square miles,
and has 450,000 inhabitants. The chief town is
Ioannina or Janina (30,000), on the western bank of
the lake of that name, occupying a lofty site, and
serving as the emporium of a wide district. It is
famous for its ancient Hellenic associations, its
traditions of culture and learning, its educational
standing even under Turkish rule, and its com-
mercial activity. The district of Ioannina is esti-
mated to contain 105,000 Christians, nearly all of
whom belong to the Greek communion, 4500
Mahomedans, and 2300 Jews.
Preveza (10,000), a fortified town at the entrance
to the Gulf of Arta, the principal seaport of Epeiros,
contains less than 1000 Mahomedans. Arta, or
Amvrakia (10,000) is the centre of the wide and
fertile plain of the Arachthus. The district of
Arta includes 50,000 inhabitants, whereof 47,000
are Greek Christians. Other important towns in
Epieros are Argyrokastron (10,000), Delvinon
(6000), Metzovo (8,000), Premeti, Bouthroton,
Paramythia, Margariti, Parga, and Soulion.
Though extremely mountainous as a rule,
Epeiros is fertile in parts, and yields large quanti-
Digit
zed by G00gk
7o GREECE.
ties of grain, wine, oil, lemons, olives, and other
fruits ; and some of this produce is exported by-
way of Ioannina and Preveza, and by the smaller
ports of Hagia Saranta, Salachora, and Sagiada.
Thessaly contains about 9000 square miles, and
350,000 inhabitants. Its chief town is Ldrissa,
(30,000), on the right bank of the Peneios (Salam-
vrias), in the midst of a very large, elevated, and
fertile plain. The streets are badly built, and
neglected ; and the town will not bear comparison
with Ioannina, either for its material or for its intel-
lectual condition. Other towns in Thessaly are
Trikkala (18,000), on the Letharion, a tributary of
the Peneios ; Tyrnavos (7000) — the bulk of the
population in both these places being Greek
Christians ; Volos (Pagasai), a partly fortified sea-
port on the Gulf of Volos, Elasson, Pharsalos,
Tsaritsana, Agyia, Phanari, Karditsa, Domokon,
Armyros, near the Gulf of Volos, and twenty-four
places of some importance on the slopes of Mount
Pelion, including Zagora, Makrynitsa, Drakia, and
Meliai.
Thessaly is more fertile, being much less moun-
tainous, than Epeiros. Its products include grain,
wine, olives and many other fruits, flax, and wool.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER IV.
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE.
The earlier inhabitants of Greece, before their
conquest by the Romans, called themselves Hel-
lenes. The original Hellas, according to . the
geographer Dikaiarchos, was a town in Thessaly, a
few miles south of Pharsalos, and it was so named
from its founder Hellen, son of Deukalion. Hel-
len's children, Aiolos and Doros, and his grand-
children, Achaios and Ion, were the ancestors of
the Aiolians, Dorians, Achaians, and Ionians. An
alternative myth directs us to the grove of Dodona,
near the modern city of Ioannina, where the Selloi,
or Helloi, presided over the most ancient of the
oracles.
In other words, the geographers, relying on tra-
dition or induction, saw the origin of the name and
Digit
zed by G00gk
72 GREECE.
race in these two spots, one in the heart of Thes-
saly, and one in the heart of Epeiros.
Herodotus names the Pelasgians and the Hellenes
as ancestors of the Ionians and Dorians respec-
tively. Philology, which enables us to go behind
the most ancient authority, shows us that the
Pelasgians were a branch of the Indo-Teutonic
family, and gives ground for the belief that the
Hellenes, another and more warlike branch of the
same family, followed the Pelasgians after a certain
interval, and drove them towards the west, very
much as the Saxons and Angles drove the Celts in
Britain.
The angle of land in which these earlier Aryans
settled down, and over which they spread, consists
of the primary and secondary peninsulas of Greece,
cut off from the continent of Europe at about the
fortieth parallel of north latitude. The Pelasgians,
indeed, were also settled further north, and along the
shore of the Adriatic ; but this section of the race
remained outside of the geographical denomination
of Hellas, even when the latter included (as Strabo
made it include) the country of Makedonia beyond
the Strymonic Gulf. These northern Pelasgians
were amongst the ancestors of the modern Alba-
nians, whose tongue has many elements in common
with the Greek of to-day.
Digit
zed by G00gk
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE. 73
The Hellenes themselves used the name of
Hellas to distinguish any and every locality where
they formed a settlement, whether by conquest or
by colonization. Hellas was in the Archipelago,
in Asian Smyrna, in African Kyrene, in the Italian
and Sicilian colonies. The Romans adopted the
same idea when they gave the name of Magna
Graecia, not to a district in Southern Italy, but to
the Greek cities on the Tarentine Gulf, on the
western coast of the peninsula, and in Sicily.
Amongst the earliest of these settlers in Italy
were, in all likelihood, families of a tribe of
Graikoiy or Grceci, from the west of Epeiros, whose
appellation was extended by the Romans to the
whole nation of the Pelasgian-Hellenes, eventually
displacing the older term. But it is hardly neces-
sary to say that no single name could be applied
to the inhabitants of the country which we now
call Greece with more comprehensive and general
accuracy than that of Hellenes. No doubt the
modern Greeks are a highly composite race, as are
the inhabitants of the strongest nations which
have played a prominent part in history ; but their
claim to the title of Hellenes is scarcely in any
respect inferior to our own title to the name of
Englishmen. The intermixture of the Hellenic
race is, in fact, a reasonable cause of pride, inas-
Digit
zed by G00gk
74 GREECE.
much as its progress reveals at every step the
unvarying predominance of its best and most
enduring characteristics.
From the very dawn of their history, when the
Pelasgians and Hellenes had spread themselves
over the greater part of the western peninsula of
the Haemus, the superior race did more than simply
hold the conquered land in slavery. They raised
those whom they subjected, and civilized their
victims as they afterwards civilized their con-
querors. The Makedonian invasions resulted not
so much in a mixture of races as in the more
complete interfusion of Hellenic blood ; for Make-
donia was already in the enthnographical Hellas.
Alexander and his warriors were of the same race
and tongue as the Athenians, the Achaians, the
Thebans, whom they overcame. Up to this time,
at all events, there was no dilution of the pure
Hellenic blood, except such as may have been
brought about by the Hellenization and adoption
of the races conquered by Hellenes.
The Roman conquests of Greece began in the
year 197 B.C.; and now, during many gene-
rations, hundreds of wealthy municipalities were
destroyed, thousands of Hellenes sought refuge in
other countries, carrying their civilization wherever
they went, and Greece itself was subjected to a
Digit
zed by G00gk
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE, 75
great demoralization. But even this shock, vehe-
ment as it was, did not suffice to paralyze the active
principles of Hellenism. The Romans were apt
scholars, and, if they ruled the Greeks with the
sword, in spirit they sat at their feet. They pressed
northwards and westwards, conquering and to con-
quer; but still, as they extended their dominion
over Makedonia, Moesia, and Thrace, they found
themselves continually hemmed in by overwhelming
currents of Hellenism, until at length there was
established a Greek, not a Latin empire on the
shores of the Bosphorus.
It was one of the grandest feats of the Hellenic
evolution. This triumph of the conquered, this defeat
of the conqueror on the very heyday of his victory,
is a fact of the utmost importance to humanity at
large, and its effects have been, if anything, under-
estimated by modern historians. The Byzantine
empire in the Middle Ages was hardly such a mass
of corruption, when compared with the rest of
Europe, as many western writers have described it.
A candid inquiry and comparison would probably
show us that our pictures have been overdrawn and
too highly coloured in this respect ; and an historian
may yet arise who will find it possible to revin-
dicate Byzantium against the severest strictures of
his predecessors. At any rate the Greek-Latin
Digit
zed by G00gk
76 GREECE.
empire of the East did much to give us the renais-
sance of art, learning, science, and civilization ;
and it was the persistence of the Hellenic spirit
which gave to Byzantinjsm nearly all its dynamic
force.
Meanwhile, after the land of Greece had been
devastated by long-protracted struggles, many of
its fortified places being destroyed, and the warlike
vigour of its citizens being crushed, hordes of
Slavonians from the north descended upon it and
made it their prey. Rarely has a victorious race
and a foreign domination left a fainter impression
upon a subjected country than the Slavs have
left in Greece. It has been assumed by one
or two writers, though with the very slightest
historical evidence to support the theory, that the
Greeks were practically exterminated by their
Slavonian invaders. The testimony which ethno-
logy regards as most conclusive tells all the other
way. Even if the contention were a sound one,
the fact would be of slight importance as affecting
the position of Greece in Europe ; but it is not so.
No doubt some few elements of Slavonic speech
have held their own, side by side with the Greek, as
proved especially by geographical names, and in
certain localities. But it is impossible to suppose
that the Slavonians were for any lengthened
Digit
zed by G00gk
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE. 77
period the exclusive occupants of the greater por-
tion of the country. One of the strongest reasons
for rejecting such a belief is that a vast number of
villages, towns, rivers, and mountains, bear to this
day alternative names, whereof one is almost
invariably Greek ; and in many instances we even
meet with Greek names not belonging to the clas-
sical age, which must have had their origin in
mediaeval times. The Greeks of the existing king-
dom are direct heirs of the speech, the land, the
customs, the traditions and glories, of the purest
Hellenes of the classical age. If their ancestors,
contemporaries of Perikles and Demosthenes, or of
the Slavonian invaders of Greece, were degraded
and oppressed, so also were the Britons under the
Saxons of England, and the Saxons, under the
Normans. Their Hellenism, moreover, would not
vanish even if they had not the blood of Amphik-
tyonic or Achaian leaguers in their veins. The
great thing to be noted is that they are Hellenic
speakers and thinkers on Hellenic soil. And it
must not be forgotten that the humblest of their
ancestors, however much they may have suffered
as helots or slaves, were frequently inferior to the
typical Hellenic aristocracy by the fortune of war
alone. To take a single instance ; the Messenian
captives who peopled the slopes of Taygetos, and
Digit
zed by G00gk
78 GREECE.
whose direct descendants are thought by some to
have clung to the Maina to this day, may well
have been as brave, as refined, as worthy to be the
ancestors of a great race, as their more successful
neighbours the Lakonians.
On the strength of these considerations we shall
be prepared to find that the national characteristics
of the modern Greeks are in many respects, physi-
cal as well as moral, identical with those of the
ancients, as we are able to glean them from the
literary and artistic records of the classical age.
And this, in fact, is what observation shows us to
be the case, and what the majority of travellers in
Greece unite to affirm.
The first trace of resemblance is found in their
clothing. ."The national costume is more and
more rarely seen in Athens ; but in the small
towns a large proportion of the inhabitants have
faithfully preserved the old traditions." — {UEs-
tournelles de Constant). 1 On holidays especially the
1 It may not be out of place to mention that the characteristic
dress of the modern Greeks appears, to be, in the main, a simple
modification of the dress of the ancient hoplite. It is composed
of an inner and an outer jacket, both richly embroidered, in the
case of wealthy families with elaborate gold and silver patterns.
Even amongst the poorest the patterns are usually faithful repro-
ductions of ancient scrolls and ecclesiastical decorations. The inner
jacket, or fustanella, is extended downwards towards the knees, in
many folds, generally of white calico. The upper and lower por-
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digitized by VjOOQIC
i
A LADY AT LAMIA
(from a Photograpfe 00 ^
Page 79.
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE. 79
Greek citizens and their families, in districts where
ancient fashions and tastes for finery are more
naturally retained than in the capital, make their
appearance in elaborate and costly garments, which
frequently represent a considerable portion of their
wealth.
This splendour in dress, due in some degree to
personal vanity and love of display, is encouraged
by the bright and equable climate, which offers
every inducement to the leading of an open-air
life. The same amongst other causes has tended
to conserve a type of physical beauty which springs
from the ingrafting of excellent original stocks.
The observer last quoted speaks of the men whom
he saw in Achaia and Arkadia as beautiful in every
sense of the word — " beautiful as the models of
Praxiteles and Phidias must have been." Their
tions of this tunic are sometimes worn separately, as two garments ;
but with the poorer classes it is frequently a single robe, and may
be regarded as the modernized form of the chiton. The hoplite
had the lower portion of the chiton lined with leather, or strips of
some other stout material, as a protection for the groin ; and the
ample folds of the fustanella preserve this fashion. The outer
jacket, with its stiff embroidery, corresponds to the thorax, and no
great stretch of imagination is required to see the ancient perikne-
mides in the leggings of to-day. The striking character of this
analogy may be appreciated by comparing any accurate picture
of the modern Greek costumes with the illustrations on pp. 135,
712, and 854, of Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities (1875).
Digit
zed by G00gk
8o GREECE.
eyes, he says, are large, and black as jet; their
eye-lashes long and silky, imparting a melancholy
aspect to the face. Their teeth are white and
regular, their profile delicate and straight, their
skin pale and without colour, their figure shapely
and upright, and their bearing graceful and digni-
fied. It is the type of twenty centuries ago. The
pure Greek, as Professor Mahaffy says, "was often
fair in colour, and of very regular and beautiful
features. He grew up slower than his neighbours,
and so his education was more deliberate, his vigour
more lasting, and his old age more protracted than
theirs. Even now the traveller in Greece is sur-
prised by the exceeding fairness and beauty of the
people, and by the number of fine old men whom
he meets. The excellent climate of the country,
along with very temperate habits, have made the
Greeks a very healthy race."
The physical types vary in different parts of the
country, as would be expected in so composite a
nation. According to Mr. Strong, the most clas-
sical forms are found in the mountainous districts
of the continent and the Peloponnesos. Most
witnesses agree that the female type is, as a rule,
inferior to the male, whilst its beauty fades at an
earlier age.
The enviable conditions of life in Greece are
Digit
zed by G00gk
n
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE. 81
favourable to health as well as to beauty ; and
their good effect is displayed in the mind as in the
body. The intellectual vigour and aptitude of the
Greeks are proverbial. They are, perhaps, as quick
at apprehension, as sharp in perception, as ready to
draw a comparison and accept an inference, as the
scholars whom Sokrates kept on the alert with his
running fire of questions. Like their ancestors,
they are ratiocinative, they seek instruction and
love discussion, they cling to the life of cities, to
clubs, councils, and politics, to the quest of gain
and power.
Physical rather than moral beauty attracted the
Hellenes of old ; they loved human society, revered
bodily excellence, whether of strength or of form,
studied symmetry and simplicity. Truth was less
to them than art, endurance more difficult than
intrigue. Their ambition was often overweening,
but their competitions were always keen. " Ever
to excel, and to be superior to others," is a motto
preserved by one of their poets ; and their love of
excellence was made to justify duplicity and dis-
simulation, and, often enough, cruelty. Many of
these typical qualities, the good and the bad
together, are conspicuous in the Greeks of to-day.
The passion for education, for criticism and dis-
cussion, is perhaps the strongest of all the mental
G
')
\
82 GREECE.
characteristics which distinguish the Greek race ;
and it is at the same time one of the most valuable.
It inclines them to the arts of peace rather than of
war ; it gives them a self-restraint which has more
than once stood them in good stead since the
establishment of the existing kingdom. Greece
has had sundry temptations within the past fifty
years to try the fortune of war ; she has even
wished and prepared for it ; but on almost every
occasion her people have been held back by moral
rather than physical control. They have shown
themselves to be capable of "listening to reason ;"
and no better illustration of this fact could be had
than was afforded by the scrupulous and resolute
manner in which, during the year 1870, they sud-
denly and for ever repudiated the laxity which
had, up to that year, tolerated the existence of
brigandage.
The modern Greek language differs from the
classical form in a few important particulars ; but
the difference at this moment is not so great as in
the case of several other European tongues. It is
far less notable, for instance, than the change from
the language of Caesar to the Italian of the nine-
teenth century, or than the change which has
turned the earliest English speech into the English
of to-day. Moreover, there is a decided and
Digit
zed by G00gk
RACE, CHARACTER, AND LANGUAGE. 83
active tendency amongst the Greeks to recast
their language in the ancient mould. They have
reasons for this which scarcely find a counterpart
in the minds of Italians or Englishmen ; and the
comparative poverty of their modern literary
annals enables them to effect a transition which
would be impracticable for most other nations.
The better educated Greeks, and especially the
higher ecclesiastics, had carefully preserved a
purer form, both written and spoken, than those
which long served as the vernacular of Greek-
speaking countries. The revival now taking place
may, perhaps, not do much more than establish
the purest form of the actual printed language of
Greece as the colloquial and familiar tongue,
wherever Greek is spoken or written ; but, if it
does as much as this, it will have afforded a
remarkable proof of the vitality of this venerable
Aryan stock.
The following are some of the principal ways in
which the modification of the older Greek has
been effected. (1.) By the common law of the
Indo-Teutonic languages, whereby it has grown
more analytical in character; as in the use of
prepositions with the accusative to express various
significations of the old genitive and dative case-
endings, and in the great increase of periphrastic
G 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
8 4
GREECE.
verbal forms. (2.) By a peculiar return to, or
survival of, certain archaic forms, which had been
abandoned in classical Greek prose ; as eine for esti y
emena for eme, zetaei for zetei. (3.) By a constant
tendency to clip words and to contract phrases ;
as dontiy mati, me for nieta, na for ina, tha
(probably) for thelo na, and the familiar ncts'po for
na sas eipo. (4.) By the oblivion of many of the
classical distinctions of speech, as in the use of a
single form of the aorist, where two were formerly
in use. (5.) By the introduction of words from
other languages (sometimes but not always
necessary) ; as gantia (gloves), kaphes (coffee), spiti
(house). (6.) By the great increase- of diminutives,
patronymics, &c, natural in a tongue which has
for so long a time been colloquial rather than
classical, and inherited from mouth to mouth rather
than transmitted by universities and printing-
presses.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER V.
MODERN HISTORY.
Something more than a knowledge of the con-
temporary history of a country is necessary before
we can rightly understand its constitution and
political life. This is especially so in the case of
modern Greece, which presents many peculiar
features in its government and popular institutions,
and which is an almost unique example of a people
springing from comparative slavery to organized
and orderly national existence. The scope of the
present work, however, will not admit more than
an outline of the events which have happened in
Greece, and to the Greek race.
Whilst the Peloponnesos, and the continent as
far north as Thessaly and Epeiros, were subject to
the dissolution and chaos of the mediaeval ages,
the Eastern Empire was being built up by
Constantine and his successors on the shores of the
Bosphorus. In A.D. 395 the bond which had
Digit
zed by G00gk
86 GREECE.
united Rome and Byzantium was finally broken.
Henceforth the perfervid genius of the Greeks,
which had accepted and Hellenized the oriental
faith of the disciples of Christ, began to make
Constantinople a centre of Christian worship
and influence, and, coincidently, a focus of Hel-
lenism and a rallyiftg-point for the scattered
Greek race. Simultaneously with the first incur-
sions of the Slavonians into the cradle-land of the
earlier Hellenes and Pelasgians, the church of Saint
Sophia was dedicated in the city of Constan-
tine. Two centuries later, the Bulgarians and the
Saracens were vainly hurling themselves dgainst
the impregnable walls. The latter had already
possessed themselves of the Greek colonies in
Africa. In the ninth century the empire lost
Dalmatia, Krete, and the cities of Sicily and Italy ;
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a large portion
of Asia Minor and the island of Cyprus. Some of
these possessions it subsequently regained ; but
the advancing tide of Asiatics was not to be
resisted. The crusades, waged with doubtful or
varying success by the nations of western Europe,
did not avail to stop the incursions ; and eventually
the Ottoman Turks laid the foundation of a new
empire, first in Asia, and subsequently on the
opposite shore of the Bosphorus.
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 87
Meanwhile the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire
had become a vortex whereto converged the many
violent currents of aggression by which the whole
world was at this epoch overwhelmed. Neither
semi-civilized nor barbarous nations were uncon-
cerned in the general inundation of greed and
cruelty ; but the Greek Empire, and especially the
strip of Greek coast from Epeiros to Thrace, was a
line of greatest pressure upon which the opposing
floods of invasion clashed and spent their fury.
From Asia the Saracens, the Ottoman, and other
Mahomedan hordes; from the north, myriads of
Russians, Bulgarians,' Illyrians, Hungarians ; from
the west, the Franks of Flanders, Normandy,
Champagne, swarms of Venetians and Genoese, all
found their quarry amongst the devoted Greeks.
The crusaders themselves took Constantinople at
the beginning of the thirteenth century, and set a
Count of Flanders on the throne of the Byzantine
emperors. The vast dominion which, five or six
centuries after Christ, extended from the Adriatic
and the Danube, round the whole coast of the
eastern Mediterranean, through Asia and Africa as
far as the Egyptian Pentapolis, had been gradually
broken up into a hundred fragments. True, a
basis of recovery was established by Theodore
Laskaris at Nikaea ; and the fifth of that dynasty,
Digit
zed by G00gk
88 GREECE.
Michael Palaiologos, returned to reign at Con-
stantinople. But the glory had departed from the
empire of the east, which would probably have
collapsed from its internal weakness, and from the
unscrupulous competition for its throne, even if its
enemies without had spared it. Thus, in the last
twenty-four years before the crusaders gave the
crown to Count Baldwin of Flanders, six emperors
sat on the throne of Constantine, and every one of
them was murdered or deposed by his successor.
During the course of the thirteenth century, scores
of kings, princes, despots, dukes, counts, viscounts,
and petty republics, divided the Byzantine Empire,
which thenceforth became an easy prey to the
Turks.
In 1362 the Sultan Amurath acquired Adrianople
for his capital; in 1396 Bayazet repulsed the Hun-
garians under Sigismond. Then the Mahome-
dans set themselves to humble the proud city on
the Bosphorus, and so complete the series of
victories which had already secured for them the
whole coast of the Levant. In 1401 a pasha had
been appointed to represent his master at Athens,
and fifty-two years later — about the time of the
long Anglo-French wars and the Wars of the Roses,
and when the invention of printing was preparing
the way for an incredible advance of civilization in
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 89
western Europe — Mahomet II. took Constantinople
by storm.
It was a critical time, not only for the Greeks
but for all Europe. The danger of the Turkish
aggression was doubtless perceived by many, even
amongst the western and northern nations ; but it
was not realized as thoroughly as it might have
been. Civilization would have been saved a great
deal if the Powers of Europe had united in time
against the common foe, or if the crusades had
been better directed and more persistently followed
up. The Byzantine Empire was manifestly not
strong enough to close the gates of the continent
against the Ottoman armies; and it would have
been well for Christendom if a European concert
had existed at that juncture, willing and able to
sweep back the enemies of civilization. The need
was great, and the appeal was duly made. In
the year 1400 the Emperor Manuel earnestly
solicited the aid of the western monarchs. After
Constantinople had resisted one siege, John
Palaiologos himself visited Rome and other cities,
vainly entreating for assistance. On both occasions
the Papacy was distracted by the seventy years'
schism ; on the last occasion France and England
were exhausted by war and civil discords. Pope
Nicholas V. did, however, propose a crusade
Digit
zed by G00gk
90 GREECE,
against the Turks, about the year 1450, as also did
Paul II. in 1464, and Sixtus IV. in 1471 ; but the
calls were made to little or no purpose. The
Greeks were abandoned to their fate, so far as
western Europe was concerned ; and this fact must
be remembered, in conjunction with the virtual ruin
of the Byzantine Empire by crusaders in 1204, as
partly accounting for the long subjection of the race
to their Mahomedan conquerors, and as bearing
upon the relations of the modern kingdom of
Greece to the rest of Europe.
Meanwhile the tide of Ottoman conquest was
sweeping round the coasts of Makedonia and
Thessaly into the cradle of the Hellenic nation.
The later dukes of Athens had not disdained to
appeal from their rivals and their subjects to the
sultans at Adriahople ; and it was as the natural
consequence of this infatuated conduct that
Mahomet II. added the province of Attika to his
dominions in 1456. Four years later he put
an end to the despotates of the Peloponnesos.
Mytilene, Argos, Euboia, Zante, Kephallenia, and
the remaining Venetian possessions in Greece,
rapidly fell into the hands of Mahomet and his
successors ; but it was not until 16 14 that the
stubborn inhabitants of Maina were compelled
to pay haratch to the sultans, whilst their corn-
Digit
zed by Google
MODERN HISTORY. 91
plete subjugation was delayed for another half-
century. Krete fell in 1669, after a siege of
twenty-four years, and the slaughter of 200,000
men. A last Turko- Venetian war followed, in the
course of which the Christians captured Athens,
after laying the Parthenon in ruins ; but the inter-
ruption of Ottoman supremacy was short and
insignificant.
The character of this supremacy, and the means
by which it was maintained, are known by its
results. " When Mohammed II.," says Mr. Finlay,
"annexed the Peloponnesus and Attica to the
Othoman empire, he deliberately exterminated all
remains of the existing aristocracy, both Frank
nobles and Greek archonts, and introduced in their
place a Turkish aristocracy, as far as such a class
existed in his dominions. The ordinary system of
the Othoman administration was immediately ap-
plied to the greater part of Greece, and it was
poverty, and not valour, which exempted a few
mountainous districts from its application."
It has been maintained that the Greeks of
Greece in many instances welcomed the rule of the
sultans as a relief after the misgovernment of the
Frank and Venetian conquerors ; and in one sense
they had reason for so doing. The tender mercies
of the Turks were due to the fact of their looking
Digit
zed by G00gk
92 GREECE.
upon their Christian subjects as payers of tribute,
whether in money or in person. So long as
haratch was forthcoming, and children for the
harems and the army, the Ottoman conquerors
looked with indifference upon the practice of the
Christian religion, and frequently left the Greeks,
especially in the rural districts, more free from
molestation than the Venetians had done. The
sultans, however, had adopted a sort of feudal
system, which they had found established in the
Seljukian empire of Asia Minor. Estates in the
conquered country were given to favoured Mussul-
mans, who were afterwards called timariots ; and
the latter exacted labour from the natives of the
country, using more or less oppressive measures in
order to enforce it. The whole of Greece was
divided into six sandjaks (Morea, Negrepont,
Thessaly, Janina, Epakto, and Karlili), which com-
prised over sixteen hundred timars ; and thus it
is not probable that many of the unhappy people
escaped from the grinding tyranny of either
timariots or haratch collectors. Whatever may
have been the cruelties of Franks and Venetians —
and they were often terrible enough — the iron rule
of the Turk was to eat into their very souls.
"Byzantine ceremony and orthodox formality, ,,
says Mr. Finlay, after referring to the cruelties of
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 93
the previous dominations, " had already effaced the
stronger traits of individual character, and extin-
guished genius ; Othoman oppression now made
an effort to extirpate the innate feelings of hu-
manity. Parents gave their sons to be janissaries,
and their daughters to be odalisques."
The Turkish domination would have weighed still
more heavily upon the Greeks, and would have done
more to root them out from the subjected empire,
if Mahomet and his successors had not found it
necessary to govern their European dominions by
the aid of Greek intermediaries. They recognized
the mental superiority of their victims, and at the
same time disdained to learn their language; so
that they had no alternative but to rule them by re-
presentatives. Mahomet was fortunate in meeting
with the distinguished scholar and admirable or-
ganizer Georgios Gennadios, whom he confirmed in
the office of Patriarch ; and the choice was yet more
fortunate for the Greeks of that and all succeeding
ages. Gennadios practically instituted a system
which saved his countrymen from destruction,
which preserved them as a nation within a nation,
and made their subjection tolerable. The sultans
regarded the patriarch, bishops, and priests, as
being responsible for the Greeks in general. In
every instance of repression the Christian hierarchy
Digit
zed by G00gk
94 GREECE.
were the first to pay the penalty in their own
persons ; but in quiet times, and so long as the
imposts were paid, the Greeks were comparatively
safe. The bishops were the political as well as the
ecclesiastical overseers of their dioceses ; they
were able to perpetuate the language as well as
the religion of their people ; they not only regu-
lated their worship but decided their disputes.
Thus the Greeks endured. They never dis-
appeared as a nation, and the Greek spirit, was
never extinct. No doubt the code of Justinian,
and still more the laws of Lykurgus, were partly
forgotten. The old municipalities, organic in-
stitutions, judicial and political traditions, had left
few distinct traces in the daily life of the Greeks in
Greece ; but the seeds of resurrection were* buried
with this wasted harvest in its mother- soil. For
three long centuries the representatives of the
Hellenes were oppressed, bound down to their
labour with fetters which it was utterly impossible
for them to break. They dwindled in number and
deteriorated in spirit; but their spirit was never
absolutely effete. It burned fiercely in the breasts
of brigands and pirates, to some at least of whom
the quest of gold and the shedding of blood ap-
peared to be lighter crimes than submission. It
burned in the breasts of the happier townsfolk,
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HIS TOR V. 95
who by commerce or intrigue were enabled to
secure an exceptional freedom. It burned now and
again in outbursts of rebellion — the only sacrament
of slaves — especially when the Russian invasions
of Greece in the eighteenth century inspired the
Moreotes and the Souliotes with a hope of success.
From this time to the final victory men were never
wanting to a capable leader, nor the money of
Greek merchants to any scheme of revolt.
The veil which history seems to have drawn over
the annals of every nation subjected to the Turks
has left the condition of the Greeks, during the six-
teenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, in
much obscurity ; but enough at all events has been
revealed to warrant us in affirming the continuity
of Greek descent, Greek memories and hopes,
Greek struggles and aspirations, from the earliest
times to the epoch of triumphant revolution.
Gieece would naturally be of less account in the
eyes of Europe if it were not for her ancient fame
and early history. Perhaps the energetic character
and commercial achievements of the people would
have sufficed by this time to obtain their emancipa-
tion ; but a sentiment born of intellectual associa-
tion and gratitude impelled the Western Powers to
extend to the struggling nation the aid which was
indispensable to its success. Comparing them
Digit
zed by G00gk
96 GREECE.
with the Bulgarians and Albanians, and even with
the Servians and Roumanians, Europe judged, and
judged rightly, that the race of to-day must have
many of the best characteristics of its glorious
ancestors ; and it was this idea, as much as the
plain facts of the situation, which enlisted England
and France on its side. But from the turning-
point of the Revolution of 1821 — 1832, the causQ
of the Greeks may fairly be judged by the standard
of facts, rather than of ideas. They owed their
resuscitation in part to the fame of their forefathers ;
they must owe their further development to the
deeds of the present.
The outbreak of 1821 had long been foreseen,
and even prepared for. It extended in some
degree to the Greeks of the whole Turkish Empire, '"
and was fostered, especially in Moldavia and
Wallachia, by Russian intrigues, and by the fervent
exhortations of patriots like Georgios Gennadios
at Bucharest — a direct descendant of the Patriarch.
On the Danube, the Turks had a comparatively
easy victory ; but in the Morea and on the main-
land of Greece the struggle was carried on despe-
rately for several years, with a vast amount of
cruelty and determination on both sides. Alternate
success and failure attended the efforts of the
patriots ; but, on the whole, and for the first four
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digit
zed by G00gk
A HYDRIOT SAILOR.
Page 97.
Digiti;
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 97
years, they managed to hold their own. At sea
they distinguished themselves by great skill and
courage, particularly in their manipulation of fire-
ships. Hydra, Spetzai, Poros, and other islands,
furnished admirable sailors, as well as numerous
small vessels ; and Miaoulis, Kanares, and one or
two more, earned undying fame by their triumphs
over the Turkish fleets.
By land the Greeks were less fortunate. Their
soldiers lacked what their sailors possessed — a
previous knowledge and experience of their craft.
If it had not been for the klephts and armatoles —
the former of whom had long been encouraged
amongst the Greeks in the hope that they would
one day be serviceable in the liberation of their
country — the art of fighting would have been
almost unknown in the patriot ranks. As it was,
little existed beyond the mere materials of an
army, and there were no great captains capable of
moulding this material into shape. One of the
best of the leaders was Kolokotrones, himself
originally a klepht. Amongst the others were
Odysseus, the Mavrokordatos, the Mavromichaelis,
Prince Demetrios Hypsilantes, Markos Botzares,
Karaiskakis, Kolettes, Zaimes, Kondouriotes, and
Londos, who, in the field or in council, earned a
title to the gratitude of their countrymen. But
H
Digit
zed by G00gk
98 GREECE.
the rivalries and discords of some of the chiefs
counteracted the heroism which was continually
being displayed in the face of the enemy ; and
their quarrels were carried so far that they more
than once turned their arms against each other,
instead of against the Turks. This may have been
inevitable under the circumstances, when no in-
dividual Greek was strong enough or eminent
enough to command the allegiance of the rest ;
but it undoubtedly, delayed the final triumph.
Lord Byron, who devoted the last few months of
his life to a gallant effort on behalf of the patriots,
was baffled by the strife of the competitors for
power. He appears at one time to have cherished
the hope that they would allow him, as indepen-
dent of them all, to assume the guidance of their
destinies ; but his death on the 19th of April, 1824,
interrupted the dream.
It was in this year that Sultan Mahmoud
summoned his Egyptian vassal to assist him in
suppressing the Greek insurrection ; and Mahomed
Ali fitted out a powerful armament for that
purpose. In the course of 1825 and 1826 Ibrahim
Pasha overran the whole country, and reduced it
to subjection, in spite of the co-operation with the
Greeks of English, French, and German volunteers,
and the pecuniary aid which was furnished to them
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 99
by Pliilhellenes in almost every civilized land.
Generals Church and Gordon, Captain Hastings
and Lord Cochrane, Fabvier and Burbaki, the
Bavarian Colonel Heideck, and others, came to the
rescue of the hard-pressed Greeks ; but it was too
late to stem the tide of conquest, even if they had
had means at their disposal sufficient for the task.
The Egyptians had already made themselves
masters of the Morea, continental Greece, and
most of the islands, and were completing the work
of ruin and devastation. Their aim and that of
the Porte seems to have been to convert the
rebellious land into a wilderness. They destroyed
houses and towns, burned the olive groves and
fruit plantations, and sold into slavery all the
prisoners whom they did not kill. Europe hearcj
with horror that the conquerors had opened a slave-
market at Modon, and that the Egyptian and
Turkish ships were carrying off large cargoes of
men, women, and children.
Meanwhile the negotiations entered into by
England, France, and Russia, and more casually by
Austria and Prussia, with the Porte on behalf of
the Greeks, began to enter the phase of written
protocols. As early as April, 1826, England and
Russia agreed to propose to Turkey a settlement
under which Greece should become, aft autonomous,
H 2 ' ■.' V:" ;":
Digitized by VjOOQlC
ioo GREECE,
tributary state. They did not, however, make the
formal proposal until June, 1827, when it was
rejected by the Porte. In the following month the
Treaty of London was concluded between the two
Powers above named and France, pledging the
signataries to offer their mediation, and to insist
upon its acceptance. The offer was made, but the
Porte remained obdurate. On the 20th of October
the allied fleets destroyed fifty-one Turkish and
Egyptian vessels in the harbour of Navarino. It
is said that this act was not contemplated in, or
warranted by, the instructions sent by the three
Governments to their admirals. We shall probably
never know by what secret orders or implied
sanction the naval commanders took this decisive
step ; but it is certain that the destruction of the
Turkish armament played a very important part in
the liberation of Greece.
The battle of Navarino was not the only coercive
measure arising out of the Treaty of London, and
its famous secret article. In December the ambas-
sadors withdrew from the Porte; in April, 1828,
Russia declared war against Turkey ; and in July
a French force landed in the Gulf of Koron, and
swept the Peloponnesos clear of its oppressors.
Nevertheless, more than a twelvemonth elapsed
beforfc qoHtinen^al Hellas was able to shake off the
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY.
last of her fetters. The Russo-Turkish war ended
in September, 1829, when the Porte, at Russia's
demand, accepted the Treaty of London, and
pledged itself to agree to whatever the Powers
might consider necessary in order to carry it into
effect. On February 3rd, 1830, a protocol was
signed which constituted Greece an independent
State ; and on the nth of the same month Prin«e
Leopold of Belgium accepted the crown which
was offered to him by the Powers. He, however,
soon resigned the honour, giving for his main
reason the hopelessness of establishing a Greek
kingdom from which Krete, Epeiros, and Thessaly
were to be excluded.
The northern boundary, as drawn in 1830,
stretched from the Gulf of Zeitoun to the mouth
of the Aspropotamos, thus depriving Greece of
the greater part of Akarnania and Aitolia. After
the assassination of Count Capodistria (who was
the popularly elected President of Greece from
April 14th, 1827, to October 9th, 183 1), and after
the Powers had selected Prince Otho of Bavaria
for the position declined by Prince Leopold, an
arrangement was concluded between England,
France, Russia, and Turkey, whereby the boundary
was drawn from the Gulf of Arta to the same
termination in the Gulf of Zeitoun. But a few
it zed by G00gk
102 GREECE.
months later the district of Zeitoun, north of the
Spercheios, was added to Greece ; and the new
kingdom paid to the Porte an indemnity of
40,000,000 piastres, or about 460,000/. The Powers
guaranteed a loan to Greece of 60,000,000
francs, out of which the payment of the indemnity
was made ; and thus, at last, in the autumn of
1&32, the fatherland of the Greeks was redeemed.
Under Otho of Bavaria the country was go-
verned at first by a Council of Regency, consisting
of Count Armansperg, Professor Maurer, and
General Heideck. Maurer was removed in 1834,
and Armansperg in 1837 ; and at the close of the
latter year, after the trial of another Bavarian as
president of the Council, a Greek was for the first
time appointed to the principal post in the
Ministry. The greatest benefit conferred upon the
country by its German rulers was the reinforce-
ment of the legal system, and the elevation of
the authority of the law. But, on the other hand,
an unfortunate attempt was made to centralize the
whole administration of Greece, her ancient muni-
cipal rights and customs were overlooked, taxation
was almost as indiscriminate and burdensome as
under the Turks, whilst large sums of money
were spent upon the army, and on other objects of
an unremunerative or insufficiently remunerative
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN. HISTORY. 103
character, so that the young State was laden with
pecuniary liabilities before anything had been
done to develope her resources. Practically un-
limited power was given to the Council of Regency,
which governed mainly from a Bavarian point of
view, supporting its authority with a Bavarian
army of some 9000 men at a cost of 9,000,000
drachmas. No national assembly was convened,
no anxiety was shown to conciliate the people,
liberty of expression was curtailed, personal offence
was given by the foreigners, and by Armansperg
in particular; brigandage and piracy flourished,
and Greece began to suffer all the evils which
might have been expected to arise from the govern-
ment of unsympathetic aliens.
For some years after the emancipation of the
country from Turkish rule, the insecurity of
life and property continued. The pacification of
Greece after the general upheaval and chaos of the
war was naturally a matter of time, and the earlier
ministers of King Otho did not contribute much to
the performance of the task. In addition to the
rapid and alarming increase of brigandage by land
and piracy by sea, there were popular insurrections
in Messenia, Maina, Akarnania, and elsewhere.
One of the most capable Englishmen who have
ever espoused the cause of the Greeks, General
Digit
zed by G00gk
104 GREECE.
Gordon, was commissioned in 1835 to clear
iiorthern Greece of the marauders by whom it was
overrun. He executed his mission in an admirable
manner, sweeping the whole of Phokis, Aitolia, and
Akarnania, and securing the co-operation of the
Turkish Pasha at Larissa. Hundreds of brigands
were put to flight, — but only to return again next
year, and to enjoy as great immunity as ever.
The weakness of the frontier, of which the outlaws
constantly took advantage, was soon perceived ;
but Gordon and Sir Richard Church had showed
the Government an easy mode of protecting it,
which the King and his Ministers failed to adopt.
In the absence of a strong and active organization
of the national forces, brigandage in Greece was an
ineradicable institution ; and, as a matter of fact,
it was not suppressed until the year 1870.
Gradually the discontent of the people, and the
feebleness and infatuation of the Government, were
breeding a revolution. Armansperg had lament-
ably failed as a financier, and his successors were
hardly more fortunate. The interest on the Allied
Loan fell into arrear ; England and Russia pressed
for its payment, and the King adopted severe
measures for increasing the revenues, which ex-
asperated the country. The three Guaranteeing
Powers urged on Otho and his advisers the
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 105
necessity of granting a Constitution, which had '
been promised on the establishment of the king-
dom ; and moral support was thus given to two
very strong parties, known by the titles of Philor-
thodox and Constitutional, whose leaders looked
to Russia and England respectively. The King
and the Government neglected symptoms which
were conspicuous to all besides, and the revolution
of 1843 found them practically unprepared and help-
less. On the 15th of September, after a well-con-
trived demonstration of the troops, which was
acquiesced in and virtually sanctioned by the repre-
sentatives of the three Powers, King Otho gave
way, and signed the decrees which had been sub-
mitted to him. The Bavarian Ministers were dis-
missed, Mavrokordatos was made Premier, a
National Assembly was convoked, and a Con-
stitution was granted. For the first time since the
Roman conquest, Greece resumed the dignity of
self-government.
The Constitution of 1844 was by no means an
adequate one. It did not fully restore the privileges
of local self-rule, and it only partially modified
the system of centralization, from which so many
evils had sprung. But it was nevertheless a great
advance towards popular liberty. It established
universal suffrage, under slight qualifications; it
Digit
zed by G00gk
io6 GREECE,
declared the equality of all citizens before the law,
and took one step towards giving effect to the
declaration by entrusting the nomination of local
magistrates to local elective bodies.
The hopes excited by this revolution were for
the most part doomed to disappointment; and
little else could have been expected from a state of
things in which the power of the National Assembly
was paralyzed by the authority of an unwise king,
whilst the nominal liberty of the people was
rendered futile by the subordination of their
municipal rights to the caprice of the party leaders.
But the worst features of the situation as it existed
in Greece between the two revolutions (1843 — 1862)
were the incompetence or unconstitutional conduct
of the King's Ministers and officials, the lawlessness
which prevailed in many parts of the kingdom,
and the consequent insecurity of individuals and
of trade. The earlier constitutional Ministries
committed or permitted many illegal and violent
acts, one of the worst of which was to grant an
amnesty to notorious brigands, and even to employ
them in the elections for the purpose of intimida-
tion. It was long before the suspicion of com-
plicity between Greek Ministers and the brigand
chiefs was laid at rest. Kolettes, the leader of the
Russian party, as Mavrokordatos was of the
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 107
English party, was Premier from 1844 to 1847 ;
but he was hardly more successful in giving
stability to his country than his predecessor had
been. Brigandage, insurrection, and mutiny,
(partly owing to the irregularity or retention of the
soldiers' pay) were still rife. In 1845 ^ e Porte
complained to the Powers of the incitements to
revolt held out by the Greek papers to the Sultan's
Christian subjects. In 1846 Lord Palmerston
remonstrated with Kolettes on the impunity
granted to the marauding bands by which Greece
was infested. In 1847 a quarrel arising out of the
same cause threatened to bring about a rupture
between Greece and Turkey, which was only
avoided by a timely apology from the Government
of King Otho.
Meanwhile the financial situation of the country
did not improve. The interest on the guaranteed
loans remained in arrear, and no interest was
forthcoming on the patriotic loans contracted
during the War of Liberation. The Governments of
the three Powers began to renew their complaints
in a more serious form, and the English Govern-
ment (to which Kolettes had shown a remarkably
firm front) pressed the matter in what was con-
sidered an unfriendly tone, and without waiting for
the support of Russia and France. It was then
Digit
zed by G00gk
108 GREECE.
that M. Eynard, a wealthy merchant residing at
Geneva, advanced a sum of 20,000/. for the purpose
of satisfying the claim. Kolettes now proposed a
plan by which he thought that the engagements of
his country might be met ; though he affirmed,
with some reason, that the default had been due to
the insufficiency of the revenue from taxation,
already grievously complained of. But the death
of this statesman, in September, 1847, interrupted
a career which had begun to promise well for the
future of Greece ; and none of his immediate
successors showed an equal aptitude for govern-
ment.
In 1850, the English Government preferred cer-
tain claims against Greece, which were more or
less just in themselves, but which, after an interval
of thirty years, scarcely seem to have deserved the
hostile intervention cf one of the Great Powers.
The Government of Admiral Kanares, encouraged
by several of the foreign representatives at Athens,
and by popular opinion, resisted the demand ;
and the British fleet blockaded the Peiraios, seizing
a man-of-war and two or three merchantmen as
material guarantees for the payment of an in-
demnity. A French arbitrator, Baron Gros, was
invited to Athens in order to decide as to the
amount due to England and her clients, and he
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 109
assessed this amount at 150,000 drachmas. The
English representative, Sir Thomas Wyse, claimed
180,000 drachmas — a difference of about 1050/. ;
and, by way of enforcing his contention, the
blockade was renewed. Thereupon the Greek
Government yielded, and the larger amount was
duly paid over.
The difficulties which arose between Russia and
Turkey in 1853, and which led up to the Crimean
War, inspired the Greeks with, a hope that their
"grand idea" — the inheritance of the dominion of
Turkey in Europe, so far as the Greek-speaking
provinces are concerned — might be on the eve of
accomplishment ; if not in its entirety, at least to
the extent of adding Thessaly and Epeiros to the
kingdom. The King, the Government, and the
bulk of the nation, warmly sympathized with
.Russia, and the Philorthodox party, amongst
whom the " grand idea " was a central article of
faith, came prominently to the front.
The Russian army crossed the Pruth in July,
1853, and preparations were at once made by the
Greeks to invade Turkey. It is true that the
Government disavowed the proceedings of the
armed bands who crossed the frontier, and did
nothing openly to promote the movement ; but
the temper of the whole country was such that
1/
Digit
zed by G00gk
no GREECE.
England and France deemed it necessary to take
urgent measures for preventing an alliance between
Russia and Greece. In May, 1854, an Anglo-
French force was landed at the Peiraios, where it
remained until February, 1857. Pressure was thus
brought to bear upon King Otho, who was not in
a position to resist it. The Ministry was changed,
and the King formally promised the two Govern-
ments that he would " observe faithfully a strict
and complete neutrality with regard to Turkey,"
and that he would "immediately take all the
measures necessary for making this neutrality
effectual." Mavrokordatos, then representing his
country at Paris, resumed the post which he bad
occupied ten years before, and struggled as best
he might against the unpopularity of his Cabinet.
Meanwhile the Greek bands which had entered
Thessaly and Epeiros were driven back by the
Turks, and became a source of infinite difficulty
to the Government The humiliation of the Greeks
under the foreign occupation weakened the autho-
rity of the King and his Ministers, and the unhappy
country was once more a prey to rapine and disorder.
In 1857 the representatives of the three Powers
at Athens were constituted a commission to inquire
into the financial resources of Greece. They pre-
sented their report in May, 1859, but they offered
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY.
no practical suggestions by way of remedy for the
evils shown to exist, and little or no good came of
the inquiry. This report stated, * that the national
property was neither marked out nor known to
the Government ; that it was constantly lessened
by encroachments; that the law entrusted the
Government with a supervision over the funds of
the communes ; that the Government neglected
this duty ; that the manner of collecting the land-
tax impeded the progress of agriculture ; that the
Ministers of Finance since the year 1845 had
scarcely verified the resources and accounts of the
public treasury ; that, of the accounts of the years
1850, i85i,and 1852, only the accounts of 1850
had been submitted to the Chambers; that the
Court of Accounts had not proved by the reports
which it is bound to publish the official regularity
of the accounts of the Ministers, nor that they are
such as they ought to be ; that the Chambers have
not remedied this state of things, and the legis-
lative control has been no more exercised than the
judicial ; that the accounts produced by the Greek
Government did not offer the legal guarantees
required for exactitude and authenticity ; and that
the publicity and the control of the administration,
which are the guarantees to the country, did not
exist. "
Digit
zed by G00gk
on
coc
112 GREECE.
Most of these facts had been known, or strongly
suspected, beforehand ; and they are precisely P^
such as might have been anticipated from the P^
political and social conditions of Greece. Of
economy, as the word is understood in a well- des
ordered and experienced State, there had been
very little. Trade had increased and flourished
here and there, and the mercantile wealth of par- am
ticular districts was not inconsiderable ; but the Mi
foreign Monarch and his Court, the weak and tenta- Th
tive Ministries, the loosely organized departments, pa<
the many corrupt or incompetent officials, and the ' ap
imperfect system of national and municipal govern-
ment, had all combined to spend rather than to
economize the revenues. It would have been an
absolutely unprecedented fact if this newly eman-
cipated people, inheriting a devastated land, and
not possessing a single experience, tradition, or
pattern of good government, had already developed
into a prosperous commercial nation, or succeeded
in making their country pay its way.
From the year 1859 a new portent began to
make itself apparent in Greece. As the insurrec-
tion of 1 82 1 may be said to have derived some of
its energy from the upheaval of France and Europe
in the preceding decades, so the Greek revolution
of 1862 was doubtless hastened, if not suggested,
Digit
zed by G00gk
MODERN HISTORY. 113
by the Italian regeneration of 1848 — 1861. The
people of Greece naturally sympathized with the
people of Italy ; but King Otho did not attempt
to conceal his partiality for Austria. His evident
desire to assist the latter country, and the tidings
of Garibaldi's great successes in Naples and Sicily,
combined to widen the breach between the King
and his subjects ; and the unwise measures of the
Ministry served to exasperate the popular feeling.
The last Parliament of the Bavarian Monarch was
packed with servile nominees of the Court, elected
against the more popular candidates by unscrupu-
lous bribery and intimidation. But neither by this
means, nor by a show of intrusting power to the
most venerated of Greek patriots, Admiral Ka-
nares, nor by any attempt to revive the popularity
of the King and Queen, was the crisis to be avoided.
On February 13th, 1862, the garrison of Nauplia
revolted ; other outbreaks followed ; and at last,
in October, during an ill-advised absence of the
Monarch from his capital, the garrison of Athens
broke out into open insurrection. A Provisional
Government was nominated ; the deposition of
King Otho was proclaimed ; and when the royal
couple hurried back to the city they were refused
an entrance. The representatives of the Powers
were appealed to in vain; and the unfortunate
1
Digitized by VjOOQlC
H4 GREECE.
Bavarian, after wearing the crown for thirty years,
sailed from the Peiraios never to return.
The hopes of the Greeks at once centred in
Prince Alfred of England for their future king,
chiefly, no doubt, because they believed that he
would come to them with firm constitutional
tendencies and ideas of government. But the
agreement of the three Powers on the esta-
blishment of the kingdom expressly excluded
from the throne all members of the reigning
families of England, France, and Russia ; and
thus, although Prince Alfred was elected king
with practical unanimity, the English Government
would not sanction his acceptance of the crown.
The choice eventually and happily fell upon Prince
George of Denmark, the present King of the
V Hellenes ; and neither Greece nor Europe has had
reason to regret the selection. King George and
his Royal Consort have borne themselves with con-
spicuous fidelity to the Constitution of 1864, and
have deserved and won the confidence of their
people.
The Powers regarded the revolution of 1862
with a benevolent mind, and England in particular
hastened to give a tangible proof of her goodwill.
In June, 1864, the Ionian Islands were transferred
to Greece, by the Cabinet of which Lord Palmer-
Digit
zed by Google
MODERN HISTORY. 115
ston, Lord Russell, and Mr. Gladstone were the
leading members. Mr. Gladstone's mission to the
Islands in 1858 had prepared the Government and
people of England for this act of restitution, which
had long been desired by the Ionians themselves.
From this time forward the history of modern
Greece enters upon a brighter phase. It is true
that the assistance given by the mother country
to the Kretan insurgents in 1866-9 provoked
the intervention of England and France, who could
not afford to risk the consequences of a Graeco-
Turkish war. It is true that the financial diffi-
culties of Greece, owing to her sacrifices at various
times on behalf of the Greek subjects of Turkey,
have not disappeared. It is true that many in-
jurious conditions and constraints still retard the
development of the kingdom, and render it im-
possible for Greece to become what Europe desires
to see her. But, on the other hand, the progress
of the country during the present auspicious reign,
and under the existing Constitution, has been in
most respects eminently satisfactory. A settled
government, the rehabilitation of public order and
justice, the suppression of brigandage and piracy,
the gradual extension of liberal institutions and
personal freedom, the unmistakable adaptation of
the people to parliamentary forms, and their suc-
I 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
Ii6 GREECE.
cessful application of the methods of representative
self-rule — these are amongst the most hopeful signs
of that complete regeneration to which Greece
and the friends of Greece may look forward with-
out presumption, and which they may expect with-
out long delay.
The last chapter in the political annals of the
Hellenic Kingdom dates from the Congress of
Berlin, when the Powers called on Turkey to rectify
her south-western frontier in a sense favourable to
Greece. In one of the protocols a desire is expressed
on the part of Europe that the frontier might
be advanced to the valleys of the Peneios and the
Kalamas ; and a clause in the Treaty pledges the
signatory Powers to offer their mediation between
the two interested Governments, in the event of
their being unable to come to an amicable agree-
ment. Between the summer of 1878 and the
spring of 1880, .no advance towards a settlement
was made; and thus a question on which the
future of Greece so largely depends was allowed
to remain unsolved.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER VI.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS.
The history of the Greeks, alike in ancient and
in modern times, shows us that the genius of the
race is inclined to the arts of peace rather than to
those of war, to the perfection of laws rather than
to the extension of dominion, to individual freedom
on homestead and hearth rather than to centralized
authority pressing on the entire nation. A striking
contrast exists in this respect between the Greeks
and the Romans. In the language of the latter a
dozen words instantly occur to the mind, concisely
expressing the ideas of empire, dominion, authority,
subjection, government, many of which ideas found
no exact expression in the Greek tongue. There
was never yet an empire of Greece, that is to say
an empire having its seat at Athens or in the
Peloponnesos. The Byzantine empire became
practically Greek, but it was based on a Roman
foundation, and its purely military sway was brief
Digit
zed by G00gk
1x8 GREECE.
and of little significance. But an empire in another
and better sense— an empire by colonization and
commerce, only supported by arms—the Greeks of
Greece unquestionably established ; and, if the race
is ever again to dominate and wield authority over
a wide empire, it must be by its development as
an industrious and peaceful nation, and its strength
must be derived from that brave spirit of enter-
prising commerce which (as in the case of the
English-speaking nations) generally knows how
to hold its own against all comers.
Since its establishment by the Great Powers,
Greece has had three national Constitutions.
The first was conferred upon it by a decree of
King Otho in 1835. The second was exacted
by the people in 1844. The third was adopted
by common consent of King George and the
people in 1864. The instrument of 1835, though
not a Constitution in the worthiest sense of the
word, and though it did not entitle Otho to
call himself a constitutional monarch, was never-
theless framed by the Bavarians with some little
regard to the character of the people to whom it
was to apply. By comparing it with the two
charters of 1844 and 1864, we may perceive in
what direction the mind of the people advanced
in their progress towards self-government.
Digit
zed by G00gk
GO VERNMENT AND POLITICS, 1 19
King Otho's decree simply appointed a Council
of State, with a minimum of twenty members, all
nominated by himself, and removable at his plea-
sure. Their* business was to advise the King on
subjects referred to them, and to deliberate on the
form of decrees suggested by the Monarch or his
Ministers. The paternal character of this Royal
ordinance is illustrated by the fifteenth article,
which directs that the Councillors should go from
time to time into the provinces, "to assure them-
selves as to the manner in which the executive
power is. administered, to take cognizance of the
complaints, wants, arid wishes of the inhabitants,
and to make a report direct to the King." Apart
from this provision, and the general right of appeal
to the Council, no initiation was allowed to the
people, and no one had a voice in the government
of the State except by favour of the King.
There was, however, another decree of King
Otho's, signed at the end of 1833, which secured
to the Greeks a fair measure of municipal self-
government, and which was at all events a theo-
retical guarantee of personal liberty. According
to this ordinance, the whole land was divided into
demoiy or communes, every town or village of 300
inhabitants being allowed to form a demos. The
elective body consisted of male residents in houses,
Digit
zed by G00gk
GREECE.
over the age of twenty-five ; the vote being taken by-
ballot, after the adminstering of a strict oath whereby
the voter declared his conscientious respect for
king, country, and commune, and his freedom from
corruption. Only one-eighth of the inhabitants,
in the order of their taxation, were eligible as
councillors ; and these were subsequently to choose
their aldermen, as well as three candidates for the
office of demarch, whereof one was to be selected
by the King. There were to be three classes of
communes, whereof the first, containing more than
10,000 inhabitants, were to have from four to six
aldermen, and a municipal council of eighteen.
In communes of between 2000 and 10,000, the
aldermen were to number between two and four,
and the councillors twelve. Communes of less
than 2000 were to have one alderman and a coun-
cil of six. The higher officers were to be elected
for three years, the councils being renewable by
thirds at the successive triennial elections. Local
business of almost every kind was entrusted to
these councils ; but there were certain important
limitations of their authority. The original forma-
tion of the communes was to be effected by the
King (that is, by the Council of Regency) ; and
the King also appointed the officers of police, and
removed the demarchs or dissolved the councils at
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS,
his will. The right of public meeting was with-
held, and a voter was disfranchised by the mere
allegation of an offence against the law, before
proof. Moreover, the general business of the
commune, and the administration of the funds in
particular, were to be carried on " in the name of
the State," and under the control of the Govern-
ment. There were clauses providing for personal
service and forced labour, and for the billeting of
troops. Local taxation was to be levied on the
same principle as the State taxes ; but the parish
priests and schoolmasters were exempted. The
municipal authorities were tax collectors for the
Government, as well as for local purposes. After
levying the aggregate amount, and paying over
the sum in which their commune was assessed to
the State, it remained for them to meet the expen-
diture on police, salaries, elementary education,
public offices, roads and bridges, aqueducts and
wells, the communal boundaries, shore works
where necessary, elections, charities, and the
maintenance of churches. But it was provided
that no member of a commune should be called
upon to pay a rate in support of a church or school
of a different denomination from his own.
This municipal constitution, founded to a large
extent upon customs and privileges which the
Digit
zed by G00gk
122 GREECE.
local communities had retained under Capodistria,
and even under the Turks, is the basis of the
existing communal law of Greece. It has been
modified in some particulars, so as to harmonize
with the freer national constitution of 1864.
But the substance of the ordinance of 1833
(as also of the ordinances on public health,
vaccination, food, &c, promulgated about the
same time) is maintained to the present day,
as it well deserves to be. The provisions are on
the whole judicious and liberal, their practical
value to the people depending largely upon the
character of the central Government. Under King
Otho this Government was a bad one, and municipal
freedom was in consequence hardly more than
nominal. " One of the worst evils of King Otho's
reign was the destruction of self-government in
the municipalities of Greece, and the conversion
of the municipal administration into an agency
for executing the orders of the central authority.
This rendered the demarchies nests of ministerial,
courtly, and party patronage. If self-government
means that the people in their municipalities elect
their executive officers, like mayors, as well as
their legislators, like common councilmen, and that
when the people elect to any office the law alone can
remove or suspend their nominee from the exercise
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. 123
of his functions, then Greece had no such thing as
self-government during Otho's reign. He had so
completely nullified municipal institutions that the
local revenues of the country were diverted from ob-
jects of improvement to paying officials." (Finlay)
The Constitution of 1844 did little to remedy
this state of things. The clauses which, if strictly
observed, would have corrected the vices of central-
ization, and insured the independence of the local
communities, were not fairly carried into effect.
All citizens were declared equal before the law,
but they were not so ; or rather the law was not
equal before them. Intrigue and patronage con-
tinued to direct the relations between the State
and the municipalities. The new Constitution took
little or no account of the citizen in his commune,
and the consequence was that the demarchies
profited only through the increased public rights
of the individual, and not by any increase of
municipal privileges.
The public rights conferred in 1844 centred in
the attainment of universal suffrage, and in the
establishment of parliamentary government. For
the next twenty years the parliamentary status of
the Greeks was superior to their municipal status.
Aldermen and demarchs were still elected by
councillors having a property qualification, as
Digit
zed by G00gk
124 GREECE,
these were elected by householders ; but the elec-
tors of the deputies were a far wider body. As
Mr. Finlay observes: "A system tending more
directly to perpetuate mal-administration in the
municipalities, nullity in the Provincial Councils,
and corruption in the Chamber of Deputies, could
not have been devised." Nevertheless a notable
advance was made in 1844 by the nation as a
whole. It had secured a lever and a fulcrum ;
for the Constitution, better in theory than in imme-
diate application, provided a point of support from
which Greece was enabled to obtain still more
valuable results.
The Constitution of 1864 was almost as great an
improvement upon the Constitution of 1844 as the
latter was upon the Royal Ordinance of 1835. The
revolution of 1862 was a tardy national protest
against the centralization of King Otho's govern-
ment, and the official corruption which it engen-
dered and fostered. It was essentially a popular
revolt, a reaction against the suppression of popu-
lar rights and the over-taxation of municipalities.
A remedy was obtained, partly by distinct clauses
in the new Constitution, partly by subsequent
modifications of the law, and indirectly by the
purification of the Administrative Government
under a more strictly constitutional regime.
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. 125
The clauses of the Constitution affecting the
rights of the citizen in his commune, specifically
or by implication, are numerous. With the decla-
ration of universal equality before the law came
several important guarantees of judicial purity, the
independence of local jurisdictions, ministerial
responsibility for every act of the Executive, and
the liability of public and municipal officers for
illegality in the exercise of their functions. The
right "to assemble tranquilly and unarmed" for
elective or other purposes, the right to form asso-
ciations, and a very liberal right of the Press, are
firmly established. Education is recognized as a
State concern, the State providing higher educa-
tion out of the public funds, and contributing to
the communal schools according to their neces-
sities. No levy can be made upon the municipal
funds on behalf of the Government or by any
external authority, unless it has been voted by the
House of Representatives, though at the same
time there is provision (perhaps of doubtful
adequacy) for the checking of local expenditure.
From 1864 the demarchs, and paid officials gene-
rally, were declared ineligible for the House ; and
it is a maxim of the Greek constitution that the
deputies represent the nation, not the eparchy
which chooses them. These regulations aimed at
Digit
zed by G00gk
126 GREECE,
a complete severance of the most corrupt channels
of influence which had hitherto existed between
the local administrations and the central Govern-
ment. The principle of direct, universal suffrage
by ballot is extended to the municipal elections ;
and, as the Crown has no powers except those
expressly assigned to it by the Constitution, and
as all laws and ordinances in opposition to this
Constitution are annulled, we may conclude that
the independence of the municipalities is virtually
assured. The privileges of self-government in
Greece are as definite as in England, whilst in
some few respects they are more extended* and
more democratic in form.
The leading characteristics of the valuable instru-
ment of 1864, as affecting individuals in their
ordinary life, have now been mentioned. But in
addition to the municipal rights, to the equality of
citizens before the law, to the right of meeting and.
freedom of the Press, to ministerial responsibility
and fixed jurisdictions, the Constitution establishes
many other axioms of popular liberty and public
order. Inviolability of person, property, and domi-
cile, with carefully guarded exceptions ; the limita-
tion of punishments ; the strict definition of the
royal prerogative, which is large but not (under the
circumstances of the kingdom) excessive; the liberal
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. 127
interpretation of parliamentary rights ; judicial
security, qualified by appeal, by jury trial, and by
the removability of justices of the peace, — these
are characteristic features of the Constitution of
1864, which has been accepted and acted up to
by both Monarch and people, and which has
converted Greece from one of the most disorderly
to one of the most orderly States in Europe,
Greece has no aristocracy and no Senate. The
first is barred by the Constitution ; and, though a
Council of State, having the nature of a Senate, was
provided for in the instrument of 1864, it was
abolished in the succeeding year. The legislative
power is intrusted to the King and to the House
of Representatives, the former acting solely through
his Ministers. A veto rests with either party. The
House, which is elected for a term of four years,
usually assembles for its ordinary session at the
beginning of November, and sits not less than
three nor more than six months in a year. No
sitting can be held unless more than half the whole
number of deputies are present. A vote of the
House is necessary to the imposition of a tax, but
it cannot originate a proposal to increase the public
expenditure by salary or pension. The actual
number of deputies is 190. Their qualification is
the possession of property in the eparchy by which
Digit
zed by G00gk
128 GREECE.
they are chosen, or the exercise of some inde-
pendent profession or trade. A payment of 2000
drachmas (75/.) for each ordinary session was as-
signed to them by a clause of the Constitution, but
the acceptance of any post under the Government
vacates the seat
It has been computed that the Parliamentary
franchise in Greece is possessed by 3 1 1 out of every
1000 inhabitants. The ratio in England is about
90 to the 1000. Even in France, where universal
suffrage is established, there are only 270 electors
amongst 1000 inhabitants. Few countries in the
world can boast of a more thoroughly popular form
of representative government.
The political ideas of the Greeks are governed by
several distinct and peculiar facts, which it is very
necessary to take into account, inasmuch as they
give rise to constant disturbances in the current of
parliamentary life. In the first place, the position
of Greece in Europe has excluded anything like
finality from the minds of her statesmen, who have
found it impossible to regard the frontiers of the
country as definitive, or to limit their policy to its
peaceful government. The Greece of 1832 was
tentative; the Greece of 1864 was tentative ; and
the Powers in 1878 practically admitted that even
the enlarged Greece which they contemplated
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. 129
would be tentative. In such circumstances a quiet
domestic policy is an impossibility. Patriotism in
Greece implies an ambition for extended frontiers ;
every party necessarily frames its programme on
this basis. The most ambitious programme of all
is that which includes what is called the "grand
idea" — -diat Greece is heir to more or less of
Turkey's remaining possessions in Europe. This,
no doubt, is the cherished conviction of the people
as a whole ; and it is consequently the most potent
factor in Greek political life. Around this fact are
grouped a number of minor difficulties, which
render the task of any Government an arduous one
— such as the necessity of maintaining friendly
relations with all the Great Powers, to the extent
of crossing the wishes of the people, or humiliating
the Monarch, or changing a Ministry, on the bidding
of one or more of the European Cabinets. It is
not exclusively a Greek ambition, but almost a
postulate of international diplomacy, that Greece
should be prepared to play a leading part in south-
eastern Europe as soon as the proper moment
arrives. For good or evil it is regarded a^ a con-
dition of national existence that the army should be
kept up to a certain strength, and that an expendi-
ture should be incurred on various objects not
essential to the internal welfare of the country.
K
Digitized by VjOOQlC
3o GkEECE.
All this entails foreign loans, financial embarrass-
ment, and a heavy taxation, with the diversion of
the revenue to non-economical purposes.
Another obstacle to calm government and in-
dustrial progress is the excessive eagerness of
competent men to obtain offices of emolument,
or to push to the front in the arena of politics.
This excess, which is freely acknowledged and
lamented amongst the Greeks themselves, arises in
part from the ambitions already mentioned, in part
from the Tiigh standard of education, in part from
the political education of all classes due to uni-
versal suffrage, and in part from the immigration of
more or less able men from the Greek provinces of
Turkey, anxious to take their share in the work
of national development and progress. The com-
petition for office, and the keenness with which
the applicants pursue their quest, are clearly un-
favourable to the steady continuity of political
life. Greece has enough politicians, clerks, lawyers,
functionaries actual or possible, to administer a
large empire ; but meanwhile she has too many for
her own need, or for the satisfaction of all the
deserving candidates for work.
There would be more danger for Greece in this
avidity of office and authority if it were not for the
strong common sense and constitutional moderation
Digit
zed by G00gk
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. 131
* .
which the country has exhibited since its establish-
ment as a kingdom. Whatever greed, or animosity,
or ambition, has been manifested in the domain of
politics, the people does not allow itself to be drawn
into violent courses. The Constitutions of 1844
and 1864 were exacted by the mere firmness of the
national attitude, almost without striking a blow ;
and on several occasions during the reign of King
George^ though the nation has been deeply moved,
and there has seemed to be a danger of civil strife,
yet peace has always been maintained by the pre-
valence of a sound public opinion, capable, by
this time, of perceiving how much more the country
has to gain by physical and moral order than by
any revolutionary process. One of the last con-
stitutional measures of the Greek Parliament was
a law, inspired by the ministerial crisis of 1875,
which distinctly increases the responsibility of the
Ministers and higher administrative officials, ren-
dering their tenure of office more directly dependent
on a scrupulous observance of the limits assigned
to their authority.
The sharpest distinction of parties amongst Greek
politicians of the higher order is that which springs
from a divergence of views on the appropriateness
of the Constitution to the actual condition of the
Country * Some there are who consider that Greece
K 2
Digitized by VjOOQlC
13*
GREECE.
has been endowed with too large a measure of
political privilege, and who would consequently
modify the scope of the Charter of 1864. For
example, they would create a Senate, contract the
suffrage, and decrease the power which is now
wielded by the House of Representatives. To
these are opposed the advocates of popular sove-
reignty in a bold and fearless sense, as now
established and recognized by law. Unless a
partial fulfilment of the national ambitions which
all Greeks nurse in common should suffice to
merge these differences, it seems probable that the
Reactionaries and Constitutionalists will henceforth
more and more prominently occupy the political
stage.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER VII.
THE NATIONAL DEFENCES.
The Greek army has naturally played an im-
portant part in the affairs of Greece, from the War
of Liberation down to the present day. If it
cannot be said that the people has on every occa-
sion derived advantage from the intervention of
military men in political matters, still it is a fact
that the soldier and the civilian have laboured side
by side in the attainment of popular freedom, and
in pursuit of the objects of a common patriotism.
Up to the accession of Otho the armed bands that
covered the country — for Greece had then no
organized army — were often at strife amongst
themselves, and generally a grievous burden to the
peaceable inhabitants. Little by little they ac-
quired discipline and solidity, and no country
could desire to see a better moral tone in its
soldiers than that which pervaded the troops of
General Kalergi in 1843, when the Greeks won
Digit
zed by G00gk
134 GREECE.
a large accession of liberties by a simple military
parade. The attitude of both officers and men
was almost equally satisfactory in the revolution of
1862-3 ; and, since the vindication of public order
was rendered complete by the measures taken
against brigandage in 1870, Greece has rarely had
to complain of either excess or shortcoming in the
patriotic zeal of her soldiers.
It is sometimes affirmed that the military
element is still too predominant in the country,
that too much is spent upon the army, and
that officers of the two fighting services might
with advantage be excluded from the House of
Representatives in particular. Under the Constitu-
tion of 1864, the duties of a Representative are
declared to be compatible with those of military or
naval officers, though it is also provided that any
officer elected whilst on active service shall be
placed on half-pay during the whole representative
period, or until he is recalled for service. It is further
laid down that officers may claim leave of absence
during five months and a half before the date of
the elections. The latter, no doubt, is an excep-
tional privilege, and there can be no question as to
the general unwisdom of holding out a premium to
attract officers of the army and navy into a national
Parliament. But the condition of society and of
Digit
zed by G00gk
THE NATIONAL DEFENCES. 135
public opinion in Greece, at all events when the
Constitution was framed, required that these con~
cessions should be made. And it does not appear
that any practical harm has arisen to the State from
the military leaven in the Representative House,
It is quite * possible that the temper of the people,
and the ardour with which they have occasionally
initiated the most hazardous enterprises, might
have carried them into excess if they had not been
checked by the professional prudence of men who
were in a position to estimate the real force of the
country.
The army is thoroughly popular in Greece, and
every effort is made to preserve its popularity.
Commissions and promotions, though conferred by
royal decree, are practically the reward of study
and professional merit, a fair proportion being
maintained between the steps by seniority and the
promotions by selection. Military service is for
the Greeks an open career ; there is no purchase,
and merit is fairly certain of its reward. Thus
the commandant of a corps is entitled, in confor-
mity with the regulations, to nominate corporals,
sergeants, and quartermasters, from the ranks ; and,
on passing certain examinations, and serving one
or two years according to circumstances, the
quartermasters receive the king's commission as
Digit
zed by G00gk
136 GREECE.
adjutants. This latter position may also be obtained
direct from the military school of the " Euelpides,"
at the Peiraios — a national establishment where, at
an annual cost of from 20/. to 50/., forty young
men at a time are prepared for the army by a
seven years* course, under military discipline, and
subject to severe examinations.
The adjutant, after one year's service in the
army, or six months' service in a foreign army, is
eligible for the commission of sub-lieutenant.
From thence to lieutenant and captain, the steps
are made two-thirds by seniority and one-third by
selection. Of the superior officers, majors are
chosen half by one method and half by the other ;
whilst lieutenant-colonels, colonels, generals of
brigade, and generals of division, are promoted
entirely by selection. There are no honorary
grades, so that promotion can only occur upon the
death, resignation, legal dismissal, or superannua-
tion of an officer. Superior officers may be removed
from the active list at sixty-five, and subalterns at
fifty-five.
The monthly pay of a general is 690 drachmas
(about 25/.), of a colonel 590 drs., of a major, from
429 drs. to 44.0 drs., of a captain, from 280 drs.
to 310 drs., of an adjutant, from 100 drs. to no
drs. The sergeant receives a daily pay of 60 to 68
Digit
zed by G00gk
THE NATIONAL DEFENCES. 137
lepta (about 6d.) ; and the common soldier receives
half as much, with thirty ounces of bread, and an
allowance of about $d. for the rest of his food. All
ranks receive moderate pensions after 25 years'
service ; and these payments cannot be touched
by creditors, except for the maintenance of a
pensioner's wife, children, or parents. Widows of
officers also receive a small sum during their lives ;
whilst officers of every grade, when incapacitated
by wounds or otherwise, can claim either a pension
or a sum of money in commutation.
If the Greeks were not at once a poor and a
frugal people, the army could scarcely be a popular
service under these conditions of pay and retire-
ment. Nevertheless its popularity is unquestioned ;
and it may be accounted for, amongst other
causes, by the constant appeal to merit as the title
to promotion.
The regular Greek army on a peace establish-
ment numbers about 14,000 men, distributed as
follows : —
Infantry, 10 battalions, 60 companies . .
8700 men
Chasseurs, 4 ,, 16 ,, . .
2000 „
Artillery, 1 battalion, 6 ,, . .
900 „
Cavalry, 1 ,, 4 squadrons . .
420 „
Engineers, 1 ,, 4 companies . .
500 „
The gendarmerie, numbering from 1300 to 1600
it zed by G00gk
Digitiz
138 GREECE,
men, are also regarded as belonging to the army.
The numbers above given represent the full
strength of the companies, and include 754 superior
officers and subalterns, and 1961 under-officers.
The army is recruited by conscription, to which
the whole population (with certain exemptions) is
subject between the ages of eighteen and twenty-
four. This method is supplemented, or rather
modified, by voluntary enlistment between the ages
of eighteen and thirty, and by the re- enlistment of
discharged soldiers up to the age of thirty-five.
The rank and file serve for three years under the
flag, and for a further term of three years in the
reserve, which practically brings the numbers of the
regular army capable of being called out on
emergency to something like 20,000 men. The
whole force is provided with breechloaders, and
the artillery with rifled bronze cannon, like those
adopted in France. The gendarmerie are recruited
from discharged under-officers, privates of good
character, able to read and write, the town police,
&c, up to the age of forty. Part of these are
mounted, but they provide their own horses.
To each battalion a school is attached, wherein
the under-officers instruct the soldiers, and the
superior officers give similar aid to the under-
officers ; provision being also made for the higher
Digit
zed by G00gk
THE NATIONAL DEFENCES. 139
instruction of officers, and men of all subordinate
ranks.
There are, in addition, six corps of officers with-
out rank and file, performing special service in
relation to the regular army. Of these, the scien-
tific Staff Corps consists of men who have received
special training, and who are eligible for missions
in other countries, though each member continues
to hold rank in some corps or garrison on the
regular establishment. The corps of Engineer
officers are employed on public works throughout
the country, and from amongst them are selected
the officers of the battalion of Engineers. The
remaining corps are those of the Sanitary service,
the Intendance, the Artillery Depot, and the
Royal Greek Phalanx — the latter comprising the
veterans of the War of Liberation, and being
purely an honorary body.
The military penal code is based upon that of
France. There are two permanent Councils of
War and a Court of Revision ; the decrees of these
courts being again subject to the Court of Cassa-
tion, in certain cases stipulated by law. Courts
martial are permitted only in time of war. There
is, moreover, a section of Justice in the department
of the Minister of State for War; and two inspec-
tors, of the rank of general or colonel, periodically
Digit
zed by G00gk
140 GREECE.
visit the dep6ts and establishments, and make their
report to the Minister.
The principal military establishments in Greece
besides those above mentioned, are the Arsenal at
Nauplia, the powder factory in Argolis, on the
river Erasinos, the barracks at Athens, Nauplia,
Corfu, &c, a number of depots and magazines, and
the four hospitals of Athens, Nauplia, Corfu and
Lamia. The largest of these is the Corfu hospital,
which contains a thousand beds. In the Athens
hospital there is an ambulance corps, with surgeons,
nurses, and a class for instruction.
It would, of course, be a mistake to conclude
that the fighting strength of Greece in the field is
even approximately represented by the twenty
thousand men composing her regular army and
reserves. The true force of the country resides in
its National Guard, which may be estimated at
200,000 men, divided into two classes, according to
their age and readiness for active service. The
first class consists of all citizens between the ages
of twenty and fifty, with certain legal exemptions,
who are regularly drilled within their several
communes. The second class, or sedentary guard,
includes men under twenty and over fifty years,
and could only be called out in a case of the
greatest emergency. The National Guard is at
Digit
zed by G00gk
THE NATIONAL DEFENCES. 141
the disposal of the Minister of the Interior, but in
time of war it would receive its orders from the
War Minister.
The expenditure of Greece on the regular army
and the military establishment amounts to between
one-sixth and one-fifth of the entire expenditure of
the country. In the budget of 1877 the amount
was 7,637,104 drachmas, or a little over a quarter
of a million sterling. This implies, in round num-
bers, a cost of about 18/. per man, which is barely
half of the corresponding cost in France, and a
much smaller fraction of the average cost of an
English soldier. It is true that Greece spends a
very large proportion of her revenues on her
national defences : but the average burden of the
charge upon individual Greeks is less than in the
case of any of the Great Powers, and less than in
the guaranteed kingdom of Belgium. Such as it
is, perhaps there is no country in which the cost of
warlike armaments and preparations is more
cheerfully borne than it is in Greece, where the
anticipation of a national crisis, in which every
man may need to be a soldier, is universal and
ineradicable.
With regard to the magnitude and cost of the
Greek army, it must be observed that the figures
given in this chapter refer to the normal condition
Digit
zed by G00gk
142 GREECE.
of affairs, as existing previously to 1877, and as
since restored. But even in the budget for 1880
allowance was made for no more than 17,500 men.
The Greek navy is small and almost insignificant,
consisting of two ironclads and a dozen other
vessels of various capacity. Nor is the coast well
defended against attack, either by strong fortresses
or by any other of the means which modern
science has devised for that purpose. Nevertheless
in case of need the country would doubtless be
well served, as it was in the War of Liberation, by
its mercantile fleet, and by the great skill and
courage of its sailors, who could speedily convert
the merchant vessels into ships of war. The total
expenditure of Greece on her navy is little more
than a quarter of that which is devoted to the
army.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER VIII.
RELIGION.
The national religion of Greece is that of the
Orthodox Oriental Apostolic Church, in commu-
nion with the Greek Church of Constantinople,
but autonomously governed by a Synod having its
seat at Athens. There is practically a complete
toleration of other creeds, both in public opinion
and by law.
The character and position of the Greek Church
in the East, whether in Greece itself, in Turkey, in
Russia, or in the Danubian Principalities, will be
better understood by tracing its history from the
beginning.
After the acceptance of Christianity by the
Roman Emperor Constantine, the Council of Con-
stantinople (A.c. 301), confirmed by the Council of
Chalcedon (451), recognized the Archbishops of
Rome, Byzantium, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru-
salem, as Popes or Patriarchs of the Church, having
Digit
zed by G00gk
144 GREECE.
independent jurisdiction within their several sub-
divisions of Christendom. The Patriarch of Byzan-
tium, or Constantinople, was styled CEcumenical
towards the end of the sixth century, an assump-
tion of supremacy which the Popes of Rome
greatly resented ; and at this time the disputes
between the Eastern and Western Churches became
constant and bitter. The Iconoclast and other
controversies, the loss to the Empire of the
exarchate of Italy in 752, the weakening of the
Asiatic Churches by Saracen inroads, all contri-
buted to widen the breach ; and the attacks on
Constantinople by the crusaders aggravated, . as
they were partly instigated by, this quarrel of the
Churches. The discords of Christian Europe
played into the hands of the Turks ; but it must
not be forgotten, on the other hand, that several of
the Popes of Rome in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries attempted to rouse western Europe
against the Mahomedan invaders.
Mahomet II. drew a distinction between the
Churches of Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, and
the Church of Constantinople. The former had
been almost destroyed by his predecessors,
but the latter was tolerated, and even strengthened.
Mahomet himself installed Gennadios Scholarios as
Patriarch, and allowed a certain measure of liberty
Digit
zed by G00gk
RELIGION. 145
to the Greek Church, shrewdly perceiving that it
was a necessary element of order, and perhaps a
guarantee of submission, amongst the disorganized
provinces of the conquered empire. Thus the
religious and educational influences of the Greeks
were kept alive ; and the continuity of the eccle-
siastical schools has been maintained from the
time of the younger Theodosius, Who fostered
education in the fifth century, to our own age.
Under the reorganization effected by Gennadios and
his successors, the Archbishoprics of the Eastern
Church, whereof there had once been eleven within
the confines of the modern kingdom of Greece
(1879), were educed to ten, having their seats at
Kizykos, Nikaea, Csesarea, Ephesos, Smyrna,
Adrianopolis, Chalcedon, Dereon, Thessalonika,
and Larissa.
In the seventeenth century the Russian Church
severed itself from that of Constantinople. An
"Exposition of the Russian Creed," of course
claiming to be orthodox, was drawn up, sanc-
tioned by the Patriarch, and eventually accepted
as a symbol of the State Religion by Peter the
Great.
On the conclusion of the War of Independence,
during which the Greek clergy had borne their part
in the patriotic struggle, a conference was held at
L
Digit
zed by G00gk
i 4 6 GREECE.
Nauplia, in 1833, between several members of King
Otho's first ministerial council and thirty-six
bishops, for the purpose of arranging an adminis-
trative separation of the Church of Greece from
the Church of Constantinople. A declaration was
signed, in the name of the King, by the Council of
Regency and the Ministers, affirming that the
Orthodox Oriental Apostolic Church of the King-
dom of Greece was " free, and independent of any
foreign power, without prejudice to the unity of
the faith hitherto recognized by all orthodox
Oriental Churches." The King was named as its
temporal head, and a Synod of five was appointed,
to sit at Athens, for the government of the Church,
subject only to the Minister of Religion. A Royal
Commissioner was also to represent the Government
at the synodal meetings ; but the authority of the
Synod was to be supreme in all spiritual concerns.
The Greek Ministers who signed this document
were Trikoupi, Mavrokordatos, Psyllas, Praides, and
Kolettes.
The first Synod of Athens consisted of the
Metropolitans of Korinth, Thebes, and Santorini,
the former Metropolitan of Larissa, and the Bishop
of Andrussa. From the year 1852 vacancies in
the Synod have been filled up by seniority amongst
the thirty-one bishops of Greece. The Synod
Digit
zed by G00gk
RELIGION. 147
now nominates three candidates for an episcopal
vacancy, whereof the King selects one. Priests and
deacons are appointed by the bishops, but the
principle of popular election is maintained by
requiring each candidate to present a form of
requisition asking for his consecration. As an
extra guarantee of the preservation of sound doc-
trine, a preacher or lecturer is appointed in every
department, whose business it is to expound the
gospel to the flocks of the priests, often indigent,
and, as a consequence, ignorant.
The Metropolitan of Athens receives from the
State a salary of 6000 drachmas, or about 214/.
The other archbishops receive 5000 drachmas, and
bishops 4000 drachmas — the pay of an English
curate. This, however, is not the whole of their
income, which is increased by fees and other
ecclesiastical dues. The Preachers also are paid
by the State ; but the priests and deacons depend
entirely upon fees.
There are about 1500 monks in Greece, distri-
buted amongst eighty authorized convents, and
nearly as many unauthorized. The authorized
convents for nuns are only three in number. A
law of 1834, suppressing all the monasteries con-
taining less than five monks, put an end to no
fewer than 332 of these religious establishments,
L 2
Digitized by VjOOQLC
748 GREECE.
many of whose inmates had perished nobly in the
War of Liberation. There remained about 120,
since reduced by one-third. The convents in
Greece are subject, in all temporal matters, to the
• civil authorities of the departments in which they
are situated.
After taking holy orders, no one is allowed
to marry ; but, as married men may become
priests, it is not unnatural that the great ma-
jority of the lower ecclesiastical orders have
wives and families, And therefore remain more
closely identified with the rest of the people than
is the case with the Roman Catholic priest-
hood.
The principal festivals of the Greek Church are
— Easter Sunday and Monday, Whit Sunday, June
29th, and August 1 5th, sacred respectively to the
Apostles and the Virgin, Christmas Day, Epiphany,
and the Feast of Annunciation. The State further
recognizes as public holidays Good Friday and the
day following, Whit Monday, Ascension Day, the
Feast of the Assumption, the two days following
Christmas Day, and the days of St. George, St. Con-
stantine, St. Spyridion, and St. Demetrios. It is the
custom in Greece to observe the day of one's patron
saint, rather than the anniversary of one's birthday.
The saints whose clients are most numerous are
Digit
zed by G00gk
A PAPPA.
Digiti;
Page 148.
zed by G00gle
Digit
zed by G00gk
RELIGION. 149
Michael, Basil, Nicholas, John Baptist, Chrysostom,
Athanasios, Anastasios, Luke, and Gregory.
The creed of the Greeks differs from that of the
Latin Catholics mainly in its distinctive dogma as
to the procession of the Holy Ghost from * the
Father alone, and in the fact of its completeness
as based upon the seven great Councils, no addition
or modification of dogma being admitted. The
Greek Church maintains the seven sacraments,
including baptism by immersion, simultaneous
confirmation, transubstantiation (with leavened
bread and the mixed chalice), universal com-
munion in both kinds, and unction (not neces-
sarily "extreme"). It inculcates prayer to the
Virgin, and to saints and angels (for their inter-
cession), the veneration of pictures in the church,
the veneration of relics, and (optional) oral con-
fession. It has, however, protested against the
* idea of justification by works, the residence of the
soul in purgatory, the granting of indulgences, the
vicarious divinity of Pope or Patriarch ; and of
course it has not followed the Church of Rome in
the novel dogmas of Papal infallibility, and the
immaculate conception of the Virgin. In the
famous controversies as to image-worship and the
procession of the Third Person, the Greek Church
has clung to the positions which it originally
Digit
zed by G00gk
l$0 GREECE.
assumed, upholding with great firmness its inde-
pendence of Rome, its definitive and simple
creed, and its distinctive forms and traditions of
worship.
The Greeks have always held that the superior
authority of the Bishops of Constantinople and
Rome was derived merely from the importance of
those cities as the ancient and modern capitals of
the empire ; and to this rejection of the absolutism
claimed by the Latin Popes is due the ease with
which local ecclesiastical autonomies have been
formed, in Russia, in the Slavonic States, and in
the kingdom of Greece, whilst the character of the
Oriental creed has been practically unaffected.
The last operations of this kind were witnessed in
the severing of the Bulgarian Church from that of
Constantinople, and in the assumption of an auto-
cephalous character by the Church of Servia.
Great toleration is practised in Greece ; Roman '
Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and Mahomedans
exercising their faith in complete freedom. There
were at one time as many as thirty-four Catholic
sees, established in the days of Venetian, Frank,
and Genoese domination ; but the number is now
much reduced. The majority of Catholics reside
in Tenos, Santorini, Syra, and Naxos, where they
have colleges, schools, and convents. Their num-
Digit
zed by G00gk
RELIGION.
151
ber, however, does not seem to increase ; they are
now estimated at about 12,500, though Mr. Strong,
in 1842, reported as many as 25,000. Of non-
Christians there are 3500, mostly Jews residing in
Corfu. The contrast between the state of the Jews
in Greece and that of their brethren in Roumania
and Servia is as remarkable as the contrast between
the Roman Catholics of Greece and those of
Russia. As the conditions of religion are almost
identical in each case, we must look for the cause
of the phenomenon to the character of the national
institutions, and to the genius of the respective
races.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER IX.
AGRICULTURE.
Agriculture was the special and characteristic
occupation of the ancient Greeks in time of peace.
Virgil, in his "Georgics," writing for Romans, gives
the science a Greek name, and reveals in his first
few lines how almost exclusively his conception of
the principles of husbandry was derived from the
Greeks. He invokes Ceres, and the Dryads, and
Aristaios, and Pan, and Minerva ; he mentions the
acorns of Chaonia, the grapes of the valley of
Acheloos, the fertile island of Keos, the cattle and
sheep, the olives, fruits, and timber of Greece ; and
he accepts the fable which attributes the invention
of the plough to Triptolemos. In view of the high
reputation of Greek agriculture in former times, it
is interesting to inquire how far the older traditions
of the country are maintained in this respect.
The question which we have to ask is not
whether the present may be compared with the
Digit
zed by G00gk
AGRICULTURE. 153
past, but whether the Greeks of to-day have shown
an aptitude in husbandry, and a success in the cul-
tivation of their natural crops, such as might be
expected from the descendants of a race famous
for its agricultural achievements. In seeking an
answer to this question, it must be borne in mind
that the experiment has been a short one, and that
great results have been impossible. So long as
the land was in subjection to foreign masters, agri-
culture could never be systematically pursued ; the
inhabitants of the fertile valleys were constantly
being driven to the mountains for a refuge, and
were fleeced closer than their own sheep. There
was no great increase of wealth, or skill, or
natural resources ; and the War of Liberation
destroyed what little there had been, compelling
the nation to start again, as though from a virgin
soil. In the land of Triptolemos, the hundredth
generation was almost destitute of a plough.
The agricultural statistics of modern Greece can-
not, therefore, be considered previous to the year
1830. Cultivation became more regular and accu-
mulative in its effects from the time of Capodistria ;
but no notable progress was made during the first
unsettled years. In 1842 it was estimated that the
productive soil of Greece, including forests and
arable lands, amounted to about 15,000,000 strem-
Digit
zed by G00gk
»54
GREECE.
mas, 1 whereof the forests occupied 7,000,000, the
vineyards 750,000, the fruit groves and plantations
58,650. The latest estimate, including the Ionian
Islands, is as follows : —
Cereals and other farinaceous plants
Vegetable and market-garden crops
Industrial cultures (for manufacture)
Fruit-trees
Grape and currant vines
Grass-lands
Fallow
Forests
4,101,671
26,579
1,921,422
90,131
1,237,388
4,121,337
3,500,000
6,000,000
Stremmas . . 20,998,528
Now the total area of Greece is about 50,000,000
stremmas \ so that the proportion of the soil more
or less cultivated, or at any rate naturally pro-
ductive, is over forty per cent. Excluding the
natural grass-lands and the forests, there are
10,762,342 stremmas under process of actual til-
lage (allowance being made for 268,133 stremmas
of tilled meadow-land). This is a proportion of
more than twenty per cent. ; and it bears a favour-
able comparison (all things considered) with the
1 10 stremmas = I French hectare = 2*47 acres ; so that a
stremma is about one-quarter of an acre.
Digit
zed by G00gk
AGRICULTURE. 155
condition of the soil in Scotland, where the total
acreage is 19496,132, and the number of acres
under cultivation, excluding "natural grass," is
about 4,000.000. The comparison between these
two countries is an interesting one. They have
many points of resemblance in physical configu-
ration ; and what Greece gains in climate and
natural fertility Scotland makes up for in capital,
in agricultural science, in appliances, and modes of
intercommunication. It is, therefore, a fact of
some significance that whilst, in 1879, Scotland
devoted less than one seventh of her total acreage
to seed-crops, Greece, in 1875, devoted a slightly
higher proportion to the same crops (7,000,000
stremmas), in addition to 3,000,000 stremmas of
fruit plantations. In the case of both countries,
about one-half of the seed-crops consists of cereals
and farinaceous food ; but here again the pro-
portion is if anything slightly in lavour of Greece.
Of course the actual food-producing power of
Scotland is greater than that of Greece ; but the
advance of the latter country has been relatively
superior. The area of land under cultivation, in
the provinces which formed the kingdom of Otho,
has increased since i860 in the proportion of
11 to 7, whilst it has nearly doubled since 1830.
Between i860 and 1875, the quantity of cereals
Digit
zed by G00gk
156 GREECE.
produced in the same provinces increased in the
proportion of 1 1 to 9. The area of the vineyards
and currant plantations was reckoned, in 1820, at
56,000. stremmas, and it is now (excluding the
Ionian Isles) more than a million. In the same
period the mulberry-trees have increased in number
from 380,000 to more than 1,300,000. The olives,
in 1834, numbered 2,300,000, and they are now
reckoned at 7,050,000. The exportation of Mes-
senian figs amounted in 1840 to less than 42,000
quintals, 8 whilst in 1875 the exported produce of
Messenia alone was nearly 162,000 quintals. In
1834 there were estimated to be 50,000 fig-trees in
Greece ; there are now close upon a million.
These figures attest more than a simply natural
increase ; they bear witness to a great and steady
development of national and individual industry.
And all this progress has been effected in spite of
a very heavy taxation on agriculture, in spite of a
difficult and expensive communication between field
and market, in spite of the lack of capital and ap-
pliances to which a nation of peasant cultivators
— in a poor country like Greece — is necessarily
subject Neither too much nor too little must be
deduced from these facts. The industry of Greece
is interesting, not so much on account of the magni-
* The quintal = about 220 lbs.
Digit
zed by G00gk
A REAPER; AIGINA.
Digitized by VjVJVJV LC
Page is<5
Digit
zed by G00gk
AGRICULTURE. 157
tude of its results as for the evidence which it
affords of the national struggle against overwhelm-
ing disadvantages.
The area devoted to cereals and other farina-
ceous plants is distributed as follows : — To wheat,
i,S95>864 stremmas ; to barley, 679,109 stremmas ;
to maize, 618,159 stremmas; to rye, 577,496
stremmas ; to legumes, 101,803 stremmas ; and
the remaining 140,000 stremmas to buck-wheat,
oats, millet, rice, and potatoes. The annual yield
is estimated at 3,828,805 hectolitres, or 1,316,000
quarters, which may be valued at about 60,000,000
drachmas. Very little of this produce is exported,
whilst the importation of corn is at the rate of
more than 20,000,000 drachmas in the year.
The principal industrial cultures include those
of flax, hemp, aniseed (producing more than half a
million okas 8 ), almonds, olives, and other oil-
producing plants. The olive plantations cover
1,679,000 stremmas. The exported oil reached
in 1875 a weight of 12,244,000 okas, valued at
12,932,900 drachmas — little more than half the
total produce. The cultivation of cotton in Greece
is a new branch of industry. In 1875 it occupied
an area of 109,858 stremmas ; and the production
was 5,452,000 okas, valued at 3,275,000 drachmas.
s The oka = 27 lbs.
Digit
zed by G00gk
I $8 GREECE.
There is no doubt that this industry might, in the
marshy districts of continental Greece, be developed
to such an extent as to aid in supplying the mar-
kets of England and other cotton manufacturing
countries. Tobacco grows freely in Greece. The
produce in 1875 was 2,130,200 okas, valued at
2*556,250 drachmas. About two-fifths of this was
exported. Madder (a declining culture) was pro-
duced, in 1875, to the value of 800,000 drachmas,
from an area of 4750 stremmas. The mulberry
plantations cover 54,000 stremmas ; the exporta-
tion of silk in 1875 amounting to a value of
1,000,000 drachmas.
The fruit culture, in addition to the olives,
almonds, and mulberries, includes figs, oranges,
lemons, citrons, bergamots, and the vine-fruits. In
1875 the cultivation of figs extended over 63,477
stremmas, producing 218,780 quintals, valued at
3,000,000 drachmas. The Hesperidean fruits
abound in the south of Greece and on the islands
and coasts. Paros, Andros and Naxos, Messenia,
Arkadia, and Argolis are the most productive
localities.
The vine fruits occupy an area of 1,237400
stremmas, whereof about 871,000 stremmas are
devoted to the cultivation of the grape. The best
localities are the north of the Peloponnesos and the
Digit
zed by G00gk
AGRICULTURE. 159
Kyklades, especially Santoririi. The exportation
of Greek wines exceeds in quantity 4,500,000 okas,
and in value 1,200,000 drachmas. The production
of currants in 1875 was valued at 37,000,000
drachmas. As nearly all are exported, the annual
trade in this fruit alone brings into the country
at the present time a sum approaching to
1,500,000/.
The forests of Greece, covering 6,000,000 strem-
mas, produce little more than 4,000,000 drachmas
annually, whereof more than a third is derived
from valonea (on an area of about 13,000 strem-
mas).
Further details as to the produce and resources
of the forests, and as to the domestic animals of
Greece, will be found in the chapter dealing with
the physical geography of the country. The value
of the exported wool is about 500,000 drachmas.
The value of the honey and wax, from 167,000
hives, is about 1,250,000 drachmas.
More than one-third of the inhabitants of Greece
live by agriculture alone. The actual farmers of
land are reckoned (according to the census of
1870) at 218,027, of stock-breeders at 44,532, and
of proprietors whose land is tilled by stewards or
mttayeurs at 31,234; the rest being labourers,
shepherds, goatherds, &c. The 218,027 agricul-
Digit
zed by G00gk
160 GREECE.
turists mentioned above are for the most part
owners of small plots of land, from an acre
upwards. On the plains the size of these peasant
properties increases ; but there are very few pro-
prietors in Greece who own as much as 250 acres.
The estates cultivated by m^tayeurs^ or tenant-
farmers, are let, in the first case, on the principle
that the actual cultivator shall receive a fixed
proportion of the produce ; and, in the latter case,
on a yearly agreement, at a rent proportionate to
the produce of the farm for the year.
The price of .arable land in Greece varies from
forty to a hundred drachmas per stremma — 61. to
1 5/. per acre. The average production per stremma
of corn land varies according to the goodness of
the soil, from two to seven kites per stremma — the
highest of these figures representing about 173 2 lbs.
of corn (about twenty-nine bushels) to the acre.
The wages of an agricultural labourer average
something under seventeen drachmas, or about
13^., for a week of six days.
The total exportation of agricultural produce
from Greece may be valued at 55,566,000 drachmas
annually, and the total importation of agricultural
produce at 37,868,000 drachmas.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER X.
TRADE AND FINANCE.
Up to the establishment of the kingdom there
was very little systematic industry amongst the
Greeks, beyond that required for the raising of
the crops, and for the commerce of a few small
ports. The development of national industries
was not rapid, even after the independence of the
country had been secured ; but a very considerable
advance has been made within the past twenty
years. In what has already been said of the
natural resources of Greece, the steady growth of
her export trades has been sufficiently illustrated ;
but a few facts may here be added concerning the
character and volume of Greek commerce.
The French Commercial Code was introduced
in the year 1835, and has been interpreted in
accordance with the elementary principles of free
trade. The laws give all possible encouragement
M
Digit
zed by G00gk
1 62 GREECE.
to commerce ; there are scarcely any restrictive
imposts ; and only on internal commerce is there a
tariff, at a maximum of two per cent, received by
the communal authorities on goods for consumption
within the communes. No doubt the direct and
indirect taxation of the country is heavy ; but the
burden is made to press lightly on the actual
operations of productive industry.
The amount of the inter-communal octrois,
which was 843, 699 drs. in 1859, had increased to
2,340,973 drs. in 1876. The aggregate trade
represented by the latter sum is upwards of
117,000,000 drs., which of course does not express
the whole annual value of the internal traffic of
Greece,
The general external commerce made its greatest
strides in advance between the adoption of con-
stitutional government in 1863 an ^ the epoch of
highest prosperity some ten years later. In 1865
the value of the exports was 51,671,719 drs.; in
1874 it had risen to 75,485,907 drs. During the
same period the value of the imports had risen
from 90,251,389 drs. to 120,367,159 drs. The rate
of increase is further illustrated in the following
figures : —
Digit
zed by G00gk
TRADE AND FINANCE.
163
EXPORTS.
1865.
1874.
Drachmas.
Drachmas.
Currants . . .
to the value of
17,987,000
37,225,000
Skins, raw . .
»»
266,000
I,I28,O0O
Skins, tanned .
»>
4,908,000
5,2l6,000
Lead ....
»>
—
3,427,000
Oil ....
»>
6,365,000
12,888,000
Figs ....
»»
1,574,000
2,578,000
Valonea . . .
it
1,636,000
2,151,000
Wine, syrups, &c.
a
766,000
I,79I,O0O
Silk ... .
it
173, OOD
1,069,000
Similar statistics for some of the principal
imported articles of commerce are as follows :—
IMPORTS.
1865.
1874.
Drachmas.
Drachmas.
Cereals . .
to the value of 16,100,000
24,029,000
Stuffs . .
it
i7»347>oo°
20,530,000
Skins, raw ,
it
4,540,000
7,396,000
Skins, tanned
tt
1,207,000
910,000
Timber . .
tt
3,358,000
5,257,000
Coal . . .
ti
22,000
3,070,000
Iron . . .
tt
1,501,000
2,283,000
Cotton . . .
it
7,000
185,000
The import, export, and carrying trade of Greece
employed, in 1820, about 450 vessels, of 52,000
tons. The number of vessels in 1874 had risen to
5202, and the aggregate tonnage to 250,077. The
crews of these vessels in the latter year numbered
25,838 men.
M 2
Digit
zed by G00gk
164 GREECE.
There are about fifty large trading companies
in Greece, namely : — ten insurance companies, with
an aggregate capital of 25,500,000 drs. ; eighteen
mining companies, with a capital of 30,876,000
drs. ; five banks, with a capital of 66,944,000
drs ; a naval or marine bank ; and some twenty
various commercial companies, with a capital of
10,866,000 drs.
Steam engines are used by 108 firms or in-
dividual traders, with an aggregate horse-power of
2884. Nearly one third of these are at the
Peiraios ; whilst four of the largest, with 700 horse-
power, are at the Lavrion foundries. Judged by
this standard alone, the most important manu-
facturing towns of Greece are the Peiraios, Athens,
Syra, Patrai, Corfu, Parnassis, Zante, Lavrion,
'Kalamata, Ithaka, Megara, Sparta, Nauplia, and
Andros, in this order. It is frequently the case
that one steam-engine supplies power to several
distinct trades.
The total number of artisans, as returned in the
census of 1870, was 28400, of both sexes and all
ages. In the steam factories there were 4959 men,
1230 women, 629 boys, and 524 girls; namely,
1904 men in four metal foundries, 1085 of all kinds
in eighteen cotton factories, 869 in twelve silk
factories, 815 in thirty- two flour-mills, &c, &c.
Digit
zed by G00gk
wmm^
dr
■ : ■:■ Pt,
Digitized bV VjAJtJVlV^
Digit
zed by G00gk
TRADE AND FINANCE. 165
The trade legislation of Greece is liberal and
enlightened ; it not only insures freedom of trade,
but protects inventions and trade marks, guarantees
new industries, and grants limited privileges of
various kinds for the encouragement of the arts
and sciences. A Commission for the Encourage-
ment of National Industry exists as a branch of the
Ministry of the Interior, and one of the special
charges of this Commission is to conduct the
Olympiads, or national exhibitions of trade and
agriculture, founded by the munificence of Evangeli
Zappa, and appointed to be held in every fourth
year.
There are ten Chambers of Commerce, sitting
at the principal industrial centres of the kingdom,
whose business it is to deliberate, and to keep the
Government informed on commercial matters. The
Chambers in question are held at Athens, Nauplia,
Patrai, Syra, Kalamata, Lamia, Chalkis, Corfu,
Zante, and Kephallenia.
In addition to the loans of 1824 and 1825, and
the "Allied Loans" of 1832, Greece has borrowed
sundry other amounts at various times. Between
1862 and 1876 about 86,000,000 drachmas were
subscribed, to a very large extent by Greek sub-
jects, or by Greeks resident in foreign countries.
There is no desire on the part of Greeks to conceal
Digit
zed by G00gk
166 GREECE,
the fact that the majority of this money has been
raised for patriotic purposes, to promote the
general cause of Hellenic emancipation ; and thus
the Government scrip has been eagerly taken up
within the country, in amounts raging from a few
drachmas upwards. In 1877 a new loan of
60,000,000 francs was authorized by the Chamber,
and was issued in Paris during the following year.
Of this, more than half was speedily subscribed,
and the proceeds were devoted partly to increasing
the strength of the national armaments and partly
to meeting obligations under former loans.
The actual liabilities of Greece do not, at the
present time, amount to the aggregate of the sums
here mentioned. Not only have some bonds been
redeemed by conversion or repayment, but a sink-
ing fund is attached to each loan, the capital of the
debt being reduced by periodical drawings. The
deferred debt of 1824-5 * s no longer an exception
to this rule of gradual repayment; though the
Greeks had long postponed its settlement, on the
ground of certain well understood contentions
with regard to the manner in which it was
incurred. In the year 1879, however, the Greek
Government renewed an offer which it had on
several previous occasions made to the holders of
the scrip (the majority of whom were English) ;
Digit
zed by G00gle
TRADE AND' FINANCE. 167
1 ' " ' ' ' ' ■ ' ■ ■■ " r '■' ' ' »
and eventually, thanks to the indefatigable exer-
tions of the Greek Chargg d* Affaires in England,
M. J. Gennadius, the deferred debt, with the in-
terest accruing upon it, was converted into a new
series of bonds, adequately guaranteed.
The revenue is derived from direct and indirect
taxation, public services, national property and
royalties, Treasury and other receipts. Of the
whole amount, which now approaches 1,500,000/.
sterling, about one- third is derived from customs,
one-fifth from a direct land and property-tax, one-
ninth from stamps, one-seventh from the sale and
lease of national property, royalties on mines,
quarries, thermal springs, fisheries, forests, the
working of salt areas, &c. The least satisfactory
items of Greek taxation are the imposts on cattle,
pastures, and bees ; but the aggregate of these
amounts to less than 50,000/.
The principal items of the annual national ex-
penditure are these: — about 1,250,000 drachmas
for the interest of the external loans, 7,250,000 drs.
for that of the internal loans (these sums not in-
cluding interest on the debt contracted in 1879, f° r
the converted patriotic loans or otherwise), about
3,750,000 drs. for the pension list, consisting chiefly
of rewards and indemnifications connected with the
establishment of Independence ; 1,125,000 drs. for
Digit
zed by G00gk
168 GREECE.
the civil list ; 450,000 drs. for the salaries of the
Deputies; nearly 8,000,000 drs. for the Ministry
of War; under 5,000,000 drs. for the Ministry
of the Interior, and little over 1,000,000 drs,
for that of Foreign Affairs. The aggregate ex-
penditure in 1876 was 38,063,841 drs. ; in 1877 it
was 41,067,823 drs. ; and it has naturally increased
during the past year or two. Thus the budget for
1880, as introduced in the Chamber of Deputies
on the last day of 1879, estimated the expenditure
at 56,086,400 drs. and the revenue (independently
of the proposed new taxation) at only 45,816,547
drs. The conditions under which Greek financiers
might be expected to avoid the constantly-recur-
ring deficits are not yet established. Greek finance
depends upon Greek politics ; and these, in their
turn, depend upon the good pleasure of Europe.
Digit
zed by G00gk
CHAPTER XL
EDUCATION AND LITERATURE.
Education has been a passion with the Greeks ;
they have regarded it as a sacred duty, and have
made great sacrifices for it. The revival of the
national spirit during and after the French Revolu-
tion displayed itself first of all in the increased
intellectual activity of the race ; and their inde-
pendence was the result and reward of this. The
war destroyed many schools and several valuable
libraries in the Peloponnesos and in Hellas ; and
it was one of the chief cares of the emancipated
Greeks, even before Capodistria assumed the reins
of Government, to restore what had been lost. In
the year 1833 the Bavarians found seventy-one
communal schools in working order, as well as
thirty-nine higher or " Hellenic " schools ; and they
immediately gave effect to the national bent by
establishing colleges, gymnasia, and (in 1837) the
University of Athens.
Digit
zed by G00gk
170 GREECE.
The Greeks date their Elementary Education
Act from 1834, when it was charged upon every
commune in the country to support a free primary
school. All children between the ages of five and
twelve are required to attend these schools, under
a penalty of ten lepta (the tenth of a drachma) on
the parent of each child for each day's absence. It
would seem that the rarity of transgression has in
this instance led to the practical abrogation of the
law, for the penalty is seldom put in force. It is
worth while to observe that the cost of elementary
education falls, as in England, mainly upon the
rates, supplemented by a small grant, whilst both
rate and grant are reduced by the application of
ecclesiastical and benevolent endowments to the
general service. The subjects taught in the primary
schools are as follows: — (1) Sacred history and
catechism ; (2) Reading and writing in modern
Greek ; (3) Arithmetic, with the common weights,
measures, and money scales ; (4) Practical illus-
tration of geometrical figures ; (5) Elementary
geography, and especially the geography of Greece
and -the Hellenic countries. (The text-books
generally include, u nder the • title of the Hellenic
Chersonesos, the geography of Roumania, Bosnia,
Servia, and the whole country south of these ; also
Krete, the eastern archipelago, and Cyprus.) (6)
Digit
zed by G00gk
EDUCA TION AND LITERA TURE. 171
Elementary history, and especially the history of
Greece ; (7) Elementary geology, mineralogy, and
botany ; (8) Anthropology ; (9) Elementary
physics, with some practical instruction in agricul-
ture and horticulture ; (10) Linear drawing; (n)
Vocal music ; (12) Gymnastics.
At the etld of 1877 there were in the primary
schools 63,156 boys and 11,045 S^ s * the number
of schools being respectively 1041 and 138, and of
teachers, 1041 and 165— an average of about 62
pupils to each teacher. The annual cost of primary
instruction is 1,612,000 drachmas, of which the
communes bear 1,422,000 — nearly one-sixth of the
aggregate revenues of the communes of Greece.
Many communes support more than one public
primary school; whilst throughout the country there
are private and adventure schools, corresponding
in some sort to our own " voluntary " schools.
In the next grade come the Hellenic schools,
(136, with 7646 pupils), and the Gymnasia (18,
with 2460 pupils). These add the optional teach-
ing of Latin, and carry forward the subjects of the
primary schools. In the Gymnasia, French is taught
in all classes, together with mathematics, chemistry,
and philosophy. English and German are optional.
The Hellenic schools cost the State 1,060,000 drs.
(about 37,500/.), and the Gymnasia 470,000 drs.
Digit
zed by G00gk
172 GREECE.
The highest grade of education is supplied by
the University of Athens — a university which
seems to have sprung like the patroness of the
ancient city, mature from the brain of modern
Greece. The site and the edifice, the conception
and the endowment, the scheme and the results of
this noble institution, combine to raise it to a high
level amongst the universities of Europe. Its work
is carried on in the lecture-rooms of forty-eight
professors, a library of 120,000 volumes, an ob-
servatory, a botanic garden, four hospitals, and
several museums and laboratories. In the first
forty-one years of its existence the University has
granted 3400 degrees, the great majority in the
faculties of law and medicine. Of these degrees
about 700, or between one-fourth and one-fifth,
have been conferred on Greeks coming from
beyond the limits of the kingdom. The total
number of the students during the same period has
been upwards of 8600; 5700 from Greece, and
2900 from li Doulk Hellas " — chiefly from Epeiros,
Thessaly, Makedonia, Thrace, Krete, and the isles
of Asia Minor. The endowments of the University
amount to 3,500,000 drs. Here also the education
is free ; the State contributing an annual sum of
380,000 drs.
The aggregate cost of the national education of
Digit
zed by G00gk
EDUCA TION AND LITERA TURE. 173
Greece is thus about 3,200,000 drachmas, or some-
thing over 1 10,000/. Subtracting the contributions of
the University endowments, a share of the national
" ecclesiastical revenues," and the charitable funds
administered by the communal authorities, the
annual cost of education may be said to fall upon
the population of the kingdom at the rate of about
one shilling a head.
The remaining educational institutions of Greece
include the Rhizarion, a religious seminary at
Athens, founded by the brothers Rhizari, and three
other seminaries at Chalkis, Tripolis, and Hermou-
polis ; the Polytechnic, or technical school at
Athens ; the School of Agriculture at Tiryns,
having a farm of 13,000 stremmas (now in course
of being replaced by a number of model farms in
the principal agricultural districts) ; the naval
schools of Nauplia, Hermoupolis, Hydra, Spetzai,
Galaxeidion, and Argostolion ; the military school
at the Peiraios ; the girls' schools of the Hetairia
Philekpaideutika ; the classes and libraries for
work-people, maintained by the hetairia of
" Friends of the People ;" an orphan school at the
Peiraios ; literary schools established by a syllogue
founded for that purpose in 1869; and a number
of schools, chiefly for poor children, supported by
the Parnassos and other benevolent syllogues.
Digit
zed by G00gk
174 GREECE.
There are, in all, twenty-four syllogues, he-
tairias, and benevolent institutions, having for their
object the cultivation of science and art, educa-
tion, or mutual aid. The Parnassos syllogue
publishes a series of etymological and popular
collections, under the title of " Neohellenika Ana-
lekta," and has recently added to this labour the
issue of a monthly- review called "Parnassos/'
which contains, in addition to original papers and
reviews, the transactions of the syllogue, and con-
tributions to archaeology and philology. The
" Byron " syllogue devotes itself to philology and
history, and has issued a monthly review during
the past eight or nine years. A musical and
dramatic syllogue conducts a "conservatoire" in
Athens for the cultivation of music and dramatic
elocution, and has a trained choir of fifty. Other
syllogues patronize instrumental and ecclesiastical
music.
The principal libraries in Greece are those of the
University and of the Chamber of Deputies ; one at
the Rhizarion school ; one of 35,000 volumes at the
Corfu University, and others at Andritsaina, De-
metsana, Hermoupolis, and elsewhere.
It is natural that we should find in Greece
archaeological museums of great interest and value.
At Athens there is a central museum in a noble
Digged by
<
3
<
Q
<
Digiti;
zed by G00gle
Digit
zed by G00gk
EDUCA TION AND LITERATURE. 175
pile of buildings, erected by public subscription ;
another in the Akropolis ; the museum of the
Archaeological Society in the Varvakion Institu-
tion ; one at the Ministry of Public Instruction ;
and one at the Polytechnic School, which holds the
relics lately discovered at Mykenai. There are
other museums at Thebes, at the Peiraios, at
Mykonos, Sparta, and Olympia. The contents of
these museums are classified under five periods :
(1) the remains of the epoch ending with the
seventy-ninth Olympiad; (2) those of the epoch
of Phidias — consisting of vases, medals and in-
scriptions, with a few sculptures ; (3) those of the
Makedonian epoch, in which the sculptures become
more numerous ; (4) those of the Roman epoch,
which exist in great abundance ; and (5) those of
the Byzantine epoch. The museum of numismatics,
in the University Library, contains about 43,000
coins, many of which are classified and catalogued.
The museums of natural history, botany, anatomy,
pathology, and chemistry, are connected with the
University.
The literature of modern Greece has hitherto
consisted chiefly of translations, modern versions of
ancient Greek works, educational compilations, a
few histories, archaeological treatises, and volumes
of poetry. The revival of Greek letters has taken,
Digit
zed by G00gk
176 GREECE.
in the first instance, an educational or didactic
form ; but there is already ample evidence that it
will emerge into the phase of imagination and
creation. Amongst the leading authors of the
past and present generations have been Georgios
Gennadios (to whom the Greeks owe the organiza-
tion of their educational system after the War of
Independence, and the establishment of the public
Library at Athens), CEconomos, Minoides Minas,
Schinas, Simos, Sathas; the historians Trikoupi
and Paparrigopoulos ; the poets Zalakosta, Soutzos,
Salomos, Rhangab^, Paraschos; the dramatists
Rhizos Neroulos, Soutzos, Skylizzi, Vlachos, Ber-
nardakis ; Professors Koumanoudes, Afentoules,
Anagnostakis, and others of greater or less note.
The rehabilitation of the Greek drama proceeds
surely, however slowly. The national taste for the
stage undoubtedly survives, and is illustrated by
many casual representations throughout the coun-
try, by the dramatic writers, by the dramatic
syllogues and Conservatorium at Athens, by
several companies, fixed or peripatetic, and by the
Greek theatres of Athens and Constantinople.
It is estimated that at least a hundred original
Greek plays, and half as many adaptations, have
been placed on the stage during the present
generation.
Digit
zed by G00gk
EDUCA TION AND LITERA TURE. 177
In the ten years from 1868 to 1877, there were
published 1479 books in Greece, whereof 408 be-
longed to general literature, 158 to history, 155 to
education, 145 to periodical literature, 116 to law
and political economy, 77 to theology, 57 to
linguistics, 18 to the fine arts, and so forth. About
60 journals and 15 reviews are now issued in
Greece, more than half the former, and all but two
of the latter, being published in Athens. Of the
newspapers, seven are daily publications. In ad-
dition to these, many journals and books in the
modern Greek language are published in various
cities of Europe, Asia, and even Africa.
On the whole, the intellectual condition of the
country is not unsatisfactory when we bear in mind
through what an ordeal it has had to pass. It
might be adventurous to predict for Greece a
renewal of her ancient literary glories ; but there
is little reason to doubt that she will one day
prove herself to be worthy of her illustrious
ancestry.
N
Digit
zed by G00gk
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND
PLACES.
ACHAIA, 13, 17, l8, 22—24, 4*>
54,79.
Achaians, 74, 77.
Achaios, 71.
Achelofls, R., 3, 14, 19, 21, 36,
51, 101, 152.
Achladokampos, 53.
Adamas, 65.
Adelphoi Is., 6.
Adrianople, 88, 145.
Adriatic, 19, 72, $y.
JEgean, 1, 14, 42, 63.
Africa, 73, 87, 117.
Agamemnon, 53.
Agora, 44.
Agoriani, 49.
Agoulinitsa, 57.
Agrapha, 51.
Agrinion, 51.
L., 23.
Agyia, 70.
Aidipsos, 28, 62.
Aigai, 62.
Aigialeia, 55, 56.
Aigina I., 7, 25,42,43,45.
Aigion, 5, 56.
Ainos, 68.
N
Aiolos, 71.
Aitolia, 9, 14, 36, 41, 49, 101.
Aitolikon, 50.
Akarnania, 6, 9, 14, 19, 21, 30,
34, 49, 67, 101.
Akritas C, 5, 57.
Akrokeraunia Fr., 3, 12, 14.
Akrokorinthos, 41.
Akrolamia, 48.
Akropolis, 35, 43.
Aktion, 4, 51.
Albanians, 72, 96.
in Greece, 10, 51.
Alexander, 74.
Alexandria, 143.
Alfred, Prince, 114.
Alivari, 61.
Alpheios, R., 13, 20, 21, 55, 56.
Amaliopolis, 48.
Americans in' Greece, 10.
Amorgos I., 2, 6, 28, 63.
Amphara, 58.
Amphiktyonic leaguers, 77«
Amphissa, 49.
Ampliane, 51.
Amurath, Sultan, 88.
Amvrakia, 3, 14, 18, 19, 51, 69.
2
Digit
zed by G00gk
i8o
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
Amyklai, 59.
Argos Amphilochikon, 51.
Anagnostakes, Prof., 176.
Argostolion, 42, 46, 173.
Anaktorion, 51.
Argyrokastron, 69.
Anaphe I., 6, 25, 26, 65.
Arkadia, 17, 18, 20, 22, 30, 31,
Anavryte, 59.
34, 35, 42, 59, 79, 158.
Andrew, Apostle, 55.
Armansperg, Count, 102.
Andritsaina, 57, 174.
Armyros, 70.
Andros I., 6, 63, 158, 164.
Aroania, Mt., 17.
Androvida, 56.
Arsakis, 44.
Andrussa, 146.
Arta, Gulf of, 3, 19, 51, 69, 101.
Anemomylos, 66.
R. (see Arachthus).
Angelokastron L., 23.
(town) (see Amvrakia).
Ankistrion, 45.
Artemis, 63.
Anoge, 68.
Artemision Mts., 60.
Antheia, 58.
Artemon, 65.
Antikirra (Anticyra), 49.
Artotina, 49.
Antikythera I., 54.
Aryans, 72, 83.
Antioch, 143.
Asia Minor, 86, 92, 144, 172,
Antipaios I., 6, 64.
177.
Antipaxos I., 67.
Asklepios, -53.
Antirrhion, 14, 50.
Askre, 47.
Aods, R. (Voyussa), 3, 19.
Aslanaga, 58.
Apeiranthos, 64.
Asopos, R., 18.
Aphentoules, Prof., 176.
Aspropotamos, R. (see Acheloos)
AphroSssa I., 65.
Astakos, 52.
Apollo,, 63.
Astros, 61.
Apollonion, 65.
Atalante, 48.
Arachova, 47, 59.
Athenai, 62.
Arachthus, R., 18, 19, 69.
Athenians, 74.
Arakynthos, Mt., 50.
Athens, 5, 9, 23, 35, 41— 44,
Araxos Pr., 5, 55.
53, 88, 91, 108, 117, 140, 143,
Archipelago, 2, 5, 16, 25, 38, 73.
146, 164, 174, 176.
Areopolis, 59.
University of, 172.
Arethousa* 68.
Atreus, 53.
Argives, 47.
Attika, 6, 7, 9, 16, 18, 20, 26,
Argolis, 4, 6, 13, 16, 18, 30, 41,
27, 29, 34, 38, 41—46, 90.
52, 90, 140, 158.
Aulon (Avlona), 19.
Argos (town), 5, 18, 22, 53, 6a
Austria, 99.
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
1S1
Avlis, 47.
Avlonari, 61.
Baldwin, Count, 88.
Bathy, 68.
Bavaria, 52.
Bavarians in Greece, 99, 101,
105, 113,118.
Bayazet, Sultan, 88.
Belgium, 101, 141.
Berlin, Treaty of, 3, 68, 1 16.
Bernadakis, 176.
Boiai, 59.
Boiotia, 7, 9, 17, 18, 22, 31, 38,
41, 42, 46.
Bosphorus, 75, 85.
Botzares, Markos, 51, 97.
Bougiati, 53.
Bouthroton, 69.
Bucharest, 96.
Bulgarians, 86, 96, 150.
Burbaki, 99.
Byron, 50, 98.
Syllogue, 174.
Bytina, 60.
Byzantines, 75, 87, 92, 117, 175.
Byzantium, 75, 86, 143.
CiESAREA, 145.
Capodistria, 52, 101, 153, 169.
Caragouni, 10.
Cephalonia (Kephallenia), 6, 67.
Cerigo, 6, 52.
Chaironea, 47.
Chalandritza, 55.
Chalkedon, 143, 145.
Chalkis, 7, 12, 50, 61, 165, 173.
Chaonia, 152.
Cheli, 53.
Chelonatas C, 5, 13, $$.
Chrysovitza, 51.
Church, General, 99, 104.
Cleopatra, 14.
Cochrane, Lord, 99.
Corcyra, 66.
Corfu, 6, 9, 10, 14, 19, 26, 42,
66, 140, 151, 164.
University of, 174.
Colonna, C. (Sounion), 26.
Constantine, 85, 88, 143.
Constantinople, 86, 143, 176.
Crimean War, 109.
Cyprus, 2, 86, 170.
Dalmatia, 86.
Danubian Principalities, 96, 143.
Davlia, 47.
Deilinata, 67.
Dekeleia, 45.
Delion, 47.
Delos I., 6, 25, 63.
Delphoi, 49.
Delvinon, 69.
Demeter, 46.
Demetrias, 12.
Demetsana, 60, 174.
Demosthenes, 77.
Dereon, 145.
Deukalion, 71.
Diavolitsi, 58.
Dikaiarchos, 71.
Dion, 62.
Dionysos, 44.
Digit
zed by G00gk
i8a
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
Dirve, 56.
Distomia, 47.
Dodekanesos, 63.
Dodona, 71.
Domokon, 70.
Doric dialect, 61.
Doris, 48, 49.
Dorus, 17.
Dourale, 59.
Drakia, 7a
Drepanon, Pr„ 5, 55,
Drymia, 49.
Dry&pis, 66.
Eastern Empire, 85.
Echinades I., 52,
Egypt, 87, 144.
Egyptians in Greece, 50, 58, 98.
Elasson, 70.
Elassonitikos, R., 19.
Elateia, 49.
Eleia, 55, 60.
Eleusis, 13, 43, 46.
Elis, Pr., 5.
Elis, 13, 18, 20, 31, 41, 55, 56.
England, 88, 96, 99, 104, no,
114.
English in Greece, 10, 98.
language, 171.
Epakto, 92.
Epeiros, 2, 10, 14, 16, 18, 30,
51, 68, 72, 85, 87, 101, 109,
172.
Ephesos, 145.
Epidavros, 13, 30, 53, 58, 59.
Erana, 57.
Erasinos, R., 140.
Erechtheion, 44.
Eremokastron, 46.
Eretria, 12, 62.
Ergent, R., 3.
Erikousa, 67.
Erymanthos, 17, 20, 30, 55, 60.
Euboia, 2, 6, 7, 16, 20, 23, 26,
27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 38, 42, 61,
90.
Euelpides, 136.
Europe and Greece, 89, 95, 112,
115, 128, 177.
Eva, 61.
EvAios, R., 50, 51.
Evripos, 7, 12.
Evrotas, R., 13, 18, 20, 21, 22,
58, 59.
Evrytania, 50, 51.
Exampela, 65.
Exoge, 68.
Eynard, M., 108.
Fabvier, 99.
France, 88, 96, 99, 101, 107,
no, 114.
Franks in Greece, 58, 87, 91,
150.
Finlay, Mr., 91, 92, 123, 124.
Flanders, 87.
French Commercial Code, 161.
in Greece, 10, 98, no.
language, 171.
■ Revolution, no.
GaIos, 97.
Galaxeidion, 49, 173.
Gallo C. (Akritas), 5, 57.
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
183
Garantsa, 58.
Gardiki, 48.
Gargalianoi, 57.
Garitsa, 66.
Gastouni, 56.
Gastouri, 66,
Gavrion, 64.
Gennadios, Patriarch, 93, 96,
144.
G., 96, 176.
J., 167.
Genoese in Greece, 87, 15a
George, King, 10, 114, 118,
131.
Georgios, I., 65.
Georgitsa, 59.
Geraneion Mts., 46.
German language, 171.
Germanos, Bp., 56.
Germans in Greece, 10, 98.
Gioura I., 6.
Gladstone, Mr., 115.
Glossa C, 16.
Gonia, 65.
Gordon, General, 99, 103.
Gortynia, 60.
Graikoi, 73.
Granitza, 49, 51.
Gros, Baron, 108.
Gyaros I., 6, 63.
Gymnasia, 171.
Gytheion, 58, 59.
HiEMUS, 74.
Hagia Anna, 62.
Lavra, 56.
— — Mavra I. (see Leukas).
Hagia Saranta, 70.
— — - Sophia, 62.
Hagios Georgios, 45.
Ioannes, 59, 61.
— Petros, 61, 67.
Rhokos, 66.
Haliakmon, R., 3, 19.
Haliastos, 47.
Halkyonic Sea, 14.
Hastings, Captain, 99.
Heideck, 99, 102.
Helene I., 6, 45.
Helikon, Mt., 14, 17, 19, 47.
Heliodromia I., 62.
Hellas, 4, 71, 73, 100, 169.
Sterea {see Peloponnesos).
Hellen, 71.
Hellenes, 2, 69, 71, 86, 94.
Hellenic Chersonesos, 170.
Schools, 169.
Hellenization, 74, 86.
Helloi, 71.
Hello vo, Mt., 17.
Helos, 59.
Helots, 59.
Heptanesos Is., 6.
Herakleion, 45.
Ilerakles, 30, 52.
Hermes Street, Athens, 43.
Hermione, 53.
Hermionis, 52.
Hermoupolis, 9, 42, 63, 173.
Herodes Atticus, 44.
Herodotus, 72.
Hesiod, 47.
Hestiaotis, 62.
Hexamillion, 4, 54.
Hungarians, 87.
Digit
zed by G00gk
184
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
Hydra I. and T., 7, 13, 52, 53,
97, 173-
Hymettos, Mt, 17, 30, 37, 38,
42.
Hypate, 28, 48.
Hypsilantes, 97.
Ibrahim Pasha, 50, 98.
Ichthys Pr., 13.
Ilissos, R., 22, 43, 44.
Illyrians, 2, 87.
Inachos, R., 22.
Ioannina, 5, 17, 69, 71.
L., 19.
Ion, 71.
Ionian Is., 1, 5, 6, 18, 54, 114,
156.
Ionians, 71.
Ionian Sea, 1, 14, 19, 22.
Ios I., 6, 63.
Isari, 60.
Isthmian games, 54.
Isthmus of Korinth, 14, 26.
Italians in Greece, 10.
Italy, 73, 86, 113.
Ithaka I., 6, 67, 164.
Ithome, Mt, 38.
Janina, 92 {see Ioannina).
Jerusalem, 143.
Jews in Epeiros, 69.
in Greece, 10, 150.
Justinian, 94.
Kalamai, 57, 58.
Kalamas, R., 3, 19, 116.
Kalamata, 42, 58, 164.
Kalamos, 67.
Kalauria, 53.
Kalavryta, 55, 56.
Kalergi, General, 133.
Kalydon, 50.
Kambunian Mts., 2, 17, 19.
Kameria, 58.
Kanares, Admiral, 97, 113.
Kandila, 60.
Kapraina, 47.
Kapsalion, 55.
Karaiskakis, 47, 97.
Kardamyle, 59.
Karditsa, 70.
Karlili, 92.
Karpenesion, 51.
Karya, 53, 67.
Karyai, 59.
Karystia, 42, 61.
Karysto, 37, 61.
Karytaina, 60.
Kassiope, 66.
Kastalia, 49.
Klastania, 59.
Kastri, 49, 61.
Kastros, 67.
Katakolo, 56.
Katastari, 68.
Katouna, 52.
Kaymene, 65.
Kekrops, 45.
Kenchrea, 28, 29.
Keos I., 6, 26, 63, 65, 152.
Kephallenia I., 6, 28, 38, 42,
67, 90, 165.
Kephisia, 45.
Kephissos, R. (Attic), 20, 22, 43.
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
185
Kephissos, R. (Boiotian), 19,21.
Keratia, 45.
Kerkyra I. {see Corfu).
Kerpinon, 56.
Kimolos I., 6, 15, 63.
Kionion, 68.
Kithairon Mt., 17, 46, 47.
Kizykos, 145.
Kokla, 47.
Kolettes, 97, 106, 108, 146.
Kolokotrones, 97.
Komarkes, R., 18.
Kome, 64.
Komiake, 64.
Kondouriotes, 97.
Kontochori, 65.
Kopais, L., 12, 20, 22, 23, 47.
Koprina, 3.
Korinth, 41, 52, 54, 146.
Gulf of, 1, 4, 14, 17,
19, 56.
Isthmus of, 14, 26.
Koron, 13, 57, 100.
Korphoi, 6 (j« Corfu).
Korthion, 64.
Koumanoudes, 176.
Kranaia, 67.
Kraneion, 54.
Kranidion, 53.
Kranioi, 67.
Krasades, 66.
Krates, 23.
Krathis, 56.
Kremaste, 59.
— — — Larissa, 48.
Krete, 86, 91, 101, 114, 170.
Kretan Sea, 1.
Krikellon, 51.
Krissa, 49.
Kunos, 48.
Kyklades Is., 2, 5, 6, 9, 24, 27,
29, 42, 62, 159.
Kyklopean walls, 52.
Kyllene, Bay of, 5.
Mts., 17, 25, 28, 31.
Kyme, 61.
Kynouria, 60, 61.
Kyparissia, 13, 20, 57.
Kyrene, 73,
Kythera I., 6, 52, 54.
Kythnos I., 6, 28, 63, 65.
Ladon R., 20.
Lagia, 59.
Lakedaimonia, 58.
Lakmos Mt., 18.
Lakonia, 5, 6, 13, 16, 18, 20,
28, 31, 33, 37. 42, 55, 58.
Lakonians, 78.
Lamara, 64.
Lamia, 12, 28, 41, 48, 140, 165.
Lankadia, 60.
Larissa, 19, 48, 170, 104, 145.
Larymne, 49.
Laskaris, 87.
Lavrion (Laurium), 25, 26, 42,
45> i64-
Lechaina, 56.
Leivartsion, 56.
Leonid as, 46.
Leonidion, 60.
Leopold of Belgium, 101.
Lepenon, 51.
Lethaios, R., 18.
Letharion, R., 70.
Digit
zed by G00gk
1 86
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES,
Leuka, 46.
Leukai, 64.
Leukas I., 6, 52, 66, 67.
Levadeia, 42, 47, 48.
Levant, 14, 38, 88.
Levetova, 59.
Levidion, 60.
Lexourion, 68.
Liakoura, Mt., 17.
Lidorikion, 49.
Ligouditsa, 57.
Ligourion, 53.
Likeri, L., 23.
Limera, 58.
Limnai, 57.
Limnaia, 51.
Limne, 62.
Lipso (Aidipsos), 28, 29.
Lithada Pr., 62.
Lokris, 7, 12, 17, 31, 48, 62.
Lompotine, 51.
London, Treaty of, 100.
Londos, 97.
Lykavetos Mt., 29, 42, 43.
Lykurgus, 94.
Lysikrates, 44.
Magnesia, 6, 12.
Mahaffy, Prof., 80.
Mahmoud, Sultan, 98.
Mahomed Ali, 98.
Mahomedans in Epeiros, 69.
— in Greece, 62, 87,
144, 150.
Mahomet II., Sultan, 89, 144.
Maina, 5, 13, 16, 59, 78, 90,
103.
Mainake, 57.
Makedonia, 2, 10, 72, 75, 90.
Makedonians in Greece, 49, 74,
172, 175.
Makrynitsa, 70.
Malaoi, 59.
Malea C, 5, 58.
Malvasia, 59.
Maliac Gulf, 12, 19, 48, 62.
Mandoukion, 66.
Mansolas, 8, 39.
Mantinea, 22, 60.
Marathon, 13, 43, 45.
Margariti, 69.
Marousion, 45.
Matapan C. (Tainaron), 5, 58.
Maurer, 102.
Mavrokordatos,97, 105, no, 146.
Mavrolithari, 49.
Mavromichaelis, 97.
Mavrommati, 50, 57.
Mazi, 47.
Medeon, 52.
Mediterranean, 35, 38, 87.
Megalepolis, 60.
Megalon Spelaion, 56.
Megara, 46, 164.
Megaris, 42, 54.
Meliai, 70.
Meligala, 58.
Melos I., 6, 25—28, 63.
Menidi, 45.
Mesaria, 64.
Mese, 66.
Mesolonghion, 14, 36, 41, 50.
Messene (Messenia), 5, 6, 13, 16,
21, 3h 33, 35, 38, 42, 57, 77,
103, 156.
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
187
Methana, Pr., 25, 28, 54.
(town), 54.
Methone, 12, 57.
Metropolis, 52.
Metzovo, 17, 69.
Miaoulis, 97.
Middle Ages, 75.
Mikremana, 58.
Minas, M., 176.
Mistra, 58.
Modon, 13, 57, 99.
Moesia, 75.
Moldavia, 96.
Molos, 49.
Monemvasia, 59.
Morea, 4 (see Peloponnesos).
Moulki, 47.
Mounychia, 44.
Mykenai, 53, 175.
Mykonos I., 6, 25, 61, 175.
Mytilene, I., 90.
Naousa, 64.
Naupaktia, 50.
Naupaktos, 14, 5a
Nauplia, 13, 41, 52, 60, 140,
146, 164, 173.
Navarino, 13, 57, 100.
Naxos I., 6, 25—28, 63, 150,
158.
Nea Mizela, 48.
Pella, 48.
— Psara, 62.
Sparte, 58.
Neai Patrai, 48.
Negrepont I., 7, 92 (see Euboia).
Nesion, 57, 58.
Nicholas V., Pope, 89.
Nike, 44.
Nikopolis, 14.
Normandy, 87.
Ocha, Mt, 61.
Odeion, 43.
Odysseus, 49, 97.
(Economos, 176.
Oianthe, 49.
Oineiadai Is., 52.
Oinussai Is., 57.
Oita, Mt (CEta), 17, 19, 30, 48.
Oitylos, 58, 59.
Olympia, 30, 56, 57, 175.
Olympiads, 165.
Olympian games, 56.
Olympos, Mt., 2, 19.
Onchestos, 47.
Opus, 12, 48.
Orchomenos, 47.
Oreos, 62.
Oropos, 12.
Oros, 60.
Ossa, Mt., 12, 17, 19.
Otho, King, 45, 52, 101, 107,
no, 113, 118,133, H6, 155-
Othonoi Is., 67.
Othrys Mts., 3, 7, 19, 48.
Pagasai, 70.
Palaiapanagia, 47.
Palaiologos, 88.
Pale, 67.
Pallantion, 60.
Palmerston, Lord, 107, 114.
Digit
zed by G00gk
1 88
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
Pamisos, R., 58.
Panitsa, 59.
Papacy, 89.
Paparrigopoulos, 176.
Paralimni, L., 23.
Paramythia, 69.
Paraschos, 176.
Parga, 14, 69.
Parnassis, 48, 49, 164.
Parnassos, Mt, 14, 17, 19, 30,
47.
Syllogue, 174-
Parnes Mts., 42.
Pamon, Mt, 16.
Paros I., 6, 28, 29, 63, 158.
Parthenagogeion, 44.
Parthenion Mts., 60.
Parthenon, 44, 91.
Patrai, 4, 13, 21, 41, 50, 55,
164.
Paul, Apostle, 29.
II., Pope, 90.
Paxoi, 66.
Paxos I., 6.
Pegadaki, 68.
Peiraios, 9, 13, 44, no, 136,
164, 173-
Pelagonesos I., 6.
Pelasgians, 72, 86.
Pelion, Mt., 12, 17, 70.
Peloponnesos, 4, 13, 15, 20, 21,
24-27, 32, 33, 35, 42, 46,
Sh 55. 69, 80, 85, 90, 92, 158.
Peneios R., 3, 12, 17, 18, 21,
70, 116.
Pentapolis, 87.
Pentedaktylon Mts., 5.
Pentelikon, Mt., 17, 28, 29, 42.
Perachora, 54.
Perachorion, 68.
Peraia, 64.
Perikles, 77.
Peristeri I., 6.
Perseus, 52.
Petalia, 61.
Petalidi, 57.
Petrochori, 51.
Phalara, 12, 48.
Phaleron, 44.
Phanari, 70.
Pharsalos, 70, 71.
Pheneos, L., 23.
Phersalitikos R., 19.
Phidias, 79, 175.
Philiatra, 57.
Philotion, 64.
Phlius, 54.
Phloriada, 51.
Phokis, 17, 31, 41, 48, 104.
Pholegandros I., 64.
Pholoe Mts., 31.
Phournas, 51.
Phyle, 45-
Pindos Mts., 2, 16 — 19.
Piperi I. , 6.
Plataiai, 47.
Platanos, 51.
Plevron, 50.
Plutarch, 29.
Poliane, 58.
Polyaravos, 59.
Polytechneion, 43, 173.
Poros, 54.
I., 7, 13, 46, 53, 97.
Porte, 99, 102.
Poseidon, 12, 54.
it zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
189
Potamos, 66.
Pra'ides, 146.
Prastos, 61.
Praxiteles, 79.
Premeti, 69.
Preveza, 14, 69.
Pronoia, 52.
Prophylaia, 44.
Prostovitza, 55.
Proteus, 52.
Prousos, 51.
Prussia, 99.
Psyllas, 146.
Pteleon, 12.
Pylia, 57.
Pylos, 13, 56.
Pyrgos, 56, 59, 64.
Pyramia, 61.
Pythian games, 49.
RhangabS, 176.
Rheneia I., 6, 63.
Rhigani, 52.
Rhion, 14, 55.
Rhizaris, 44, 173.
Rhizos Neroulos, 176.
Rome, 86, 143, 150.
Roman Catholics, 64, 150.
Roumanians, 96, 151.
Russell, Lord, 115.
Russia, 99, 101, 104, 114, 143,
151.
Russian Church, 143, 145,
150.
Russians in Greece, 10, 87.
Russo-Turkish Wars, 101, 109.
Sagiada, 70.
Salachora, 70.
Salamis I., 7, 13, 46.
Salamvrias,R., 3,7o(j#Peneios).
Salomos, 176.
Salonike, Gulf of, 2, 11.
Same, 67.
Santa Eirend, 65.
Maura {see Hagia Mavra).
Santorini I., 6, 25, 26, 63, 146,
150, 159.
Saron, 54.
Saronic Gulf, 4, 13, 25, 45,
46.
Sathas, 176.
Schinas, 176.
Scottish and Greek Agriculture,
155.
Selitsa, 59.
Seriphos I., 6, 63, 65.
Servian Church, 150.
Servians, 96.
Sicily, 73, 86.
Sigismond, 88.
Sikinos I., 6, 63, 65.
Sikyon, 54.
Simonides, 65.
Simos, 176.
Sinanon, 60.
Sinas, 44.
Siphnos I., 6, 63, 65.
Sitsova, 58.
Sixtus IV., Pope, 90.
Skanzoura I., 6.
Skiathos I., 6, 12, 62.
Sklavokorion, 59.
Skopelos I., 6, 61, 62.
Skriperon, 66.
Digit
zed by G00gk
190
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES.
Skylizzi, 176.
Skyros I., 6, 28, 61.
Slavonians, 76, 86, 150.
Smyrna, 73, 145-
Sokrates, 47, 81.
Sophikon, 54.
Sopoton, 56.
Soulion, 69, 95.
Sounion Pr., 4, 13, 17, 26,
43.
Sourpe, 48.
Soutzos, 176.
Sparta, 22, 42, 58, 164, 175.
Spartans, 59.
Spercheios, R., 19, 20, 48, 49,
102.
Spetzai I., 7, 13, 52, S3, 97-
Sphakiotai, 67.
Sphakteria I., 57.
Sporades Is., 2, 5, 61.
St. Elias, Mt (Aigina), 45.
(Euboia), 61.
(Santorini), 25.
(Taygetos), 17.
St. Sophia, 86.
Stadion, 54.
Stavro, 67.
Stavros C, 17.
Stemnitsa, 60.
Stene, 62.
Strabo, 72.
Strong, Mr., 80, 151.
Strymonic Gulf, 72.
Stylis, 12, 48.
Stymphalos L., 22, 23.
Sylla, 29.
Syria, 144.
Syra I., 6, 6^ t 150, 164.
Tainaron C, 5, 58.
Tanagra, 47.
Taphos, 67.
Tarentine Gulf, 73.
Tatogi, 45-
Taxiarches, 51.
Tajfgetos Mts., 5, 13, 16, 17,
20, 31, 58, 59, 77.
Tegea, 22, 60.
Tempi, 12, 19.
Tenos I., 6, 25, 28, 63, 150.
Thasos, 26.
Thebans, 47, 74.
Thebes (Boiotian) 42, 46, 146,
175-
(Pelasgic), 12.
Theodosius, 145.
Thera I. (see Santorini).
(town), 65.
Therasia, 65.
Thermaic Gulf, 19.
Thermon, 51.
Thermopylae 12, 19, 21, 28, 46,
49.
Theseus, 44.
Thespiai, 46.
Thessalonike, 145.
Thessaly, 2, 10, 16, 18, 30, 37,
68, 70, 71, 85, 90, 92, 101,
109, 172.
ThiakiL, 68.
Thorikos, 45.
Thrace, 87.
Thyamis R., 3, 19.
Thyrea, 61.
Tiryns, 52, 173.
Tolophon, 45.
Topolia, 49.
Digit
zed by G00gk
INDEX OF PERSONS AND PLACES,
191
Tragaia, 64.
Trichoma, 50, 51.
Trichonion, 51.
Trichonis L., 51.
Trikala, 54.
Trikkala, 70.
Trikkalinos R., 18.
Trikoupi, 146.
Triphylia, 57.
Tripodes, 64.
Tripolis (Arkadia), 42, 60, 173.
Tripotamos, 64.
Triptolemos, 152.
Trissavalos, 65.
Troizen, 13, 52, 54.
Troy, 47.
Trypete, 64.
Tsakonia, 61.
Tsakonian dialect, 61.
Tsaritsana, 70.
Tsipiana, 60.
Turkey, 143.
Turks, 48, 69, S6, 97, 122.
Turks in Greece, 10, 62, 86.
TymphrestosMts., 3, 16, 17, 19,
34,48.
Tyrnavos, 70.
Valtesinikon, 60.
Valtos, 50, 51.
Vamvakion, 59.
Varvaki, 44.
Vasilike, 54.
Velouchi Mts. (jwTymphrestos).
Venetians, 51, 52, 87, 90, 150.
Venetikon, 50.
Venetikon I., 57.
Vervaina, 61.
Vervitsa, 60.
Virgil, 152.
Vitrinitza, 49.
Vitylon, 59.
Vlachokerasia, 60.
Vlachos, 176.
Vliouri, R., 19.
Volos, 3, 6, 12, 70.
Vonitza, 50, 51.
Vostitza, 56.
Voyussa, R., 3, 19.
Vronthe, 60.
Wallachia, 96,
Wallacks, 10.
Winds, Temple of, 44.
Wyse, SirT., 109.
Xenophon, 47.
Xerochorion, 61, 62.
Xeromeros, 50.
Xynarades, 66.
Zacha, 57.
Zagoia, 70.
Zaimes, 97.
Zakynthos I., 6, 42, 68.
Zalakosta, 176.
Zante, 6, 9, 38/42, 68, 90, 165.
Zappa, 165.
Zatsouna, 60.
Zaverda, 52.
Zeitoun, f # Gulf of, 101.
Zeus (Oljrmpian), 44.
Zeus Panhellenios, 13, 46.
Digit
zed by G00gk "
LONDON :
GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,
ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
Digit
zed by G00gk
A Catalogue of American and Foreign Books Published or
Imported by Messrs. Sampson Low & Co. can
be had on application.
Crown Buildings, 1 88, Fleet Street^ London,
April, 1880.
a dtlectfon from tlje list of Soofesf
PUBLISHED BY
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON.
ALPHABETICAL LIST.
A CLASSIFIED Educational Catalogue of Works pub-
■*"*■ lished in Great Britain. Demy 8vo, cloth extra. Second Edition,
revised and corrected to Christmas, 1879, 5^
About (Edmond). See " The Story of an Honest Man."
About Some Fellows, By an Eton Boy, Author of " A Day
of my Life." Cloth limp, square i6mo, 2s. 6d.
Adventures of Captain Mago. A Phoenician's Explorations
1000 years B.C. By Leon Cahun. Numerous Illustrations. Crown
8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, *js, 6d. ; plainer binding, $s.
Adventures of a Young Naturalist. By Lucien Biart, with
117 beautiful Illustrations on Wood. Edited and adapted by Parker
Gillmore. Post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, New Edition, 7s. 6d.
Afghan Knife (The). A Novel. By Robert Armitage
Sterndale, Author of " Seonee." Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
Afghanistan and the Afghans. Being a Brief Review of the
History of the Country, and Account of its People. By H. W.
Bellew, C.S.I. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
Alcott {Louisa M.) Jimmy's Cruise in the " Pinafore." With 9
Illustrations. Second Edition. Small post 8vo, cloth gilt, $s. 6d.
Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag. Square i6mo, 2s. 6d.
(Rose Library, is. )
Little Men : Life at Plumfield with Jds Boys. Small
post8vo, cloth, gilt edges, y. 6d. (Rose Library, Double vol. 2s.)
■ Little Women. 1 vol., cloth, gilt edges, $s. 6d. (Rose
Library, 2 vols., ix. each.)
Digitized by VjOOvLC
Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co.'s
Alcott (Louisa M.) Old-Fashioned Girl. Best Edition, small
post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, y. 6d. (Rose Library, 2s.)
# Work and Beginning Again. A Story of Experience.
Experience. I vol., small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. Several Illustra-
tions. (Rose Library, 2 vols., is. each.)
. Shawl Straps. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt, 31. 6d.
Eight Cousins ; or, the Aunt If ill. Small post 8vo,
with Illustrations, 3;. 6d.
The Rose in Bloom. Small post 8vo, cloth extra,
3j. td.
Stiver Pitchers. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, $s. 6d.
" Under the Lilacs. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 5J.
Jack and JUL Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 5$.
"Miss Alcott's stones are thoroughly healthy, full of racy fun and Jiumour . . .
exceedingly entertaining .... We can recommend the 'Eight Cousins." 1 —
Aihenotum.
Alpine Ascents and Adventures ; or, Rock and Snow Sketches.
By H. Schutz Wilson, of the Alpine Club. With Illustrations by
Whymper and Marcus Stone. Crown 8vo, iar. 6d. 2nd Edition.
Andersen {Hans Christian) Fairy Tales. With Illustrations in
Colours by E. V. B. Royal 4to, cloth, 25J.
Animals Painted by Themselves. Adapted from the French of
Balzac, Georges Sands, &c, with 200 Illustrations by Grandville.
8vo, cloth extra, gilt, 10s. 6d.
Art Education. See " Illustrated Text Books."
Art in the Mountains : The Story of the Passion Play. By
Henry Blackburn, Author of "Artists and Arabs," "Breton
Folk," &c. With numerous Illustrations, and an Appendix for
Travellers, giving the Expenses of the Journey, Cost of Living, Routes
from England, &c, Map, and Programme for 1880. 4to, cloth, ior. 6d.
" Of the many previous accounts of the play, none, we are disposed to think,
recalls that edifying and impressive spectacle with the same clearness and
vividness as Mr. Blackburn's volume." — Guardian.
" He writes in excellent taste, and is interesting from the first page to the
last."— -Saturday Review.
Art of Reading Aloud (The) in Pulpit, Lecture Room, or Private
Reunions. By G. Vandenhoff, M. A. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, dr.
Art Treasures in the South Kensington Museum. Published,
with the sanction of the Science and Art Department, in Monthly
Parts, each containing 8 Plates, price is. In this series are included
representations of Decorative Art of all countries and all times from
objects in the South Kensington Museum, under the following classes: —
Sculpture : Works in Marble, Ivory, and Terra-Cotta.
Bronzes : Statuettes, Medallions, Plaques, Coins.
Decorative Painting and Mosaic.
Digit
zed by G00gk
List of Publications.
Decorative Furniture and Carved Wood-Work.
Ecclesiastical Metal- Work.
Gold and Silversmiths' Work and Jewellery.
Limoges and Oriental Enamels.
Pottery of all Countries.
Glass : Oriental, Venetian, and German.
Ornamental Iron- Work : Cutlery.
Textile Fabrics : Embroidery and Lace.
Decorative Bookbinding.
Original Designs for Works of Decorative Art
Views of the Courts and Galleries of the Museum.
Architectural Decorations of the Museum.
The Plates are carefully printed in atlas 8vo (13 in. by 9 in.), on
thick ivory-tinted paper ; and are included in a stout wrapper, orna-
mented with a drawing from " The Genoa Doorway " recently acquired
by the Museum.
Asiatic Turkey : being a Narrative of a Journey from Bombay
to the Bosphorus. By Grattan Geary, Editor of the Times of India.
2 vols., crown 8vo, cloth extra, with many Illustrations, and a Route
Map, 2&r.
Australian Abroad (The). Branches from the Main Routes
Round the World. Comprising the Author's Route through Japan,
China, Cochin- China, Malasia, Sunda, Java, Torres Straits, Northern
Australia, New South Wales, South Australia, and New Zealand. By
James Hingston ("J. H." of the Melbourne Argus). With Maps
and numerous Illustrations from Photographs. 2 vol*., 8vo, 14-f. each.
Autobiography of Sir G. Gilbert Scott, P. A., F.S.A., &>c.
Edited by his Son, G. Gilbert Scott. With an Introduction by the
Dean of Chichester, and a Funeral Sermon, preached in West-
minster Abbey, by the Dean of Westminster. Also, Portrait on
steel from the portrait of the Author by G. RICHMOND, R. A. 1 vol.,
demy 8vo, cloth extra, i8.r.
JDAKER (Lieut.- Gen. Valentine, PasJia). See "War in
J-> Bulgaria/'
THE BAYARD SERIES,
Edited by the late J. Hain Friswell.
Comprising Pleasure Books of Literature produced in the Choicest Style as
Companionable Volumes at Home and Abroad.
"We can hardly imagine better books for boys to read or for men to ponder
over." — Times.
Price 2s. 6d. each Volume, complete iti itself, flexible cloth extra, gilt edges,
with silk Headbands and Registers.
The Story of the Chevalier Bayard. By M. De Berville.
L>efoinVille's St. Louis, King of Prance.
A 2 -■
Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co. % s
The Bayard Series {continued) .—
Tlie Essays of Abraham Cowley, including all his Prose Works.
Abdallah ; or the Four Leaves. By Edouard Laboullaye.
Table- Talk and Opinions of Napoleon Buonaparte.
Vathek : An Oriental Romance. By William Beckford.
The King and the Commons. A Selection of Cavalier and
Puritan Songs. Edited by Prof. Morley.
Words of Wellington: Maxims and Opinions of the Great
Duke.
Dr. Johnson's Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia. With Notes.
HazliWs Round Table. With Biographical Introduction.
The Religio Medici, Ifydriotaphia, and the Letter to a Friend.
By Sir Thomas Browne, Knt
Ballad Poetry oft/te Affections. By Robert Buchanan.
Coleridge's Christabel, and other Imaginative Poems. With
Preface by Algernon C. Swinburne.
Lord Chesterfield's Letters, Sentences, and Maxims. With
Introduction by the Editor, and Essay on Chesterfield by M. de Ste. •
Beuve, of the French Academy.
Essays in Mosaic. By Thos. Ballantyne.
My Uncle Toby; his Story and his Friends. Edited by
P. Fitzgerald.
Reflections; or, Moral Sentences and Maxims of the Duke de
la Rochefoucauld.
Socrates: Memoirs for English Readers from Xenophon y s Memo-
rabilia. By Edw. Levien,
Prince Albert's Golden Precepts.
A Case containing 12 Volumes, trie* 31*. 6d. ; or ike Case separately, price y. 6d.
Beauty and the Beast. An Old Tale retold, with Pictures by
E. V. B. 4to, cloth extra. 10 Illustrations in Colours. \2s. dd.
Beumers* German Copybooks. In six gradations at ^d. each.
Biart (Lucien). See "Adventures of a Young Naturalist,"
"My Rambles in the New World," "The Two Friends," " Involun-
tary Voyage."
Digitized by VjOOVJ Lie
List of Publications.
BickerstetJCs Hymnal Companion to Book of Common Prayer
may be had in various styles and bindings from id. to 2is. Price
List and Prospectus will be forwarded on application.
Bickersteth {Rev. E. H, MA.) The Reef and other Parables.
I vol. , square 8vo, with numerous very beautiful Engravings, 2s. 6d.
The Clergyman in his Home. Small post 8vo, is.
The Master's Home-Call; or, Brief Memorials of
Alice Frances Bickersteth. 20th Thousand. 32mo, cloth gilt, is.
The Master's Will. A Funeral Sermon preached
on the Death of Mrs. S. Gurney Buxton. Sewn, 6d. ; cloth gilt, is.
The Shadow of the Rock. A Selection of Religious
Poetry. l8mo, cloth extra, 2s. 6d.
The Shadowed Home and the Light Beyond. 7 th
Edition, crown 8vo, cloth extra, 5.?.
Bida. The Authorized Version of the Four Gospels, with the
whole of the magnificent Etchings on Steel, after drawings by M.
Bida, in 4 vols., appropriately bound in cloth extra, price 3/. y. each.
Also the four volumes in two, bound in the best morocco, by Suttaby,
extra gilt edges, 18/. I&r., half-morocco, 12/. 12s.
" fiida's Illustration* of the Gospels of St Matthew and St John have already
received here and elsewhere a full recognition of their great merits." — Times.
Biographies of the Great Artists, Illustrated. This Series is
issued in the form of Handbooks. Each is a Monograph of a Great
Artist, and contains Portraits of the Masters, and as many examples
of their art as can be readily procured. They are Illustrated with from
16 to 20 Full-page Engravings. Cloth, large crown 8vo, 3J. 6d. per
Volume.
Titian. Bubens. Tintoret and Veronese.
Rembrandt. Leonardo, Hogarth.
Raphael. Turner. Michelangelo.
Van Dyck and Hals. The Little Masters. Reynolds.
Holbein. Delaroche & Vernet. Gainsborough.
Figure Painters of Holland.
"A deserving Series, based upon recent German publications."— Edinbw-gh
Review.
" Most thoroughly and tastefully edited."— Spectator.
Black ( Wm.) Three Feathers. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
Lady Silver dale's Sweetheart, and other Stories. 1 vol.,
small post 8vo, 6s.
Kilmeny : a Novel. Small post 8vo, cloth, 6s.
■ In Silk Attire. 3rd Edition, small post 8vo, 6s.
A Daughter of Heth. nth Edition, small post 8vo, 6s.
Sunrise. 15 Monthly Parts, is. each.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co.'s
Blackmore (R. £).) Lorna Doone. ioth Edition, cr. 8vo, 6s.
— — Alice Lorraine, i vol., small post 8vo, 6th Edition, 6s.
— — Clara Vaughan. Revised Edition, 6s.
Cradock NowelL New Edition, 6s.
Cripps the Carrier. 3rd Edition, small post 8vo, 6s f
Mary Anerley. 3 vols., 31 J. 6d.
Eretna; or. My Father's Sin. With 12 Illustrations,
small post 8vo, dr.
Blossoms from the Xing's Garden : Sermons for Children. By
the Rev. C. Bosanquet. 2nd Edition, small post 870, cloth extra, 6s.
Blue Banner {The); or, The Adventures of a Mussulman, a
Christian, and a Pagan, in the time of the Crusades and Mongol
Conquest. Translated from the French of Leon Cahun. With
Seventy-six Wood Engravings. Imperial i6mo, cloth, gilt edges,
Js. 6d. ; plainer binding, $s.
Boy's Froissart (The). 7s. 6d. See " Froissart"
Brave Janet: A Story for Girls. By Alice Lee. With
Frontispiece by M. Ellen Edwards. Square 8vo, cloth extra, 3*. 6d.
^ Brave Men in Action. By S. J. Mackenna. Crown 8vo,
480 pp., cloth, 1 or. 6d.
Brazil : the Amazons, and the Coast. By Herbert H. Smith.
With 115 Full-page and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 650 pp., 2U.
Brazil and the Brazilians. By J. C. Fletcher and D. P.
Kidder. 9th Edition, Illustrated, 8vo, 21s.
Breton Folk: An Artistic Tour in Brittany. By Henry
Blackburn, Author of "Artists and Arabs," "Normandy Pictu-
resque," &c. With 171 Illustrations by RANDOLPH Caldecott.
Imperial 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 21s.
British Goblins : Welsh Folk-Lore, Fairy Mythology, Legends,
and Traditions. By Wirt Sykes, United States Consul for Wales.
With Illustrations by J. H. Thomas. This account of the Fairy
Mythology and Folk-Lore of his Principality is, by permission, dedi-
cated to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Second Edition. 8vo, i&r.
British Philosophers.
Buckle (Henry Thomas) The Life and Writings of. By Alfred
Henry Huth. With Portrait. 2 vols., demy 8vo.
Burnaby (Capt.) See " On Horseback."
Burnham Beeches (Heath, F. G.). With numerous Illustrations
and a Map. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 3.1-. 6d. Second Edition.
"Writing with even more than his usual brilliancy, Mr. Heath here gives the
publie an interesting monograph of the splendid old trees. . . . This charming
little work." — Globe.
it zed by G00gk
List of Publications.
Butler (W. F) The Great Lone Land; an Account of the Red
River Expedition, 1869-70. With Illustrations and Map. Fifth and
Cheaper Edition, crown 8vo, cloth extra, Js. 6d.
The Wild North Land; the Story of a Winter Journey
with Dogs across Northern North America. Demy 8vo, cloth, with
numerous Woodcuts, and a Map, 4th Edition, i&r. Cr. 8vo, Js. 6d.
Akim-foo : the History of a Failure. Demy 8vo, cloth,
2nd Edition, i&r. Also, in crown 8vo, Js. 6d.
rADOGAN {Lady A.) Illustrated Games of Patience.
^ Twenty-four Diagrams in Colours, with Descriptive Text. Foolscap
4to, cloth extra, gilt edges, 3rd Edition, 125. 6d.
Caldecott (P.). See " Breton Folk."
Carbon Process (A Manual of). See Liesegang.
Ceramic Art. See Jacquemart.
Changed Cross {The), and other Religious Poems. i6mo, 2s. 6d.
Chant Book Companion to the Book of Common Prayer. Con-
sisting of upwards of 550 Chants for the Daily Psalms and for the
Canticles ; also Kyrie Eleisons, and Music for the Hymns in Holy
Communion, &c. Compiled and Arranged under the Musical Editor-
ship of C. J. Vincent, Mus. Bac. Crown 8vb, zs. 6d. ; Organist's
Edition, fcap. 4to, 5J.
Of various Editions of Hymnal Companion, Lists will be forwarded on
application.
Child of tlie Cavern (The) ; or, Strange Doings Underground.
By Jules Verne. Translated by W. H. G. Kingston. Numerous
Illustrations. Sq. cr. 8vo, gilt edges, Js. 6d. ; cl., plain edges, 5^.
Child's Play, with 16 Coloured Drawings by E. V. B. Printed
on thick paper, with tints, Js. 6d.
New. By E. V. B. Similar to the above. See New.
Children's Lives and How to Preserve Them ; or, The Nursery
Handbook. By W. Lomas, M.D. Crown 8vo, cloth, $s.
Children's Magazine. Illustrated. See St. Nicholas.
Choice Editions of Choice Books. 2s. 6d. each, Illustrated by
C. W. Cope, R.A., T. Creswick, R.A., E. Duncan, Birket
Foster, J. C. Horsley, A.R.A., G. Hicks, R.Redgrave, R.A.,
C. Stonehouse, F. Tayler, G. Thomas, H. J. Townshend,
E. H. Wehnert, Harrison Weir, &c
Milton's L' Allegro.
Poetry of Nature. Harrison Weir.
Rogers' (Sam.) Pleasures of Memory.
Shakespeare's Songs and Sonnets.
Tennyson's May Queen.
Elizabethan Poets.
Wordsworth's Pastoral Poems*
Bloomfield's Farmer's Boyc
Campbell's Pleasures of Hope.
Coleridge's Ancient Mariner.
Goldsmith's Deserted Village.
Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield.
Gray's Elegy in a Churchyard.
Keat's Eve of St. Agnes.
" Such works are a glorious beatification for a poet."— Athanmum.
Sampson Low, Marston, &* Co.'s
Christ in Song. By Dr. Philip Schaff. A New Edition,
Revised, cloth, gilt edges, 6s,
Cobbett (William). A Biography. By Edward Smith. 2
vols., crown 8vo, 2$s.
Comedy (The) of Europe, i860 — 1890. A retrospective and
prospective Sketch. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, By Dr. Gerhard
Uhlhorn. Edited and Translated from the Third German Edition
by G. C. Smyth and C. J/H. Ropes. 8vo, cloth extra, iar. 6d.
Continental Tour of Eight Days for Forty-four Shillings. By
a Journey-man. i2mo, is.
"The book is simply delightful."— Spectator.
Corea {The). See " Forbidden Land."
Covert Side Sketches: Thoughts on Hunting, with Different
Packs in Different Countries. By J. Nevitt Fitt (H.H. of the Sporting
Gazette, late of the Field). 2nd Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, ioj. 6d.
Crade-Land of Arts and Creeds ; or, Nothing New utider the
Sun. By Charles J. Stone, Barrister-at-law, and late Advocate,
High Courts, Bombay, 8vo, pp. 420, cloth, 14J.
Cripps the Carrier. 3rd Edition, 6s. See Blackmore.
Cruise ofHM.S. « Challenger" (The). By W. J. J. Spry, R.N.
With Route Map and many Illustrations. 6th Edition, demy 8vo, cloth,
i8j. Cheap Edition, crown 8vo, some of the Illustrations, *js. 6d.
Curious Adventures of a Field Cricket. By Dr. Ernest
Cand£ze. Translated by N. D'Anvers. "With numerous fine
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, *]s. 6d.
JTSANA (R. H.) Two Years before the Mast and Twenty-Four
-*-^ years After. Revised Edition with Notes, i2mo, 6s.
Daughter (A) of Heth. By W. Black. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Day of My Life (A) ; or, Every Day Experiences at Eton.
By an Eton Boy, Author of "About Some Fellows." l6mo, cloth
extra, 2s. 6d. 6th Thousand.
Day out of the Life of a Little Maiden (A) : Six Studies from
Life. By Sherer and Engler. Large 4tb, in portfolio, 5<r.
Diane. By Mrs. Macquoid. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Dick Cheveley : his Fortunes and Misfortunes, By W. H. G.
Kingston. 350 pp., square i6mo, and 22 full-page Illustrations.
Cloth, gilt edges, p. 6V.
Dick Sands, the Boy Captain. By Jules Verne. With
nearly 100 Illustrations, cloth extra, gilt edges, \os. 6<L
Digitized by VjOOQlC
List of Publications.
Dodge (Mrs. M.) Hans Brinker; or, the Silver Skates. An
entirely New Edition, with 59 Full-page and other Woodcuts.
Square crown 8vo, cloth extra, $s. ; Text only, paper, is.
Dogs of Assize. A Legal Sketch-Book in Black and White.
Containing 6Drawings by Walter J. Allen. Folio, in wrapper, 6s. Sd.
JOIGHT Cousins. See Alcott.
Eldmuir: An Art-Story of Scottish Home-Life, Scenery, and
Incident By Jacob Thompson, Jun. Illustrated with Engravings
after Paintings of Jacob Thompson. With an Introductory Notice
by Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., &c. Demy 8vo, cloth extra, 14*.
Elinor Dryden. By Mrs. Macquoid. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Embroidery (Handbook of). By L. Higgin. Edited by Lady
Marian Alford, and published by authority of the Royal School of
Art Needlework. With 16 page Illustrations, Designs for Borders,
&c. Crown 8vo, 5<r.
English Catalogue of Books (77ie). Published during 1863 to
1871 inclusive, comprising also important American Publications. 30*.
* # * Of the previous Volume, 1835 to 1862, very few remain on
sale ; as also of the Index Volume, 1837 to 1857.
■ Supplements, 1863, 1864, 1865, 35. 6d. each; 1866
to 1880, 5*. each.
English Writers, Chapters for Self-Improvement in English
Literature. By the Author of "The Gentle Life," dr. ; smaller
edition, 2s. 6d.
English Philosophers. A Series of Volumes containing short
biographies of the most celebrated English Philosophers, designed to
direct the reader to the sources of more detailed and extensive criticism
than the size and nature of the books in this Series would permit.
Though not issued in chronological order, the series will, when
complete, constitute a comprehensive history of English Philosophy.
Two Volumes will be issued simultaneously at brief intervals, in square
i6mo, prire 2s. 6d.
The following are already arranged: —
Bacon. Professor Fowler, Professor of Logic in Oxford.
Berkeley. Professor T. H. Green, Professor of Moral Philosophy,
Oxford.
Hamilton. Professor Monk, Professor of Moral Philosophy, Dublin.
J. S. Kill. Miss Helen Taylor, Editor of "The Works of
Buckle," &c.
Mansel. Rev. J. H. Huckin, D.D., Head Master of Renton.
Adam Smith. Mr. J. A. Farrer, M.A., Author of " Primitive
Manners and Customs/'
. * Digitized by VjOO<jlC
io Sampson Low. Marston. &* Co.'s
English Philosophers, continued: —
Hobbes. Mr. A. H. Gosset, B.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford.
Bentham. Mr. G. E. Buckle, M. A., Fellow of All Souls', Oxford.
Austin. Mr. Harry Johnson, B.A., late Scholar of Queen's
College, Oxford.
Hartley. ") Mr. E. S. Bowen, B. A., late Scholar of New College,
James Mill.] Oxford.
£SS£T }**■»*""»•
Erchomenon ; or. The Republic of Materialism. Small post
8vo, cloth, $s.
Erema; or, My Father's Sin. See Blackmore.
Eton. See " Day of my Life," " Out of School," " About Some
Fellows."
Evans (C.) Over the Hills and Far Away. By C. Evans.
One Volume, crown 8vo, cloth extra, \os. 6d.
A Strange Friendship. Crown 8vo, cloth, $s.
"PAMILY Prayers for Working Men. By the Author of
*• " Steps to the Throne of Grace." With an Introduction by the
Rev. E. H. Bickersteth, M.A. Cloth, is. ; sewed, 6d.
JPetn Paradise {The): A Pleaforthe Culture of Ferns. By F. G.
Heath. New Edition, entirely Rewritten, Illustrated with Eighteen
full-page, numerous other Woodcuts, including 8 Plates of Ferns and
Four Photographs, large post 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, I2J. 6d. Sixth
Edition. In 12 Parts, sewn, is. each.
"This charming Volume will not only enchant the Fern-lover, but will also
please and instruct the general reader."— Spectator.
Fern World (The). By F. G. Heath. Illustrated by Twelve
Coloured Plates, giving complete Figures (Sixty-four in all) of every
Species of British Fern, printed from Nature ; by several full-page
Engravings. Cloth, gilt, 6th Edition, 12s. 6d. In 12 parts, u. each.
" Mr. Heath has really given us good, well-written descriptions of our native
Ferns, with indications of their habitats, the conditions under which they grow
naturally, and under which they may be cultivated." — Athencatm.
Few (A) Hints on Proving Wills. Enlarged Edition, is.
First Steps in Conversational French Grammar. By F. Julien.
Being an Introduction to "Petites Lecons de Conversation et de
Grammaire," by the same Author. Fcap. 8vo, 128 pp., is.
Five Years in Minnesota. By Maurice Farrar, M.A.
Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
Flooding of the Sahara (The). See Mackenzie.
Food for the People ; or, Lentils and other Vegetable Cookery.
By E. E. Orlebar. Third Thousand. Small post 8vo, boards, is,
m^ Digitized by VjOOQ iC
List of Publications. *i
A FooVs Errand. By One of the Fools. Crown 8vo, cloth
extra, 5j.
Footsteps of the Master. See Stowe (Mrs. Beecher).
Forbidden Land (A) : Voyages to the Corea. By G. Oppert.
Numerous Illustrations and Maps. Demy 8vo, cloth extra, 21s.
Four Lectures on Electric Induction. Delivered at the Royal
Institution, 1878-9. By J. E. H. Gordon, B.A. Cantab. With
numerous Illustrations. Cloth limp, square i6mo, $s.
Foreign Countries and the British Colonies. Edited by F. S.
Pulling, M.A., Lecturer at Queen's College, Oxford, and formerly
Professor at the Yorkshire College, Leeds. A Series of small Volumes
descriptive of the principal Countries of the World by well-known
Authors, each Country being treated of by a Writer who from
Personal Knowledge is qualified to speak with authority on the Subject.
The Volumes will average 180 crown 8vo pages, will contain Maps,
and, in some cases, a few typical Illustrations.
The following Volumes are in preparation :—
Denmark and Iceland.
Russia.
Canada.
Greece.
Persia.
Sweden and Norway.
Switzerland.
Japan.
The West Indies.
Austria.
Peru.
New Zealand.
Franc {Maude Jeane). The following form one Series, small
post 8vo, in uniform cloth bindings : —
Emilys Choice. 5$.
Hairs Vineyard. 4s.
John's Wife : a Story of Life in South Australia. 4s.
Marian ; or, the Light of Some One's Home. 5$.
Silken Cords and Iron Fetters. 4s.
Vermont Vale. 5^.
Minnie's Mission. 4s.
Little Mercy. 55.
Beatrice Melton. 4s.
Friends and Foes in the Transkei: An Englishwoman's Experi-
ences during the Cape Frontier War of 1877-8. By Helen M.
Prichard. Crown 8vo, cloth, iar. 6d.
Froissart (The Boy's). Selected from the Chronicles of Eng-
land, France, Spain, &c. By Sidney Lanier. The Volume will
be fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo, cloth, ys. 6d.
Funny Foreigners and Eccentric Englishmen. 16 coloured
comic Illustrations for Children, Fcap. folio, coloured wrapper, 4*.
Digitized by VjOOQic
i a Sampson Low, Mars/on, 6* Co.'s
SHAMES of Patience. See Cadogan.
Gentle Life (Queen Edition). 2 vols, in 1, small 4to, ioj. Cd.
THE GENTLE LIFE SERIES.
Price dr. each ; or in calf extra, price ior. 6d. ; Smaller Edition, cloth
extra, 2s. 6d.
A Reprint (with the exception of " Familiar Words " and "Other
People's Windows ") has been issued in very neat limp cloth bindings
at 2j. 6d. each.
The Gentle Life. Essays in aid of the Formation of Character
of Gentlemen and Gentlewomen. 21st Edition.
" Deserves to be printed In letters of gold, and circulated in every house."—
Chambers' Journal*
About in the World. Essays by Author of " The Gentle Life."
" It is not easy to open it at any page without finding some handy idea."— Morn-
ing Post.
Like unto Christ. A New Translation of Thomas & Kempis*
" De Imitatione Christi." 2nd Edition.
" Could not be presented in a more exquisite form, for a more sightly volume was
never seen." — Illustrated London News.
Familiar Words. An Index Verborum, or Quotation Hand-
book. Affording an immediate Reference to Phrases and Sentences
that have become embedded in the English language. 3rd and
enlarged Edition, dr.
"The most extensive dictionary of quotation we have met with.**— Notes and
Queries.
Essays by Montaigne. Edited and Annotated by the Author
of ' * The Gentle Life. n With Portrait. 2nd Edition.
" We should be glad if any words of ours could help to bespeak a large circula-
tion for this handsome attractive book. "—Illustrated Times.
The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia. Written by Sir Philip
Sidney. Edited with Notes by Author of " The Gentle Life." 7s. 6d.
"All the best things are retained intact in Mr. Friswell's edition."— Examiner.
Tlie Gentle Life. 2nd Series, 8th Edition.
" There is not a single thought in the volume that does not contribute in some
measure to the formation of a true gentleman." — Daily News.
Tlie Silent Hour: Essays, Original and Selected* By the
Author of ' ' The Gentle Life. " 3rd Edition.
"All who possess 'The Gentle Life ' should own this volume."— Standard.
Half Length Portraits. Short Studies of Notable Persons.
By J. Hain Friswell. Small post Svo, cloth extra, 6s.
Essays on English Writers, for the Self-improvement of
Students in English Literature.
"To all who have neglected to read and study their native literature we would
certainly suggest the volume before us as a fitting introduction."— Examiner.
Digitized by VjOOQLC
List of Publications. 1 3
The Gentle Life Series (continued) : —
Other People's Windows. By J. Hain Friswell. 3rd Edition.
"The chapters are so lively in themselves, so mingled with shrewd views of
human nature, so full of illustrative anecdotes, that the reader cannot fail to be
amused. "— Morning Post.
A Man's Thoughts. By J. Hain Friswell.
German Primer. Being an Introduction to First Steps in
German. By M. T. Preu. 2s. 6d.
Getting On in the World ; or> Hints on Success in Life. By
W. Mathews, LL.D. Small post 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. ; gilt edges, jr. 6d.
Gilpin's Forest Scenery. Edited by f*. G. Heath. Large
post 8vo, with numerous Illustrations. Uniform with "The Fern
World " and ' « Our Woodland Trees. " 1 2s. 6d.
"Those who know Mr. Heath's Volumes on Ferns, as well as his 'Woodland
Trees/ and his little work on ' Burnham Beeches,' will understand the enthusiasm
with which he has executed his task. . . . The Volume deserves to be a favourite
in the boudoir as well as in the library. "—Saturday Review.
Gordon (J. E. If.). See " Four Lectures on Electric Induc-
tion," " Physical Treatise on Electricity," &c.
Gouffi. The Royal Cookery Book. By Jules Gouff^ ; trans-
lated and adapted for English use by Alphonse GoUFFfi, Head
Pastrycook to her Majesty the Queen. Illustrated with large plates
printed in colours. 161 Woodcuts, 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 2/. zr.
Domestic Edition, half-bound, 10s. 6d.
" By far the ablest and most complete work on cookery that has eve been sub-
mitted to the gastronomical world." — Pall Mall Gazette.
Gouraud (Mdlle.) Four Gold Pieces. Numerous Illustrations.
Small post 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. See also Rose Library.
Government of M. Thiers. By Jules Simon. Translated from
the French. 2 vols., demy 8vo, cloth extra, 32 s.
Great Artists. See Biographies.
Greek Grammar. See Waller.
Guizofs History of France. Translated by Robert Black.
Super-royal 8vo, very numerous Full-page and other Illustrations. In
5 vols., cloth extra, gilt, each 24s.
" It supplies a want which has long been felt, and ought to be in the hands of all
students of history." — Times.
— Massoris School Edition. The
History of France from the Earliest Times to the Outbreak of the
Revolution; abridged from the Translation by Robert Black, M.A.,
with Chronological Index, Historical and Genealogical Tables, &c.
By Professor Gustave Masson, B.A., Assistant Master at Harrow
School. With 24 full-page Portraits, and marry other Illustrations.
I vol., demy 8vo, 600 pp., cloth extra, icxr. 6d.
Digitized by VjOOVJ LL
i4 Sampson Low, Marston, &> Co.'s
Guizofs History of England. In 3 vols, of about 500 pp. each,
containing 60 to 70 Full-page and other Illustrations, cloth extra, gilt,
24J. each.
" For luxury of typography, plainness of print, and beauty of illustration, these
volumes, of which but one has as yet appeared in English, will hold their own
against any production of an age so luxurious as our own in everything, typography
not excepted." — Times.
Guyon (Mde.) Life. By Upham. 6th Edition, crown 8vo, 6s.
ZJANDBOOK to the Charities of London. See Low's.
of Embroidery ; which see.
to the Principal Schools of England. See Practical.
Half Hours of Blind Man's Holiday ; or, Summer and Winter
Sketches in Black & White. By W. W. Fenn. 2 vols., cr. 8vo, 24J.
Half Length Portraits. Short Studies of Notable Persons.
By J. Hain Friswell. Small post 8vo, 6s. ; Smaller Edition, 2s. 6d.
Hall (IV. W.) How to Live Long; or, 1408 Health Maxims,
Physical, Mental, and Moral. By W. W. Hall, A.M., M.D.
Small post 8vo, cloth, 2s. Second Edition.
Hans Brinker; or, the Silver Skates. See Dodge.
Have la Vote? A Handy Book for the Use of the People,
on the Qualifications conferring the Right of Voting at County and
Borough Parliamentary Elections. With Forms and Notes. By
T. H. Lewis, B.A., LL.B. Paper, 6V.
Heart of Africa. Three Years' Travels and Adventures in the
Unexplored Regions of Central Africa, from 1868 to 187 1. By Dr.
Georg Schweinfurth. Numerous Illustrations, and large Map*
2 vols., crown 8vo, cloth, i$s.
Heath {Francis George). See "Fern World," " Fern Paradise,"
"Our Woodland Trees," "Trees and Ferns;" "Gilpin's Forest
Scenery," " Burnham Beeches," " Sylvan Spring," &c.
Heber's (Bishop) Illustrated Edition of Hymns. With upwards
of 100 beautiful Engravings. Small 4to, handsomely bound, 7*. 6d.
Morocco, i8j. 6d. and 21s. An entirely New Edition.
Hector Servadac. See Verne. 105. 6d. and 5 s.
Heir of Kilfinnan (The). New Story by W. H. G. Kingston,
Author of " Snoe Shoes and Canoes," " With Axe and Rifle," &c.
With Illustrations. Cloth, gilt edges, *js. 6d.
History and Handbook of Photography. Translated from the
French of Gaston Tissandier. Edited by J. Thomson. Imperial
i6mo, over 300 pages, 70 Woodcuts, and Specimens of Prints by the
best Permanent Processes. Second Edition, with an Appendix by
the late Mr. Henry Fox Talbot. Cloth extra, 6s.
List of Publications. 15
History of a Crime (The) ; Deposition of an Eye-witness. By
Victor Hugo. 4 vols., crown 8vo, 42J. Cheap Edition, 1 vol., 6s.
England. See Guizot.
■ France. See Guizot.
of Russia, ee Rambaud.
Merchant Shipping. See Lindsay.
United States. See Bryant.
Ireland. Standish O'Grady. Vols. I. and II., js. 6d.
each. *
American Literature. By M. C. Tyler. Vols. I.
and II., 2 vols, 8vo, 24*.
History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power. With
several hundred Illustrations. By Alfred Barlow. Royal 8vo,
cloth extra, 1/. $s. Second Edition.
Hitherto. By the Author of" The Gayworthys." New Edition,
cloth extra, $s. 6d. Also, in Rose Library, 2 vols., 2s.
Home oftheEddas. By C. G. Lock. Demy 8vo, cloth, 16s.
How to Live Long. See Hall.
How to get Strong and how to Stay so. By William Blaikie.
A Manual of Rational, Physical, Gymnastic, and other Exercises.
With Illustrations, small post 8vo, 5*.
"Worthy of every one's attention, whether old or young." — Graphic.
Hugo (Victor) "Ninety-Three." Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Toilers of the Sea. Crown 8vo. Illustrated, 6s. ; fancy
boards, 2s. ; cloth, 2s. 6d. ; On large paper with all the original
Illustrations, iOr. 6d.
See " History of a Crime."
Hundred Greatest Men (The). 8 vols., containing 15 to 20
Portraits each, 2Lr. each. See below.
"Messrs. Sampson Low & Co. are about to issue an important 'International'
work, entitled, 'THE HUNDRED GREATEST MEN;' being the Lives and
Portraits of the ioo Greatest Men of History, divided into Eight Classes, each Class
to form a Monthly Quarto Volume. The Introductions to the volumes are to be
written by recognized authorities on the different subjects, the English contributors
being Dean Stanley, Mr. Matthew Arnold, Mr. Froude, and Professor Max
Mt)LLKR: in Germany, Professor Helmholtz; in France, MM. Tains and
Renan ; and in America, Mr. Emerson. The Portraits are to be Reproductions
from fine and rare Steel Engravings."— Academy.
Hygiene and Public Health (A Treatise on). Edited by A. H.
Buck, M.D. Illustrated by numerous Wood Engravings. In 2
royal 8vo vols., cloth, one guinea each.
Hymnal Companion to Book of Common Prayer. See
BlCKERSTETH. •
Google
1 6 Sampson Low, Marston y cV Go's
ILLUSTRATED Text-Books of Art-Education. A Series
■* of Monthly Volumes preparing foi publication. Edited by Edward
J. Poynter, R. A., Director for Art, Science and Art Department
The first Volumes, large crown %vo, cloth, y. 6d. each, will be issued in the
following divisions : —
PAINTING.
Olaaalo and Italian. I French and Spanish.
German, Flemish, and Dutch. | English and American.
ARCHITECTURE.
Olassio and Early Christian. | Oothio, Benaisaanoe, & Modern.
SCULPTURE,
Classic and Oriental. | Renaissance and Modern,
ORNAMENT.
Decoration in Colour. | Architectural Ornament.
//lustrations of China and its People. By J. Thompson
F.R.G.S. Four Volumes, imperial 4to, each 3/. 31.
I?i my Indian Garden. By Phil Robinson. With a Preface
by Edwin A rnold, M. A. , C. S. I. , &c Crown 8vo, limp cloth, y. 6d.
Involuntary Voyage (An). Showing how a Frenchman who
abhorred the Sea was most unwillingly and by a series of accidents
driven round the World. Numerous Illustrations. Square crown
8vo, cloth extra, p. 6d.
Irish Bar. Comprising Anecdotes, Bon-Mots, and Bio-
graphical Sketches of the Bench and Bar of Ireland. By J. Roderick
O'Flanagan, Barrister-at-Law. Crown 8vo, 12s. Second Edition.
^fA CK and yill. By Miss Alcott. Small post 8vo, cloth,
J gilt edges, $s.
Jacquetnart (A.) History of the Ceramic Art. By Albert
Jacquemart. With 200 Woodcuts, 12 Steel -plate Engravings, and
1000 Marks and Monograms. Translated by Mrs. Bury Palliser.
Super-royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 281.
Jimmy s Cruise in tlie Pinafore. See Alcott.
JSAFIRLAND: A Ten Month? Campaign. By Frank N.
•* *" Streatfield, Resident Magistrate in Kaffraria, and Commandant
of Native Levies during the Kaffir War of 1878. Crown 8vo, cloth
extra, Js. 6d.
Keble Autograph Birthday Book (The). Containing on each left-
hand page the date and a selected verse from Keble's hymns.
Imperial Svo, with 12 Floral Chromos, ornamental binding, gilt edges,
i$s.
Google
List of Publications. 1 7
Khedive's Egypt {The); or, The old House of Bondage under
New Masters. By Edwin de Leon. Illustrated. Demy 8vo, &r. 6d.
King's Rifle {The): From the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean;
Across Unknown Countries ; Discovery of the Great Zambesi Affluents,
&c. By Major Serpa Pinto. With 24 full-page an.d about 100
smaller Illustrations, 13 small Maps, and 1 large one. Demy 8vo.
Kingston {W. H G.). See " Snow-Shoes."
Child of the Cavern.
' ' Two Supercargoes.
With Axe and Rifle.
Begum's Fortune.
— — Heir of Kilfinnan.
Dick Cheveley.
JADY
Silverdalis Sweetheart. 6s. See Black,
Lenten Meditations. In Two Series, each complete in itself.
By the Rev. Claude Bosanquet, Author of "Blossoms from the
Bang's Garden." i6mo, cloth, First Series, is.6d. ; Second Series, 2s.
Lentils. See " Food for the People."
Liesegang {Dr. Paul E) A Manual of the Carbon Process of
Photography. Demy 8vo, half-bound, with Illustrations, 4^.
Life and Letters of the Honourable Charles Sumner {27ie).
2 vols., royal 8vo, cloth. Second Edition, 36J.
Lindsay {W. S.) History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient
Commerce. Over 150 Illustrations, Maps and Charts. In 4 vols.,
demy 8vo, cloth extra. Vols. 1 and 2, 2U. ; vols. 3 and 4, 24J. each.
Lion Jack: a Story of Perilous Adventures amongst Wild Men
and Beasts. Showing how Menageries are made. By P. T. Barnum.
With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, price 6s.
Little King; or, the Taming of a Young Russian Count. By
S. Blandy. 64 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, gilt edges, *js. 6d. ; plainer
binding, 5j.
Little Mercy; or, For Better for Worse. By Maude Jeanne
Franc, Author of "Marian,*" "Vermont Vale," &c, &c. Small
post 8vo, cloth extra, 4s, Second Edition.
Long {Col C. ChaillS) Central Africa. Naked Truths of
Naked People : an Account of Expeditions to Lake Victoria Nyanza
and the Maoraka Niam-Niam. Demy 8vo, numerous Illustrations, i&r.
Lost Sir Massingberd. New Edition, crown 8 vo, boards, coloured
wrapper, 2s.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
1 8 Sampson Low, Marston, 6r* Co.'s
Lcmts German Series—
1. The Illustrated German Primer. Being the easiest introduction
to the study of German for all beginners, is,
2. The Children's own German Book. A Selection of Amusing
and Instructive Stories in Prose. Edited by Dr. A. L. Meissner.
Small post 8vo, cloth, is, 6d,
3. The First German Reader, for Children from Ten to
Fourteen. Edited by Dr. A. L. Meissner. Small post 8vo,
cloth, is, 6d.
4. The Second German Header. Edited by Dr. A. L. Meissner.
Small post 8vo, cloth, is, 6d.
Buchheim* s Deutsche Prosa. Two Volumes, sold separately : —
5. Schiller's Prosa. Containing Selections from the Prose Works
of Schiller, with Notes for English Students, By Dr. Buchheim,
Small post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
6. Goethe's Prosa. Selections from the Prose Works of Goethe,
with Notes for English Students. By Dr. Buchheim. Small
post 8vo, 3s. 6d,
Low's International Series of Toy Books, 6d. each; or
Mounted 9n Linen, is.
1. Little Fred and his Piddle, from Asbjornsen's " Norwegian
Fairy Tales."
2. The Lad and the North Wind, ditto.
3. The Pancake, ditto.
Ltrufs Standard Library of Travel and Adventure. Crown 8vo,
bound uniformly in cloth extra, price *js. 6d,
1. The Great Lone Land. By Major W. F. Butler, C.B.
2. The Wild North Land. By Major W. F. Butler, C.B.
3. How I found Livingstone. By H. M. Stanley.
4. The Threshold of the Unknown Region. By C. R. Mark-
ham. (4th Edition, with Additional Chapters, 10s. 6d.)
5. A Whaling Cruise to Baffin's Bay and the Gulf of Boothia.
By A. H. Markham.
6. Campaigning" on the Ozns. By J. A. MacGahan.
7. Akim-foo: the History of a Failure. By Major W. F.
Butler, C.B.
8. Ocean to Ocean. By the Rev. George M. Grant. With
Illustrations.
9. Cruise of the Challenger. By W. J. J. Spry, R.N.
10. Schweinfurth's Heart of Africa. 2 vols., 15*.
11. Through the Dark Continent. By H. M. Stanley, i vol.,
1 2s. 6d.
Digitized by VjOOQLC
List of Publications. 1 9
Low's Standard Novels. Crown 8vo, 6s. each, cloth extra.
My Lady Greensleevea. By Helen Mathers, Authoress of
" Comin* through the Rye," "Cherry Ripe," &c.
Three Feathers. By William Black.
A Daughter of Heth. 13th Edition. By W. Black. With
Frontispiece by F. Walker, A.R.A.
Xilmeny. A Novel. By W. Black.
In Silk Attire. By W. Black.
Lady Silverdale's Sweetheart. By W. Black.
History of a Crime : The Story of the Coup d'foat. By Victor
Hugo.
Alice Lorraine. By R. D. Blackmore.
Lorna Doone. By R. D. Blackmore. 8th Edition.
Oradook Nowell. By R. D. Blackmore.
Clara Vaugrhan. By R. D. Blackmore.
Cripps the Carrier. By R. D. Blackmore.
Erema ; or My Father's Sin. By R. D. Blackmore.
Innocent. By Mrs. Oliphant. Eight Illustrations.
Work. A Story of Experience. By Louisa M. Alcott. Illustra-
tions. See also Rose Library.
The Afghan Knife. By R. A. Sterndale, Author of « Seonee."
A French Heiress in her own Chateau. By the author of " One
Only," " Constantia," &c Six Illustrations.
Ninety-Three. By Victor Hugo. Numerous Illustrations.
My Wife and I. By Mrs. Beecher Stowe.
Wreck of the Grosvenor. By W. Clark Russell.
Elinor Dryden. By Mrs. Macquoid.
Diane. By Mrs. Macquoid.
Poffanuo People, Their Loves and Lives. By Mrs. Beecher
Stowe.
A Golden Sorrow. By Mrs. Cashel Hoey.
Low's Handbook to the Charities of London. Edited and
revised to date by C. Mackeson, F.S.S., Editor of " A Guide to the
Churches of London and its Suburbs," &c is,
"h/TACGAHAN (J. A.) Campaigning on the Oxus } and the
•*> ™- Fall of Khiva. With Map and numerous Illustrations, 4th Edition,
small post 8vo, cloth extra, Js. 6d.
Macgregor {John) "Rob Roy" on the Baltic. 3rd Edition,
small post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
A Thousand Miles in the "Rob Roy" Canoe, nth
Edition, small post 8vo, 2j. 6d.
Digitized by VjOOQLC "*^"
to Sampson Law, Marston, & Co.'s
Macgregor {John) Description of the "Rob Rqy n Canoe, with
Plans, &c, is.
The Voyage Alone in the Yawl "Rob Roy:* New
Edition, thoroughly revised, with additions, small post 8vo, $s.;
boards, 2s. 6d,
Mackenzie (D). The Flooding of t/ie Sahara. By Donald
Mackenzie. 8vo, cloth extra, with Illustrations, ios. 6d.
Macquoid{Mrs.) Elinor Dryden. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.
Diane. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Magazine {Illustrated) for Young People. See " St. Nicholas."
Markham {C. R.) The Threshold of the Unknmvn Region.
Crown 8vo, with Four Maps, 4th Edition. Cloth extra, iQr. 6d.
Maury {Commander) Physical Geography of the Sea, and its
Meteorology. Being a Reconstruction and Enlargement of his former
Work, with Charts and Diagrams. New Edition, crown 8vo, 6s.
Memoirs of Madame de Rbmusat, 1802 — 1 808. By her Grand-
son, M. Paul de Rem us at, Senator. Translated by Mrs. Cash el
Hoey and and Mr. John Lillie. 4th Edition, cloth extra. This
work was written by Madame de Remusat during the time she
was living on the most intimate terms with the Empress Josephine,
and is full of revelations respecting the private life of Bonaparte, and
of men and politics of the first years of the century. Revelations
which have already created a great sensation in Paris. 8vo, 2 vols. 32J.
Men of Mark: a Gallery of Contemporary Portraits of the most
Eminent Men of the Day taken from Life, especially for this publica-
tion, price is. 6d. monthly. Vols. I., II., III., and IV., handsomely
bound, cloth, gilt edges, 2$s. each.
Michael Strogoff. ios. 6d. and 5s. See Verne.
Mitford {Miss). See " Our Village."
Montaigne's Essays. See " Gentle Life Series."
My Brother Jack; or, The Story of Whatdyecallem. Written
by Himself. From the French of Alphonse Daudet. Illustrated
by P. pHiLirpoTEAUX. Imperial i6mo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 7*. 6d. ;
plainer binding, $s.
My Lady Greensleeves. By Helen Mathers, Authoress of
"Comm* through the Rye," "Cherry Ripe," &c. I vol edition,
crown 8vo, cloth, 6j.
Digit
zed by G00gk
List of Publications. 2 1
My Rambles in the New World. By Lucien Biart, Author of
"The Adventures of a Young Naturalist." Numerous full-page
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 7/. 6d. ; plainer
binding, 5*.
Mysterious Island. By Jules Verne. 3 vols., imperial i6mo.
150 Illustrations, cloth gilt, $r. <*/. each ; elaborately bound, gilt
edges, 7*. &/..each. Cheap Edition, with some of the Illustrations,
cloth, gilt, 2j. ; paper, u. each.
ATAPES (Sir G. S., K.C.B) Narrative of a Voyage to the
* V 'Polar Sea during 1875-76, in H.M.'s Ships "Alert "and "Discovery."
By Captain Sir G. S. Nares, R. N. , K. C. B. , F. R.S. Published by per-
mission of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. With Notes on
the Natural History, edited by H. W. Feilden, F.G.S., C.M.Z.S.,
F.R.G.S., Naturalist to the Expedition. Two Volumes, demy8vo, with
numerous Woodcut Illustrations, Photographs, &c. 4th Edition, 2/. 2s.
National Music of the World. By the late Henry F. Chor-
ley. Edited by H. G. Hewlett. Crown 8vo, cloth, 8j. 6d.
" What I have to offer are not a few impressions, scrambled together in the haste
of the moment, but are the result of many years of comparison and experience."—
From the Author's "Prelude.* 1
New Child's Play (A). Sixteen Drawings by E. V. B. Beauti-
fully printed in colours, 4*0, cloth extra, 12s. 6d.
New Guinea (A Pew Months in). By Octavius C. Stone,
F.R.G.S. With numerous Illustrations from the Author's own
Drawings. Crown 8vo, cloth, 12s.
New Ireland. By A. M. Sullivan, M.P. for Louth. 2 vols.,
demy 8vo, 30J. Cheaper Edition, 1 vol., crown 8vo, 8j. 6ii.
New Novels. Crown 8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d. per vol. : —
Mary Anerley. By R. D. Blackmore, Author of " Lonia Doone,"
&c. 3 vols.
The Sisters. By G. Ebers, Author of "An Egyptian Princess."
2 vols., i6mo, 2s. each.
Countess Daphne. By Rita, Authoress of ".Vivienne " and "Like
Dian's Kiss.'* 3 vols.
Sunrise. By W. Black. In 15 Monthly Parts, is. each.
Wait a Year. By Harriet Bowra, Authoress of "A Young
Wife's Story." 3 vols.
Sarah de Beranger. By Jean Ingei.ow. 3 vols.
The Braes of Yarrow. By C. Gibbon. 3 vols.
Elaine's Story. By Maud Sheridan. 2 vols.
Prince Fortune and His Friends. 3 vols.
22 Sampson Low, Marston, &* Co.'s
Noble Words and Noble Duds, Translated from the French of
£. Muller, by Dora Leigh. Containing many Full-page Illustra-
tions by Philifpoteaux. Square imperial iomo, cloth extra, 7*. 6d.
North American Review {The). Monthly, price 2s. 6d.
Notes on Fish and Fishing. By the Rev. J. J. Manley, M.A.
With Illustrations, crown 8yo, cloth extra, leatherette binding, ior. 6d.
Nursery Playmates {Prince of ). 217 Coloured pictures for
Children by eminent Artists. Folio, in coloured boards, 6s.
OBERAMMERGAU Passion Play. See "Art in the
Mountains."
Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Flemings Expedition through
Canada in 1872. By the Rev. George M. Grant. With Illustra-
tions. Revised and enlarged Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, *js. 6d.
Old-Fashioned Girl. See Alcott.
Oliphant {Mrs.) Innocent. A Tale of Modern Life. By Mrs.
OlipiIant, Author of "The Chronicles of Carlingford," &c, &c.
With Eight Full-page Illustrations, small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
On Horseback through Asia Minor. By Capt. Fred Burnaby,
Royal Horse Guards, Author of "A Ride to Khiva." 2 vols.,
8vo, with three Maps and Portrait of Author, 6th Edition, 38J. ;
Cheaper Edition, crown 8vo, ioj. 6d.
Our Little Ones in Heaven. Edited by the Rev. H. Robbins.
With Frontispiece after Sir Joshua Reynolds. Fcap., cloth extra,
New Edition — the 3rd, with Illustrations, $s.
Our Village. By Mary Russell Mitford. Illustrated with
Frontispiece Steel Engraving, and 12 full-page and 157 smaller Cuts
of Figure Subjects and Scenes. Crown 4to, cloth, gilt edges, 21s.
Our Woodland Trees. By F. G. Heath. Large post 8vo,
cloth, gilt edges, uniform with "Fern World " and " Fern Paradise,"
by the same Author. 8 Coloured Plates (showing leaves of every
British Tree) and 20 Woodcuts, cloth, gilt edges, I2j. 6d. Third
Edition.
" The book, as a whole, meets a distinct need ; its engravings are excellent, its
coloured leaves and leaflets singularly accurate, and both author and engraver
appear to have been animated by a kindred love of their subject."Saturday
Review.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
List of Publications. 23
pAINTERS of All Schools. By Louis Viardot, and other
"*• Writers. 500 pp., super-royal 8vo, 20 Full-page and 70 smaller
Engravings, cloth extra, 2$s. A New Edition is issued in Half-
crown parts, with fifty additional portraits, cloth, gilt edges, 3IJ. 6d.
Palliser (Mrs.) A History of Lace, from the Earliest Period.
A New and Revised Edition, with additional cuts and text, upwards
of 100 Illustrations and coloured Designs. 1 vol. 8vo, il. is.
"One of the most readable books of the season ; permanently valuable, always in-
"c" — Times.
teresting, often amusing, and not inferior in all the essentials of a gift book."
• Historic Devices, Badges, and War Cries. 8vo, il. is.
The China Collector's Pocket Companion. With up-
wards of 1000 Illustrations of Marks and Monograms. 2nd Edition,
with Additions. Small post 8vo, limp cloth, 5s.
Petites Leqons de Conversation et de Grammaire: Oral and
Conversational Method; being Lessons introducing the most'Useful
Topics of Conversation, upon an entirely new principle, &c. By
F. Julien, French Master at King Edward the Sixth's School,
Birmingham. Author of "The Student's French Examiner, " "First
Steps in Conversational French Grammar, which see.
Phillips (L.) Dictionary of Biographical Reference. 8vo,
1/. us. 6d.
Photography {History and Handbook of). See Tissandier.
Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. By J. E. H.
Gordon, B.A. With about 200 coloured, full-page, and other
Illustrations. Among the newer portions of the work may be
enumerated : All the more recent investigations on Striae by Spottis-
woode, De la Rue, Moulton, &c. An account of Mr. Crooke's recent
researches. Full descriptions and pictures of all the modern Magnetic
Survey Instruments now used at Kew Observatory. Full accounts of
all the modern work on Specific Inductive^ Capacity, and of the more
recent determination of the ratio of Electric units (v). It is "believed
that in respect to the number and beauty of the Illustrations, the work
will be quite unique. 2 vols., 8vo, 3&r.
Picture Gallery of British Art (The). 38 Permanent Photo-
graphs after the most celebrated English Painters. With Descriptive
Letterpress. Vols. 1 to 5, cloth extra, iSs. each. Vols. 6, 7, and 8,
commencing New Series, demy folio, 3U. (yd.
Pinto (Major Serpa). See " King's Rifle. "
Placita Anglo-Normannica. The Procedure and Constitution of
the Anglo-Norman Courts (William I. — Richard I.), as shown by
Contemporaneous Records. With Explanatory Notes, &c. By M. M.
Bigelow. Demy 8vo, cloth, 21s.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co.'s
Plutarch's Lives. An Entirely New and Library Edition.
Edited by A. H. Clough, Esq. 5 vols., 8vo, 2/. ior. ; half-morocco,
gilt top, 3/. Also in I vol, royal 8vo, 800 pp., cloth extra, i&r.;
half-bound, 2U.
Morals. Unifonn with Clough's Edition of " Lives of
Plutarch." Edited by Professor Goodwin. 5 vols., 8vo, 3/. y.
Poems of the Inner Life. A New Edition, Revised, with many
additional Poems. Small post 8vo, cloth, 5;.
Poganuc People: their Loves and Lives. By Mrs. Beech er
Stowe. Crown 8vo, cloth, dr.
Polar Expeditions. See Koldewey, Markham, MacGahan,
and Nares.
Practical (A) Handbook to the Principal Schools of England.
By C. E. Pascoe. New Edition, crown 8vo, cloth extra, $s. bd.
Prejevalsky (N. M.) From Kulja> across the Tian S/ian to Lob-
no;. Translated by E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S. Demy 8vo,
with a Map. idr.
Prince Rifto ; or, 27ie Four-leaved Shamrock. By Fanny W.
Currey. With 10 Full-page Fac-simile Reproductions of Original
Drawings by Helen O'Hara. Demy 4to, cloth extra, gilt, ior. 6d.
Publishers 9 Circular (The), and General Record of British and
Foreign Literature. Published on the 1st and 15th of every Month, 3</.
DAMP A UD (Alfred). History of Russia, from its Origin
* *■ to the Year 1877. With Six Maps. Translated by Mrs. L. B.
Lang. 2 vols., demy 8vo, cloth extra, 38*.
Recollections of Writers. By Charles and Mary Cowden
Clarke. Authors of " The Concordance to Shakespeare," &c. ;
with Letters of Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt, Douglas Jerrold,
and Charles Dickens ; and a Preface by Mary Cowden Clarke.
Crown 8vo, cloth, ior. 6d.
Reminiscences of the War in 'New Zealand. By Thomas W.
Gudgeon, Lieutenant and Quartermaster, Colonial Forces, N.Z.
With Twelve Portraits. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, ior. 6d.
Remusat (Madame de). See " Memoirs of."
Robinson (Phil). See " In my Indian Garden."
Rochefoucauld s Reflections. Bayard Series, 2s. 6d.
•
List of Publications. 2$
Pogers (S.) Pleasures of Memory. See " Choice Editions of
Choice Books." 2s. 6d.
Pose in Bloom. See Alcott.
Pose Library ( 77te). Popular Literature of all countries. Each
volume, I j. ; cloth, 2s. 6d. Many of the Volumes are Illustrated—
1. Sea-Gun Bock. By Jules San deau. Illustrated.
2. Little Women. By Louisa M. Alcott.
3. Little Women Wedded. Forming a Sequel to "Little Women."
4. The House on Wheels. By Madame de Stolz. Illustrated.
5. Little Men. By Louisa M. Alcott. Dble. vol., 2s. ; cloth, 3*. &/.
6. The Old-Fashioned Girl. By Louisa M. Alcott. Double
• vol., 2j. ; cloth, 3*. 6d.
7. The distress of the Manse. By J. G. Holland.
8. Timothy Titcomb's Letters to Young: People, Single and
Married.
9. Undine, and the Two Captains. By Baron De La Motte
Fouque. A New Translation by F. E. Bunnett. Illustrated.
10. Draxy Miller's Dowry, and the Elder's Wife. By Saxe
Holm.
11. The Four Gold Pieces. By Madame Gouraud. Numerous
Illustrations.
12. Work. A Story of Experience. First Portion. By Louisa M.
Alcott.
13. Beginning Again. Being a Continuation of "Work." By
Louisa M. Alcott.
14. Pieeiola; or, the Prison Flower. By X. B. Saintine.
Numerous Graphic Illustrations.
15. Robert's Holidays. Illustrated.
16. The Two Children of St. Domingo. Numerous Illustrations.
17. Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag.
18. Stowe (Mrs. H, B.) The Pearl of Orr's Island.
19. The Minister's Wooing.
2a Betty's Bright Idea.
21. The Ghost in the Mill.
22. Captain Eidd's Money.
23. We and our Neighbours. Double vol., 2s.
24. ' My Wife and I. Double vol., 2s. ; cloth, gilf, 3/. 6d.
25. Hans Brinker ; or, the Silver Skates.
26. Lowell's My Study Window.
27. Holmes (O. W.) The Guardian Angel.
28. Warner (C. D.) My Summer in a Gardezw
Digitized by VjOOQLC _
26 Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co.'s
The Rose Library, continued: —
29. Hitherto. By the Author of " The Gayworthys." 2 vols. , is. each.
30. Helen's Babies. By their Latest Victim.
3 1. The Barton Experiment. By the Author of " Helen's Babies. "
32. Dred. By Mrs. Beecher Stows. Double vol., 2s. Cloth,
gilt, 3J. 6d.
33. Warner (C. D.) In the Wilderness.
34. Six to One. A Seaside Story.
Russell (JV. If., LL.JD.) The Tour of the Prince of Wales in
India. By W. H. Russell, LL.D. Fully Illustrated by Sydney
P. Hall, M.A. Super-royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 52*. 6d.;
Large Paper Edition, 84J.
CANCTA Christina: a Story of the First Century. By
•^ Eleanor E. Orlebar. With a Preface by the Bishop of Winchester.
Small post 8vo, cloth extra, $s.
Scientific Memoirs: being Experimental Contributions to a
Knowledge of Radiant Energy. By John William Draper, M. D.,
LL.D., Author of "A Treatise on Human Physiology," &c. With
Steel Portrait of the Author. Demy 8vo, cloth, 473 pages, 14J.
Scott (Sir G. Gilbert.) See " Autobiography."
Sea- Gull Rock. By Jules Sandeau, of the French Academy.
Royal i6mo, with 79 Illustrations, cloth extra, gilt edges, "s. 6d.
Cheaper Edition, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. See also Rose Library.
Stonee : Sporting in the Satpura Range of Central India, and in
the Valley of the Nerbudda. By R. A. Sterndale, F.R.G.S. 8vo,
with numerous Illustrations, 21s.
The Serpent Charmer: a Tale of the Indian Mutiny. By
Louis Rousselet, Author of "India and its Native Princes."
Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, *js. 6d. ;
plainer binding, $s.
Shakespeare (The Boudoir). Edited by Henry Cundell
Carefully bracketted for reading aloud ; freed from all objectionable
matter, and altogether free from notes. Price 2s. 6d. each volume,
cloth extra, gilt edges. Contents : — Vol L, Cymbeline— Merchant of
Venice. Each play separately, paper cover, is. Vol. II., As You
Like It— King Lear— Much Ado about Nothing. Vol. III., Romeo
and Juliet— Twelfth Night—King John. The latter six plays sepa-
rately, paper cover, g<£
List of Publications, 27
Shakespeare Key {The). Forming a Companion to "The
Complete Concordance to Shakespeare." By Charles and Mary
Cowden Clarke. Demy 8vo, 800 pp., 21s.
Shooting: its Appliances, Practice, and Purpose. By James
Dalziel Dougall, F.S.A., F.Z.A. Author of "Scottish Field
Sports," &c Crown 8vo, cloth extra, lor. 6d.
"The book is admirable in every way. .... We wish it every success." — Globe.
"A very complete treatise Likely to take high rank as an authority on
shooting/ —Daily News.
Silent Hour ( The). See " Gentle Life Series."
Silver Pitchers. See Alcott.
Simon (yules). See " Government of M. Thiers."
Six to One. A Seaside Story. i6mo, boards, is.
Smith (G.) Assyrian Explorations and Discoveries. By the late
George Smith. Illustrated by Photographs and Woodcuts. Demy
8vo, 6th Edition, i8j.
The Chaldean Account of Genesis. By the late
G. Smith, of the Department of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum.
With many Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth extra, 6th Edition, i6> #
Snow-Shoes and Canoes ; or, the Adventures of a Fur-Hunter
in the Hudson's Bay Territory. By W. H. G. Kingston. 2nd
Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Square crown 8vo, cloth
extra, gilt edges, Js. 6d. ; plainer binding, 5*.
Songs and Etchings in Shade and Sunshine. By J. "E. G.
Illustrated with 44 Etchings. Small 4to, cloth, gilt tops, 25J.
South Kensington Museum. Monthly is. See "Art Treasures."
Stanley (H. M.) How I Found Livingstone. Crown 8vo, cloth
extra, Js. 6d. ; large Paper Edition, ioj. 6d.
"My Kalulu" Prince, King, and Slave. A Story
from Central Africa. Crown 8vo, about 430 pp. , with numerous graphic
Illustrations, after Original Designs by the Author. Cloth, *js. 6d.
Coomassie and Magdala. A Story of Two British
Campaigns in Africa. Demy 8vo, with Maps and Illustrations, 16s.
Through the Dark Continent, which see.
St. Nicholas Magazine. 4to, in handsome cover, is. monthly.
Annual Volumes, handsomely bound, i£r. Its special features are,
the great variety and interat of it* literary contents, and the beauty
«8 Sampson Low, Marston, &> Co.'s
and profuseness of its Illustrations, which surpass anything yet
attempted in any publication 'or young people, and the stories are by
the best living authors of juvenile literature. Each Part contains, on
an average, 50 Illustrations.
Story without an End. From the German of Carov£, by the late
Mrs. Sarah T. Austin. Crown 4to, with 15 Exquisite Drawings
by E. V. B., printed in Colours in Fac-simile of the original Water
Colours ; and numerous other Illustrations. New Edition, p. 6d.
square 4to, with Illustrations by Harvey. 2s. 6d.
Stoive (Mrs. Beecher) Dred. Cheap Edition, boards, 2s. Cloth,
gilt edges, 3J. 6d.
Footsteps of the Master. With Illustrations and red
borders. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
Geography, with 60 Illustrations. Square cloth, 4s. 6d.
Little Foxes, Cheap Edition, is.; Library Edition,
4?. 6d.
Betty's Bright Idea. is.
My Wife and I ; or, Harry Hendersons History.
Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s*
Minister's Wooing. 5^.; Copyright Series, is. 6d.; cl., 2s*
Old Town Folk. 6s.) Cheap Edition, 2s. 6d.
Old Town Fireside Stories. Cloth extra, 31. 6d.
Our folks at Poganuc. 10s. 6d.
We and our Neighbours. 1 vol., small post 8vo, 6s.
Sequel to "My Wife and I."*
> Pink and WJiite Tyranny. Small post 8vo, 3-r. 6d. ;
Cheap Edition, is. 6d. and zs.
Queer Little People, is. \ cloth, 2s.
Chimney Corner, is. ; cloth, is. 6d.
The Pearl of Or^s Island. Crown 8vo, $s*
Little Pussey Willow. Fcap., 2s.
•*,„/«, Rose Library.
List of Publications. 29
Stowe {Mrs. Beecher) Woman in Sacred History. Illustrated
with 15 Chrorao-lithographs and about 200 pages of Letterpress.
Demy 4to, cloth extra, gilt edges, 25*.
Student's French Examiner. By F. Julien, Author of " Petites
Lecons de Conversation et deGrammaire." Square crown 8vo, cloth, 2s.
Studies in German Literature. By Bayard Taylor. Edited
by Marie Taylor. With an Introduction by the Hon. George
H. Boker. 8vo, cloth extra, ior. 6d.
Studies in the Theory of Descent By Dr. Aug. Weismann,
Professor in the University of Freiburg. Translated and edited by
Raphael Meldola, F.C.S., Secretary of the Entomological Society
of London. Part I. — " On the Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies,
containing Original Communications by Mr. W. H. Edwards, of
Coalburgh. With two Coloured PJates. Price of Part. I. (to Sub-
scribers for the whole work only) &f 5 Part II. (6 coloured plates), i&f. ;
Part III., 6s.
Sugar Beet {The). Including a History of the Beet Sugar
Industry in Europe, Varieties of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils,
Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting,
Transportation, Conservation, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of
the Pulp, &c. By L. S. Ware. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth extra, 21;.
Sullivan {A. M., M.P.). See " New Ireland."
Sulphuric Acid (A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of).
By A. G. and C. G. Lock, Consulting Chemical Engineers. With
77 Construction Plates, and other Illustrations.
Sumner {lion. Charles). See Life and Letters.
Sunrise: A Story of These Times. By William Black,
Author of "A Daughter of Heth," &c. To be published in 15
Monthly Parts, commencing April 1st, is. each.
Surgeon's Handbook on the Treat?nent of Wounded in War. By
Dr. Friedrich Esmarch, Professor of Surgery in the University of
Kiel, and Surgeon-General to the Prussian Army. Translated by
H. H. Clutton, B.A. Cantab, F.R.C.S. Numerous Coloured
Plates and Illustrations, 8vo, strongly bound in flexible leather, 1/. &r.
Sylvan Spring. By Francis George Heath. Illustrated by
12 Coloured Plates, drawn by F. E. Hulme, F.L.S., Artist and
Author of " Familiar Wild Flowers;" by 16 full-page, and more than
100 other Wood Engravings. Large post 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, I2x. 6d.
30 Sampson Low, Marston, 6* Co.'s
^AUCHNITZS English Editions of German Authors.
■^ Each volume, cloth flexible, 2s. ; or sewed, is. 6d. (Catalogues post
free on application.)
(£.) German and English Dictionary. Cloth, is. 6d.;
roan, 2s,
French and English. Paper, is. 6d. ; cloth, 2s. ; roan,
2s. 6d.
Italian and English. Paper, is. 6d. ; cloth, 2s. ;
roan, 2s. 6d.
Spanish and English. Paper, is. 6d. ; cloth, 2S. ; roan,
2s. 6d.
New Testament. Cloth, 2s. ; gilt, 2*. 6d.
Taylor {Bayard). See " Studies in German Literature,"
Textbook (A) of Harmony. For the Use of Schools and
Students. By the late Charles Edward Horsley. Revised for
the Press by Westlet Richards and W. H. Calcott. Small post
8vo, cloth extra, y. 6d.
Through the Dark Continent ; The Sources of the Nile; Around
the Great Lakes, and down the Congo. By Henry M. Stanley.
2 vol*., demy 8vo, containing 150 Full-page and other Illustrations,
2 Portraits of the Author, and 10 Maps, 42s. Seventh Thousand.
Cheaper Edition, crown 8vo, with some of the Illustrations and Maps.
1 vol., 12s. 6d.
Tour of the Prince of Wales in India. Sec Russell.
Trees and Ferns. By F. G. Heath. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt
edges, with numerous Illustrations, 3J. 6d.
"A charming little volume.'* — Land and Water.
Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in the Russian Provinces of
Central Asia and the Khanates of Bokhara and Kokand. By Eugene
Schuyler, Late Secretary to the American Legation, St. Petersburg.
Numerouslllustrations. 2 vols, 8vo, cloth extra, 5th Edition, 2/. 2s.
Two Friends. By Lucien Biart, Author of "Adventures of
a Young Naturalist," " My Rambles in the New World," &c Small
post 8vo, numerous Illustrations, gilt edges, 7/. 6d. ; plainer binding, 5*.
Two Supercargoes {The) ; or, Adventures in Savage Africa.
By W. H. G. Kingston. Numerous Full-page Illustrations. Square
imperial i6mo, cloth extra, gilt edges, Js. od. ; plainer binding, $s.
TJP &*& Down ; or, Fifty Years' Experiences in Australia,
**y California, New Zealand, India, China, and the South Pacific.
Being the Life History of Capt. W. J. Barry. Written by Himself.
With several Itlusteations. Crown Svo, elbth extra, St. 6d.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
