Full text of "GREGORIAN CHANC"

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INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS

BLOOMINGTON

nostrum, f.j;

*, - *

(I Corinthians 5:

Contents

Preface and Acknowledgment xi

Bibliography xiii

PART 1 THE LITURGY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
ONE Definition and Terminology 3

TWO The Structure of the Liturgy 6

The Liturgical Year 6 The Liturgical Day 13 The Liturgical Books 15
Ordinary and Proper 17 The Office Hours 19 The Mass 23 Exceptional
Masses 28

THREE Origin and Development to c. 600 33

The Pre-Christian Roots 34 Historical Data from the First to the Eighth
Centuries 38 From the First Century to c. 380 43 From Damasus to
Gregory 46

FOUR The Development after 600 51

The Sources 51 The Cycle of Feasts 56 The Mass Formularies 61 The
Music 74

PART 2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE CHANT

ONE The Texts 87

The Psalms 87 Psalm Verses 89 Non-psalmodic Texts 95

TWO The Notation 99

The Standard Notation 100 The Basic Neumes The Liquescent Neumes
The Repercussive Neumes The Early Neumes 108 The Development of
Neumatic Notation 118 The Notation of the Solesmes Books 123 The
Problem of Rhythm 126

THREE The Tonality 133

The Church Modes 133 Modal Classification and Distribution 137 Modal
Characteristics of the Melodies 140 The Regular Chants Limited Range
Excessive Range The B-flat Transposition Modal Ambiguity

vii

FOUR Methods and Forms of Psalmody 179

Direct Psalmody 179 Responsorial Psalmody 180 Antiphonal Psalmody
185 Questions of Performance 196

PART 3 STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

ONE The Liturgical Recitative 201

General Observations 201 The Tones for the Readings and Prayers 203
The Psalm Tones 208 Psalm Tones and Psalm Texts 214 Psalm Tones
and Antiphons 217 The Tones of the Canticles 226 The Tones for the
Introits 228 The Tones for the Great Responsories 234 The Tones of
the Invitatory Psalm 241 The Short Responsories 244

TWO The Free Compositions: General Aspects 246

Characteristics of Melodic Design 247 Total Range Phrase Structure
Melodic Progressions Repetition of Melodic Units Cadences Melody
and Text 266 Textual and Melodic Phrases The Textual Accent The
Sustaining (Melismatic) Accent The Tonic Accent The Cursus Expres-
sion, Moody Word-Painting

THREE The Free Compositions According to Types 305

The Introits 305 The Communions 311 The Tracts 312 The Tracts of
the Eighth Mode The Tracts of the Second Mode The Great Respon-
sories 330 The Responsories of Mode st The Responsories of Mode 8
The Other Responsories The Graduals 344 The Graduals of Mode 5
The Graduals of Mode x The Graduals of Modes 3 and 4 The Graduals
of Modes 7 and 8 The Gradual-Type Justus ut Palma The Offertories
363 The Alleluias 375 The Antiphons 392 The Chants of the Mass Or-
dinary 405 The Kyrie The Gloria The Credo The Sanctus The
Agnus Dei The Mass Ordinary as a Cycle The Hymns 421 The Tropes
429 The Textual Tropes The Textual-Musical Tropes The Musical
Tropes The Sequences 442

FOUR Ambrosian Chant by Roy Jesson 465

The Liturgical Year 467 The Liturgical Day 468 The Psalm Tones 470
The Office Chants 472 The Ordinary Chants of the Mass 475 The Proper
Chants of the Mass 476 Modality 480 Concluding Remarks 481

FIVE The Old-Roman Chant by Robert J. Snow 484

The Sources for the Mass Chants 485 The Introits 487 The Communions
489 The Offertories 490 The Graduals 492 The Tracts 494 The Al-
leluias 496 The Sources for the Office Chants 499 The Responsories 500
The Antiphons 502 The Problem of Chronology 503

CONCLUSION: Prolegomena to a History of Gregorian Style 507
Index 517

viii

Plates

following page

I St. Gall 552

II St. Gall 552

III Chartres 47

IV London, Brit. Mus. Egerton 85?
V Paris, Bibl. nat. lat. 776

VI Montpellier, BibL de Tficole Md. H.

VII Rome, Vatican Libr. lat. 5319

VIII Paris, Bibl. nat. lat.

Text Figures are listed under subject entries in Index.

Preface and Acknowledgment

BY WAY OF GENERAL PREFACE it will suffice to say that I have tried
to put on the reader's table what the Apostle calls "the unleavened bread
of sincerity and truth," cleansed from, or at least clearly separated from,
the "sour dough" of conjecture and imagination. That the latter is an
important ingredient of our spiritual and scientific nourishment, nobody
will deny; but it is equally undeniable that it has often been added in
greater quantity than is wholesome. At any rate, the reader is entitled to
know what kind of food he is being given.

My first, and main acknowledgment is due Peter Wagner, the great
scholar who, in his Einfilhrung in die Gregorianischen Melodien, laid the
foundation for so many studies of Gregorian chant, including the one
presented here. Considering the fact that he called his three-volume pub-
lication an Einfuhrung, I feel rather apologetic about the title, Gregorian
Chant, chosen for this much smaller book. I wanted to avoid any such
designation as "Introduction to Gregorian Chant," which would have put
it on the same level with Wagner's standard work. Since I could not very
well call it an "Introduction to the Introduction," I had to resign myself
to giving it a name it hardly deserves.

In the second place, I wish to express my gratitude to Father Simeon
Daly, librarian of the Archabbey of St. Meinrad, Indiana, who not only
has very kindly welcomed me to his library but also, time and again, has
sent me much-needed books and even brought them personally to my home.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Robert J. Snow
who, because of his former association with St. Meinrad, was in a position
to give me valuable help in matters primarily of a liturgical character. He
has also been of great assistance in taking care of many of the hundreds
of details that go into the preparation of a book.

The librarian of the Benedictine Abbey of Solesmes has sent me photo-
graphs for the plates included in this book. I wish to express my sincere
thanks for his cooperation.

The publishing house of Desctee and Co., Printers to the Holy See and
the Sacred Congregation of Rites, have kindly given the permission to

Xll GREGORIANCHANT

take illustrations from their publications. For reasons which will become
apparent to the reader, I have not reproduced the rhythmic signs which
distinguish their books.

I am very glad to include in this book two chapters that are closely re-
lated to its main topic, and which put many of its aspects and problems
into a new perspective: the chapter on Ambrosian chant contributed by
Professor Roy H. Jesson, and that on Old-Roman chant written by Mr.
Robert J. Snow, both of whom have studied at Indiana University. I hope
that the results of their research will be as interesting to the readers as
they were to me.

No true admirer of Gregorian chant can help looking with dismay at
present trends toward providing organ accompaniments for the liturgical
melodies. This practice, although ostensibly meant to promote the chant,
is actually bound to destroy it. To what extent it has dulled the minds of
"those that should hear" became clear to me during a conversation with a
group of young seminarists, whom I met in a train several years ago. When
I mentioned my interest in Gregorian chant, one of them said, his face
radiant with delight, "Oh, Gregorian chant is so wonderful in our church;
we have an organist who makes it sound like Debussy." I know that it does
not always sound like that. In another church it may sound more like
Vaughan Williams, and elsewhere like parallel organum* Invariably it will
sound like "something" other than what it really is and what it should be.
Moreover, the very variety of possibilities inherent in this practice is bound
to weaken the catholicity of one of the most precious possessions of the
Catholic Church, I have no right to voice an opinion in matters pertaining
to the Church, but I am saddened to see a venerable tradition, which has
been restored to new life after centuries of neglect and indifference, sub-
jected once more to destructive practices.

WILLI APEL
Indiana University
January i$$8

Bibliography

ABBREVIATION

ACI

AMM

AnaL hymn.

HAM

HDM

LVM

MD
MGG

Nombre

TITLE

Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae . . . , Tour-

nai, 1949 (Descle, No. 820).

Actes du Congrts International de Musique Sacrie,

Rome, 1950 (also Atti del Congresso . . .), Tournai, 1952.

Antiphonale monasticum pro diurnis horis . , . , Tournai,

1934 (Desctee, No. 818).

Antiphonale missarum juxta ritum Sanctae Ecclesiae

Mediolanensis, Rome, 1935.

Analecta hymnica medii aevi, ed. by G. M. Dreves and

Clemens Blume, 55 vols., Leipzig, 1886-1922.

Coussemaker, Charles Edmond Henri. Scriptorum de

musica medii aevi nova series, 4 vols., Paris, 1864-76.

Graduate Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae . . . , Tournai,

1945 (Desctee, No. 696).

Gerbert, Martin. Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica, 3 vols.,

St. Blasien, 1784. Facsimile edition, Milan, 1931.

Davison, A, T., and Willi Apel. Historical Anthology of

Music, vol. I, Cambridge, 1946.

Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cambridge,

Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch, Regensburg, 1885-1932;

Cologne, 1950- .

Liber usualis with Introduction and Rubrics in English,

Tournai, 1950 (Desctee, No. 801).

Liber responsorialis . . . juxta ritum monasticum, Solesmes,

1895-

Liber vesperalis juxta ritum Sanctae Ecclesiae Mediolan-

ensis, Rome, 1939.

Musica Disciplina, Rome, 1948*

Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, ed. by F. Blume,

Kassel, 1949-

Mocquereaii, Dom Andr^. Le Nombre musical grigorien,

vols., Tournai, 1908, 1927.

xiii

XIV GREGORIAN CHANT

Ott Ott, C. Offertoriale sive versus offertoriorum, Tournai,

1935-
PaLmus. PaUographie musicale, 17 vols., Solesmes, 1889-1925.

Migne, Jacques Paul. Patrologiae cursus completes.
Pair. gr. Series Graeca, 166 vols., Paris, 1857-66.

Pair. lat. Series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-55.

PM Processionale monasticum, Solesmes, 1893.

Ross. Greg. Rassegna gregoriana, Rome, 1902-14.

RCG Revue du chant grggorien, Grenoble, 1892-1939.

JR.G Revue gregorienne, Tournai, Rome, 1911-

Sextuplex Hesbert, Dom R.-J. Antiphonale missarum sextuple*,

Paris, 1935.

TG Tribune de St. Gervais, Paris, 1895-1929.

VP Variae preces ex liturgia . . . collectae, Solesmes, 1901.

Wagner, Peter, Einfuhrung in die gregorianischen Melo-
dien, 3 vols., Leipzig,

Wagner 1 I: Ursprung und Entwicklung der liturgiscken Gesangs-

formen f 1895; second edition, 1901; third edition, 1911.
Translation of the second edition, Origin and Develop-
ment of the Forms of the Liturgical Chant > London,
1907 (references are to the English edition),
Wagner II II: Neumenkunde, 1905; second edition, 1912 (refer*

ences are to the second edition).
Wagner III III: Gregorianische Formenlehre, 1921.

OTHER BOORS FREQUENTLY MENTIONED

Duchesne, L. M. O. Christian Worship, Its Origin and Evolution, London,

Ferretti, Paolo. Esthttique grtgoriennc, Tournai, 1938*

Gastou, Am&Ie'e. Cours thtorique et pratique de chant grtgorien, second

edition, Paris, 1917.

- . Les Origines du chant romain, Paris, 1907.

Gevaert, Francois Auguste. La Mttopde antique dans le chant de I'Jglise latine,

Paris, 1917.
Sufiol, Dom Gregory. Introduction a la pattographie musicale grjgorienne,

Tournai, 1935.

For additional bibliography see Gustave Reese, Music in the Middle Ages (New
York, 1940), pp. 431-45, and tie article "Choral" in MGG.

NOTE: Page references without letter indication, e.g. [234]* refer to the Liber
usualis (see above, ).

The Liturgy

audits
Development

CHAPTER ONE

Definition and Terminology

;HE SUBJECT of this book is the traditional music of the Roman
Catholic Church. Nowhere in music history is the term "tradi-
tional" more in place than in connection with this music which, rooted in
the pre-Christian service of the Jews, adopted distinctive characteristics
as early as the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era, was fully
developed in the seventh century, expanded during the ensuing four hun-
dred years, deteriorated in the sixteenth century, was restored in the late
nineteenth century, and is used at present in essentially the same form it
had about a thousand years ago.

While the first half of the two-thousand years' life of the chant was a
period of continuous growth and all-embracing vitality, its existence dur-
ing the second half was not without vicissitudes. From about 1000 on, poly-
phonic music, its own offspring, began to challenge the sovereignty of its
parent and, beginning with the fifteenth century, organ music became a
successful competitor. Even more detrimental were ideas, arising in the
sixteenth century, which led to a revision of the old melodies, a revision
actually amounting to a complete distortion of their essential qualities. In
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries what went under the name of
"Gregorian chant" was only a shadow of its former self, and in the nine-
teenth century the whole tradition was threatened with extinction. For-
tunately, rescue came from a group of scholars, mostly French, who devoted
themselves to a study of the medieval manuscripts and immediately realized
the supreme importance of their contents* One of the first in this group
was L. Lambillotte, whose ideas were adopted and brought to final suc-
cess by the monks of Solesmes. Owing to their endeavor an endeavor which
is no less a credit to musicology than the rediscovery of Bach, Palestrina,
Schiitz, or Monteverdi the old tradition was brought to new life and, in
1903, was officially adopted by the Roman Church through a decree of
Pope Pius X, a decree which may well be said to mark the beginning of
the third millennium of Gregorian chant.

What is the meaning of this term? Chant is the generic designation for

4 GREGORIAN CHANT

a body of traditional religious music, such as Hindu chant, Jewish chant,
Byzantine chant, Russian chant, etc. Different though these various reper-
tories are, they have one trait in common, that is, the purely melodic
character of the music or, in other words, the absence of harmony, counter-
point or any other kind of accompaniment, especially instrumental. The
performance is exclusively vocal, either by one singer or by several singing
in unison. In this respect chant is similar to folksong, from which, how-
ever, it differs in the rhythmic aspect, since it usually lacks the principle
of strict meter and measure commonly found in folksong.

The designation "Gregorian," generally used for the chant of the Roman
Church, refers to Pope Gregory I, who ruled from 590 to 604, and who is
generally believed to have played a decisive role in the final arrangement
of the chants, each of which he (or rather, those to whom he had entrusted
the task) assigned to a specific occasion of the liturgical year, according to
a broadly conceived plan. True enough, the appropriateness of the term
"Gregorian" can be (and has been) questioned. A first disadvantage of this
term is that, strictly speaking, it excludes the early development leading
up to the period of Gregory as well as the changes and additions that oc-
curred later. Thus, some of the best-known items of the chant, the Kyrie,
Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei of the Mass, are post-Gregorian.
Moreover, Gregory's role in the development of the chant, as outlined
above, is not certain beyond doubt and, in fact, has become highly ques-
tionable in the light of recent discoveries and investigations which make it
probable that the repertory, as we know it today, was actually formed after
Gregory. However, this does not necessarily mean that the "Gregorian
legend" is entirely without foundation. It is possible that Gregory at least
gave a decisive impetus and clear directions for a work that came to its
fulfilment some time after him. Thus, even from the point of view of our
present knowledge, the term "Gregorian chant" could be defended, and
may well be retained, provided its ramifications are understood.

Some scholars, however, prefer to use the term "Roman chant/* which
has the advantage of implying nothing but the incontestable fact of the
chant's intimate connection with the Church of Rome, thu$ distinguishing
it from other bodies of Christian chant: e.g,, Mozarabic, Milanese (Am-
brosian), or Byzantine. Actually, this term is also open to criticism insofar
as it cairies the connotation not only of "Roman usage" but also of "Ro-
man origin." Recent investigations have made it highly probable that the
latter connotation is not correct. The repertory in question developed
mainly in France and was not adopted in Rome until the thirteenth cen-
tury, superseding an earlier repertory which could more properly be called
"Roman" or even "Gregorian." 1

Yet another term, documented as early as the tenth century and uni-

1 For a fuller explanation of this question, see pp.

Definition and Terminology 5

versally employed in the later Middle Ages, is cantus planus? surviving
in the French plain-chant and in English plain song. German writers fre-
quently use the term Gregorianischer Choral.

Gregorian (or Roman) chant is one of several branches of Christian
chant that developed in the Western part of Europe, probably all out of
one and the same archetype characterized, first of all, by the use of the
Latin language. Originally, the official language of the Church, even in
Rome, was Greek, and it was not until the third or fourth century that
this was replaced by Latin in the Western part of the Christian world.
Very likely the just-mentioned archetype reverts to this period. Out of it
grew the four branches or, as they are often called, dialects of Western
chant: the Gregorian in Rome, the Ambrosian in Milan, the Gallican in
France, and the Mozarabic (or Visigothic) in Spain. Only scant remnants
of the Gallican chant have come down to us, and the Mozarabic repertory
is preserved only in early manuscripts, the musical notation of which can-
not be accurately read. 8 The Ambrosian as well as the Gregorian repertory,
on the other hand, are fully known to us, and both are in use to the present
day, the former in Milan, the latter in all the other churches of the Roman
Catholic denomination.

Recent scholarship has brought to light yet another dialect of Western
chant, the so-called Old-Roman or City-Roman, a discovery which has shed
new light on the early development of the chant and particularly on the
long-disputed question as to the part that Pope Gregory had in its forma-
tion. This most interesting question will be discussed in a later chapter
[seepp-74ffj.

2 The original meaning of cantus planus was to distinguish a "low chant" (planus,
i.e,, plane, lying flat) from^a cantus acutus t a "high chant." Thus, Oddo of Cluny (d. 942)
employs the term planus synonymously with gravis or humilis, to indicate chants of the
plagal modes: "sin autem planus fuerit cantus, plaga deuteri nominabitur" (GS, I, 59a).
Similarly Guido distinguishes graves et plant from acuti et alti (Micrologus, ch. XII).

s Certain French Mss of Gregorian chant, e.g., the Gradual of St. Yrieix (PaL mus.,
XIII) include a number of melodies that are foreign to the Roman repertory and have
therefore been claimed as Gallican. See A. Gastoue*, Le Chant gallican (1939; also in
RCG f XLI, XLII, XLIII). Of the Mozarabic repertory, only twenty-one pieces are pre-
served in a clearly readable notation. They are transcribed in C. Rojo and G. Prado, El
Canto Mozdrabe (1929), pp.

CHAPTER TWO

The Structure of the Liturgy

GOES without saying that a knowledge of the Roman liturgy,
. at least of its basic aspects, is an indispensable prerequisite for
any study of Gregorian chant, not only from the historical but also from
stylistic and aesthetic points of view. It may be possible to examine or
listen to a chant like the Gradual Haec dies and to admire its beauty
without even knowing what a Gradual is nor to which feast this particular
one belongs. A full understanding, however, of its form, its style, its musi-
cal values and significance cannot be gained without a knowledge of
its liturgical function, and its relationship to other chants. To consider
Gregorian chant as a "purely musical" discipline would involve the stu-
dent in the same difficulties which, for a long time and occasionally even
now, have beset philologists who considered the songs of the troubadours
and Minnesingers as a "purely literary" affair, completely disregarding
their intimate connection with music. It is therefore only natural that our
study should begin with an explanation of liturgical matters, insofar as
they have a bearing upon our main subject.

THE LITURGICAL YEAR

The calendar of the Roman Church includes a great number of feasts,
and these fall into two main categories: the Feasts of the Lord and the
Feasts of the Saints. We shall first consider the former category, known as
Proper of the Time (Proprium de Tempore, Temporal*)* "Time" mean-
ing the time of the Lord. It includes all the Sundays as well as the special
feasts commemorating the events of His life, His birth, death, resurrection,
etc.

The year of the Church starts, not with New Year, but with the First
Sunday of Advent; that is, with the first of the four Sundays preceding
Christmas (Nativity) which constitute a period in preparation for the
arrival (L. adventus) of Christ. All the liturgical books, Gradual, Anti-
phonal, Breviary, Liber iLsualis, etc., open with the chants or prayers for

The Structure of the Liturgy 7

the First Sunday of Advent. 1 Beginning with this day, the year can be
divided into four periods: the first centering around the Nativity, the sec-
ond leading up to Easter, the third leading up to Pentecost, and the fourth
comprising the rest of the year.

The Christmas period continues with the Second, Third, and Fourth
Sunday of Advent, the last being preceded by the Ember Week of Advent.
In this week three days Wednesday,. Friday, and Saturday are set apart
for fasting and prayer. Altogether there are four such Ember Weeks [L.
Quatuor Temporum], one in each of the four seasons of the calendar yean
Only the Saturdays of these weeks are represented in the Liber usualis, the
Wednesdays and Fridays being found in the Gradual and the Antiphonal 2
After the Fourth Sunday of Advent comes the Nativity of Our Lord (Christ-
mas) on December 25, which is followed, a week later, by the Circumcision
of Our Lord on January i and, on January 6, by the Epiphany, which com-
memorates the adoration of the Magi (Three Holy Kings). The Sundays
after Christmas are: Sunday within the Octave 8 of Christmas, Sunday be-
tween Circumcision and Epiphany, Sunday within the Octave of the
Epiphany, and Second (Third, etc.) Sunday after the Epiphany. In the
seventeenth century two feasts were introduced: that in honor of the Most
Holy Name of Jesus, and the feast of the Holy Family. The first of these
falls on the Sunday between the Circumcision and the Epiphany or, if no
Sunday occurs between these two feasts, on January 2. The second falls
on the Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany. The traditional for-
mulary for this Sunday is transferred to one of the following week days.

The second period starts with Septuagesima Sunday, that is, the ninth
Sunday before Easter. Since Easter is a variable feast, whose date depends
upon the moon, 4 the beginning of this period varies accordingly from as
early as January 18 to as late as February 21. As a consequence, the number
of Sundays after Epiphany varies from a minimum of one to a maximum of
six. Septuagesima Sunday is followed by Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, and
Quadragesima Sunday. 5 The Wednesday before Quadragesima Sunday is

1 The earliest liturgical books, Sacramentaries and Lectionaries, start with the Nativity.

2 Except for the Ember Wednesday and Ember Friday after Pentecost. See the table on
pp. iif.

3 Octave means either the eighth day after a feast or the entire week, with daily com-
memorations.

* Easter is the first Sunday after the full moon that falls on or next after the twenty-
first of March.

5 Quadragesima [Lat., the fortieth] is the name for the forty-day period of Lent that
starts with Ash Wednesday. Actually, this period consists of forty-six days (six weeks plus
four days), but is reduced to forty because the six Sundays are excepted from the rule of
fasting. Quadragesima Sunday is correctly named the First Sunday in Quadragesima,
Dominica prima Quadragesimae. Quinquagesima (fiftieth), Sexagesima (sixtieth), and
Septuagesima (seventieth) are designations formed in analogy to Quadragesima. These
Sundays were gradually added, between c, 450 and 600, to the original period of forty

8 GREGORIAN CHANT

Ash Wednesday, the beginning of Lent, the long period of fasting before
Easter. Quadragesima Sunday is therefore also called the First Sunday of
Lent, and is followed by the Second, Third, and Fourth Sunday of Lent.
The liturgical importance of the Lenten period is indicated by the fact
that not only the Sundays but each week day has its individual liturgy and
chants which, however, are found only in the complete books, the Gradual
and the AntiphonaL Between the First and Second Sunday falls the Ember
Week of Lent, represented in the Liber usualis by the Saturday only. After
the Fourth Sunday of Lent the next two Sundays are Passion Sunday and
Palm Sunday, the second of which opens the Holy Week leading to Easter.
This is indeed the most solemn week of the entire liturgical year; each day
is filled with a ritual of steadily increasing importance, elaboration, and
impressiveness, especially Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Sat-
urday. The liturgy for these three days alone fills almost 150 pages in the
Liber usualis. The crowning point is Easter Sunday, celebrating the Resur-
rection of Our Lord. Its miraculous event continues to be commemorated
in daily celebrations during the ensuing week, called Easter Week (Easter
Monday, Easter Tuesday, Wednesday in Easter Week, etc,).

The Saturday of this week marks the beginning of the third period,
called Paschal Time. The next day is Low Sunday, also called Quasimodo
Sunday, after the Introit Quasimodo which opens its Mass. This, being
the first Sunday after Easter, is followed by a Second, Third, Fourth, and
Fifth Sunday after Easter. The next Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
are the Litanies or Rogation Days [L. rogare, to ask, to beg], days of special
supplication which are followed, on Thursday, by the Ascension of Our
Lord. The next Sunday is called Sunday within the Octave of the Ascen-
sion and precedes Whit Sunday (Whitsun Day) or the Feast of Pentecost,
which commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles. Simi-
lar to (and in imitation of) Easter Week, each day of the following week
is celebrated in commemoration of Pentecost* The fact that this is also
an Ember Week explains the varying designations for the single days: Whit
Monday, Whit Tuesday, Ember Wednesday, Thursday in Whitsun Week,
Ember Friday, and Ember Saturday. This is the end of Paschal Time.

The next day is Trinity Sunday, which marks the beginning of the final
period of the year. The last major feast of the Temporal*, Corpus ChristJ,
falls on the Thursday thereafter, and is followed, on Friday of the next
week, by the Feast of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus. The Sundays of
this season are simply numbered as Sundays after Pentecost, Trinity Sun-
day being the first in the series. 6 Since the date of Pentecost varies with

days* See Duchesne, Christian Worship feth ed., 1931), p. *4*; J. Froger, "Les Origins* du
temps de la septuag&ime" (RG, XXVI, 17).

According to an eleventh-century Micrologtts de eccltsiasttcis observationibus [Fair-
lat. 151, p. 1019], the liturgy for the Feast of the Trinity was written by Alfoi&us, i*e>

The Structure of the Liturgy 9

that of Easter it occurs exactly seven weeks after Easter, as Is indicated
by its name which is the Greek word for "the fiftieth" (day) the num-
ber of these Sundays varies from a minimum of twenty-three to a maxi-
mum of twenty-eight, a fluctuation corresponding to that of the Sundays
after Epiphany: the fewer Sundays after Epiphany, the more there are after
Pentecost, and vice versa. In fact, the services for the additional Sundays
after Pentecost are taken from those provided for the last Sundays after
Epiphany [see L 1078]. The regular succession of Sundays in the final
period is interrupted only by the Ember Week of September.

The following table gives the feasts just described in the form of a sur-
vey with page references to the Liber usualis, and also with the correspond-
ing Latin names and page references to the Graduale. The latter is indis-
pensable for a full study of Gregorian chant because it includes a number
of Masses of great antiquity and importance that are not included in the
Liber, particularly those for the weekdays of Lent. On the other hand,
it has been deemed unnecessary to include the Antiphonale in our table,
since the additional chants found in this book mainly those for the Office
Hours of the weekdays of Lent are not of the same importance as are
the Masses. Moreover, the student familiar with the Graduate will have
no difficulty in finding the corresponding feasts in the Antiphonale. It
should be noted that the Latin names for the days of the week, start-
ing with Monday, are as follows: Feria II, Feria III, Feria IV, Feria V,
Feria VI, Sabbato, and Dominica. Feria properly means feast day, and
originally the term was indeed used for Sunday. Later it was employed
for the subsequent days as well, Sunday being called Feria I; Monday,
Feria II; Tuesday, Feria HI; etc. Finally, the name Feria I was replaced
by Dominica (Day of the Lord), while for Saturday the old name Sabbato
was retained. (For an explanation of the letters a, b, c, d, e, given with a
number of feasts, see pp. 58f.)

L G

First Sunday of Advent 317 Dominica I. Adventus i

Second Sunday of Advent 327 Dominica II. Adventus 4

Third Sunday of Advent 334 Dominica III. Adventus 6

Feria IV. Quatuor Temp. Adv. 9

Feria VI. Quatuor Temp. Adv. 1 1

Saturday in Ember Week Sabbato Quatuor Temp. Adv. 13
of Advent 343

Alcuin (735-804), and provided with music by Stephanus of Lie*ge, who has been tenta-
tively identified with Stephen, bishop of Lige from 903 to 920. The author, like many
others, opposed it as unnecessary since "all the Sundays abound with authentic Offices . . .
in honor of the Holy Trinity." Not until the twelfth century was it officially adopted in
the Roman liturgy, replacing the First Sunday of Pentecost, the Mass for which [G 310;
not included in ] is shifted to the next free weekday.

GREGORIAN CHANT

b. Fourth Sunday of Advent
Christmas Eve
Nativity, Dec. 25
Sunday within the Octave
of Christmas

d. Circumcision, Jan. i

e. Sunday, Holy Name of Jesus
Epiphany, Jan. 6

e. Sunday, Feast of the Holy

Family
Sunday within the Octave

of the Epiphany
Second Sunday after the

Epiphany
Third Sunday after the

Epiphany
Fourth, Fifth, Sixth Sunday

after the Epiphany
Septuagesima Sunday
Sexagesima Sunday
Quinquagesima Sunday
Ash Wednesday

First Sunday of Lent

Saturday in Ember Week

of Lent
d Second Sunday of Lent

Third Sunday of Lent

353
358
364

433
440

445
455

467

477
4 8 4
488

49*
496

510

54*
545

55*

b. Dominica IV. Adventus 21

In Vigilia Nativitatis Domini 24

In Nativitate Domini 27

Dominica infra Octavam

Nat. Dom. 44

d. In Circumcisione Domini 49

e. In Festo Ss. Nom. Jesu 50
In Epiphania Domini 57

e. S. Familiae Jesu, Mariae,

Joseph 59
Dominica infra Octavam

Epiphaniae 64

Dominica II. post Epiphaniam 67

Dominica IIL post Epiphaniam 70

Dominica IV., V. et VI. post

Epiphaniam 73

Dominica in Septuagesima 73

Dominica in Sexagesima 77

Dominica in Quinquagesima 80

Feria IV. Cinerum 84

a. Feria V. postCineres 91

Feria VI. postCineres 91

d Sabbato postCineres 93

Dominica L in Quadragesima 93

Feria IL post Dom, L Quad. 99

Feria IIL p. Bom* L Quad. 101

Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Quad xo*

a. Feria V. p. Bom. L Quad. 104

Feria VI. Quat. Temp. Quad 104

Sabbato Quat Temp- Quad. xoS

d. Dominica IL in Quadragesima 1 1 x

Feria IL p. Bom. IL Quad. 1x5

Feria IIL p. Bom. IL Quad x x?

Feria IV. p. Bom. IL Quad. x x8

a. Feria V. p. Bom, IL Quad. x*o

Feria VI. p. Bom. IL Quad. x a x

Sabbato p. Bom. IL Quad* x**

Dominica IIL in Quadragesima x 23

Feria IL p. Bom. IIL Quad, xs?

Feria IIL p. Bom. IIL Quad 130

Feria IV. p. Bom, IIL Quad. 13*

a. Feria V. p. Bom. IIL Quad X34

Feria VL p. Bom. IIL Quad X34

Sabbato p. Bom. IIL Quad 136

The Structure of the Liturgy

Fourth Sunday of Lent

Saturday before Passion

Sunday
Passion Sunday

Palm Sunday
Monday in Holy Week
Tuesday in Holy Week
Wednesday in Holy Week
Maundy Thursday
Good Friday
Holy Saturday
Easter Sunday
Easter Monday
Easter Tuesday
Wednesday in Easter Week
Thursday in Easter Week
Friday in Easter Week
Saturday in Easter Week
Low Sunday

Second Sunday after Easter
Third Sunday after Easter
Fourth Sunday after Easter
Fifth Sunday after Easter
b. Rogation Days, Litanies

Ascension

Sunday within the Octave

of Ascension
Saturday, Whitsun Eve
Pentecost, Whit Sunday
Whit Monday
Whit Tuesday
Ember Wednesday

559 Dominica IV. in Quadragesima 138

FerialL p. Dom. IV. Quad. 141

Feria III. p. Dom. IV. Quad. 143

Feria IV. p. Dom. IV. Quad. 145

a. Feria V. p. Dom. IV. Quad 146

Feria VL p. Dom. IV. Quad. 148

Sabbato p. Dom. IV. Quad. 149

565
568

578
603
606
612
621
665

7i3
765
785
789
792
796
800
804
808
816
821
826
830
835

844

853
858
862
887
890
892

Dominica de Passione 151

FerialL p. Dom. Passionis 156

Feria III. p. Dom. Passionis 158

Feria IV, p. Dom. Passionis 159

a. Feria V. p. Dom. Passionis 162
Feria VI. p. Dom. Passionis 163

d. Sabbato p. Dom. Passionis 165

Dominica in Palmis 166

FerialL Maj. Hebdomadae 185

Feria III. Maj. Hebdomadae 187

Feria IV, Maj. Hebdomadae 190

Feria V. in Goena Domini 195

Feria VI. inParasceve 206

Sabbato Sancto 229

Dominica Resurrectionis 240

FerialL postPascha 244

Feria III. post Pascha 247

Feria IV. postPascha 250

Feria V. post Pascha 252

Feria VI. postPascha 255

Sabbato in Albis 258

Dominica in Albis 7 261

Dominica II. post Pascha 263

Dominica III. post Pascha 265

Dominica IV. postPascha 268

Dominica V. postPascha 270

b. InLitaniis 274
b. In Vigilia Ascensionis 284

In Ascensione Domini 285

Dominica infra Octavam

Ascensionis 287

Sabbato in Vigilia Pentecostes 290

Dominica Pentecostes 292

FerialL post Pentecosten 297

Feria III. post Pentecosten 298

Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Pent. 300

7 In Albis is short for in albis depositis, i.e., when the white [vestments worn by the
newly baptized] were laid off.

12 GREGORIAN CHANT

c. Thursday in Whitsun Week 896 c. Feria V. post Pentecosten 302
Ember Friday 897 Feria VI. Quat. Temp. Pent. 302
Ember Saturday 900 Sabbato Quat. Temp. Pent. 304

c Sunday, Blessed Trinity 907 c. In Festo Sanctiss. Trinitatis 308

Dominica I. post Pentecosten 310

d. Corpus Christi 917 d. In Festo Corporis Christi 313
Sunday within the Octave of Dominica infra Octavam

Corpus Christi 960 Corporis Christi 320

e. Sacred Heart of Jesus 965 e. Sacratissimi Cordis Jesu 324
Sunday within the Octave of Dominica infra Octavam Sacra-

the Sacred Heart 980 tissimi Cordis Jesu 327

Fourth Sunday after Pentecost 998 Dominica IV. post Pentecosten 330

etc. to: etc. to:

Seventeenth Sunday after Dominica XVII. post Pente-

Pentecost 1047 costen 365

Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Sept. 368

Feria VI. Quat, Temp- Sept 370

Saturday in Ember Week 8 of Sabbato Quat. Temp. Sept. 371

September 1052

Eighteenth to Twenty-third Dominica XVIIL-XXIIL post

Sunday after Pentecost 1056 Pentecosten 372

As for the Sanctorale, a few general remarks will be sufficient. The nu-
merous feasts for the Saints of the Roman Church are grouped under two
categories, Common of Saints [in 1-1302] and Proper of Saints [1303-176^].
The latter includes the feasts in honor of a specific Saint or, occasionally,
two specific Saints, e.g., St. Andrew, St. Lawrence, SS. Peter and Paul, etc
In the early medieval books the feasts of the Lord as well as those of the
Saints (then much fewer in number than now) were arranged together
according to their succession during the year, and it was not until the
thirteenth century that the groups were completely separated.* When
this was done, some of the feasts of Saints were left in their original place,
mainly those that occurred right after the Nativity, probably because their
association with the Nativity was too close to be destroyed. To the present
day the Proper of the Time includes five feasts of Saints: namely, St.

BThe Ember Week of September is fixed to follow after the Feast of the Exaltation
of the Holy Gross, on September 14* It may fall as early as after the Thirteenth Sunday
after Pentecost.

9 The normal arrangement in the early Mss is:

(a) Advent to Septuagesima: Temporal^ and Sanclorale mixed;

(b) Septuagesima to Fifth Sunday after Easter: Temporal^ only;

(d) Trinity Sunday to last Sunday after Pentecost: Temporal* only,

See the table of the liturgical year (from St. Call 339) in Wagner /, *8o; also In Hesbert's
Antiphonale Missarum Sextuplex, pp* 8-197.

The Structure of the Liturgy 13

Stephen on December 26 [414], St. John the Apostle on December 27 [421]*
Holy Innocents on December 28 [427], St. Thomas on December 29 [437],
and St. Silvester on December 31 [440].

The Common of Saints gives the chants, prayers, etc., that are used for
various Saints, these being grouped under categories such as Martyrs, Doc-
tors, Virgins, Virgin Martyrs, etc. For instance, St. Jerome (S. Hieronymus)
is a Doctor of the Church, and therefore the service for his feast is found
in the Common of Doctors [i 189], his name being inserted at the place
marked N., as in the Antiphon, the Prayer, and the Collect. 10

The two corresponding sections in the Graduate are the Proprium Sanc-
torum, starting on p. 390 after the Proprium de Tempore, and the Com-
mune Sanctorum, starting on p. [i]. In the Antiphonale the three main
sections are found on pp. sioff (Proprium de Tempore), tfSft (Proprium
Sanctorum), and [i]ff (Commune Sanctorum).

THE LITURGICAL DAY

On any of the days of the liturgical calendar the service of divine wor-
ship is organized according to a definite and nearly invariable plan, which
we shall now consider. It will be best to describe this service first in its
fullest form, as held on high feasts in great churches or monasteries, out-
lining later the reductions that take place on other occasions and in other
places.

Eight times during the day a service for the offering of prayer and wor-
ship is held. This is called the Divine Office (Officium divinum), Canonic
Hours (horae canonicae, from canon, i.e., rule, law), or Office Hours. These
are:

1. Matins (matutinum): before sunrise

2. Lauds (laudes): at sunrise

3. Prime (ad primam horam)

4. Terce (ad tertiam horam)

5. Sext (ad sextam horam)

6. None (ad nonam horam)

7. Vespers (ad vesperam): at sunset

8. Compline (completorium): before retiring

Prime, Terce, Sext, and None take their names from the old Roman
calendar, in which the hours of the day were numbered from six in the
morning (prima hora) to six in the afternoon (duodecima hora), so that
mid-day was sexta hora. Naturally, the time when these Offices are held
varies somewhat with the seasons of the year.

10 Collect, i.e., the prayer offered by the priest at Mass, so-called because it represents
the c611ected prayers of all present.

14 GREGORIAN CHANT

The hours from Prime to None are called Little or Lesser Hours, be-
cause of the greater simplicity of their services. Also the term Day Hours
(horae diurnae) is used, properly, to denote all the Hours other than
Matins, that is, from Lauds to Compline.

The Office Hours were not instituted together at a given date, but de-
veloped gradually during the first six centuries of the Christian era. The
earliest was the Night Office, called Vigils (vigiliae, wakening), which had
its origin in the custom of keeping watch the night before Easter, in ex-
pectation of the reappearance of Christ. Later this custom was observed
weekly, before each Sunday, though no longer as a continuous gathering
during the entire night. In the fourth century we find it divided into three
separate Prayer Hours: one at sunset, when the lamps were lighted, and
therefore called lucernarium (lux, light); one after midnight; and one at
sunrise, called laud.es matutinae (morning praise). Eventually these re-
ceived the names Vespers, Matins (subdivided into three Nocturns), and
Lauds. Terce, Sext, and None originally had the character of private
Prayer Hours, held in the family or in small groups. The Rule of St. Bene-
dict, dating from c. 530, is the earliest document containing the complete
course of all the eight Office Hours.

In addition to the Office Hours, the daily ritual includes the Mass, which
is of an entirely different character. The Office Hours are mainly occasions
for prayer, similar to and, no doubt, partly derived from the prayer hours
of the Jews. The Mass, on the other hand, is a service of distinctly Christian
character, although it also incorporates elements of an ancient Jewish
ritual. 1 It is essentially the commemoration of the Sacrifice of Christ on
the Cross, taking on the form of a mystic repetition of the Last Supper*
Like the Last Supper, the Mass took place originally in the evening, was
later shifted to the morning hours, and is now generally celebrated in the
forenoon, between Terce and Sext* Originally called Eucharistia (Eucha-
rist; Greek for "good grace"), it was later called M issa, a term derived from
the words of the closing benediction, "Ite, missa est" (Depart, this Is the
dismissal), and used as early as 400 (St. Ambrose).

As an example of a full service, that of Corpus ChristI may be examined.
It contains First Vespers [9*7], Compline [917], Matins [917], First Noc-
turn [93*], Second Nocturn [928], Third Nocturn [934], Lauds [939],
Prime [942], Terce [942], Mass [943] followed by the Procession [950], Sext
[955]' None [955]> and Second Vespers [956]* Only a few other feasts. Na-
tivity [364], Maundy Thursday [621], Good Friday [665], Holy Saturday
[713], Easter [765], and Pentecost [862] have retained a service of similar
completeness. All the others lack Matins, which, although one of the earliest
and, together with the Mass, the most elaborate of the services, is now gen-
erally celebrated without music

The Structure of the Liturgy 15

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS

The division of the liturgy into Office and Mass is of fundamental im-
portance in the structure of the chant, so much so that from the earliest
time to the present day these two categories were assigned to different
books. The chants for the Mass are contained in the Gradual (Graduale),
those for the Office in the Antiphonal (Antiphonale). There are also two
corresponding books containing the complete liturgical texts, of the musi-
cal items as well as of the prayers, lessons from Scriptures, psalms, etc.
These are the Missal (Missale) for the Mass, and the Breviary (Breviarium)
for the Office. This arrangement in four books has great advantages from
the practical point of view, but it makes it difficult to gain a clear insight
into the over-all structure of the liturgical day. For this reason the Liber
usualis (book for general use) was published in 1896 (revised editions 1903,
1934). This volume combines the main contents of the four books, giving
the various items in their proper order as they occur during the day and
the year. It also takes care of certain practical needs resulting from the fact
that present-day choirs and singers often do not have the thorough training
customary in earlier centuries. Thus the method of singing the Vesper
psalms is indicated more clearly and in greater detail than is the case in
the Antiphonal.

It should be noticed, however, that the chants in the Liber do not tally
in number with those of the Gradual and the Antiphonal. A brief glance
at the indexes shows that in the Liber a considerable number of chants
found in the other two books are omitted. Thus, the Gradual contains
thirteen Tracts beginning with the letter A, the Liber only eight; the
former fourteen Offertories beginning with the letter B, as against nine in
the latter. The difference results from the omission, in the Liber, of a con-
siderable number of services given in the Gradual and in the Antiphonal^
mainly those for the Feria days of Lent and of the four Ember Weeks [see
the table, pp. gff]. Particularly the Masses for these days are of great
interest and importance because they belong to the oldest layer of the
Gregorian repertory; they cannot be omitted in detailed studies such as
appear later on in this book. Less consequential is the omission, in the
Liber, of a number of Votive Masses, such as the Missa Votiva de Sancta
Cruce (G [104]) and the one contra paganos (against the heathen; G [131]),
and of most of the Masses pro aliquibus loots (for certain localities; G i**-
115**).!

The Antiphonal gives the chants for all the Day Hours of the week,
from Lauds of Sunday to Compline of Saturday (A 1-209), as well as for

i A Votive Mass is a Mass that may be celebrated on any day, usually upon the request
of an individual; as for instance, in honor of his Patron Saint,

l6 GREGORIAN CHANT

the Feasts of the Lord (A 210-576), of the Saints (A 578-931), and of the
Common of Saints (A [2]-[ig2]). In the Liber the ordinary weekdays are
represented only by the Psalms of Vespers and Compline [280-316], and
the service of Lauds is given only for some of the highest feasts, such as the
Nativity [395] and Good Friday [689].

On the other hand, the Liber includes some very important chants not
found in the Antiphonal, that is, those for Matins of certain of the highest
feasts [see p. 14] as well as those for the Office for the Dead [1779]. The
service of Matins differs considerably from that of all the other Office Hours
(Day Hours). It includes two types of chant not encountered elsewhere,
that is, the Invitatories and the Great Responsories. The latter in partic-
ular are of the greatest importance in a study of Gregorian chant. The
Liber includes a fair number of them, though not nearly enough to serve
as a basis for a detailed investigation. For this one must turn to the
medieval sources or, at least, to the Liber Responsorialis (LR; Solesmes,
1895), which contains the Night Service for a considerable number of
feasts, according to the monastic rites. Yet another book containing ad-
ditional chants of great interest is the Processionale Monasticum (PM;
Solesmes, 1893), edited for the use of the French Benedictines who have
preserved the medieval custom of solemn processions before the Masses for
the greater Feasts of the Lord and of the Saints* Here again, the Responso-
ries call for particular attention. Another special publication of great in-
terest is C. Ott's Offertoriale swe Versus Offertoriorum (1935), which
contains the Offertories with their verses such as were still in use in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Because of their many special traits these
verses cannot be omitted from a study of Gregorian chant. Yet other Re-
sponsories can be found in a collection entitled Variae Preces (VP; So-
lesmes, 1901), which is also useful as a source for Hymns, Antiphons, and
Sequences not included in the standard publications.

The rite of Rome has not been completely adopted by some of the
monastic orders, such as the Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans, and
Premonstratensians, who have retained their individual medieval tradi-
tion. The Office Hours especially, as observed by them, differ from the
Roman usage in many particulars, liturgically as well as musically. The
chants of the Cistercians, Dominicans, and Premonstratensians are of little
interest from our point of view, since they represent late versions of the
Roman chant, dating from the twelfth or thirteenth centuries,* Of no small
importance, however, is the Antiphonale monasticum * * . ordinte Sancti
Benedict! (AM)> which was published in 1934 by the same Benedictine
monks of Solesmes who prepared the books of the Roman usage. This
often gives more authentic versions, particularly for the Hymns, and abo

2 See, e.g., J. Borrexnans, Lt Chant liturgiquc traditional des Pr4montr& (1914); IX
Delalande, Lc Graduel des Pr&cheurs (1949).

The Structure of the Liturgy 17

contains a number of Antiphons and Hymns not found in the standard
publications. 3

The Gradual and the Antiphonal appeared in various editions which
differ in many details:

1. Liber Gradualis a Gregorio Magno olim ordinatus ... en usum Con-
gregationis Benedictinae . . . editus (Tournai, 1883).

2. Liber Gradualis juxta antiquorum codicum fidem restitutus . . . edttio
altera (Solesmes, 1895).

3. Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae de Tempore et de Sanctis

SS. D. N. Pit X jussu restitutum et editum (Vatican Press, Rome,

1908).

4. Graduale [etc., as under 3.] et rhythmicis signis a Solesmenstbus mo-
nachis diligenter ornatum (Desctee et die., Tournai, 1908, 1924, 1945).

5. Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae pro diurnis horis SS. D.
N. Pit X jussu restitutum et editum (Vatican Press, Rome, 1912).

6. Antiphonale [etc., as under 5.] et rhythmicis signis a Solesmensibus
monachis diligenter ornatum (Desctee et Cie., Tournai, 1949).

Numbers 3 and 5 are known as the Vatican edition. Numbers 4 and 6 con-
tain the "rhythmic signs" (episema, ictus, phrase marks, etc.) of Dom
Mocquereau. All the other books were edited under the leadership of
Dom Pothier.

ORDINARY AND PROPER

In our previous discussion of the liturgical day attention has been called
to the division of the services into those of the Office Hours and those of
the Mass. Another distinction, of almost equal importance, is that between
Ordinary and Proper (Ordinarium, Proprium). This results from the fact
that a great number of chants exist which can be, and are, used on many
different occasions, and that there are also numerous others which are sung
on only one specific occasion. Both types occur in the Office as well as in
the Mass, so that there results a four-fold classification of the chants (and
also, to a certain extent, of the spoken texts): Ordinary of the Office, Proper
of the Office, Ordinary of the Mass, Proper of the Mass.

In the case of the Mass this distinction is well known and, indeed, of
basic importance. Thus, the Kyrie belongs to the Ordinary of the Mass
because it occurs in every Mass with the same text and with a limited num-
ber of melodies which vary only according to certain general categories of
Eeasts. The Introit, on the other hand, is an item of the Proper of the
Mass, because each Mass has its own Introit with individual text and mel-

3 See J. Gajard, "Quelques precisions au sujet de 1'Antiphonaire Monastique" (JRG,
XIX, 207); J. Jeanneteau, "L'Antiphonaire Monastique" (RG, XXXI, 209).

GREGORIAN CHANT

ody (aside from the possibility of an occasional transfer of an Introit
melody from an older Mass to a more recent one).

In the Office we find essentially the same distinction, though less clearly
indicated and much more varied in detail. For instance, the four Antiphons
to the Blessed Virgin Mary belong strictly to the Ordinary; they are sung
at Compline of Sundays and Feasts with an invariable text and melody,
one during each of the four seasons of the year [S73-276]. 1 The Responses
ries, on the other hand, which are sung at Matins (e.g., Nativity [375ff] or
Maundy Thursday [628ff]), usually three for each Nocturn, are strictly
Proper.

Greater variation exists in the Hymns, Those for the Lesser Hours and
for Compline are strictly Ordinary; Jam lucis for Prime, Nunc Sancte for
Terce, Rector potens for Sext, Rerum Deus for None, and Te lucis for
Compline [224, 235, etc.). Lauds and Vespers, however, not only have a
different Hymn for each day of the week, 2 but also Proper ones for nearly
all the feasts of the Temporals and the Sanctorale.

Many Office chants are partly Ordinary and partly Proper, in that the
melodies are standard but the texts variable. An example of this kind are
the Short Responsories (responsoria brevia, in distinction from the Great
Responsories, responsoria prolixa, of Matins), which are sung at the Day
Hours, from Prime to Compline. From the musical point of view these
are Ordinary, there being mainly three melodies: one for Advent, one for
Paschal Time, and one for the remaining part of the year, with different
texts for Prime [aagf], Terce [37f]> etc. Many feasts, however, have their
own Proper texts, particularly in the Sanctorale [e.g., 1174* 1X 75 **44>
1403, etc.],

Even more complex is the picture presented by the five Psalms of Vespers.
Basically, these are Ordinary, Psalms 109, no, in, m, 113 being assigned
to each Sunday [asoff], nos. 1 14, 115, 119, 120, m to each Monday [*8off],
etc. However, on some feasts the plan is varied to a certain extent, as ap-
pears from the following examples:

Sunday, Holy Name [451] Ps. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, i is, 1 15

Sunday, Holy Family [467] Ps, 109, i i*, 1*1, 1*6, 147

Sunday, Holy Trinity [907] Ps. 109, 110,111,112,116

Nativity, First Vespers [364] P$. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, i i * 1 16

Nativity, Second Vespers [41 1] Ps. 109, 110,11 1, 139, 131

Ascension [850] Ps. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, 1 12, 116

The last three examples show that the Psalms for Sunday (with 1 16 instead
of 113) are also used on feasts such as the Nativity, which may fall on any
day of the week, or Ascension, which always falls on a Thursday.

1 These Antiphons are sung at the end of every Office Hour, unless this i* immediately
followed by another Hour.

2 The hymns for the weekdays are given in the Antiphonate.

The Structure of the Liturgy 19

Even more important than these deviations is the element of variety
introduced into the Psalms through the Antiphons with which they are
connected. For instance, for Vespers of Sunday there are five Ordinary
Antiphons "During the Year 5 ': Dixit Dominus, Magna opera, Qui timet,
Sit nomerij and Deus autem [25 iff]; these are used on most Sundays, an
exception being, e.g., the four Sundays of Advent which have Proper Anti-
phons [323, 331, 338, 356]. Similarly, there are Ordinary Antiphons for all
the days of the week, but many of the Feasts of Saints that occur throughout
the year have their Proper Antiphons which replace the Ordinary ones.

In conclusion it may be remarked that the term "Proper" is used in two
somewhat different meanings; one in opposition to Ordinary, the other
in opposition to Common. The former is indicated when we speak of
Proper of the Mass (or Office) as distinguished from Ordinary of the Mass
(or Office), while the latter is indicated by the terms Proper of Saints and
Common of Saints. Actually, all the chants of these two categories, as well
as those of the Proper of the Lord, are "Proper" in the former meaning
of the word. Were it not for the clumsiness of expression, one could desig-
nate them as "Proper of the Proper of the Lord/' "Proper of the Proper
of Saints," and "Proper of the Common of Saints"; or, to push the dis-
tinctions even further, one might speak of "Proper of the Mass for the
Proper of Saints" (in the Gradual), "Proper of the Office for the Proper of
the Lord" (in the Antiphonal), "Proper of the Mass and Office for the
Common of Saints" (in the Liber), etc. All these are in opposition to "Ordi-
nary of the Mass" and "Ordinary of the Office," categories in which, of
course, no similar distinctions are possible.

THE OFFICE HOURS

In the earliest days of Christian worship the service consisted only of
psalm-singing. The Book of Psalms became the most precious heritage
which the Christians received from the Jews. In fact, it acquired a much
greater importance in Christian worship than it had ever had before.
Among the numerous reports telling us about psalm-singing among the
early Christians, that of St. Chrysostom (3477-407) is particularly im-
pressive:

When the faithful keep the vigil in the church during night, David is first, middle,
and last. When hymns are sung at dawn, David is first, middle, and last At the
funeral processions and burials, David is first, middle, and last. In the holy
monasteries, among the ranks of the heavenly hosts, David is first, middle, and last.
In the monasteries of the virgins, imitators of St. Mary, David is first, middle, and
last.*

Such was the enthusiasm for psalm-singing that some oriental monks sang
thirty and more psalms during one night. When, in the fourth or fifth
i Gerbert, De cantu et musica sacra (2 vols., 1774), I, 64; Wagner 1, 9.

2O GREGORIAN CHANT

centuries, the liturgy was regulated, Psalms were assigned to every Office
Hour in numbers varying from as few as three to as many as eighteen. 2

To the present day the Psalms form the nucleus of the Office Hours, there
being nine for Matins, five for Vespers, four for Lauds, and three for each
of the other Hours. Several of the longer Psalms, however, are subdivided
into two, three, or more sections, each of which is counted as an individual
Psalm. For instance, for Vespers of Saturday [307] only two Psalms, Ps. 143
and 144, are used, but the former is divided into two parts, 143.!, 143.!!,
the latter into three, 144.!, 144.!!, 144.1!!, so that the total number is five,
as required for Vespers. With rare exceptions, the Psalms are connected
with an Antiphon, that is, a short text sung to an individual melody before
and after each Psalm or, at the Lesser Hours and Compline, before and
after the entire group of Psalms. A special place is reserved for Ps. 94,
Venite exsultemus Domino, called Invitatory Psalm because it invites the
faithful to "come and rejoice unto the Lord." It is sung at the beginning
of Matins.

At an early time there were added to the Psalms a number of scriptural
texts known as Canticles (cantica), which resemble the Psalms in their
lyric and hymnic character. A distinction is made between the major
Canticles, that is, those taken from the New Testament, and the lesser
Canticles which are found in the Old Testament. The major Canticles are
three, namely:

I: Canticle of the Virgin Mary, Magnificat anima mea Dominum (My
soul doth magnify the Lord; Luke 1:46-55); also called Canticle of the
B. V. M. (Blessed Virgin Mary) or Canticum B.M.V. (Beatae Mariae
Virginis).

II: Canticle of Simeon, Nunc dimittis servum tuum (Lord, now lettest

thou thy servant depart in peace; Luke 2:29-32).

Ill: Canticle of Zachary, Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel (Blessed be the
Lord God of Israel; Luke 1:68-79).

Each of these is assigned to a specific Office Hour: the Magnificat to
Vespers, the Nunc dimittis to Compline, and the Benedictus Dominus to
Lauds. They stand at the close of the service, apart from the Psalms (which
stand at its beginning), and are enframed by their own Antiphon*

The lesser Canticles are fourteen in number. They all belong to Lauds
where, however, they occupy a different position from that of the major
Cantides, being placed between the third and the fourth Psalm and thus
bringing up the "Psalms" for Lauds to the same total number, five, as for
Vespers. Two lesser Canticles are assigned to each day of the week, a

2 Gastou, Origines, p. $07.

The Structure of the Liturgy 21

normal one used throughout the major part of the year, and a substitute
employed mainly during Lent: 8

Sunday:

I. Canticle of Daniel (Canticle of the Three Children, second part):

Benedicite omnia opera (Daniel 3:56-58) [A 4].

la. Canticle of the Three Children, first part: Benedictus es, Domine
Deuspatrum (Daniel 3:52-57) [A 12],

Monday:

II. Canticle of David: Benedictus es, Domine Deus Israel (I Chron-
icles 29:10-13) [A 72].
Ha. Canticle of Isaiah: Confitebor tibi Domine (Isaiah 12:1-6) [A 76],

Tuesday:

III. Canticle of Tobias (Tobit): Magnus es Domine (Book of Tobit
13:1-10) [A 108].

Ilia. Canticle of Ezechias, Ego dixi (Isaiah 38:10-20) [A 112].

Wednesday:

IV. Canticle of Judith: Hymnum cantemus Domino (Book of Judith
16:15-21) [A 127].

IVa. Canticle of Anna: Exsultavit cor meum (I Samuel 2:1-10) [A 130],

Thursday:

V. Canticle of Jeremiah: Audite verbum (Jeremiah 31:10-14) [A 147].
Va. Canticle of Moses: Cantemus Domino (Exodus 15:1-19) [A 151].

Friday:

VI. Canticle of Isaiah: Vere tu es (Isaiah 45:15-26) [A 167].
Via. Canticle of Habacuc: Domine audivi (Habakkuk 3:1-19) [A 171].

Saturday:

VII. Canticle of Ecclesiastes: Miserere nostri (Eccl. 36: 1-16) [A 189].
Vila. Canticle of Moses: Audite coeli (Deuteronomy 32: 1-43) [A 192].

As mentioned previously, these Canticles are used at the beginning of
Lauds between the third and fourth Psalms; in other words, as the fourth
of the five Psalms. Thus, for Lauds of Friday we have: Ps. 98, Ps. 142, Ps.
84, Cant. VI, Ps. 147; and for the same during Lent: Ps. 50, Ps. 142, Ps,
84, Cant. Via, Ps. 147.* In the Liber, which represents Lauds very in-
completely, only four of the lesser Canticles appear; that of Sunday (I) for
"Lauds of Feasts" [222], also for the Nativity [398] and the Burial of
Very Young Children [1830]; that of Thursday in Lent (Va) for Maundy

3 Since Lauds of ordinary Sundays and of weekdays are not represented in the Liber,
reference is made to the Antiphonale.

4 See A 164-168; 170-175.

22 GREGORIAN CHANT

Thursday [649]; that of Friday in Lent (Via) for Good Friday [692]; and,
deviating from the general scheme, that of Tuesday in Lent (Ilia) for Holy
Saturday [736] and the Office of the Dead [1803] the reason for the re-
placement being that this Canticle was considered as a prophetic descrip-
tion of the suffering of Christ.

To the Psalms and Canticles were added, perhaps as early as the third
century, readings from the Scriptures, the so-called Lessons (lectio) and
Chapters (capitulum). These terms are somewhat confusing, since actually
a Lesson is a lengthy section from Scripture, while a Chapter is no more
than a single sentence. Lessons and Chapters are always followed by a
chant, usually a Responsory (responsorium); the former by a Great Respon-
sory (responsorium prolixum), a chant of considerable extension and
elaboration; the latter, by a Short Responsory (responsorium breve), a fair-
ly short and simple type of chant.

Lessons followed by Great Responsories form the major part of the
liturgy of Matins, which normally includes nine of them, three for each
Nocturn [375*?; 6s>6ff; 66gff; 7158^ 774*!; 873!!; 935*!; 17856^ In the other
Office Hours reading from Scripture plays a much less prominent role,
being limited to a single Chapter followed by a Short Responsory, except
at Lauds and Vespers, where it is followed by a Hymn. Short Responsories
as well as Hymns are concluded by a Versicle (versiculum), a very short
sentence with an answer. There is also a hymn in the four Lesser Hours
and at Compline, but in a different position, that is, as the opening chant of
the service.

Psalms and Canticles with Antiphons, Lessons and Chapters with Re-
sponsories, and Hymns constitute the nucleus of the Office Hours. In addi-
tion, there is an introduction consisting of prayers, Pater nosier, Ave Maria^
etc. [L xlix], followed by the Versicle Deus in adjutorium [250 and else-
where]; and a conclusion including, among other items, the Benedicamus
Domino [124], which was to play an important role in the early develop-
ment of polyphonic music. 6 Disregarding these items as well as others such
as the Commemoration of Saints at Vespers [s62ffj, the structure of the
Office Hours of Sunday is shown in the following table, in which the
musical items are italicized: 7

s On feasts not falling in Lent the last Responsory was followed, and later replaced* by
the jPe Dtum [Nativity, 39*; Whit Sunday, 876; Corpus Christi, 939]. Easter Sunday and
Whit Sunday have only one Nocturn. In early medieval practices the number of Responso-
ries was often considerably greater. Thus, the ninth-century Antiphonal of Corapiegne [see
p. 53, no. 10] has seventeen Responsories for the Third Nocturn of the Nativity (Pafr, lat.
78, p. 734). The monastic rites usually have four Responsories for each Nocturn, at least
for feast days. See, e.g., the Antiphonal of Worcester, Pal. mus., XII, Text, 148. Also the
Liber responsorialis (LR).

e See Davison and Apel, Historical Anthology of Music (HAM}, I, no* a8.

7 The full Offices of all the weekdays are given in the Antiphonal*.

The Structure of the Liturgy 23

MATINS Invitatory Ps. 94 with A ntiphon Hymn.

Nocturn I: 3 Psalms with 3 Antiphons 3 Lessons with 3 Great
Responsories.

Nocturn II: same

Nocturn III: same
LAUDS 4 Psalms and i Canticle with 5 Antiphons Chapter with Hymn

and Versicle Canticle of Zachary with Antiphon.
PRIME Hymn 3 Psalms with i Antiphon Chapter with Short Re-

sponsory and Versicle.
TERCE Same as Prime
SEXT Same as Prime

NONE Same as Prime
VESPERS 5 Psalms with 5 Antiphons Chapter with Hymn and Versicle

Canticle B.V.M. (Magnificat) with Antiphon.
COMPLINE 3 Psalms with i Antiphon Hymn Chapter with Short Re-

sponsory Canticle of Simeon with Antiphon Antiphon

B.VM.

The last item of this list, the Antiphons of the B.V.M., also called Marian
Antiphons, are four chants of a relatively late date, probably not before the
eleventh century. These are of great beauty and importance, and have
played a particularly prominent role in the field of polyphonic composi-
tion. They are not Antiphons in the proper sense of the word, since they
are not in any way connected with a Psalm or a Canticle. Rather they are
independent chants of considerably greater extension and elaboration
than the Antiphons proper, a characterization that also applies to the
processional Antiphons sung during the Processions before Mass at such
feasts as Palm Sunday or Purification [584, 1359]- Each of the four Anti-
phons of the B.V.M. is sung during one quarter of the year: the Alma
redemptoris mater (Gracious Mother of the Redeemer) from Advent to
February i; Ave regina caelorum (Hail, Queen of the Heavens) from
February 2 till Wednesday in Holy Week; Regina caeli laetare (Rejoice,
Queen of the Heavens) from Holy Saturday till the week after Pentecost;
and Salve regina (Hail, oh Queen), the most celebrated of all, from then till
Advent [273-276; the "Simple Tones" given on pp. 2772 seem to be melo-
dies of a fairly recent date].

THE MASS

The Mass has a considerably more complex, but also more fully inte-
grated, structure than the Office Hours. In contrast to their seriate form,
the Mass has a centric plan, organized around a text commemorating the
Last Supper during which Christ referred to the bread and wine as eternal
symbols of the flesh and blood of His body which was to be crucified on the

24 GREGORIAN CHANT

next day. This is the so-called Canon of the Mass, beginning with the
words: Te igitur, clementissime Pater, and culminating in the sentences:
Hoc est enim corpus meum (For this is My Body) and Hie est enim calix
sanguinis mei, novi et aeterni testamenti: mysterium fidei: qui pro vobis
et pro multis effundetur in remissionem peccatorum (For this is the chalice
of My blood, of the new and eternal testament: the mystery of faith; which
shall be shed for you and for many unto the remission of sins). The Canon
is preceded by the Preface, both of which constitute the Eucharistic Prayer
(prayer of thanksgiving). They are separated by the Sanctus, which forms
the conclusion of the Preface.

The Eucharistic Prayer (though not, of course, in its present-day form)
is a very ancient part of the Mass. Perhaps even older are the items adopted
from the Jewish rites, that is, congregational prayers and readings from
Scripture, The former survive in the oratio or Collect (prayer of the col-
lected faithful, offered by the priest), the latter in the Lectio, Epistle, and
Gospel (Evangelium), that is, readings from the Old Testament, from the
Epistles and from the four Gospels. 1 Normally the Mass has two readings,
one from the Epistles and one from the Gospels, but on ferial days outside
of Paschal Time the first reading is from the Old Testament [see, e.g.,
L 603]. Originally there were three readings, but this full scheme survives
only on a few occasions: the Wednesdays of the four Ember Weeks, the
Wednesday in the Fourth Week of Lent, and the Wednesday and Friday
of Holy Week. From its inception the Mass included the Offering of bread
and wine, the Eucharistic Prayer, and the Communion* The above items
are very nearly those mentioned in the earliest description o the Mass
by the Roman philosopher and martyr Justin, 2 which dates from the mid-
second century.

At an undetermined time it became customary to sing Psalms between
the three readings. 3 The first Lesson, from the Old Testament, was fol-
lowed by a Psalm sung responsorially and later called responsorium
graduate or simply Gradual. 4 Another Psalm, sung entirely by a soloist,
was inserted between the second and the third reading, the Epistle and

1 The readings from the Gospels are called Stqucntia (continuation), because originally
they followed in a continuous order, of which, however, very little has remained,

2 See the List of Data, p. 39, no. 7.

3 According to Duchesne, Christian Worship, p. 168, the "practice of chanting psalms
between the lections in the Mass is as old as these lections themselves, and both go back
in direct line to the religious service of the Jewish Synagogue/' However, no Psalms are
mentioned by Justin.

* The term graduate is usually explained as referring to the fact that this chant was
sung from the steps (gradus) leading to the pulpit. Gastou6 (Origines, p. 247) prefers to
think that the original term, at least for the collection of Mass chants, was Gradate, Liber
gradalis, derived from an adjective gradalis meaning "distinguished," "more beautiful,"
Cf. Oddo, De Musica: in gradalibus (GS, 1, 276a) and the Alia musica; antiphona gradalis
for the Introit (OS, I, ugb)*

The Structure of the Liturgy 25

Gospel. This is the cantus tractus or Tract, 5 which, in the fifth or sixth cen-
tury, was largely replaced by the Alleluia. When, during the fifth century,
the reading from the Old Testament was suppressed, both the Gradual and
the Tract (or the Alleluia) were placed, in immediate succession, between
the Epistle and the Gospel.

In the course of time Psalms were also introduced to accompany the
three main actions of the Mass the entrance of the priest, the offering of
bread and wine, and the distribution of bread and wine among the faith-
ful. These are the Introit, the Offertory, and the Communion. Finally,
there are a number of chants based on non-psalmodic texts, the Kyrie,
Gloria, Sanctus, Credo, and Agnus Dei, which form the Ordinary of the
Mass. Of these, the Sanctus is the only one which forms an integral part of
the early Mass and, at the same time, the only one which has a text taken
from the Old Testament (Isaiah 6:3). The Credo, on the other hand, is a
very late accretion, dating approximately from the eleventh century.

In its late-medieval (nth/isth-century) and present-day form the Mass
includes ten musical items; five of these are Ordinary, being common
to all Masses, while the other five are Proper, i.e., varying from Mass to
Mass. The Ordinary consists of the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and
Agnus Dei; the Proper includes the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia (or Tract),
Offertory, and Communion. Actually, there are two more Ordinary chants
of the Mass, the Asperges me and the lie, missa est, but these are usually not
included among the Mass chants because they represent a prelude and
postlude to the Mass rather than a part of it. The Asperges me, classified
as an Antiphon, is sung during the aspersion of Holy Water, a ceremony
preceding the Mass on Sunday. The lie, missa est is a closing benediction,
interesting mainly for the fact that its word missa (dismissal) has led to the
term Mass, replacing the older name Eucharistia.

In addition to these ten musical items, the Mass includes others that,
depending upon the solemnity and circumstances, are either said or sung
to a recitation tone. Thus, there are "tones" for the Prayers [98], the
Prophecy [102], the Epistle [104], the Gospel [106], and the Preface [109].

The full text of the Ordinary of the Mass is found in the Liber, pages i
to 7. The items with variable texts such as the Introit, Gradual, etc., are
mentioned in their respective places, except for the Communion, which
comes after the second Ablution (before the rubric "After the last Postcom-
munion"). The following table shows the items of the Mass arranged in
four groups.

5 According to Wagner 1, 87, the term is the Latin translation of the Greek word
hirmos which in Byzantine liturgy denotes a model melody. Late medieval writers
(Durandus, i4th century) interpret it to mean "slow," "drawn-out*' (from Lat. trahere,
to draw). J. M. Tommasi (1649-1713; his Opera omnia, including Oregon" Magni opera
omnia re-edited, in 1747-53, by A. F. Vezzosi), interprets it as meaning tractim, continu-
ously, i.e., without interruption by an antiphon or respond.

26 GREGORIAN CHANT

CHANTS SPOKEN OR RECITED

PROPER ORDINARY PROPER ORDINARY

i. Introit

2. Kyrie

3. Gloria

4. Collect

5. Epistle

6. Gradual

7. Alleluia
or Tract

8. Gospel
9, Credo
10. Offertory

11. Offertory Prayers

is. Secret
13. Preface
14. Sanctus

15, Canon

16. Pater Noster
17. Agnus Dei

18. Communion

19. Postcommunion

Of the ten chants of the Mass the five making up the Proper are not
only much older than the other five, but are also more important liturgically
and more interesting musically. From the point of view of Gregorian
chant, Mass plain and simple invariably means the Proper, in opposition to
the prevailing terminology of the past five centuries according to which
Mass means the Ordinary, as, for example, Bach's B-minor Mass or a Mass
by Palestrina. The change of meaning occurred about 1300, when the items
of the Ordinary were preferred for polyphonic composition, obviously be-
cause a polyphonic Kyrie or Gloria could be performed on practically
every feast, while a polyphonic Gradual or Alleluia could be used only once
a year.

The items of the Proper were in general use probably as early as 500, and
by the time of Gregory this part of the Mass was fully standardized. Quite
a different situation is presented by the Ordinary. The Kyrie, Gloria, and
Sanctus were known in the earliest centuries of the Christian era but were
used in the Office rather than in the Mass. The introduction of the Gloria
into the Roman Mass is ascribed to Pope Symmachus (498-514); that of the
Kyrie, to Pope Gregory I; while the Sanctus is said to have been instituted
by Pope Sixtus I (c. iso). The Agnus Dei became a part of the Mass under

The Structure of the Liturgy 27

the Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701); tie Credo, although used at a much
earlier time in the Mozarabic, Ambrosian, and Gallican rites, was not
definitely introduced into the Roman Mass until the eleventh century,
under Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24). Considering this situation, it is no
wonder that the chants of the Ordinary are completely absent in -the
earliest manuscripts of Gregorian chant. They first appear sporadically in
collections of tropes and sequences; later they form an appendix to the
repertory of the Proper, and are usually given in separate divisions, one
containing the Kyries, the next the Glorias, etc., a practice preserved to the
present day for the Credos.

Most, if not all, of the items of the Ordinary originated in the Eastern
Greek Church (Byzantium). Except for the Gloria, they were all originally
sung by the congregation, a practice reflected in the simple style of the
oldest melodies. Later, in the ninth century, they were taken over by the
schola (church choir) and, in consequence, melodies of a somewhat more
elaborate character appeared. The development and fixation of these
chants remained largely an affair of individual churches or regional
authorities, the Church of Rome being no longer interested in this matter
or able to exercise control. As a result, during the later Middle Ages, there
accrued a large repertory of chants for the Ordinary. An idea of its size
can be formed from the fact that, according to recent research, there exist
almost 300 different melodies for the Agnus Dei. 6 Throughout this period
only sporadic efforts were made to combine specific melodies into a fixed
cycle, in other words, to form definite Ordinaries assigned to certain cate-
gories of feasts [see p. 420]. The liturgical books of the present day contain
eighteen such cycles; one for Paschal Time, one for Solemn Feasts, etc.;
but most of these were not fixed until the issuance of the Editio Vaticana,
in 1908. Thus Pope Pius X, who authorized the publication, may be said
to have played a similar role for the Ordinary of the Mass as did Pope
Gregory I for the Proper, thirteen hundred years earlier.

The present-day group of Ordinaries includes one for Paschal Time, two
for Solemn Feasts, five for Double Feasts, two for Feasts of the Blessed
Virgin, one for Sundays throughout the Year, two for Semi-doubles, one
during Octaves, one for Simple Feasts, one for Ferias throughout the Year,
one for the Sundays of Advent and Lent, and one for the Ferias throughout
Advent and Lent, with six Credos being given separately [64, 90]. A note
on p. 73 says expressly that "this Ordinary is not meant to be a matter of
hard and fast rule" and that "in order to add greater solemnity, one or more
of the following 'Chants ad libitum' may be employed." The names, such
as Lux et origo, Kyrie fons bonitatis, etc., given to most of these Ordinaries
and to the ad libitum Kyries, refer to the fact that in the tenth and later
centuries the Kyrie melodies were provided with additional words, such

eSee the article "Agnus Dei" (Stablein) in MGG.

GREGORIAN CHANT

as Kyrie lux et origo eleison (Lord, origin and light, . . .) or Kyrie fons
bonitatis eleison (Lord, fountain of goodness . . .), the so-called tropes.
Even after the tropes had been abolished the names survived.

EXCEPTIONAL MASSES

The statement that the Proper of the Mass consists of five items, Introit,
Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, and Communion, is not unreservedly cor-
rect. There exist exceptions in greater number and variety than is com-
monly thought to be the case. As was previously intimated, the chants of
the Proper are of two types; those that follow a lesson and those that
accompany an action. To the former category belong the Gradual and
Alleluia; to the latter, the Introit, Offertory, and Communion. There is
practically no variation in the action-chants. Introit, Offertory, and Com-
munion form a part of every Mass, the only exceptions being those of
Good Friday and Holy Saturday, which have none of them, and that of
Whitsun Eve, which lacks the Introit.

Considerable variation, however, occurs in the field of the lesson-chants,
mainly in connection with three liturgical periods of a special character,
namely, the Season before Easter, Paschal Time, and the four Ember Weeks.
In the pre-Easter Season the Alleluia is omitted (or, to express it correctly
from the historical standpoint, was never introduced), in conformity with
the somber character of the period leading up to the "darkest days'* o the
liturgical year, Good Friday and Holy Saturday. On the Sundays, Mon-
days, Wednesdays, and Fridays (Dominica, Feria II, IV, VI} of this period,
that is, from Septuagesima Sunday till Wednesday in Holy Week, it is
replaced by a Tract, but not on the other week days (Feria III, IV, Sab-
bato), on which there remains only one lesson-chant, the Gradual* An ex-
ception to this organization occurs on the Wednesday before Passion
Sunday (Per. IV. p. Dora. IV. Quad.; G 145), which has two Graduals and
a Tract. This is indeed a special day, the Day of the Great Scrutiny, that
is, of examination of the catechumens for admission to baptism* The idea
of replacing the Alleluia by a Tract was adopted for two special occasions
of a somber character, the Feast of the Holy Innocents and the Mass for the
Dead.

As if in recompense for the omission of the Alleluia in the pre-Easter
Season, there follows shortly, from Saturday in Easter Week till Friday
after Pentecost (Paschal Time), a period during which two Alleluias are
sung, one of them in the place of the Gradual The underlying principle
of the Masses for Ember Days appears most clearly in those of Advent and
September. In both these weeks the lesson-chants are: two Graduals for the
Wednesday; one Gradual for the Friday; and four Graduals, a Hymn, and

The Structure of the Liturgy 29

a Tract for the Saturday. In the Ember Week of Lent, which falls into the
pre-Easter Season, the Wednesday and Friday each have a Gradual and a
Tract, while in the Ember Week of Pentecost these two days have the two
Alleluias customary in that period. Finally, the Saturday of this week of
Pentecost has five Alleluias and a Tract. The following table shows the
lesson-chants of these twelve days.

THE LESSON-CHANTS OF THE EMBER WEEKS
FER. IV. PER. VI. SABBATO

Advent 2 Graduate i Gradual 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract

Lent i Gradual, i Tract i Gradual, i Tract 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract

Pentecost 2 Alleluias 2 Alleluias 5 Alleluias, i Tract

September 2 Graduals i Gradual 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract

The use of a hymn in the Mass is, of course, quite contrary to expecta-
tion. Actually, the chant in question is the Benedictus es Domine, which is
not a hymn at all, in the proper sense of the word, comparable to the
hymns of the Office. While these have texts dating from the fourth century
or later, written in strict verse, the Benedictus es is a scriptural text taken
from the Book of Daniel, chapter 3, which (in an apocryphal section) tells
the story of the three young Hebrews ("children") who were thrown into a
fiery furnace because they refused to adore the statue of Nebuchadnezzar,
and who were miraculously rescued by an angel, whereupon they sing an
extended song of praise, known as the Song of the Three Children (Cantus
or Hymnus trium puerorum). Its first five verses (Daniel 3:52-56) form
the basis for the Mass chant Benedictus es Domine, while the continu-
ation (y. 57-88) is used for the Canticle of Daniel, Benedicite omnia opera
[see p. 21]. The use of the Benedictus in the above-mentioned three Masses
is explained by the fact that their fifth Lesson relates the story of the
three children, ending with the words et benedicebant Deum in fornace,
dicentes (and they praised the Lord in the furnace, saying:), whereupon
their song of praise follows in the form of a closing chant. 1

Whatever type the lesson-chants may be, their number depends upon
the number of readings, there being one chant between two readings. This,
at least, was the original state of affairs when the Mass normally had three
Lessons separated by two chants, an organization which is still preserved
on the four Ember Wednesdays, e.g., that of Lent:

Lesson (Exodus) Gradual Epistle Tract Gospel

or in the Masses of Wednesday in Holy Week [613] and of Good Friday

i For special studies of the Benedictus es see: Wagner IH f 361; Ferretti, p. 206; Pal.
mt/$.,XIV, 222 (Gajard).

JO GREGORIAN CHANT

[694], The connection between Lessons and chants is particularly evident
in the Masses of the four Ember Saturdays, which have seven readings five
from the Old Testament, an Epistle, and a Gospel with six chants between
them. There are two other Masses with six chants, on Holy Saturday and
on Whitsun Eve. The former has twelve Lessons (all "Prophecies" from
the Old Testament), the latter eight. Originally, the four Ember Saturdays
must also have had twelve Lessons, since in all the earliest manuscripts
they are designated as Sabbato in xii lectionibus. 2

The following table shows all the exceptional Masses, arranged according
to number of lesson-chants.

GRAD, HYMN ALL. TRACT

A. MASSES WITH TWO LESSON-CHANTS

(Normally) (i o i o)

i. Sundays from Septuagesima to Palm Sunday")
s. Mondays, Wednesdays; Fridays from Ash
Wednesday to Wednesday in Holy Week

3. Holy Innocents 3

4. Mass of the Dead

5. From Saturday after Easter to Friday after

Pentecost (Paschal Time) 00*0

6. Feria IV. Quat Temp. Adv., Sept. * o o o

7. Good Friday coos

B. MASSES WITH ONE LESSON-CHANT

8. Feriae III,, V., and Sabbato from Feria

post Cineres to Maundy Thursday

9. Feria VI. Quat Temp, Adv., Sept.

10. Christmas Eve 8

11. Rogation Days o o I O

C. MASSES WITH THREE LESSON-CHANTS

12. Feria IV* post Dom. IV. Quad. 9001

D. MASSES WITH SIX LESSON-CHANTS

13. Ember Saturdays of Advent Lent, and

September 4101

14. Ember Saturday after Pentecost 0051

15. Holy Saturday, Whitsun Eve 4 0015

Feasts given with their English names are found in the Liber usualis; those with Latin
names, in the Graduate.

2 Hesbert (Scxtuplcx, p. xl) offers the explanation that the Ember Saturdays had six
readings (no Gospel), each of which was read in Latin as well as in Greek.

8 The Masses of Holy Innocents and Christmas Eve have an Alleluia if they fall on a
Sunday.

4 By a recent decree the Mass for Whitsun Eve has been changed to a normal Mass.

The Structure of the Liturgy 31

The two main variants in the structure of the Proper are those given
in the above table under nos. i, 2, and 5, the first two being valid for the
period from Septuagesima to shortly before Easter, the third for the period
of Paschal Time. Naturally these variants also apply to the Masses of the
Common and Proper of Saints whenever they fall into these periods. Thus,
for the Common of Holy Popes there is provided a Gradual, an Alleluia, a
Tract, and a second Alleluia, with the remark that after Septuagesima the
first Alleluia is to be replaced by the Tract, and in Paschal Time, the
Gradual by the first Alleluia [i is>2 2 ff|.

Yet another variation in the structure of the Proper of the Mass is the
addition, on certain feasts, of a sequence. The present-day books contain
five sequences, Victimae paschali for Easter and Easter Week, Vent Sancte
Spiritus for Whit Sunday and Whitsun Week, Lauda Sion for Corpus
Christi, Stabat Mater for the Feast of Seven Dolours, and Dies irae for the
Mass of the Dead. These have not been included in the above tabulation.
They are later additions which do not occur in the earliest manuscripts
(Sextuplex, St. Gall 555^ 33^). On the other hand, in the heyday of the
sequence (twelfth century and later) practically every Mass had one, so
that, in this period, its presence was as normal a feature as was its absence
before that time. Only after the Council of Trent (1545-63), which abolished
nearly all the sequences, did the sequence become an exceptional compo-
nent of certain Masses.

Regarding the Ordinary of the Mass, the only variants are the occasional
omission of the Gloria and the Credo. The Gloria is omitted in Advent and
Lent (except Maundy Thursday and Holy Saturday), on Holy Innocents,
and certain other occasions; the Credo, on feasts of Martyrs, Virgins, Holy
Women, among others. A few Masses, e.g., those of the Rogation Days and
for the Dead, have neither Gloria nor Credo.

Entirely different from all the other Masses are those of Good Friday and
Holy Saturday. The former is called Mass of the Presanctified, because the
priest uses the Host consecrated on the previous day. It lacks all the action-
chants as well as the chants of the Mass Ordinary. The Mass of Holy
Saturday has none of the action-chants, and only the Kyrie, Gloria, and
Sanctus of the Ordinary. With its numerous readings (twelve Prophecies),
Prayers and special ceremonies of the Blessing of the Paschal Candle, Bless-
ing of the Font, and Litany of Saints, the Mass of Holy Saturday is the most
extended and elaborate of all.

Finally, mention may be made of special ceremonies celebrated before
or after the Mass on certain feasts, such as the Blessing of the Ashes on
Ash Wednesday [523], the Blessing of the Candles and the Procession on
the Feast of Purification [1356], the Distribution of Palms and the Proces-
sion on Palm Sunday [583], the Adoration of the Cross on Good Friday

32 GREGORIAN CHANT

[704], and the Processions on Rogation Days [835] and Corpus Christi [950].
The chants sung during the ceremonies are mainly elaborate Antiphons
(similar to the Antiphons to the B. V. M. in that they are not connected
with a Psalm), Responsories, and Hymns, the latter especially during the
Procession on Corpus Christi.

CHAPTER THREE

Origin and Development to c. 600

A DETAILED description of the development of Roman chant or of the
related bodies of Christian chant lies outside the scope of this book,
which is primarily devoted to investigations of style and form; nor would
such a description be in line with the general principles of research on
which our studies are based. Because of the scarcity of factual information
regarding the development of chant, a large amount of conjecture and
inductive Reasoning is necessary in order to fill the wide areas abouT winch
weliave no certain knowledge, and to answer, at least with a certain degree
of probability, the numerous questions about which we have no docu-
mentary evidence. In fact, the various books that have been written on this
subject consist to a considerable extent of such conjectural material. This
in no way means that they are without validity or without value. One might
single out for mention the first volume of P. Wagner's Einfiihrung in die
Gregorianischen Melodien, entitled Ursprung und Entwicklung der
liturgischen Gesangsformen (and edition, 1901) which contains an excellent
description of the historical development, combining the actual data with
sound reasoning. The fact that this volume is available in an English
translation 1 is one more reason for forgoing a presentation which, at best,
would be nothing more than a rehash. The present chapter, then, is no
more than a survey designed to provide the reader with the most neces-
sary information about the evolutionary processes of which the Gregorian
repertory is the final result. Short sketches dealing with the development of
individual forms, such as the Responsories, Alleluias, etc., are included
in the later chapters.

l Introduction to the Gregorian Melodies (1907). Also very useful, and extremely
readable, is Duchesne's Christian Worship, which treats the development primarily from
the liturgical point of view. More detailed, but also more controversial, are the explana-
tions offered in Gastou's Les Origines du chant romain (1907).

34 GREGORIAN CHANT

THE PRE-CHRISTIAN ROOTS

,The Christian rite and its chant are rooted in the Jewish liturgy. 1 Dif-
ferent though the new message was from the teaching of the Synagogue, it
was presented to the Jewish people in the forms to which they had been
accustomed by a long tradition. Only a few of the many indications of this
connection can be mentioned here. Thus, the Office Hours of the Church
are modelled after the prayer hours of the Jews, which began with the
evening prayer at sunset, thejmcestpr of Vespers in the Roman Office.
Even the Mass, the main embodiment of the new faith, contains a Jewish
element. It is the mystic repetition of the Last Supper which Christ cele-
brated with his disciples in imitation of the Jewish Passover* Perhaps the
strongest and least varied bond exists in the Book of Psalms, which formed
an important part of the Jewish service and was raised to even greater
importance in the Christian liturgy. A number of Psalms actually retained
their position, e.g., Ps. 94, Venite exsultemus, which served as an in-
troductory Psalm for the evening service of the Jewish Sabbath, and which
appears in the same function at the Night Service (Matins) of the Roman
liturgy. It is hardly necessary to point out that the Amen and Alleluia are
of Jewish origin, but less known is the fact that the Sanctus of the Mass,
with its triple acclamation "Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus," is derived, together
with the Greek-Byzantine Trishagion ("Hagios, hagios, hagios") from the
Jewish Kedusha, "Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh."

In view of these numerous bonds between the two rituals, it is only
natural to assume that there also existed a musical tradition leading from
the Jewish to the earliest Christian chant. This surmise, formerly based
only on inductive reasoning, has been scientifically established through
the work of Idelsohn who, some thirty years ago, studied the religious
chants of Jewish tribes in various parts of the East, mainly Yemen (South
Arabia), Babylonia, Persia, and Syria. 2 An examination of these traditions
revealed many striking similarities, clearly indicative of a common bond*
Since it is impossible to assume that these tribes, living in the strictest
isolation and in widely distant places, could have had any contacts
sufficient to establish cultural relationships, the inevitable conclusion is
that their musical tradition goes back to the time before they separated,
that is, before the destruction of the second Temple of Jerusalem (70
B.C.) and the ensuing dispersion of the Jews, Thus we can form at least a

1 See, e.g., A. Gastoue, "Les Origines h^brafcjues de liturgie et du chant Chretien"
(RCG, XXXIV, XXXV); I. Schuster, "Delle origin! e dello sviluppo del canto Hturgico"
(Ross. Greg., XI, XII); C. Vivell, "Directe Entwicklung des rdmischen Kirchengesanges
aus der vorchristlichen Musik" (KJ, XXIV); E. Werner, "The Common Ground in the
Chant of Church and Synagogue" (AG1, p. 134).

2 A. Z. Idelsohn, Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies, 10 vols., 1914-5*.

Origin and Development to c. 600 35

general idea of Jewish chant as it existed shortly before the rise of Chris-
tianity. The most important result from our point of view is the fact that
there is a striking similarity of style between the ancient Jewish melodies
and those of . the Gregorian repertory, indicated by such basic traits as
absence of regular meter, responsorial and antiphonal performance, pre-
vailingly conjunct motion, psalmodic recitation, syllabic style mixed with
melismas, and use of standard formulae. In the field of psalm recitation
the principles and, occasionally, even the melodies themselves, are prac-
tically identical. The basic elements of the Gregorian psalm tones, that is,
unison recitation (tenor) for each half of the verse with initial and con-
cluding formulae before and after each recitation (intonation, mediant,
termination), are found particularly among the Jews of Yemen, who em-
ploy them not only for the Psalms but also for the Pentateuch and other
books of Scripture. The Yemenite psalm melody shown in Fig. ia 3 is prac-
tically identical with the first Gregorian psalm tone shown under b (termi-
nation on f ; see Lug):

FIGURE i

I J3 JffjH

A* sar ceno bode- ho al basso- mo-jim.

Another remarkable example of parallelism exists in the Lamentations
of Jeremiah, which are sung at Matins of the three days before Easter
(Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday), the verses being
numbered by the Hebrew letters, Aleph, Beth, Ghimel, etc. [626]. Manu-
scripts of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries give various recitation melo-
dies for this text, and one of them (Fig. sa), remarkable for its archaic
flavor, is strikingly similar to a melody used by the Yemenite Jews for the
same text (Fig. sb), 4

FIGURE 2

/^ M * ^ -----~ w 9< I -"-' 7!. J "J ^ ^ J ' * * I m & * * * + *'

Several other Jewish parallels for Gregorian melodies have been pointed
out by E. Werner: 5 for example, the tonus peregrinus which is employed

3 Idelsohn, Thesaurus, I, 64. lie text is Ps. 8, beginning of -fl. 2.

4 Given in Wagner 111, 239!, from (a) O. Fleischer, Neumenstudien, II (1897), 41; and
(b) Idelsohn, Thesaurus, I, 88.

GSeefn. i.

36 GREGORIAN CHANT

for the Psalm In exitu Israel and which recurs almost identically in a
psalm formula employed by the Yemenite Jews for the same text; or the
archaic melodies for the Te deum [Simple Tone; L 1834] and the Gloria
XV [57], both written in a pentatonic E-tonality which Clement of Alex-
andria (c. 150-0. 220) calls tropos spondeiakos, adding that it is in use in
Jewish psalmody and recommending it as a model for Christian singers.
Several other examples of this kind have been found. On the whole, how-
ever, the main argument rests not so much on individual examples as on
the identity of the general premises of musical style. 6

The validity of this argument becomes even more apparent if we turn
to the examination of another question, that is, whether and to what ex-
tent elements of ancient Greek music entered into the formation of Chris-
tian chant. A Greek-Gregorian line of connection exists, without doubt,
In the theoretical field of the scale systems, although to the present day
scholars disagree as to whether the "Greek" end of this line is represented
by pre-Christian Greek antiquity or by the Greek-Byzantine tradition of
the sixth or seventh century after Christ. This fact has led to attempts to
establish a similar relationship between the melodies of the ancient Greeks
and those of the Gregorian repertory. Although only a few melodies of
Greek antiquity have come down to us, they are sufficient to give a general
impression of the stylistic principles of this tradition and, at the same time,
show that these principles are almost diametrically opposed to those under-
lying the music of Christian worship. Not only are the ancient Greek
melodies strictly metrical and almost completely syllabic but also indic-
ative of an entirely different approach to melodic design* A typically
Greek melody, such as the Delphic Hymn or the Hymn to the Sun, T is
essentially a speech delivered in distinct musical pitches which are rather
haphazardly selected and combined. The result is a musical line that is
not (or only incidentally) subject to such general principles of melodic
design as balance of rising and falling tendencies or reference to a tonal
center, principles which are of basic importance in Gregorian chant Pas-
sages like the beginning of the Hymn to the Sun (Fig. 3) are as un-Gregorian
as possible, not only rhythmically but also melodically.

FIGURE 3

r p p J

.- .... r , , , r r

Chi -o- no* ble-pht-rou p -r A * out, rho-<k> ts * ita hoi - ty .gt po- too

Actually, the case made for the Greek-origin theory rests upon a single
piece of evidence, that is, the melodic similarity between the Seikilos Song,

6 See pp. 180, 186, and

7 See HAM, nos. ya, b.

Origin and Development to c. 600 37

Hoson zes, and the Antiphon Hosanna filio David from Palm Sunday. 8
However, in spite of a few striking details, the proof of identity is, on the
whole, hardly more convincing than the attempt to derive the melody of
God save the King from the Antiphon Unxerunt Salomonem [987]. At
any rate, it goes without saying that such an isolated case proves nothing.
A somewhat better case can be made for the theory of a Graeco-Christian
and, later on, Byzantine influence. An isolated example of a very early
period is the Oxyrhynchos Hymn, 10 a Christian hymn in the Greek lan-
guage, dating from the end of the third century: ". . . Let all the waves of
the rushing rivers give praise to our Father and Son and Holy Spirit, let
all powers sing with them: amen, amen. Power, praise [and glory unto
God], the only Giver of all goods: amen, amen." On the whole, the music
for this hymn (Fig. 4) is written in the ancient Greek style, with its strik-
ingly "atomic" design resulting, as it were, from the mere addition of
pitches. Formations such as the two descending fifths that occur in close
succession on hymnounton d'hemon or the leap of a sixth on pasai are as
foreign to Gregorian style as can be. Different trends, however, are notice-

FIGURE 4

* lJ * fj -^ * ^^ *^ -I J ^ W r V LJ V M <P J>

hym-noun- con d'he - mon pa te- ra k'hyi -on k'ha- gi - on pneu - ma. Pa- sei

dy na-meis . . . pan- eon a ga -thon. A- men,

able in the closing part of the hymn, particularly in the final cadence on
"amen, amen," which shows an unmistakable similarity to a Gregorian
cadence.

In a recent publication, Eastern Elements in Western Chant (1947), E.
Wellesz has tried to demonstrate the existence of musical relationships
between the Eastern (Byzantine) and Western (Ambrosian, Gregorian)
repertory of chant, interpreting them as influence from the East to the
West. His proofs are rarely conclusive and his claims of priority on behalf
of the Eastern chant are often arbitrary. We do not mean to deny that
Eastern and Western chant have something in common, but this common
bond must be sought not so much in their finished repertories of the
eighth or ninth century as in their primeval stages during the first four
centuries of the Christian era. Thus we wholly agree with the following

8 See HAM, no. 70; L 578. Both melodies are shown simultaneously in G. Reese,
Music in the Middle Ages (1940), p. 115.

a Times (London), Sept. 5, 1931.

10 So called because it is contained in a group of papyri found near Oxyrhynchos in
Middle Egypt. See the article "Oxyrhynchos Hymn" in HDM. Our version is taken from
E. Wellesz, A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography (1949), pp. is6f.

38 GREGORIAN CHANT

statement found in Wellesz' A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnog-
raphy (1949): "It is obvious that the oldest versions of both Byzantine
and Gregorian melodies go back to a common source, the music of the
Churches of Antioch and Jerusalem, which in their turn derived from the
music of the Jews" (p. 35),

HISTORICAL DATA FROM THE FIRST
TO THE EIGHTH CENTURIES

We have previously alluded to the scarcity of documentary evidence
concerning the early development of Christian chant. 1 What little there
is, however, is all the more valuable and indispensable since it forms the
basis for all inferences, conclusions, and hypotheses that can be, and have
been, made in order to arrive at a more complete and coherent picture.
Following is a succinct presentation of these data, in the form of a chrono-
logical list. 2

LIST OF DOCUMENTARY DATA

FIRST CENTURY

1. . 60: Philo of Alexandria (born c. so), a Jewish chronicler, describes antiph-
onal singing, performed by men and women, among the Thcrapcutae, a Jewish
sect whose faith was a mixture of Biblical and Platonic elements [W 14 (17); R
60], See nos. 5, 17, si, 30.

2. C. 90: Pope Clement I refers in a letter (written m Greek) to the use of
the "Hagios, Hagios, Hagios" (Trishagion), the Greek form of the Sanctus [R
115], See nos. 6, 44*

3. C. 90: In the same letter Pope Clement gives evidence of psalm-singing (in

1 Perhaps we should say: scarcity of relevant documentary evidence* Thousands of
references to singing exist in the writings of the Church Fathers and of early chroniclers.
In fact, Gerbert's De cantu et musica sacra (s vols., 1774) is nothing but a gigantic com-
pilation (still occasionally useful) of such references. Very little of this, however, is of
actual importance from our point of view.

2 Compiled from a number of books which may be consulted for source indications and
further details: D: Duchesne, Christian Worship; O: Gastou, Les Origins . . ,; Oil
G^rold, Histoire de la musiquc (1936); Ger: Gerbert, De Cantu; L: Lang, Music in West-
ern Civilization; M: G. Morin, Les veritable* origines du chant grtgorien (i9i); R:
Reese, Music in the Middle Ages; W: Wagner, Introduction to Gregorian Chant, with
page references to the German edition, Einfuhrung, vol. I (31901), in parentheses.

The present writer assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of these data or of their
interpretation. Some of them may well turn out to be unreliable. The most recent
studies of the early development of Christian music are: H, Hucke, "Die Entwicklung des
christlichen Kultgesangs sum Grcgorianischen Choral" (Rtimische Qu&rtalschrift fur
Christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte, XLVXII [1953], 147); and B St&blein,
article "Frtihchristliche Musik" (MGG).

Origin and Development to c. 600 39

Rome?) by warning the faithful not to sing the Psalms at the feasts of the pagans,
lest they should appear similar to the music of the kithara players and minstrels

4. The Apocryphal Acts of John the Evangelist (died c. 100) contain a refer-
ence to aulos playing and dancing in connection with the singing of hymns [G^
135]. See no. 9.

SECOND CENTURY

5. C. 115: Pliny, the Younger, in a letter to the Roman emperor Trajan, men-
tions the Night Office (Vigils, Matins) and, possibly, antiphonal singing among
the Christians of Bithynia [W 109 (127); R 60; L 43; G 45]. See nos. 11, 23, 27, 41.

6. C. 120: Pope Sixtus I is reported to have introduced the Sanctus into the
Mass [W gg (116)].

7. C. 150: Justin Martyr (d. 162) describes the Mass at Rome as consisting of
readings from the Old and New Testament, a sermon, an offering of bread and
wine, prayer of the faithful, the "kiss of peace," eucharistic (thanksgiving) prayer,
and communion [L 45; D 50]. Notice the absence of psalm-singing (Introit,
Gradual, etc.). See nos. 33, 34.

8. Early Latin translations of the Bible, now collectively referred to as the Itala.
However, Greek remains the official language of the Church until the third cen-
tury, even in Rome. See nos. 12, 31, 54.

9. Clement of Alexandria (c. i5o-c. 220) forbids the use of instruments and of
chromatic music in the churches [W 12, 13 (14, 16); R 61; G 45].

10. The Church Father Tertullian (c. 155-^. 222), active in Carthage, mentions
responsorial psalmody (cantus responsorius), probably with reference to Rome
[W 16 (19); R 62]. See nos. 15, 24, 53.

11. Tertullian mentions the three earliest Office Hours, Vigils, Lauds, and Ves-
pers, in Carthage [L 44]; also Terce, Sext, and None as private prayer hours [D
447]-

THIRD CENTURY

12. First indications of Latin liturgy in Rome [W 44 (51); L 49; G 46]-

13. The Syrian Bardesanes (d. 223) and his son, Harmonios, write a Gnostic
Psalter, i.e., hymn-like versions of the Psalms written from the point of view of
Gnosticism (a combination of Christian doctrine with oriental and hellenistic
elements) [W 38 (44); R 70]. See nos. 14, 20, 22, 25, 28.

14. 269: Council of Antioch. The great popularity of hymn-singing appears
from the fact that the Council reproached the bishop Paul of Samosata for abolish-
ing them in his church [W 37 (43)].

15. Athanasius (259-313), on the occasion of a persecution of Christians in
Alexandria, orders the singing of a Psalm with the people responding: "quoniam
in aeternum misericordia eius." [W i$t (19)]-

16. Athanasius (according to St. Augustine) insisted that the Psalms should be
sung with such moderate inflexion (tarn modico flexu vocis) that it sounded like
speech rather than singing [W 27 (31); R 62], This has been considered as in-

4O GREGORIAN CHANT

direct evidence that fairly elaborate methods of singing existed at that time. See
nos. 18, 32.

17. Eusebius (c. a6o-c. 340), bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, mentions Philo's
report (see no. i) and says that the same practice exists among the Christians of
his time [W 14 (17)].

18. Eusebius bears witness that the Psalms were sung "in melodious tone/' i.e.,
not merely recited [R 62].

FOURTH CENTURY

19. 313: Edict of Constantinople, which raised the Christian faith to the status
of an officially recognized religion, thus making an end to the persecutions and
removing any obstacles to free development in liturgy or chant.

20. C. 340: St. Ephraim (306-73) of Syria writes the first Christian hymns (in
Greek), in order to combat the heretical hymns of Bardesanes (see no. 13) [W 38
(45); ^ 69].

21. C. 350: Two monks, Flavianus and Diodorus, import antiphonal psalmody
from the heretical Syrian Church into the Christian-orthodox Church of Antioch
(Syria) [W 18 (22); R 68; L 46; G 50; D 114].

22. C. 350: Hilarius (d. 367), bishop of Poitiers (France) writes the first Latin
hymns, after the model of St. Ephraim (see no. 20) [W 39 (46); L 48].

23. Hilarius mentions Vespers, Nocturns, and Lauds in France [W MI (129)].

24. C. 375: St. Basil (c. 330-79), in a letter to the people of Caesarea, speaks of
the singing of Psalms, both antiphonally and responsorially, in all parts of the
Orient [W 21 (241); R 63; G 137],

25. The Council of Laodicea (c. 360-81) forbids the singing of hymns [W 38
(44); L 47].

26. The Council of Laodicea established a schola cantorum [L 52], See nos, 36,

49-

27. C. 385: The Spanish abbess Etheria (formerly called Sylvia or Egeria) makes
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and gives a detailed report about the liturgy there, men-
tioning a full Office (Vigils, Lauds, Terce, Sext, None, and Vespers) with Psalms,
Antiphons, Hymns, Lessons, Responds, and Collects; also an incipient cycle of
the year including Nativity, Lent, Palm Sunday, Holy Week, Easter, and Pente-
cost [R 65; L 44; D 54iff; G^ 138].

28. St. Ambrose (340-97) introduces antiphonal psalmody and hymns into
Milan [W 22 (26); R 104; L 46, 48].

29. Pope Damasus I (366-84), advised by St. Jerome (530-420), undertakes the
first organization of the liturgy and chant in Rome, after the model of the Church
of Jerusalem [W 167 (191); R 119; G 51; M 79].

30. Damasus introduces antiphonal singing and the Alleluia into Rome [W 81
(95)* R % L 46; see, however, pp. 3763. See nos. 37, 45, 47.

31. C. 400: St. Jerome finishes the first complete Latin translation o the Bible,
the Vulgata (Vulgate), which supersedes the Jtala.

32* C. 400: Cassian gives evidence of ornate methods of singing in some men*
asteries of the Orient [W 29 (34); G 209], and mentions the Gloria Patri as a
closing verse for antiphonal Psalms [Ger 43].

Origin and Development to c. 600 41

33. C. 400: Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo in North Africa, makes refer-
ence to various Mass chants: (a) the Gradual as a (complete) Psalm between the
readings from Scripture and from the Gospels [W 72 (84)]; (b) the Alleluia as an
extended vocalization, though without specific reference to the Mass [W 32 (38)];
and (c) the chants of the Offertory and the Communion which he introduced into
Carthage [W 93, 103 (109, 120); R 64; D 173^.

FIFTH CENTURY

34. Celestine I (422-32) is said to have ordered the singing of antiphonal Psalms
before the Offering. This has been interpreted as the earliest, though rather ques-
tionable, evidence of the Introit [W 57 (67); R 119; G 81; M 54].

35. Pope Leo I (440-61) is said to have been the first to institute an annalis
cantus, i.e., a cycle of chants for the whole year [W 167 (191); M 79). Also ascribed
to him is a Sacramentary, known as the Leonine Sacramentary [D 1352]. See nos.

38, 39* 50 55> 56.

36. Leo I founded a monastery for the training of singers, the earliest indication
of a schola cantorum in Rome [L 53]. See no. 49.

37. The Greek church historian Sozomenos (c. 450) reports that the Alleluia
was sung in Rome only once each year, on Easter Sunday [Migne, Patrologia
graeca 67, p. 1475].

38. Pope Gelasius (492-96) is mentioned in connection with another annalis
cantus [W i6>j (192); M 79] and another Sacramentary, the Gelasian [W 167 (192);
D

SIXTH CENTURY

39. Popes Symmachus (498-514), Johannes (523-26), and Bonifacius (530-32)
all are said to have worked on a cantus annalis (or cantilena anni circuit), a cycle
of chants for the whole year [W 168 (192); M 79],

40. C. 510: Pope Symmachus extends the use of the Gloria of the Mass over
the entire year, Sundays and Feasts of Martyrs [W 67 (80)].

41. C. 530: St. Benedict (died c. 543) establishes a complete liturgy for the
Offices of the entire year (Benedictine Rule) with Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce,
Sext, None, Vespers and Compline [W 112 (131)]-

42. St. Benedict mentions (introduces?) the psalmus in directum [W 23f (*7f)].

43. 529: The Council of Vaison (France) introduces the Kyrie eleison into the
Galilean Mass, in a statement which implies that it had been introduced some
time before into the Roman Mass [W 64 (75); D 165]. See no. 48.

44. 529: The Council of Vaison orders the use of the Sanctus in all Masses [W

99* (11?)]-

45. Cassiodorus (c. 485-580) describes the Alleluia as a jubilus, i.e., an extended
vocalization (without mentioning a verse) [W 33 (39)].

46. 589: The Council of Toledo (Spain) adopts the Credo of the Greek Church
for use in the Mozarabic liturgy [W 89 (105)].

47. C. 600: Pope Gregory I (590-604) orders the use of the Alleluia for the en-
tire year, except for the period of Lent [W 81 (95); R 180].

4% GREGORIANCHANT

48. Gregory adds the Christe eleison to the Kyrie [W 65 (76)].

49. Gregory establishes (or reorganizes; see no. 36) the Roman schola cantorum
[W 172 (197); R 121].

50. Gregory is said to have edited a cantus anni circuit nobilis (a famous cycle
of chants for the year) [W 168 (192)].

51. Gregory is said to have written a cento antiphonarius (compilation [liter-
ally, patch-work] of chants) [W 172 (197)]-

SEVENTH CENTURY

52. 608: Introduction of the Feast of the Dedication of a Church [ W 182, fn. 3

53. Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636) gives a clear description of responsorial psalm-
ody [W 16 (20)].

54. Isidore says that the Vulgate (see no. 31) is now universally employed [M

45]-

55. Pope Martinus (649-55) is said to have edited a cantus annali$ [W 168

56. C. 650: Three Roman abbots, Catolenus, Maurianus, and Virbonus, are each
reported to have written a cantus annalis nobilis [W 168 (192); M 81].

57. The Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701; Council of Trullo, 692) introduces the
Processions for three Feasts of the Virgin: Annunciation, Assumption, and Na-
tivity [W 182 (209)].

58. Pope Sergius introduces the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross [W 182
(209)].

59. Pope Sergius introduces the Agnus Dei into the Roman Mass [W 101 (1x9);
D 186].

EIGHTH CENTURY

60. C. 725: Pope Gregory II (715-31) introduces the Masses for all the Thurs-
days of Lent [W 181 (207); D 246].

It is understood that these data should not be taken at their face value-
They must be carefully evaluated both as to their reliability and as to their
meaning before they can be used as the foundation material for a study of
the development of chant, a study which also has to take into considera-
tion many other things, such as facts of a purely liturgical character or
internal evidence derived from an analysis of the melodies. Perhaps it is
not superfluous to illustrate this situation by a few examples* A typical
case of questionable reliability is no. 6 of the above list, according to which
Pope Sixtus I introduced the Sanctus into the Mass, This information
comes from a Liber Pontificate (a book describing the deeds o the popes)
which was compiled from c. 600 to c, 800, that is, nearly five hundred years
after the event to which it refers. Even admitting the accuracy of the report,

Origin and Development to c. 600 43

we have no evidence that the Sanctus was sung at this remote time or, if it
was sung, that the melody had any connection with extant Sanctus melodies
preserved in manuscripts of the tenth or eleventh centuries. Another fact
worthy of note is that in the chronological list hymns appear centuries
before any mention is made of, for instance, the Graduals (see nos. 14 and
33). They are indeed a considerably older item of the liturgy, at least in
the East, but this statement implies nothing regarding the antiquity of
their melodies as compared with those of the Graduals. The fact that
hymns existed in the third century, Antiphons in the fourth (see no. 27), or
the Introit in the fifth (see no. 34) is of interest and importance from the
liturgical point of view, but is of little value for the investigation of the
development of the musical repertory, for which we have to rely on en-
tirely different criteria.

On the basis of historical data such as those given above and other con-
siderations, scholars have been able to trace with a reasonable degree of
certitude the development of liturgy and chant. For our purpose a sum-
mary description will suffice.

FROM THE FIRST CENTURY TO C. 380

Th^ earliest development took place in the East, particularly in Jeru-
salem and A&lioch. The most primitive service was the Night Office of
Saturday (the Jewish Sabbath), held in the hours before dawn, between
cock-crow and sun-rise. It was followed by the Mass, which therefore fell
in the early hours of Sunday. Thus, Sunday became the Day of the Lord
and assumed the function of the weekly feast day. The Night Service con-
sisted of readings, prayers, and Psalms, the latter of which were probably
sung by a soloist, with congregational responses. The Mass consisted mainly
of readings from the Old and New Testaments, a sermon, offerings, and
communion (see Data, no. 7), possibly without any singing. As early as
the second century we find three Offices: Vespers at the beginning of the
night, the Vigil (later called Nocturn or Matins) during the last hours of
the night, and Lauds in the first hours of the morning. The Lesser Hours
Terce, Sext, and None existed at an early time as hours for private prayers
(as in a family), but later became an official institution.

We are very fortunate to possess a detailed account of the complete serv-
ice as it was celebrated in Jerusalem about A. D. 385, at the very end of the
period we are here concerned with. This information is contained in a
unique document known as the Peregrinatio Etheriae (formerly, Silviae)
which is the account of a pilgrimage to the holy places of the East under-
taken by the nun Etheria, who wrote the report for the sisters of her nun-
nery, which was probably in north-west Spain. After detailed descriptions
of her journey to various places (Mount Sinai, Mount Nebo, return to

44 GREGORIAN CHANT

Constantinople) she informs her sisters about the "operatio singulis diebus
cotidle in locis sanctis," the order of the liturgy day by day in the Holy
Places. 1 Here we find most interesting details about the Daily Offices at
Matins, Sext, None, and Vespers; the Vigils and the Mass of Sunday; and
the special celebrations for Epiphany (the section for Nativity is lost), the
Feast of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple (not adopted into the
Roman rite), the period of Lent with celebrations on all weekdays except
the Thursdays [see Data, no. 60], Holy Week, Easter Sunday, Ascension,
and Whit Sunday. For most of these services special places of worship are
mentioned, such as the various churches in Jerusalem (Anastasis, Church
of the Resurrection with the Holy Sepulchre; Crux, Church of the Holy
Cross; Martyrium, the Great Basilica; Sion, the Church on Mount Sion);
or outside, in Bethlehem, Bethany, Gethsemane, or on the Mount of Olives.
Thus, at Epiphany the Vigils were celebrated in Bethlehem, the Mass in
Jerusalem; on Palm Sunday the Vigils were held in the Anastasis and at
the Cross, Mass was celebrated in the Martyrium, and there was an evening
procession to the Mount of Olives; Maundy Thursday had a night service
on the Mount of Olives? and a morning service at Gethsemane; etc. These
customs had a profound influence on the organization of the service in
Rome, where the feasts were also assigned to different churches, known as
Stations (Statio ad Grucem, Statio ad Sanctam Mariarri), some of them built
in direct imitation of those of Jerusalem. Finally, there was a special feast,
celebrated with great solemnity, for the Dedication of Churches, in com-
memoration of the day when the churches of Anastasis and Martyrium had
been consecrated (this, Etheria reports, was also the day when the Cross of
the Lord had been found).

While most of the information given by Etheria is of a liturgical char-
acter, we also learn something about the music which accompanied the
celebrations. Nearly every Office has the remark: "dicuntur ymni et ami-
phonae aptae diei ipsi" (Hymns and Antiphons proper for the day are
said 2 ) or a similar one to the same effect* Other remarks are: "dicuntur
ymni et psalmi responduntur, similiter et antiphonae" (Hymns are said,
and Psalms are sung with responses, and also Antiphons), or "dkuntur
psalmi responsorii, vicibus antiphonae" (responsorial Psalms are said, in
alternation with Antiphons). In connection with Vespers we hear that there
was a memorial service during which a choir of boys always responded
with Kyrie eleison after each name. No chanting is mentioned in connec-
tion with the Mass, except for hymns sung after Mass by the monks who

1 W. Heraeus, Silviae vel potius Aetheriae peregrinatio ad loca sancta (19**)*' J onn **
Bernard, The Pilgrimage of Saint Silvia (1891). The description o the liturgy in Jeru-
salem is reproduced in Duchesne's Christian Worship, pp. 49*8 (Latin) and 541!! (Eng-
lish).

2 Dicuntur fare said*') does not mean that these items were spoken.

Origin and Development to c. 600 45

accompanied the bishop from the church of the Cross to the church of the
Anastasis.

Exactly what these terms mean is, of course, to a certain extent open to
doubt. Probably the only unequivocal one is psalmus responsorius, which
means that the Psalm was sung with the congregation responding after
each verse. As to the ymni so frequently mentioned, the natural assumption
is that these mean hymns, but this is not shared by Duchesne who remarks*
that ymni, far from being metrical hymns, are just another designation for
Psalms or Canticles. It is true that the term does occur in this meaning,
e.g., in a passage from Augustine: "ut hymni ad altare dicerentur de
psalmorum libro" (that hymns should be said at the altar from the Book
of Psalms). However, it may also have the meaning of hymns (though not
necessarily metrical, as are those of St. Ambrose), and Etheria's remark:
"dicuntur ymni et psalmi responduntur" would be without point if ymni
meant the same as psalmi. The great popularity of hymns is well attested
in the third and fourth centuries (see nos. 14, 20); it is perhaps significant
that hardly fifty years before Etheria's pilgrimage St. Ephraim had written
the first Christian hymns, which were so successful that a decade later
hymns appeared in the western part of the Christian world (no. 22). It is
true that at about the time of Etheria's journey the Council of Laodicea
interdicted the use of hymns. It is reasonable, however, to assume that
this decree had no immediate effect in Jerusalem, since it is well known
that hymns continued to play a prominent role in the Greek liturgy (Byzan-
tium), much in contrast to that of Rome, where the decree of Laodicea led
to a complete suppression of hymns until they were reintroduced about the
eleventh century. In sum, there is no reason to doubt that Etheria's ymni
were hymns.

There is less certainty about the meaning of Etheria's frequently men-
tioned antiphonae. The question is whether antiphona means Antiphon
in the later sense of the word, i.e., a short text and melody which is re-
peated, like a refrain, after each verse of a Psalm (today only at the begin-
ning and at the end); or whether it stands for psalmus antiphonus, i.e., a
Psalm sung antiphonally by two answering choruses. The former interpre-
tation would, of course, indicate a more advanced stage in the evolution
of antiphonal psalmody, and scholars usually consider the Peregrinatio as
evidence that this stage had been reached near the end of the fourth cen-
tury. 4 The situation would be clear if we found a reference such as psalmus
cum antiphona, but this does not occur. We hear only about "psalmi
responduntur, similiter et antiphonae" (Duchesne, p. 492), "psalmi lucer-
nares sed et antiphonae" (p. 493), "psalmi responsorii, vicibus antiphonae"

3 Christian Worship, p. 492.

4 Cf. Wagner /, 23, fn. 2, referring to F. Cabrol's Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne
et de liturgie (1907-53), s.v. "Antiphone."

46 GREGORIAN CHANT

(p. 501), or "ymni et antiphonae" (p. 505, etc.); it is quite obvious that in
most of these cases antiphonae means full Psalms sung amiphonally, not
just the short Antiphons, which were never sung alone. Only the "psalmi
lucernares sed et antiphonae" (Vesper Psalms but also Antiphons) could be
interpreted as an indication that Antiphons in the proper sense of the word
were sung in connection with the Vesper Psalms.

FROM DAMASUS TO GREGORY

With the beginning of the fifth century the center of attention shifts
from the East to the West. The first general organization of liturgy and
chant at Rome is usually assigned to the pontificate of Damasus I, who
reigned from 366 to 384 [see no. 29]. Although this assignment is not con-
firmed by contemporary documents, it receives some support from what is
known of ecclesiastical affairs of that time as well as from later documents*
The clearest statement is contained in a report from the seventh or eighth
century enumerating a number of popes who had contributed to the
formation of Roman liturgy and chant* The list opens with Damasus who,
we are told, "instituted and decreed the ecclesiastical order with the help
of the priest St. Jerome who, with the permission of the pope himself, had
transmitted it from Jerusalem." 1 Although this is a relatively late testi-

i This list appears at the end of the earliest Ordo Romanus, usually called Ordo
Romanus Gerbert [see List of Sources, p. 55, no. 4], and also at the end of a report of a
Frankish monk who, about 800, visited monasteries in Rome and tells us mostly about
the rituals at the meals of the Roman monks: De prandio monachorum (Pair, tat. 138,
p. 1346). As for its documentary value, this list of "musical" popes represents one of the
most striking cases of disagreement among liturgical scholars. P. Wagner considered it as
a fairly trustworthy report of a Frankish monk (Wagner /, 166), In 19*3, Silva-Tarouca
("Giovanni archicantor di S. Pietro a Roma e TOrdo Romanus da lui composta" [Atti
della Pontificia Accademia di archeologia^ Serie III, Memorie, vol. I, parte *, 19*3, p. 159))
identified its author with the Roman archicantor Johannes who, about 680, was sent
to England by Pope Agathon, and suggested that Johannes wrote the Ordo at that time
as the result of his teaching activities at the monastery of Wearraouth. This theory was
adopted by B. St&blein, who considered the list as the * 4 bedeutsamste und grundlegendste
Dokument zur Fruhgeschichte des liturgischen Cesanges in Rom" (AC I, p. 573), particu-
larly in view of the fact that its alleged author was an archicantor (we would say, chapel
master) at St. Peter's, a man who obviously was in a position to speak with authority
about musical matters. Silva-Tarouca's theory was regarded as doubtful by J. Froger
(Les Chants de la messe aux Vllle et IXe slides [1950], p. 6) and completely rejected by
M. Andrieu ("Les Ordines Roman!" [Spicilegium sacrum Lovanicrxc, toe, *4 1951]).
who considers the list in question as a rather worthless eighth-century compilation of
Frankish origin.

We have reported in some detail the "case history" of this document, because it is *
rather typical example of a situation frequently encountered in connection with early
liturgical sources. Whether Andrieu's opinion is going to be the final word in this ques-
tion, I dare not predict. I consider the report as valid, although no more or less so than
practically all the other documents concerning the early history of liturgical chant.

Origin and Development to c. 600 47

mony, there is no reason to doubt the correctness of this information. It
tallies with the fact that in 382, near the end of Damasus' pontificate, a
Council was held in Rome one of the first to take place in the western
part of the Christian world which was attended by Greek and Syrian
bishops. From this it is reasonably safe to conclude that under Damasus,
and perhaps more specifically at the Council of Rome, the liturgy of
Jerusalem was introduced into the Roman usage. The above-mentioned
report makes no allusion to chant, as it does in connection with later popes,
who are credited with having instituted an annalis cantus. That the trans-
mission from the East to the West of an ordo ecclesiasticus also entailed to
some extent the transfer of musical elements, can hardly be doubted; per-
haps the very absence of an allusion to cantus in connection with Damasus
can be considered as an indication that whatever chant was necessary was
adopted from the Eastern rites. To a certain extent this surmise is con-
firmed in a famous letter of Gregory I, in which Pope Damasus is said to
have adopted from the Church of Jerusalem a certain practice concerning
the use of the Alleluia. 2 Another explicit reference to musical matters is
found in the Liber pontificalis, a list of popes and their activities begun in
the sixth century and continued, by a succession of chroniclers, into the
eighth century. This work states that "He (Damasus) ordered that the
psalms be sung day and night in all churches; this order was binding on
all priests, bishops, and monasteries." 3

We may then assume that about A. D. 400 there existed in Rome an
ecclesiastical order which in its organization of both liturgy and chant
was somewhat similar to that known to us from the Peregrinatio Etheriae.
Judging from the later development it is safe to say that one major dif-
ference was the omission of hymns, due to the decree of the Council of
Laodicaea.

While we are thus fairly well informed about the primitive stage of
the Roman liturgy, we know very little about its development in the en-
suing two or three centuries. Aside from details mentioned in our List of
Data, such as the more extended use of the Gloria under Pope Symmachus
(no. 40) and of the Alleluia under Gregory (no. 47), the only information
comes once more from the previously mentioned report, which tells us
that, after Damasus, a number of popes Leo I (440-61), Gelasius (492-96),
Symmachus (498-514), Johannes (523-26), Bonifacius (530-32), Gregory
(5go'-6o4), and Martinus (649-53) edited an annalis cantus omnis, a cycle
of chants for the entire liturgical year. If we accept this testimony (and
I see no reason why we should not) we may perhaps conclude that under
Pope Leo I, about the middle of the fifth century, a first attempt was made
to replace the "Eastern" chant by a new cantus annalis, probably of

2 For more details see pp, 376!

3 Liber pontificalis, ed: by Duchesnes (2 vols., 1886, 1892), I, 213.

48 GREGORIAN CHANT

Western origin; and also that during the ensuing centuries several popes,
of -whom Gregory was one of the last, contributed to the further develop-
ment and consolidation of this Roman cycle of chant

This, of course, leads us right into the "Gregorian" problem, so often
discussed with contradictory results. It is to Pope Gregory, and to him
alone, that the organization of the Roman chant is assigned by a tradi-
tion, according to which Gregory was the author of a liber antiphonarius,
i.e., a book containing the liturgical chants. 4 The earliest testimony to this
effect dates from c. 750, when Egbert, Bishop of York, tells us in his De
institutione catholica that certain English customs concerning Lent and
Ember Weeks were ordered by Gregory "in suo antiphonario et missali"
(in his book of chants and in his book of prayers) and were brought to
England by his missionary, St. Augustine. Probably next in succession is
a poem ascribed to Pope Hadrian I (772-95) which is found at the beginning
of several early Antiphonaries (e.g. the Gradual ofMonza, late 8th century;
see List of Sources, no. 7 [pp. 53^ ), which says that "hie libellus musicae
artis" (this book of musical art) was composed by "Gregory, through deeds
and name a worthy leader, who has ascended to the highest honor at the
place where his ancestors lived." Amalarius of Metz (c. y&o-c. 850) says:
"Gregorius . . . ordinavit ordinem psallendi in psalterio et antiphonario"
(he ordained the order of the psalmody in the Psalter and in the Antiph-
onary). Walafrid Strabo (c. 808-49), Abbot of Reichenau, mentions a tra-
dition ("traditur . . .") according to which Gregory regulated not only the
order of the Masses and Consecrations but also to a large extent the ar-
rangement of the chants as it is now observed. Passing over some testi-
monies of lesser importance we finally come to the crown-witness, Gregory's
biographer Johannes Diaconus, whose Vita Sancti Gregorii, written about
872, contains a chapter inscribed: Antiphonarium centonizans cantorum
constituit scholam (He compiled an Antiphonary and founded a school of
singers). The chapter begins with the sentence: "In the house of the Lord,
like another wise Solomon, he compiled in the most diligent manner a col-
lection called Antiphonary, which is of the greatest usefulness."

With John the Deacon's biography the tradition implied in the term
"Gregorian chant" became so firmly established that it would be pointless
to pursue it any further. It found an expression not only in such designa-
tions as cantus Gregorianus and Antiphonarius S. Gregorii, but also in
pictorial representations showing Gregory sitting on the papal throne and
dictating to a scribe the melodies that a heavenly dove, perched on his
shoulder, is whispering into his ears.

Aside from abortive attempts to deny it made in the eighteenth cen-

4 For more details, see, e.g., G* Morin, Les vtritables origines du chant grfyoritn (1890,
1912).

Origin and Development to c. 600 49

tury, 5 this tradition remained unchallenged until 1890, when the Belgian
musicologist Gevaert published a pamphlet, Les Origines du chant
liturgique de I'eglise latine, in which he severely attacked the "Gregorian
legend/' maintaining that its chief witness, John the Deacon, is entirely
untrustworthy, and that the role traditionally assigned to Gregory I was
actually performed by a number of Greek and Syrian popes Agathon,
Leo II, Sergius I, Gregory II, and Gregory III who reigned from 678 till
741. His ideas, however, were almost unanimously refuted by other scholars
such as Morin, Cagin, Wagner, Frere, and Gastoue, 6 with the result that the
old tradition was once more accepted as basically correct.

It is only recently that several liturgists have adopted a different attitude
in this question; they either deny Gregory the role traditionally assigned
to him 7 or qualify it in one way or another. It is an indisputable fact
that, in all his voluminous writings and numerous letters, Gregory rarely
makes any remark which could be interpreted as indicating an interest or
activity in the field of liturgical chant. On the contrary, a rather hostile
attitude is noticeable in one of his decrees, issued in 595, in which he
speaks about the "reprehensible custom" of selecting deacons only because
of their musical skill and beautiful voice, and in which he orders that all
chants, except for the recitation of the Gospel, be sung by clerics of a
lower rank. 8 As for the exact nature of Gregory's alleged role in the forma-
tion of the chant, the older notion that he had actually composed the
melodies as found in the manuscripts of the ninth or tenth centuries had
long been abandoned if only for the obvious reason that it would be im-
possible for one man to write the several thousands of chants that are re-
quired for the Office Hours and the Mass, even if he could devote all his
life to this task. No less improbable is the notion that this feat was achieved
by a number of men working under his direction. The analytical and
comparative studies of chant that have been made during the past fifty
years show beyond any doubt that the melodies of the Roman repertory
were not written at one given period, but are the result of multiple evolu-
tionary and cumulative processes which must have extended over several
centuries.

There remains the possibility that Gregory took an active and decisive
part, either personally or through directives given to his subordinates, in
the final organization and codification of the chant, continuing and bring-

5 Pierre Gussanville, in an edition of the works of Pope Gregory (1675), and Georg
von Eckhart in De rebus Franciae orientalis (1729), I, 718.

6 See, e.g., Wagner I, 169; Gastoue*, Origines, pp. &$&.

7 Without, however, accepting Gevaert's theory regarding the later Gregorys or the
Greek popes.

8 Reprinted in Gastoue*'s Les Origines, Appendix A.

5O GREGORIANCHANT

ing to a certain conclusion the work to which a number of earlier popes
had already made some contribution. This theory would, at least, be in
keeping with historical possibilities. It would mean that a considerable
repertory of melodies had accrued during the centuries before Gregory,
for whom it remained to collect the melodies, to assign them a definite
position in the cycle of the year, and possibly to add some new ones for
feasts that he introduced; all this, of course, with the proviso that these
things were done under his direction rather than by himself in person.

This, indeed, seems to have been the view held by the aforementioned
"Gregorianists" (Morin, Cagin, and others) who rose in opposition to the
iconoclastic ideas proposed by Gevaert. Plausible and sensible though this
view is, and in spite of the numerous "proofs" adduced in its support, it
has been considerably shaken, if not definitely refuted, by recent investi-
gations which make it highly probable that the melodies of the Roman
chant, as we find them in the earliest manuscripts, are post-Gregorian, dat-
ing from a period at least fifty, if not a hundred or more, years after
Gregory. We shall return to this interesting question at the end of the
next chapter.

CHAPTER FOUR

The Development after 600

THE period after Gregory we find ourselves on more solid
. ground owing to the fact that from the seventh century on there
exist sources in the proper sense of the word, that is, manuscripts that
provide full information about the liturgy and the chant, rather than docu-
ments containing isolated historical data, as is largely the case in the
first six centuries. These sources are important not only for the present
purpose of outlining the development, of liturgy and chant but also in
connection with specific problems of form and style such as will come up
in our analytical investigations. A brief description of the various types
of sources and a list of the most important among them follows:

THE SOURCES

These can be divided roughly into five groups: (A) purely liturgical
manuscripts; (B) collections of chants without musical notation; (C)
tonaries; (D) theoretical writings; and (E) musical sources,

A. At the beginning stand certain documents which, although they con-
tain neither the texts nor the music of the chants, are nevertheless impor-
tant because they throw a clear light upon liturgical matters, mainly the
order and number of feasts during the year. To this group belong the
Sacramentaries, books written for the special use of the priest or the
officiating bishop, and which contain only the texts spoken by him, such as
the prayers and the variable Prefaces for the Canon of the Mass. These
texts are given in their proper liturgical order, beginning with the Nativity
and continuing through the year. 1 Thus, they furnish a clear picture of the
liturgical calendar as it existed from the fifth century on. The Sacramen-
taries have been the subject of numerous studies on the part of liturgical
scholars who have tried to strip off later accretions and to determine their
original contents. They are usually, though not very properly, designated

i The early liturgical Mss start with the Nativity, except those containing the chants
(Graduals, Antiphonals).

52 GREGORIAN CHANT

as the Leonine, Gelasian, and Gregorian Sacramentaries, referring to the
Popes Leo I (440-61), Gelasius (492-96), and Gregory I (59" 6 4)- 2

Another group of liturgical documents are the Lectionaries and Evangel
iaries, which contain respectively the readings from Scripture (Lectio
libri Sapientiae, Lectio epistolae, etc.) and from the Gospels (Sequentia
Evangelii) for the Mass, arranged in the same manner as the Sacramen-
taries. The oldest of these is the Comes (companion, instruction book) of
Wurzburg, whose contents go back to the seventh century.

Of a different character are the books commonly referred to as Ordo
Romanus. These contain detailed descriptions of the liturgy as celebrated
by the pope, descriptions not only interesting in themselves but also impor-
tant in our attempts to determine the early form of Mass chants, such as
the Introits or Offertories with their verses. 3

B. The second group of manuscripts is much more intimately con-
nected with our subject. These are essentially Gradual*, i.e., collections
of the chants of the Mass, but without musical notation. Their value lies
in the fact that they are considerably earlier than the Graduate provided
with music. The oldest of these is the Gradual of Monza, written in the
eighth century with gold and silver letters on purple parchment* Another,
the Gradual of Compi&gne> also includes an Antiphonal, the earliest known
collection of chants (texts only) for the Office Hours.

C. Equally valuable for the study of the earlier phases of Roman chant
are the Tonaries (tonarius, tonale) of the eighth, ninth, and tenth
centuries. These are essentially catalogues in which a number of chants
are listed according to their mode, and often with further distinctions
within each modal category. They furnish important information about
the Antiphons and Responsories of the Office, although some of them also
include certain antiphonal Mass chants, that is, Introits and Communions,

D. This group comprises the theoretical writings of the Middle Ages,
which are best known as a source of information regarding the develop-
ment and establishment of the system of the eight church modes. Not a few
of them, however, contain interesting and remarkably astute stylistic
analyses of individual chants. In fact, it is here that for the first time we
encounter efforts in the direction of style criticism, not dissimilar in
essence to those of Glareanus or of modern musicologists.

E. The last and, of course, by far the most important group is formed
by the musical manuscripts, the Graduah and Antiphonals with musical
notation. Aside from a few eighth-century fragments, the earliest of these

2 For a summary of the Sacramentaries and the problems presented by them, see
Duchesne, Worship, pp. uoff, and particularly J. A. Jungmann, Missarum Solcmnia (a
vols., 1948), I, 77ff [English edition. The Mass of the Roman Rite, l> 6off].

3 The definite edition of the Ordines is M. Andrleu, Les Qrdines romani du havt
moyen dge (3 vols., 193 1-35), See also J. Froger> Les Chants de la messe, pp, 58.

The Development after 600 53

Is the Codex 359 of St. Gall, dating from c. 900. This, as well as those from
the tenth century, is written in staffless neumes which represent only the
general melodic motion, low-to-high, high-to-low, high-to-low-to-high, etc.,
but without indication of the pitches or intervals involved. It is only in the
sources of the eleventh century that the neumes become diastematic, so
that the melodies can be accurately read.

The following list of sources indicates the most important representatives
of the five categories just described.

LIST OF SOURCES

A. Liturgical Sources

1. Leonine Sacramentary. This is an extensive and rather disorganized col-
lection of prayers preserved in a single seventh-century manuscript. It is
thought to represent the state of affairs at about A. D. 450 and later.
Reproduced in Migne, Patrologia latina 55, pp. 21-156.

2. Gelasian Sacramentary. This is a well organized book of Mass texts, pre-
served in an early eighth-century manuscript. Its earliest contents go back
to the time of Pope Gelasius (492-96). Reproduced in Patr. lat. 74, pp.
1055-1244.

3. Gregorian Sacramentary. This is essentially a collection of prayers, etc.,
that was sent in 785 by Pope Hadrian I (772-95) to Charlemagne upon his
request for a Sacramentary by Gregory. Formerly it was thought to repre-
sent a period considerably later than Gregory, but today liturgists are
inclined to accept it as written by him or in his time. It is also referred
to as the Sacramentary of Hadrian.

4. Ordo Romanus Gerbert (c. 700?), so called because it was first published
by Gerbert in his Monumenta veteris liturgiae alemanniae (i779). 4

5. Ordo Romania primus (c. 775).

6. Ordo of St. Amand (gth century).

B. Graduals and Antiphonaries without Musical Notation

7. Gradual of Monza (near Milan; late 8th century).

8. Gradual of Rheinau (abbey in Zurich; gth century). 5

9. Gradual of Mont-Blandin (abbey near Ghent; c, 800).

10. Gradual and Antiphonary of Compiegne (north of Paris; c. 870), also
known as the Antiphonary of Charles the Bald (d. 877).

11. Gradual of Corbie (near Amiens; c. god).

12. Gradual of Senlis (north of Paris; late 9th century).

The six manuscripts of this group form the basis of an extremely im-
portant publication by Dom R.-J. Hesbert, entitled Antiphonale Missarum
Sextuplex (1935), in which their contents are shown in comparative tabu-

4 Concerning this Ordo and the list of popes appended to it, see p. 46, fn. i.

5 According to Hesbert (Sextuplex , p. xii) the Gradual of Rheinau was written for the
abbey of Nivelles in Belgium (south of Brussels).

54 GREGORIAN CHANT

lations. Aside from the Gradual of Monza (which is often designated as a
Cantatorium, because it includes only the solo chants Graduals, Alleluias,
and Tracts) the manuscripts are called, somewhat misleadingly, Anti-
phonals. This is an abbreviation of Antiphonale missarum> the old name
for the books containing the chants of the Mass, in distinction from
Antiphonale Officii, the present-day Antiphonal The Codex of Comptegne
(no. 10) contains, in addition to the Gradual section, a full Antiphonal
which has been published under the very confusing title of Liber respon-
salts sive Antiphonarius S. Gregorii Magni*

C. Tonaries

We include here only extensive catalogues of chants. Rudimentary
tonaries occur also in some of the treatises under D (nos. 21, as). 7

13. Tonarius of Regino (abbot of Priim in West-Germany, near Luxem-
bourg; d. 915). Published in CS, II, iff, in facsimile and reprint). Because
of its comprehensiveness and early date, this is the most important of all
the tonaries.

14. Intonarium of Oddo (either the abbot of Cluny who died in 948, or,
more probably, a ninth-century abbot of St. Maur-des-Foss&, in Paris).
Published in CS, II, n7ff, after an eleventh-century copy with staff
notation. A short Tonarius also in GS, I, 248,

15. De modorum formulis (by Guido of Arezzo?). CS, II, 81.

16. Tonarius of Berno (Augiensis, i.e., from Reichenau near Constance;
d. 1048). GS, II, 79. Prologus ad tonarium, GS, II, 6*.

D. Theoretical Writings

The following list includes only treatises dealing with some aspect of
chant, not those concerned only with the old Greek modes.

17. Alcuin (753-814): Musica. GS, I, a6f. A short report including the earliest
mention of the eight church modes.

18. Amalarius of Metz (c. 780-850), author of two extensive and very impor-
tant works on liturgical matters: De ecclesiasticis officiis and De ordine
antiphonarii. Published in Pair. lat. 105, pp. 985!? and 1*43$; also in J,
M. Hanssens, Amalarii episcopi opera omnia liturgica (1948), voL II (un-
der the title Liber officialis) and vol. III.

19. Aurelianus of Re'omd (mid-ninth century): Musica disciplina* GS, I, 27.
An extended treatise containing, after a discussion of the Greek modes, a
full explanation of the church modes with numerous examples (pp. 39-59),
as well as a final chapter (Caput XX) about the liturgical position of the
various chants.

so. Hucbald of St. Amand (near Valenciennes; c 840-930): De harmonica
institutione. GS, I, 104. Deals with the various intervals, citing examples
from Introits, Responsories, etc.

6 Patr. lat. 78, pp. 7*6ff.

7 Recently a considerably earlier tonary, dating from c. 800, has been found. See M.
Huglo, "*Jn Tonaire du Graduel de la fin du VHIe sifccle" (RG, XXXI, **4).

The Development after 600 55

21. Musica enchiriadis (c. goo; formerly ascribed to Hucbald). GS, I, 152.
This treatise, famous as the earliest source for polyphonic music, also con-
tains important information pertinent to Gregorian chant, e.g., chromatic
tones. The few melodies which it includes (in daseian notation) are the
earliest that can be read.

22. Alia musica (formerly ascribed to Hucbald; c. goo). GS f I, 125^; see W.
Muhlmann, Die Alia Musica, 1914. This very confused treatise, often
quoted in connection with the problem of the transition from the
Greek scales to the church modes, also contains a more realistic description
of the individual modes with examples from Gregorian chant, as well as a
commentator's Nova expositio of the same matter. German translation of
these two portions in Muhlmann, pp. 62-69 and 71-74.

23. Commemoratio brevis de touts et psalmis modulendis (formerly ascribed
to Hucbald; c. goo). GS, I, 213. Contains valuable information about the
early stage of the psalm tones as well as a tonary which, though limited in
scope, is important because the melodies, which are given with clearly
readable musical notation (in daseian symbols), date from almost two
hundred years before the earliest manuscripts with clearly readable
neumes.

24. Regino [see no. 13]: De harmonica institutione. GS, I, 230. Contains
an initial paragraph important for its references to anomaliae modorum,
that is, Antiphons that do not fit within the modal system.

25. Oddo of Cluny [see no. 14]: Dialogus de musica (perhaps written by a
pupil of Oddo). GS f I, 252. This treatise is important because it contains
the earliest use of the modern scale letters (Oddonic letters), additional
examples of anomalous chants, and detailed explanations of the ambitus
of the various modes. German translation, by P. Bohn, in Monatshefte
fur Musikgeschichte, XII (1880), 24, 39.

E. Musical Manuscripts

The following list includes only those that have been published, for the
most part, in the Paleographie musicale (PM)*

I. Graduals (Antiphonale missarum):

26. Cod. 359 of St. Gall (gth-ioth century). PM, Second Series, vol. II; also
P. Lajnbillotte, Antiphonaire de S. Gregoire (1851). This is a Cantatorium,
containing only the solo chants of the Mass, the others (Introits, Offer-
tories, Communions) being indicated only by their incipits.

27. Cod. 23$ of Laon (loth century). PM, X.

28. Cod. 339 of St. Gall (loth century). PM, I.

29. Cod. 47 of Chartres (ioth century). PM, XI.

30. Cod. 121 of Einsiedeln (loth century). PM, IV.

31. Gradual of St. Yrieix (Cod. lat. 903 of the Bibl. nat., Paris; nth century).
PM t XIII.

s For fuller lists see, e.g., Gastoue", Origines, pp. 2508:; Wagner II, xiff; G. Sufiol, Intro-
duction a la paleographie musicale grtgorienne (1935), pp. 64off.

56 GREGORIAN CHANT

32. Cod. H 159 of Montpellier (nth century). PM, VIII. This is unique be-
cause it contains the chants of the Mass arranged according to modes
(hence the name Antiphonarium tonale missarum), and because the
melodies are notated in two ways; by means of stafHess neumes and of
letters, each written in a separate row above the text (hence the name
bilingual Gradual).

33. Beneventan Gradual (Cod. 10673 of the Vatican Library; early nth
century). PM, XIV.

34. Codex VI. 34 of Benevento (iith-isth century). PM, XV.

35. Ambrosian Gradual (Cod. 34209 of the British Museum; i2th century).
PM, V (facsimile) and VI (transcriptions). This is the earliest among the
few sources for Ambrosian chant.

36. Gradual of Salisbury (i3th century). Ed. by W. H, Frere, Graduate
Sarisb uriense ( 1 894) .

II. Antiphonals:

37. Codex Hartker (Cod. 390-91 of St. Gall, loth century). PM, Second Series,
vol. I. Named after the monk Hartker of St. Gall, who wrote this famous
manuscript.

38. Cod. 601 of Lucca (iith-isth century). PM, IX.

39. Cod. f. 160 of Worcester (i$th century). PM, XIL

40. Antiphonal of Salisbury (i3th century). Ed. by W. H. Frere, Antiphonalc
Sarisburiense (1901-25).

THE CYCLE OF FEASTS

While in the pre-Gregorian era our knowledge is limited to a succession
of widely separated and often unrelated facts small luminous points scat-
tered over a wide expanse of dark territory we are now entering a period
in which documentation is considerably more comprehensive and coherent.
Although the emerging picture is far from being as complete as we would
like, it nevertheless shows fairly well defined contours and some clearly
recognizable lines of development. It seems advisable to divide the whole
field of investigation into three areas: the first, concerning the cycle of
feasts throughout the year; the second, dealing with the texts of the chants
for the Masses and Offices of these feasts; and the third, with the melodies
for these chants. The failure to distinguish clearly between these three
aspects of the development has caused numerous erroneous conclusions
on the part of the scholars or, at least, erroneous impressions among their
readers. We may be able to show that a certain feast existed in the fifth
century, but this fact in no way implies that the Mass for this feast con-
sisted of the same Introit, Gradual, etc., as in the eighth century. Nor can
we take it for granted that, assuming it did have these items, they were
sung to the same melodies that we find, for the first time, in manuscripts
of the tenth or eleventh centuries. To assume that the Introit Ad tc levavi

The Development after 600 57

dates from the same time as the institution of the First Sunday of Advent
would be gratuitous; to assume that its melody is of the same or of similar
antiquity would be foolish.

The cycle of feasts as it existed at the time of Gregory is well known
to us from liturgical books of the seventh and eighth centuries such as the
Sacramentaries, Lectionaries, and Evangeliaries. Through careful examina-
tion and comparison of these sources liturgical scholars have been able to
establish which feasts were celebrated at the time of Pope Gregory. The
annual cycle consisted of a Temporale of circa ninety-five feasts and a
Sanctorale of about sixty.

The Temporale covered the year so completely that only a few additions
were made in subsequent centuries. It is generally assumed that before
Gregory it was considerably less complete and that the form in which we
find it about 600 is the result of Gregory's work. Thus he would fully de-
serve his legendary fame in the field of liturgical organization. This
"Gregorian Temporale" is represented in our table of the liturgical year
[pp. gff] by all feasts not marked by a letter. No losses ever occurred in
it, but a number of additions were made, and these concerned, for the most
part, a number of Sundays and Thursdays. The Sundays are those follow-
ing the four Ember Weeks; in other words, the Fourth Sunday of Advent,
the Second Sunday of Lent, the First Sunday after Pentecost, and the
Sunday after the Ember Week of September. According to an old tradi-
tion, the Saturdays of Ember Weeks were the proper time for the ordina-
tions of priests, a ceremonial which greatly lengthened the liturgy so that
it lasted until early Sunday morning. The Mass was celebrated at the end of
the ordinations, so that no Mass formulary for the Sunday was needed.
It was not until after Gregory that this custom changed and that special
Masses for the Sundays were introduced; first for the two Sundays after
Pentecost, then for that in Advent, and finally, in the tenth century, for
that of Lent. It is perhaps not without significance that the process of filling
in these gaps (in the old books they are frequently marked: Dominica
vacat) started with the period after Pentecost, which liturgically was of
least significance.

As for the Thursdays, it should be noted that the Temporale, although it
consists essentially of Sundays, also includes a number of more or less com-
plete weeks with special Masses and Offices for all or some of their days.
These are the four Ember Weeks, the half Week before Quadragesima, the
five weeks after Quadragesima (to Palm Sunday), Holy Week (before
Easter), Easter Week (after Easter), and Whitsun Week (after Whit Sun-
day). Originally, Thursday (Feria V.) was excluded from all these weeks.
By the time of Gregory, only two of them included Thursday as a liturgical
day, that is Holy Week (Maundy Thursday) and Easter Week. The five
weeks of Lent were complete except for the Thursdays, and the four Ember

58 GREGORIAN CHANT

Weeks included only three liturgical days, Wednesday, Friday, and Satur-
day. The process of adding the Thursdays to the liturgical calendar started
with the six Thursdays of Lent, introduced by Pope Gregory II (715-31),
and came to its conclusion with the introduction, about 900, of the Thurs-
day after Pentecost. It never affected the Ember Weeks. Two of the above-
mentioned weeks, that before Quadragesima and the fifth week of Lent,
also lacked the Saturdays, which were not added until the eleventh cen-
tury.

A final group of accessions is formed by a number of special feasts;
namely, the Vigil (Eve, day before) of Ascension, Trinity Sunday, the Feast
of the Circumcision, the Rogation Days, Corpus Christi, and the Feasts
of the Holy Name, the Holy Family, and the Sacred Heart, the last three
being late accretions from the seventeenth or eighteenth century.

There remains the question as to when these various accessions to the
Temporale were introduced. In some cases, for instance, for the Thursdays
of Lent and for Corpus Christi, the dates are known. In other cases they
can be determined approximately by comparing the calendars of Graduate
from different centuries, which represent the liturgical year in successive
degrees of completeness. The following chronological list is based on the
Graduate of Monza, Compfegne, and St. Gall 339^ which indicate the
state of affairs at about 750, 850, and 950 respectively. The feasts of each
group are marked in the table of the liturgical year (pp. gff) by the corre-
sponding letters, a, b, c, d, and e.

ADDITIONS TO THE GREGORIAN TEMPORALE

A. 600-750 (additions found in the Gradual of Monza):

Six Thursdays of Lent (Sextuple* nos. 38, 44, 50, 57, 64, 71). Introduced
by Gregory II (7 15-31)

B. 750-850 (additions found in the Gradual of Comptegne):
Fourth Sunday of Advent (Sext. no. 7 bis)

Vigil of Ascension (Sext. no. 101 bis) 2

Rogation Days (In Letania; Sext. no. 94). Adopted in Rome c. 800*

C. 850-950 (additions found in St. Gall 339):

Trinity Sunday. The Mass formulary De Sancta Trinitatt occurs for

1 For Monza and Compi&gne, see the tables in Hesbert's Sextuplexi for St. Gall $39, in
Wagner I, sSoff.

2 Still absent in the Gradual of Corbie (Sextuplex) as well as in the Cantatorium St.
Gall 5j (Pal. mus., Second Series, I), both from the end of the ninth century.

* The Litanies of the Rogation Days were introduced in Vienne as early as 470, under
the bishop Mamertus, and were widely celebrated in Gaul long before they were officially
adopted in the Roman rite. See Sextuple*, p. Ixv, fn. *,

The Development after 600 59

the first time in the Gradual of Senlis which dates from the second
half of the ninth century (Sext. no. 172
Thursday in Whitsun Week

D. After 950 (feasts not included in St. Gall
Second Sunday of Lent

Saturday after Ash Wednesday

Saturday before Palm Sunday

The Circumcision of Our Lord

Corpus Christi. The liturgy was written by St. Thomas Aquinas (d.

1274), and the feast was universally introduced in 1264, under Pope

Urban IV

E. After 1600:

The Holy Name of Jesus. Universally adopted in 1721 by Pope Inno-
cent XIII

The Holy Family. Universally adopted by Pope Benedict XV (1914-22)
The Sacred Heart of Jesus. Approved by Pope Clement XIII in 1765,
and universally adopted by Pius IX in 1859. In 1929 Pius XI intro-
duced a new Office and Mass (Introit Cogitationes)

It remains for us to add a few remarks about the Sanctorale. This pre-
sents an infinitely more complex situation than the Temporale because of
the numerous additions, deletions, and replacements that took place in
the calendar of the Saints. It is impossible (and, in fact, unnecessary from
our point of view) to indicate even the main outlines of this involved
process. Suffice it to say that the original nucleus, at the time of Gregory,
consisted of about sixty feasts for the Saints, that at the end of the ninth
century it had increased to about one hundred, and that it continued to
increase until it reached the present-day number of close to four hundred. 5
It may also be noticed that the entire Common of Saints, which contains
services for groups (e.g., Martyrs, Virgins, Abbots) rather than for in-
dividuals, is a later arrangement, which begins to appear in the twelfth
century.

As for details, we shall confine ourselves to a consideration of the feasts
that were added during the seventh century, namely, the Dedication of a
Church, the Feasts of the Virgin, and the Feasts of the Cross.

The Dedication of a Church [L i24iflE; G [71]] originated with the con-
secration, on May 13, A.D. 609, of the ancient Roman Pantheon as a

4 See p. 8, fn. 6.

5 For the Gregorian Sanctorale see Gastoue 1 , Origines, pp. 257-270 (c. 50 feasts), and
W. H. Frere, The Sarum Gradual (1895), pp. xxiiff (c. 60 feasts); for the period about
900, see Sextuplex, p. 254, and Wagner I, 28off. The latter list gives a good survey of the
increase in the number of feasts, since the post-Gregorian accretions are marked by
parentheses.

60 GREGORIAN CHANT

Christian church, renamed Basilica S. Mariae ad Martyres. It is the earliest
feast definitely known to be post-Gregorian.

As far as can be ascertained, no feast of the Virgin Mary existed at the
time of Gregory, a fact all the more noteworthy since several female Saints,
for example, S. Prisca, S. Agnes, S. Agatha, had special feasts as early as the
third or fourth century. The first feast of the Virgin that was introduced,
probably shortly after Gregory's death, was a Natale S. Mariae* celebrated
on January i, one week after Christmas [Sext. 16 615], at the stational
Church of St. Mary, and therefore called Statio ad Sanctam Mariam. 7 This
disappeared in the tenth century, when it was replaced by the Feast of the
Circumcision. The four feasts of the Virgin which attained permanent im-
portance are: the Purification, on February 2; the Annunciation, on
March 25; the Assumption, on August 15; and the Nativity, on Sept. 8.
All of these were imported from the Greek Church, and already existed in
the time of Pope Sergius I (687-701), who ordered that solemn processions
should be held on each of these days. 8 Very likely, the Purification is the
earliest of these feasts. Originally it was the feast of S. Simeon, commemo-
rating the day when the aging Simeon, shortly before his death, went to
the temple to embrace the child Jesus (Luke 2:26-29). The Communion,
Responsum accepit Simeon, and the Tract Nunc dimittis (from the Canticle
of Simeon; Luke 2:32) still remind us of the original meaning of the Feast
of the Purification. The Feast of the Nativity of the B. V. M., although it
existed in the seventh century, was not generally accepted until the
eleventh century. It does not occur in the Sextuple* nor in St, Gall 55^ or

339*

Also of Greek origin are the two Feasts of the Cross, the Exaltation
(Exaltatio Cruets) on September 14, and the Finding (Inventio Crucis)
on May 3. The former existed already under Pope Sergius, while the latter
seems to be of a somewhat more recent date. Both of them, however, were
celebrated centuries earlier in Jerusalem and Constantinople.

6 Natale (old term for Nativitas) does not necessarily mean "birth** but possibly also
"death" (heavenly birth) or, as a rule, any feast in honor of the Saint. The old manu-
scripts indicate several Natale S. Mariae on different days.

7 Stational Church is the name for the old churches in Rome in which the pope used
to celebrate Mass on a given day. In commemoration of this usage many Masses still
carry designations such as Station at St. Mary Major (First Sunday of Advent and others),
Station at St. John of the Lateran (Holy Saturday), Station at the Holy Cross in Jerusalem
(Good Friday), etc. See G. Lefebvre, Saint Andrew Daily Missal (1945), pp. 6gff, with city
plan of Rome. As mentioned before [p. 44], the Stational Churches of Rome were built
in imitation of those at Jerusalem.

8 The statement, occasionally found, that the feasts themselves were introduced by
Pope Sergius is not correct. Of the processions only that for Purification survived.

See Sextuplex, p. Ixxxii. The Feast of the Finding of the Cross is mentioned by
Etheria [see p. 40, no. 27].

The Development after 600 61

THE MASS FORMULARIES

We shall now begin the discussion of the second aspect, that is, the texts
of the musical items for the various feasts. At the outset it may be remarked
that we have to limit ourselves to the Mass, because of the almost com-
plete lack of information concerning the development of the items of
the Office. First of all, sources are considerably more scarce in this field
than in that of the Mass repertory. The earliest collection of Office chants
(texts only) is found in the Manuscript of Compigne (ninth century)
which actually consists of a Gradual and an Antiphonal Although the
Gradual is included and examined in Hesbert's Sextuplex, the Antiphonal,
available only in Migne's Patrologia latina* has received practically no at-
tention on the part of musico-liturgical scholars. Much better known is the
tenth-century Antiphonal commonly referred to as the Codex Hartker,
or the eleventh-century Codex Lucca and the Antiphonals of Worcester
and Salisbury, both from the thirteenth century. 2 However, no attempt has
been made in the direction of a detailed comparative study of these
sources. Such a study would be immensely more laborious than that of the
Mass chants, not only because of the much greater number of Office chants
(in the Codex of Compi&gne the Gradual comprises thirty folios, the Anti-
phonal seventy), but also because of the much greater variability that
existed in this field.

Turning to the Mass, we find ourselves in a rather fortunate situation
since manuscripts containing the Mass formularies that is, the texts of
the Proper chants of the Mass occur as early as the eighth century. The
most ancient of these, the Codex Monza, is a Cantatorium, containing only
solo chants, Graduals, Alleluias, and Tracts. For the Introits, Offertories,
and Communions we have to turn to the slightly later Graduals of Mont-
Blandin, Compifegne, and the others now conveniently available in Hes-
bert's publication, which forms the basis of the subsequent study.

There is good reason to assume that the Mass formularies given in these
sources are, on the whole, those of the Gregorian era. We have no positive
proof of this, to be sure, and therefore the statement remains to a certain
extent hypothetical. However, considering the highly authoritative char-
acter of the Gregorian reform, it is very unlikely that changes were made
in the matters he had fixed. Although his role in the purely musical field
has often been regarded as uncertain, few scholars have seriously ques-
tioned that he codified not only the liturgical year but also the Mass
formularies for it. An internal argument, often adduced to "prove" Greg-

1 Patr. lat. 78, pp. 725-850.

2 See List of Sources [p. 56], nos. 37, 38, 39, 40.

62 GREGORIAN CHANT

ory's role as "father of the chant," carries much more weight in connection
with the textual aspect of the Mass. It proceeds from the fact that almost
all the texts of the Mass chants are taken from the earliest translation of
the Bible, the Itala of the second and third centuries [see List of Data, p.
39, no. 8], not from the Vulgate of c. 400 [see ibid., no. 31]. The latter,
made by St. Jerome and supported by Pope Damasus, enjoyed uncontested
authority in Rome and was universally used in all the churches about 600,
as we know from the testimony of Isidore of Seville [see ibid., no. 54]. It is
therefore practically out of the question that Mass items with an Itala
text could have been introduced after 6oo. 3

A basic trait of the Gregorian Mass repertory is its stability, at least in
the Temporale. It is a most interesting and rewarding experience to ex-
amine sources dating from widely different periods, a purely textual Grad-
ual of the eighth or ninth century, a musical source of the twelfth, or the
present-day books, and to find them in full agreement as to the Mass
formularies of the various feasts. W. H. Frere has succinctly summed up
the matter by saying that "fixity means antiquity," 4 and this statement is
fully borne out by a comparative study of the oldest extant Mass formu-
laries, contained and conveniently arranged in the Sextuplex publication. 5
Actually, these Mass formularies show a few cases of variability; but these
confirm rather than contradict Frere's statement, since nearly all of them
occur in feasts which, although forming a part of the Gregorian Temporale,
are nevertheless of "lesser antiquity." In fact, these cases are of particular
interest since they permit us to set apart certain feasts that represent addi-
tions to a still older nucleus, additions that must have been made shortly
before Gregory or, more likely, by him.

Particularly revealing in this respect are the Graduals of the four Ember
Saturdays. Each of these days had four Graduals [see p. 29], but the Satur-
day in Ember Week of Advent is the only one for which they are given

s An example is the Gradual from, the First Sunday of Advent, which has the text:
Universi qui te expectant, non confundentur. ^. Vias tuas, Doming, notas fac mihi: t
semitas tuas edoce me [320], The Vulgate text is found in Ps. 24, -fr. 2 and 4 [1788]: Etcnim
universi qui sustinent te non confundentur. Vias tuas, Domine f demonstra mihi: et semitas
tuas edoce me. Some of the texts of the Mass chants, particularly those borrowed from
the Psalms, are taken, not from the Itala, but from Jerome's first translation (made in
338) which is very similar to the Itala and which is known as Psalterium romanum,
because it was immediately introduced into the Roman liturgy by Pope Damasus. The
Vulgate is Jerome's second translation, also known as Psalterium gallicanum, because
it was first adopted in Gaul. Jerome's third translation, made directly from the Hebrew,
was not adopted for liturgical use. Cf. C. Marbach, Carmina Scripturarum (1907), p, 35*.
In this most valuable book the sources for all the scriptural chants of the liturgy are
indicated.

* Graduale Sarisburiense, p. x.

5 See the Table par Genres f pp. 23 iff.

The Development after 600 63

identically in all the manuscripts. 6 The other three Saturdays often carry
only general indications such as "Resp. Grad. quatuor quale volueris die
ad hunc diem pertinentes" (say [i.e., sing] whichever four Graduals you
wish that pertain to this day); it is therefore not to be wondered at that
this early ad libitum practice led to a certain amount of disagreement
when, at a later time, specific Graduals were selected. Also of interest is
the fact that these selections were limited to a nucleus of five or six graduals
and that, in the eleventh or twelfth century, those for the Ember Saturday
of Pentecost were replaced by Alleluias. The following table shows the
Graduals given in the Mss Rheinau, Senlis [see Sextuplex nos. 46, 111,
192; the other sources either omit the feast or have no specific indication of
Graduals], St. Gall 359, and St. Gall 339?

Rheinau

GRADUALS FOR EMBER SATURDAYS
Senlis St. Gall 359 St. Gall 339 Liber usualis

Lent Miserere mihi Propitius Protector

Dirigatur

Propitius

Esto mihi Protector Dirigatur

Convertere

Protector

Oculi omnium Dirigatur Propitius

Propitius

Convertere

Salvum fac Salvum fac

Salvum fac

Dirigatur

Convertere

Pent, no Mass given no Graduals Resp. iiii Propitius All. Spiritus est

indicated Gradualia <a) Protector All. Spiritus ejus

Jacta cogitatum All. Dum complerentur
Ad Dominum All. Benedictus es

Sept. no Mass given

Resp. iiii Resp. iiii Propitius Propitius

Propitius Gradualia^ Protector Protector

(others not Dirigatur Convertere

indicated) Salvum fac Dirigatur

(a) later entry: All. Emitte spiritum; All. Spiritus domini; All. Paraclitus; All. Vent
sancte; All. Benedictus; All. Sancti Spiritus.

(b) later entry: Gr. Propitius; Gr. Protector; Gr. Dirigatur; Gr. Salvum fac.

Almost complete fixity exists in the Introits, Offertories, and Commun-
ions. A special case of great interest is that of the Communions for the
weekdays of Lent, from Ash Wednesday to Palm Sunday. We have seen
that the series of feasts during this period of five and a half weeks originally
did not include any Thursday nor the Saturdays after Ash Wednesday
and before Palm Sunday. If we disregard these later additions (as well as
the Sundays which stand outside the series), and consider the Communions

6 The Graduals of Monza and Rheinau have only three, the former omitting Excita
Domine f the latter, Domine Deus virtutum. See Sextuplex, no. 7; also the explanatory
remarks, p. xl.

7 The contents of St. Gall $39 are given at the end of Wagner L

64 GREGORIAN CHANT

of the remaining twenty-six Masses, a most interesting fact appears: their
texts are taken in numerical order from the first twenty-six Psalms. These
Communions offer the most striking example of unified organization in the
entire Mass repertory. It is perfectly obvious that they were introduced
simultaneously, perhaps under Gregory, and that they represent an inter-
mediate layer between that of the Sundays (except for the Sunday after the
Ember Days) and that of the Thursdays and the two Saturdays.

Actually, the original series of twenty-six Communions taken from Ps.
i to 26 did not remain entirely unchanged. Even in the earliest Gradual*,
such as Mont-Blandin or Compi&gne, as well as in all the later sources, five
of these psalmodic texts are replaced by texts taken from the Gospel read
on that day. These changes must have taken place some time between
c. 600 and c. 800. At a still later time, a similar substitution was introduced
for Monday in the First Week of Lent. This, being the third day in the
series, still has its original Communion, Voce mea > from Ps. 3, in all the
Gradual* of the Sextuple* as well as in St. Gall 359 and 539. In the later
sources, however, it is universally replaced by the Communion A men dico
vobis, taken once more from the Gospel (Matthew 25:31-46) read on that
day. The following table, although not complete, 8 will suffice to illustrate
the principle of organization as well as the later deviations from It,

COMMUNIONS OF THE WEEKDAYS OF LENT

1. Feria IV. Cinerum Qui meditabitur Ps. i

2. Feria VI. p. Gin. Servite Domino Ps. 2

3. Feria II. p. Dom. I. Voce mea Ps. 3

later: Amen dico vobis Matt. 25

8. Feria II. p. Dom. II. Domine Dominus Ps. 8

12. Sabbato p. Dom. II. Oportet te Luke 15

13. Feria II. p. Dom. III. Quis dabit Ps. 13

16. Feria VI. p. Dom. III. Qui biberit John 4

17. Sabbato p. Dom. III. Nemo te condemnavit John 8

18. Feria II. p. Dom. IV. Ab occultis meis Ps. 18

.***.... ...... *

20. Feria IV. p. Dom. IV. Lutum fecit John g

21. Feria VI. p. Dom. IV. Videns Dominus John 1 1

22. Sabbato p. Dom. IV. Dominus regit me Ps. 22

23. Feria II. p. Dom. Pass. Dominus virtutum Ps. 23

26. Feria VI. p. Dom. Pass. Ne tradideris Ps, 26

8 For the complete list see, e.g., Wagner I, 283^6; Sextuplex, p. xlvii. The weekdays of
Lent are not included in the Liber, but are found in the Graduate romanum.

The Development after 600 65

If considered within the ample framework of the Gregorian Mass items,
the few changes described only serve to give additional support to the
previous statement regarding the fixity of the old repertory. The only
chants that do not at all conform with this principle are the Alleluias, as
distinguished from each other by their different verses. In this category
variability prevails to such an extent, not only in the oldest sources but
also down to the thirteenth and fourteenth century, that there are probably
no more than a dozen feasts in the Temporale which have the same Alleluia
in all the manuscripts. One has to turn to such truly old feasts as the first
three Sundays of Advent, Nativity, Easter Sunday, Ascension, and Whit
Sunday in order to find fixed Alleluias. Great variation exists in Easter
Week, as well as in the Sundays after Easter to the end of the year. 9
Several of the older sources simply prescribe for a number of feasts Alleluia
quale volueris (whichever you wish), to be selected from a list of Alleluias
added in an appendix. 10 All this clearly indicates that the Alleluias, at
least in their final form with verses, represent a relatively late accretion
to the Mass repertory. We know that in the fifth and sixth centuries the
Alleluia was used very sparingly, at one time only once a year [see List of
Data, no. 37], and that it was Gregory who made it a standard item of the
Mass. While it is usually stated that he extended its use over the entire
year [see List of Data, no. 47], there is reason to assume that he introduced
it only for the period from Advent to Lent, and that its general adoption
is of a still later date [see pp. g8of].

In addition to their fixity, the Gregorian Mass formularies are char-
acterized by what may be called "properness," this term being understood
to mean that there exist individual ("proper") items for each liturgical
day; in other words, that items are not borrowed from one feast to serve for
another. Actually, there are not a few cases of borrowing in the Gregorian
Temporale, and at least some of these provide additional evidence for the
distinction between an old nucleus and more recent (though still Grego-
rian) accretions. Thus the assumption of a relatively recent date for the
Ember Saturdays of Lent [541], Pentecost [900], and September [1052] is
confirmed by the fact that they all have the same Offertory, Domine Deus
salutis, and the same Tract, Laudate Dominum, the latter originally from
Holy Saturday [760] and also transferred to Whitsun Eve [860].

Even more remarkable in this respect are the Sundays after Pentecost,
nearly all of which borrowed their Graduals and Offertories from the week-
days of Lent. 11 Following are some examples:

9 See the tables in Wagner /, 300 and Sextuplex, pp. Ixiv, Ixvii, Ixxiii.

10 See Sextuplex, pp. cxix, 198.

11 G has the reverse indication of borrowing, giving the chants in full for the Sundays
[e.g., G 321] and referring to them on the weekdays [e.g., G 121], because the former are
liturgically more important than the latter.

66 GREGORIAN CHANT

Dom.II Grad. AdDominumdum from Fer. VI. p. Dom. II Quad.

Off. Domine convertere Fer. II. p. Dom. Pass.

Dom. Ill Grad. Jacta cogitatum Fer. III. p. Dom. II. Quad.

Off. Sperant in te Fer. III. p. Dom. V. Quad.

Dom. IV Grad. Propitius esto Fer. IV. p. Dom, II. Quad.

Off. Illumina oculos Sab. p. Dom. II. Quad.

Dom. V Grad. Protector nosier Fer. II. p. Dom. I. Quad.

Off. Benedicam Dominum Fer. II. p. Dom. II. Quad.

Needless to say, transfers are quite frequent in the Alleluias. On the
other hand, they are practically non-existent among the Introits and Com-
munions, which, as we have seen, are remarkable for their fixity. All the
above-mentioned feasts have new Introits and Communions, introduced
at a time (probably very close to or under Gregory) when the Graduals
and Offertories had already become a closed repertory which could be
expanded only by transfers.

The principle of borrowing, which makes its appearance toward the
end of the Gregorian period, assumed much greater importance in the
post-Gregorian development. Indeed, in turning to the Mass formularies
for the feasts that were introduced after Gregory [see pp. 581], the most
significant fact is that nearly every one of them borrowed its items from
the Masses of older feasts. This fact clearly shows that after 600 the entire
repertory was considered a fixed formulary which was expanded mainly by
borrowing. The following list is designed to provide a detailed insight into
this process (for the meaning of * see p. 69, under c).

BORROWING OF MASS ITEMS IN THE POST-GREGORIAN TEMPORA1E

A. 600-750

i. Feria V. post Cineres [Sext no. 38; G 91].

Intr. Dum clamarem Dom. X. post Pent.

Grad. Jacta cogitatum Fer. III. p. Dom. II. Quad*

OS. Adte Domine levavi Dora. I. Adv.

Comm. Acceptabis Dom. X. p. Pent.

a. Feria V. post Dominicam I. in Quadragesima [Sext. no. 44; G 104].

Intr. Confessio S. Laurentii Martyris

Grad. Custodi me Dom. X. p. Pent.

Off. Immittet Dom. XIV. p. Pent.

Comm. Panis quern Dom. XV. (orig. XIV.) p. Pent

3. Feria V. post Dominicam IL in Quadragesima [Sext. no. 50; G 1*0].

Intr. Deus in adjutorium Dom. XII. p. Pent.

Grad. Propitius esto Sabb. Q. T. Quad.

Off. Precatus est Moyses Dom. XII. p. Pent.

Comm. Qui manducat Dom. IX. (orig. XV.) p. Pent

The Development after 600 67

4. Feria V. post Dominican HI. in Quadragesima [Sext. no. 57; G 134].
Intr. Salus populi Dom. XIX. p. Pent. 12

Grad. Oculi omnium Dom. XX. p. Pent, (and others; today

for Corpus Christi)

Off. Si ambulavero Dom. XIX. p. Pent.

Comm. Tu mandasti Dom. XIX. p. Pent

5. Feria V. post Dominicam IV. in Quadragesima [Sext. no. 64; G 146].
Intr. Laetetur cor Feria VI. Q. T. Sept.

Grad. Respice Domine Dom. XIII. p. Pent.

Off. Domine in auxilium Fer. VI. p. Dom. II. Quad.

Off. *Domine ad adjuvandum new (in Mont-Blandin and Senlis)

Comm, Domine memorabor Dom. XVI. p. Pent.

6. Feria V. post Dominicam Passionis [Sext. no. 71; G 162].
Intr. Omnia quae Dom. XX. p. Pent.

Grad. Tollite hostias new (early 8th cent.; cf. Sext. p. Ivi)

Off. Super flumina Dom. XX. p. Pent.

Comm. Memento verbi Dom. XX. p. Pent.

B. 750-850

7. Dominica IV. Adventus [Sext. no. 7 bis; G ui]. 13

Intr. Veni et ostende (R) Sabb. Q. T. Adv.

Intr. Memento nostri (C> GI) new

Intr. *Rorate caeli (S) Fer. IV. Q. T. Adv.

Grad. A summo celo (R, GI) Sabb. Q. T. Adv.

Grad. *Prope est (C, S, Gs) Fer. IV. Q. T. Adv.

Off. Exulta (R) Sabb. Q. T. Adv.

Off. *Ave Maria (C, S, GI, G 2 ) Fer. IV. Q. T. Adv."

Comm. Exultavit (R) Sabb. Q. T. Adv.

Comm. *Ecce mrgo (C, S, GI, G 2 ) Fer, IV. Q. T. Adv.

8. In Vigilia Ascensionis [Sext. no. 101 bis; G 284].
Intr. Omnes gentes (C, S) new 15
Intr. Narrabo (R) new

Intr. *Vocem jucunditatis Dom. V. p. Pascha

12 Since the Mass formularies for the igth and soth Sundays after Pentecost may also be
post-Gregorian [see p. 71], there could be some doubt as to the direction of borrowing,
also for Feria V. post Dominicam Passionis (above table, no. 6). In view of the general
situation, as shown in the table, the borrowing indicated is much more likely than the
reverse. Probably the complete series of Mass formularies for the Sundays of Pentecost was
completed (with one exception, the Mass Omnes gentes) about 700, shortly before the
Thursdays of Lent were introduced, under Pope Gregory II (715-31).

is See the explanations below, under (c).

14 Originally (seventh century) for the Feast of Assumption; cf. Sextuplex, pp. xxxviiif.

15 The Introit Omnes gentes is also used for the Mass of the Seventh Sunday after
Pentecost which, according to recent research, is the latest of all the Mass formularies of
the post-Pentecost series [see p. 70]. The question whether the Introit was originally
destined for this Sunday or for the Vigil of Ascension is discussed hi an article by Hesbert,
"La Messe Omnes gentes" (RG, XVII, XVIII), and resolved in favor of the latter.

68 GREGORIAN CHANT

Off. Viri Galilei (C, S) Ascensio Domini

Off. Deus deus meus (R) Dom. II. p. Pascha

Off. *Benedicite gentes Dom. V. p. Pascha

Comm. Pater cum essem (R, S) Dom. infra Oct. Asc.

Comm. Non vos relinquam (C) Sabb. Q. T. Pent, (today Feria VI. Q.

T. Pent)

Comm. *Cantate Domino Dom. V. p. Pascha

9. In Litaniis (Rogation Days) [Sext. no. 94; G 282].
Intr. Exaudivit de templo new

Off. Confitebor new

Comm. Petite et accipite new

C. 850-950

10. In Festo Ss. Trinitatis [Sext. no. 172 bis; G 308].

Intr. Benedicta sit new; after Invocabit me from Dom. I.

in Quad. [G 93]
Grad. Benedictus es new; after Constitues from S. Andreae

Apostoli [G 392]
Off. Benedictus sit new; after Constitues from SS. Apost.

Petti et Pauli [G 532]
Comm. Benedicimus Deum new; after Fed judicium t originally

from S. Prisca, now Commune Vir-

ginis [G 59]

11. Ftria V. post Pentecosten [G 302]. all items borrowed from Dominica Pen-

tecostes

D. After 950

12. Dominical!, in Quadragesima [G 111],

All items borrowed from Fer. IV. Q. T. Quad. [G io2] ie

13. Sabbato post Cineres [G 93].

All items borrowed from Fer. VI. post Cineres [G 91]

14. Sabbato post Dominicam Passionis [G 165].

All items borrowed from Fer. VI. p. Dom. Pass. [G 163]

15. In Circumcisione Domini [G 49].

All items borrowed from In Die Nat. Dom. [G 33]

16. Corpus Christi [G 313].

Intr. Cibavit eos Fer. II. p. Pent.

Grad Oculi omnium Dom. XX. p. Pent, [see under no. 4]

Off. Sacerdotes new; after Confirma hoc from Dom.

Pent [G 295]
Comm. Quotienscumque new; after Factus est from Dom. Pent.

[G 296]

16 Once more, the reverse borrowing is indicated in G. Beneventan manuscripts have a
new, proper Mass formulary for this Sunday as well as for the two Saturdays, new. 13, 14,
of our list. See Pal. mus. f XIV, 234.

The Development after 600 69

Since this table involves a fairly large number of items, it may be ad-
visable to sum up some of its contents.

a. The main sources for borrowing are the Sundays after Pentecost. This
is interesting because the individual Mass formularies for these Sundays
represent a relatively late accretion which, in its final form of twenty-three
Masses, was not completed until perhaps c. 8oo. 17 It would then appear
that items of a fairly recent date were considered more readily transferable
than those which for a long time had been associated with an old feast.

b. Next in importance as a source for borrowing are the weekdays of
Lent.

c. A case of special interest is that of the Fourth Sunday of Advent, for
which the Mass formularies from the immediately preceding Ember Days
of Advent were drawn upon. The borrowing, however, was far from uni-
form, and we have thought it worthwhile to present a complete picture of
the state of affairs as it existed in the ninth and tenth centuries. The letters
R, C, S, Gi and Gz, indicate respectively the Graduals of Rheinau, Com-
pi&gne, Senlis, St. Gall 35^ and St. Gall 33P, 18 while items marked * are
those of the later manuscripts and of the present-day books, which simply
transfer the entire Mass of the Wednesday to the Sunday. It appears that
here (as well as in many other cases) the Codex Rheinau represents an
exceptional usage.

d. A similar situation exists for the Vigil of Ascension. Here also the
borrowing is far from uniform. The two St. Gall Mss do not give a Mass
for this feast. The late-medieval and present-day books simply prescribe
the Mass of the Fifth Sunday after Easter.

e. The Mass for Rogation Days, a feast that was probably introduced
in the eighth century, is remarkable because its Mass formulary is entirely
new, a fact for which the very special character of the occasion provides a
plausible explanation.

f. The Mass for Trinity Sunday, which probably dates from the second
half of the ninth century, is interesting because it is the first indication of
another procedure to provide Masses for new feasts, that is, to use new
texts suitable for the occasion and combine these with pre-existing melo-
dies. This method, known as adaptation, was also used for the Offertory
and the Communion of the twelfth-century feast of Corpus Christi, and
was extensively employed in the nineteenth century (Dom Pothier and
others) in connection with feasts of a recent date such as the Feast of the
Holy Name of Jesus:

17 See p. 71.

is The other Graduals of the Sextuple* do not include this feast.

y GREGORIAN CHANT

In Festo Ss. Nominis Jesu [G 50]

Intr. In nomine Jesu new; after In nomine Domine from Fer. IV,

Majoris Hebd. [G 190]
Grad. Salvos fac new; after Benedicite Dominum from In Dedi-

catione S. Michaelis [G 608]
Off. Confitebor tibi new; after Jubilate Deo universa from Dom. II.

p. Epiph. [G 69]
Comm. Omnes gentes new; after Domine memorabor from Dom. XVI.

p. Pent. [G 365]

g. A special explanation is needed for the Sundays after Pentecost, a
series of feasts that underwent many changes and which has been the
subject of numerous studies on the part of liturgists as well as musicologists.
How involved the problem is appears from the fact that only a few years
ago, in 1952, it was re-examined by A. Chavasse on the basis of all the
available sources, such as Sacramentaries, Lectionaries, and Graduated
In its final form, the series consisted of twenty-three formularies, a differ-
ent one for each of the minimum number of Sundays after Pentecost. This
stage was reached shortly before 800, as appears from the fact that the full
series is found in the Graduate of Corbie and Senlis. In earlier centuries,
however, it was less complete. The Gelasian Sacramentary, which goes back
to a period a hundred years before Gregory [see List of Sources, p. 53, no.
a], contains prayers for sixteen Masses only. Very likely the corresponding
musical items were those of Masses nos. i to 6 and 8 to 17 of the final series,
Mass no. 7, with the Introit Omnes gentes, being a considerably later addi-
tion. An important characteristic of this original nucleus is that all of its
Introits and Graduals have psalmodic texts, and that those of the Introits
strictly preserve the order of the Psalter, beginning with Ps. is, 17, 24, etc.
The same principle of ascending numerical order prevails in the Offer-
tories and Communions which, however, include a few non-psalmodic
texts. 20

To these sixteen Mass formularies, which can be considered as pre-
Gregorian, Gregory added two; four more were added during the seventh
century, so that about 700 the series numbered twenty-two. The last addi-
tion, made in the eighth century, was the Mass Omnes gentes which, ac-
cording to recent research, is of Frankish origin and was not used in Rome
until the thirteenth century. 21 In fact, this is the only Mass in the entire
series concerning which the old Graduals show variation: some lack it
completely (e.g., the Codex Monza and the Old-Roman Graduals); others

19 A. Chavasse, "Les plus anciens types du lectionnaire ct de 1'antiphonaire remains de
la messe" (Revue Benedictine, LXII [1952], 3-94).

20 For more details, see pp. 9 iff.

21 See Hesbert, "La Messe Omnes gentes" (RG f XVII and XVIII).

The Development after 600 71

list it as no. 22; still others have it in two positions, as no. 7 and 22, while
the majority have it only as no. 7.

As for the remaining Masses of the Pentecost series, that is, nos. 18 to
23, there is a certain probability that the two Masses added by Gregory
were nos. 18 and 19, but no definite information about this seems to exist
Whichever they were, they do not seem to present special features dis-
tinguishing them from the other four.

Finally it should be noticed that the rather blurred picture of the post-
Pentecost Masses is further complicated by a purely liturgical factor, that
is, the presence within this period of two Ember Weeks. As was previously
explained [p. 57], the Sundays after these Ember Weeks, that is, the first
and (normally) the eighteenth in the series, were originally without a Mass
formulary of their own, so that the series started on the second Sunday
after Pentecost. At a later time, when the old tradition was changed, no
new Mass formularies were introduced; the series was simply shifted back,
so that the Mass for the Second Sunday became that of the First, 22 and
those for the end of the series (if they already existed at that time) were
employed two weeks earlier than originally. Unfortunately, we have no
information as to the approximate time when this took place, except that
it was completed before c. 750, as appears from the fact that in the Codex
Monza the series starts with the First Sunday. Assuming, for the purpose
of illustration, that the filling-in took place early in the seventh century
and that the Ember Week of September falls between the Sundays XVII
and XVIII, the various shifts can be illustrated as follows (the Masses are
identified by their present-day numbers):

Sundays

II to VII

VIII to XVII

XVIII

XIX, XX

XXI, XXII

XXIII .... .... .... .... 23

A. Before Gregory: 16 Mass formularies; 2 Sundays vacat

B. Under Gregory: 18 Mass formularies; 2 Sundays vacat

C. After Gregory: 18 Mass formularies; no Sundays vacat

D. C. 700: 22 Mass formularies; no Sundays vacat

E. C. 800: 23 Mass formularies; no Sundays vacat

We turn finally to a brief consideration of the Mass formularies for the
feasts of the Saints. In its general aspect, the Sanctorale differs from the

22 Eventually replaced by Trinity Sunday. The original Mass formulary for Dom. L p .
Pent, now used on the next free weekday, is suppressed in L, but given in G 310.

vacat

i to 6
8 to 17

i to 6
8 to 17
vacat

2 to 6; 8
9 to 18
19

2 to 7
81017
18

* . .

18,19

....

20,21

19,20

....

22,23

21,22

72 GREGORIAN CHANT

Temporale by its considerably lesser degree of fixity and properness, even
in its early portion as it existed before and under Gregory. Not infrequently
the same formulary or, at least, the same item is prescribed in different
manuscripts for different Saints, or in one and the same manuscript for a
number of Saints. Nearly always, however, such variability is confined to
Saints of the same rank or category. It will suffice to mention two examples,
the Gradual Dilexisti and the Gradual Gloriosus. The former occurs in the
Masses for three female Saints, S. Lucia, S. Pudentiana, and S. Praxedis,
while the latter is prescribed for several feasts of two Saints SS. Fabian
and Sebastian, SS. Gervasius and Protasius, SS. Abdon and Sennen,
SS. Felix and Adauctus, and SS. Dionysius and Rusticus. This practice is
of interest because it foreshadows and represents the root of the formation
of the Common of Saints, which began in the twelfth century. In fact, both
the above mentioned Graduals now belong to the Common of Saints,
Dilexisti being the Gradual of the Mass for a Virgin Martyr [1216],
Gloriosus that of the Mass for Two Martyrs [i i6$]. 23

As for the post-Gregorian Sanctorale, we shall consider only those feasts
which were introduced shortly after Gregory, that is, the Dedication of a
Church, the Feasts of the Cross, and the Feasts of the Virgin. The Mass for
the Dedication [1250], the earliest feast definitely known to be post-Grego-
rian (A.D. 608), is entirely new, and is often cited in modern writings as
evidence that the "creative period," usually supposed to have come to its
conclusion under Gregory, extended three or four years after his death
(A. D. 604). As a matter of fact, creation continued sporadically through-
out the seventh and eighth century, as will be seen from our table of the
post-Gregorian Temporale [pp. 66ff]. This contains a complete Mass, that
for Rogation Days, and a number of single Mass items which, at least to
the best of our knowledge, are "new,"

The Masses for the two Feasts of the Cross are to a certain extent identi-
cal, and are largely borrowed from Maundy Thursday:

Exaltation and Finding of the Cross [1629, 1454]

Intr. Nosautem (Exalt, and Find.) Maundy Thursday

Grad. Christus fact us (Exalt.) Maundy Thursday

All. Dulce lignum (Exalt, and Find.) new

All. Dicite in gentibus (Find.) Friday in Easter Week

Off. Dext era Domini (Find.) Maundy Thursday

Off. Protege Domine (Exalt) new

Comm. Per signum (Exalt, and Find.) new

23 It may be noticed that most of the Mass items of the old SanctoraU have been trans-
ferred to the Common of Saints which, therefore, represents an ancient layer of the chant,
while the Proper of Saints includes numerous chants of a late medieval date and even
modern compositions (Pothier).

The Development after 600 73

The original Communion for both feasts was Nos autem gloriari opor-
tet. This was borrowed from the Mass for Tuesday in Holy Week, in
which, however, it was at an early date replaced by the present-day Com-
munion, Adversum me?*

The Masses for the four (originally five) Feasts o the Virgin present an
interesting process of borrowing and exchange. The original material came
from the Feast of S. Agnes on January 2 1 [Sextuplex no. 25; G 416; L 1339]
and its Octave on January 28 [Sextuplex no. 28; G 421]. Their items pro-
vided the material for the old Statio ad S. Mariam f for the new feasts of
the Virgin, as well as, at a later time, for the Commons of a Virgin [1215,
1220, 1225]. The details are shown in the following table.

MASSES FOR THE FEASTS OF THE B.V.M.

1. Statio ad S. Mariam [Sext no. 16 bis and 23 bis]

Intr. Vultum tuum S. Agnes, Octave

Grad. Diffusa est S. Agnes

Off. Offerentur (now Afferentur) S. Agnes
Comm. Simile est S. Agnes, Octave

2. Purification [Sext. no. 29; G 428; L 1361]

Intr. Suscepimus Eighth Sunday after Pentecost

Grad. Suscepimus new

Off. Diffusa est S. Agnes, Octave

Comm. Responsum accept t new

3. Annunciation [Sext. no. 33; G 461; L 1415]

Intr. Vultum tuum S. Agnes, Octave

Grad. Diffusa est S. Agnes

Off. Ave Maria new

Comm. Ecce virgo Fer. IV. Q. T. Adv. [G 1 1], transferred

to Fourth Sunday of Advent [356]

4. Assumption [Sext. no. 140; G 582; L i6oi] 25

Intr. (originally) Vultum tuum S. Agnes, Octave

(later) Gaudeamus S. Agatha

Grad. Propter veritatem from a Natale S. Mariae represented

only in Cod. Monza [Sext. no. 144 bis]
Off. Assumpta est new; after Angelus Domini from Easter

Monday
Comm. Optimam partem new

5. Nativity [not in Sext.; G 593; L 1624]

Intr. Salve sancta new; after Ecce advenit from Epiphany

Grad. Benedicta et venerabilis new; after Domine praevenisti, origi-

nally Eve of St. John, now for the
Common of Feasts of the B.V.M.

24 See Sextuplex nos. 97 bis and 150.

25 An entirely new Mass for Assumption was adopted in 1952, in connection with the
definition of the dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin.

74 GREGORIAN CHANT

Off. Beata es Virgo new; freely after Angelus Domini

Comm. Beata viscera new 26

Further details regarding the formation of the post-Gregorian Sancto-
rale are beyond the scope of this book. In order to illustrate some of the
processes involved, it may be mentioned that the Mass for St. George the
Martyr became the Mass for the Common of One Martyr in Paschal Time
[1146], while that of SS. Abdon and Sennen, two third-century martyrs of
Persian origin, was transferred to the Common of Two Martyrs [i 162], ex-
cept for the Communion, Posuerunt, now used for the Mass of the Vigil
of the Apostles Simon and Jude [G 644]. This Mass originally had a dif-
ferent Communion, Justorum animae, which is now used for the Octave
of SS. Peter and Paul |>547]. 27

THE MUSIC

From its inception the development that has just been traced in its
liturgical and textual aspects was accompanied by music. Every writer who
mentions the Psalms, whether Pope Clement in the first century, St.
Athanasius in the third, or the abbess Etheria in the fourth, states that they
were sung; and probably as early as the fifth century there existed an
annalis cantus, a cycle of chants for the entire year which may have in-
cluded Antiphons, Responsories, and other items of a musical nature.
What do we know about the melodies that were used for the delivery of
these texts? From our point of view this is the most interesting, the most
burning of all the questions pertaining to the development of the Roman
liturgy. Unfortunately, it is also the most difficult to answer.

We may begin with an attempt at a critical evaluation of the evidence
mentioned at a previous occasion (p. 48), according to which the ec-
clesiastical chant of the Roman Church goes back to Pope Gregory. The
most obvious objection that can be and has been raised against this
evidence is that it is not contemporary and therefore lacks documentary
value: the earliest witness, Bishop Egbert, lived 150 years after Gregory.
However, the admission of nothing but contemporary documentation
would invalidate practically all our source material concerning the early
history of the liturgy and the chant. In fact, one may wonder what would
become of medieval research in general and not only medieval if such
a rigid and somewhat pedantic yardstick were used. We may well admit

26 According to Gastoud, Origines, p. 269, fn. 6, all the chants of this Mass are "adapta-
tions post&ieurs," but I have been unable to find a model for the Communion Beata
viscera [1268], except for an identical beginning in the Communion Quicwnque fecerit
[G 456] from the feast of 55. Quadraginta Martyrum, originally of 55. Septem Fratrum
[Sextuple* no. 126].

27 For more details, see Wagner /, 178, fn. i.

The Development after 600 75

that there is sufficient documentation to warrant the assumption that a
liber antiphonarius of Gregory did exist. The main difficulty, it seems to
me, is one, not of documentation but of interpretation. What was this book
like, and in which relationship does it stand to the earliest Antiphonals
that are preserved? Can we assume that it had music in some primitive
sort of notation? This is very doubtful indeed, since as late as the eighth
and ninth centuries Antiphonaries included only the texts. Moreover, Isi-
dore of Seville, who lived about 30 years after Gregory (c. 570-636) says that
"unless the musical sounds are retained by the human memory, they perish,
because they cannot be written down" (Nisi enim ab homine memoria
teneantur soni, pereunt, quia scribi non possunt; Pair. lat. LXXXII, 163).
Obviously, no notation existed at that time. But even regardless of whether
"Gregory's" melodies were notated or orally transmitted, what reason do
we have to assume that they were the same as those known to us from the
extant musical sources?

The earliest manuscripts showing the melodies in a clearly readable no-
tation (diastematic neumes) date from the mid-eleventh century. However,
there exist manuscripts of die tenth century [see List of Sources, nos. 26-30]
which enable us to trace the melodies back to a considerably earlier time.
Extended comparative studies have shown that the staffless neumes of these
sources fully agree with the diastematic neumes of the later sources as to
type (e.g., ascending or descending), number of notes, grouping in ex-
tended melismas, etc. Clearly, the melodies are the same, although the
possibility of minor changes, concerning ornamentations or the pitch of
this or that note, will have to be admitted. 1 On the whole we are justified
in assuming that the majority of the melodies existed about 900 or 850 in
nearly the same form as they appear in the later medieval sources and in
the present-day publications. We might well be satisfied with this state of
affairs, were it not for the fact that we have considerably earlier documen-
tation for the existence of the texts, and even earlier evidence for the
feasts. We have seen that the former can be traced back to the middle of
the eighth century, the latter at least to the time of Gregory. It has always
been the aim of musical scholars to match this record, and to show or, more
properly speaking, to maintain that the melodies are equally old, except for
those that are connected with post-Gregorian feasts.

Obviously, this argument proceeds from the premise that the develop-
ment of the liturgical calendar, of the liturgical texts, and of the liturgical
music are strictly synchronous phenomena, in other words, that the perma-
nent institution of a certain feast entails and insures equal permanence of
the texts and the melodies that were originally used. Actually this is a
highly uncertain and, in fact, entirely unwarranted premise. In spite of

i Such changes are demonstrable particularly in the Communions, which are often
classified differently in the various tonaries. See pp.

y6 GREGORIAN CHANT

the close relationship that, no doubt, existed between the various layers
of the liturgy, it would be nothing more than wishful thinking to assume
that a liturgical 'melody is necessarily as old as the text to which, or the
feast at which, it is sung. By its very nature a liturgical calendar has a much
higher degree of fixity than a collection of prayers or other texts for the
Masses and Offices, and this, in turn, has an incomparably higher degree
of fixity than a collection of melodies, at least in a period in which, to the
best of our knowledge, the preservation of music was exclusively a matter
of oral tradition. It is entirely unthinkable that a collection of melodies
even approximating the size and elaborateness of the "Gregorian" reper-
tory could have been transmitted to say nothing of "preserved" orally
over two or three centuries. The truly Gregorian and, even more, any pre-
Gregorian repertory must have been of a much more elementary character.
Possibly the melodies even for a Gradual were of a very simple type; pos-
sibly only one or a few melodies served for all Graduals; possibly the
melodies were not fixed at all or only in their main outlines, much be-
ing left to improvisation; possibly only the Psalms and other basic scrip-
tural texts had a musical delivery regulated to some extent by tradition: it
is idle to speculate about these matters. If we rely on evidence rather than
on wishful thinking or fantasy we cannot but admit that we know nothing
about the liturgical melodies until we approach the period from which we
have the earliest musical manuscripts, that is, the end of the ninth century.
Naturally, we cannot assume that the earliest musical manuscript that
has come down to us from these remote times was actually the earliest ever
written. The highly complex and intricate notation of a manuscript such
as St. Gall 35^ [see pp. isof] marks it beyond doubt as one that was
preceded by. others, now lost. On the other hand, it is very unlikely that a
fully developed system of neumatic notation existed long before the year
850. Otherwise it would be difficult to explain why all the eighth- and
ninth-century Graduals (those of the Sextuplex publication) are written
without music, or why such a thorough treatise as Aurelian's Musica di$-
ciplina (c. 850) lacks a chapter on notation. Only in his chapter XIX, deal-
ing with the problem of distinguishing between high and low tones in the
verses, does Aurelian mention the terms acutus accentus and circumftexio,
thus indicating that he is still concerned with a primitive system of
ekphonetic notation which may have served fairly well for simple recita-
tion formulae, but was totally inadequate for the written fixation of such
elaborate melodies as are recorded in St. Gall 3551. Thus it would appear
that the evolution of neumatic notation can hardly have begun much
earlier than 800. All in all, it is safe to say that paleographic evidence per-
mits us to trace the Gregorian melodies back to the period around 800,
and to think of them as having received their final form during the cen-
tury from c. 750 to 850.

The Development after 600 77

To sum up: it is a matter of scientific caution and prudence to assign
to the liturgical melodies, as we have them, a considerably later date than
has generally been done before. True enough, caution and prudence are
negative rather than positive virtues, preventing us from committing mis-
takes rather than helping us to establish the truth. In the present case,
however, they seem to have the latter property as well. Within the past few
years the Gregorian question has once more been scrutinized by various
scholars with entirely novel and most interesting results. Although the
results vary, they all agree in one aspect, that is, to assign to the "Grego-
rian" melodies a post-Gregorian date of origin.

About five years ago, B. Stablein presented a theory proceeding from two
facts, both known for about fifty years but now for the first time brought
into close relationship. 2 The first of these is that the famous list of men who
"edited an annalis cantus" [see p. 47; Stablein considers it as the work of
John the Archicantor] does not close with Gregory. There follows not only
Pope Martinus (649-53), but also, after him, three abbots of St. Peter's in
Rome Catolenus, Maurianus, and Virbonus whose activity in the field
of the cantus annalis is mentioned with especially distinctive words of
praise, "diligentissime," "nobile/' and "magnifice." 3 The second fact is
that there exist, in addition to the numerous manuscripts of "Gregorian
chant," four (or possibly more) manuscripts of the eleventh to thirteenth
centuries which contain essentially the same liturgical repertory but with
noticeably different melodies. These form a striking contrast to all the
other sources in which the melodies, except for occasional minor variants,
are absolutely identical. Dom Mocquereau, who was the first to call atten-
tion to this special group of manuscripts, 4 considered and dismissed them
as variants from a decadent epoch. This assumption, however, is contra-
dicted by the fact that their liturgical repertory is that of the oldest sources,
excluding, as it does, the feasts that were added in the ninth, tenth, and
later centuries. Dom Andoyer was the first to maintain that these special
manuscripts contain a musical repertory which, far from being "decadent/*
is actually older than the standard repertory commonly referred to as
Gregorian. He therefore designated it as "pre-Gregorian." 5 For the pur-
pose of non-committal reference we shall distinguish the two repertories
as the "standard" and the "special/'

2 See "Zur Entstehung der gregorianischen Melodien" (KJ, XXXV, 5); "Zur Fruh-
geschichte des romischen Chorals" (ACl, p. 271); article "Choral" (MGG, II, i*7sfi).

3 Catolenus abba, ibi deserviens ad sepulchrum sancti Petri, et ipse quidem annum
circuli cantum diligentissime edidit; post hunc quoque Maurianus abba> ipsius sancti
Petri apostoli serviens, annalem suum cantum et ipse nobile ordinavit; post hunc vero
domnus Virbonus abba et omnem cantum anni circuli magnifice ordinavit (Patr. lat.
138, p. 1346; reprinted in Gastou6, Origines, p. no, 0.3). Cf. Data, nos. 55, 56.

4 Pal. mus. f II, 4, fn. x. See the musical example on pp. 6ff.
5"Le Chant romain ant<grgorien" (RCG, XX, 69, 107).

78 GREGORIAN CHANT

Stablein (in common with all modern scholars) agrees with Andoyer's
conclusion that the special repertory is older than the standard repertory,
but changes their relative historical positions from "pre-Gregorian" and
"Gregorian" to "Gregorian" and "post-Gregorian." According to him, the
standard repertory is the work of the above-named abbots Catolenus,
Maurianus and Virbonus, whom he believes to have been active between
653 and 680. This period coincides with the rule of Pope Vitalian (657-72),
and Stablein adduces some additional evidence for musical activity under
this pope. 6 He concludes that the special repertory represents the chant
that was used in Rome shortly before and at the time of Gregory, and that
half a century later, under Pope Vitalian, the melodies received the form
in which we find them in the standard repertory. He distinguishes the two
versions as Old-Roman and New-Roman, associating the former with the
service in the Basilica of the Lateran, the latter with that in the Papal
palace. 7

Stablein's provocative theory is a most important contribution, because
it once more brings the Gregorian problem into the open. I do not, how-
ever, believe that it represents the final answer. A weak spot is the terminus
ad quern for the activity of the three Roman abbots, the year 680. This date
is based on Silva-Tarouca's theory that the list of musical popes and abbots
was written by John the Archicantor, a theory which is no longer con-
sidered tenable [see p. 46, fn. i]. However, even if we admit Stablein's
dates as approximately correct, the main difficulty is not removed: we are
still faced with a gap of 200 years between origin and written fixation
in other words, we still have no way of knpwing what relationship the
"Vitalian" melodies had to those that have been transmitted. Even greater
difficulties exist with the Old-Roman repertory, if this is supposed to
represent the true "Gregorian" chant. Here the gap amounts to almost 500
years, since the earliest manuscript containing the Old-Roman melodies
is dated 1071.

A more promising avenue of investigation is suggested by a recent article,
"Le chant 'vieux-romain'," by M. Huglo [Sacris erudiri VI (1954), 96], at
the end of which he suggests the possibility that the two repertories might
be representatives, not primarily of different periods, but of different
locales. This remark may well turn out to be of crucial importance. It is
highly significant that the manuscripts containing the special repertory
are all of Roman origin, having been written for local churches such as St.
Cecilia and the Lateran. Thus there can be no doubt that we are in the

Ekkehard V of St. Gall (H. c. 1300) speaks of cantorcs Vitaliani. Radulph de Rivo
(fl. c. 14.00; dean of Tongern, near Li6ge), the last liturgist of the Middle Ages, says that
both Gregory and Vitalian "received the Roman chant" (cantam romanum rcccpcrunt;
see M GG, II, 127*).
. 275.

The Development after 600 79

presence of a chant that originated and was mainly employed in Rome and
therefore is properly called Roman Chant.

As for the early sources of the standard repertory (that is, of "Gregorian"
chant), it has often been noticed, though only grudgingly admitted, that
none of them was written in Rome or, for that matter, in Italy. They all
come from such places in Western Europe as St. Gall, Metz, Einsiedeln,
Chartres, Laon, and Montpellier, in other words, from the Franco-German
empire. Surely this fact is also of the highest significance, particularly in
connection with or in contrast to the exclusively Roman origin of the
special sources. It leads to the conclusion that the standard repertory
is of Frankish origin or, at least, that it received its final form the only
one known to us in places of the West.

There is, indeed, a great deal of historical evidence in support of the
view that what we call "Gregorian chant" represents an eighth-to-ninth-
century fusion of Roman and Frankish elements. This fusion is of par-
ticular interest because of its political implication and motivation: it was
one of the chief means by which the Frankish rulers tried to strengthen
their relationship with the Church of Rome. The main events were: 8

1. In 752-3 Pope Stephen II visited Gaul, accompanied by Roman
clergy who celebrated Mass according to the Roman usage. Pepin (752-
68), father of Charlemagne, determined to gain the support of the pope
by introducing the Roman usage in his kingdom, in place of the old
Gallican rites.

2. In 753, bishop Chrodegang of Metz was sent by Pepin to Rome and,
upon his return, established the Roman use in the cathedral of Metz.

3. About 760, Pope Paul I sent to Pepin, upon the latter's request, an
Antiphonale (Gradual) and a Responsale (Antiphonal).

4. Charlemagne (768-814) issued numerous decrees designed to pro-
mote the introduction of the cantus Romanus and to protect it against
becoming "corrupt."

5. C* 825 the abbot Wala from the monastery of Corbie went to Rome
and received a copy of a Roman Antiphonal revised by Pope Hadrian

(772-95)-

6. In 831 or 832 Amalarius of Metz went to Rome in order to obtain
an authentic Antiphonary. The pope (Gregory IV) informed him that
he had none to spare, but referred him to the one at Corbie. Upon his
return to France, Amalarius went to Corbie and found, to his great
surprise, that it differed from the usage of Metz: "I compared the above-
mentioned volumes [of Corbie] with our antiphonaries and I found them
different not only in their [liturgical] order but also in their words and
8 See, e.g., R. van Doren, Etude sur ^influence musicale de I'abbayc de Saint-Gall

PP- 34ff-

80 GREGORIAN CHANT

in the great number of responsories and antiphons which we do not
sing/' 9

One thing is certain: the efforts to introduce the Roman usage into the
Frankish empire met with the strong resistance of the Gallican clergy and
brought about a great confusion. The reports about Charlemagne's at-
tempts to protect the cantus Romanus against becoming corrupt speak
eloquently enough. Equally illuminating if we may use such a word in
this connection are the reports about the various liturgical books (prob-
ably without musical notation) that were brought from Rome to France,
one in 760 to Metz, the other in 825 to Corbie, obviously in order to bring
about greater conformity with the Roman use. Yet, when Amalarius
studied the book of Corbie, he found that it differed in many respects from
the liturgy of Metz. How can we explain this? One explanation would be
that the change took place in Rome, in other words, that the book sent to
Metz was an Old-Roman, the one sent to Corbie a New-Roman (standard
repertory, "Gregorian"). However, Huglo has shown conclusively that
the Corbie book was of the Old-Roman type. 10 Perhaps a more plausible
explanation is that Amalarius based his comparison, not on the book sent
to Metz in 760, but on more recent Messine Antiphonah that already in-
corporated numerous changes. How confused the situation became appears
from an interesting passage in Amalarius' Liber de ordine antiphonarii
concerning the difference between the Roman and the Frankish use of
Gospel Antiphons after the Feast of Dedication [ed. Hanssens, III, 99]:

Deus scit si isti [Romani] fallant, aut si ipsi [nostri magistri] fefellissent qui
gloriati sunt se eas [antiphonas de evangelio] percepisse a magistris Romanae
ecclesia, aut si Romani propter incuriam et neglegentiam eas amisissent aut si
nunquam cantassent eas.

(God knows whether the Romans are in error; or whether our masters have
erred, who boast of having learned the Gospel Antiphons from the masters of the
Roman Church; or whether the Romans have omitted them because of careless-
ness and negligence; or whether they have never sung them.)

If even a contemporary observer like Amalarius despaired over the con-
fused situation, how can we ever hope to untangle it?

One other thing is certain: although the Roman rite emerged from this
struggle victorious, it certainly did not emerge unscathed or intact. Liturgi-
cal scholars have long been fully aware of this fact. Thus, J. A. Jungmann,
in his standard work, The Mass of the Roman Rite (Missarum Solemnia),
discussing the Roman Mass in France, says (p. 76): "Unconsciously of
course, but nonetheless surely, profound alterations were made from the

See Huglo, in Sacris erudiri, VI, 120.
10 See Sacris erudiri, VI, isofL

The Development after 600 81

very outset in the Roman liturgy, especially in the Roman Mass in fact,
fundamental transformations. The exotic seedling, when planted in a new
soil and in a new climate, was still pliant enough to be reshaped and modi-
fied by these influences." And later (p. 95): "Thus we come to that episode
which proved to be of such incalculable importance for the entire sub-
sequent history of the Roman liturgy. About the middle of the tenth
century the Roman liturgy began to return in force from Franco-Germanic
lands to Italy and to Rome, but it was a liturgy which meanwhile had
undergone radical changes and a great development. This importation
entailed supplanting the local form of the Roman liturgy by its Gallicized
version, even at the very center of Christendom."

It would be more than wishful thinking to assume that during this
process of profound alterations in the liturgy the melodies remained un-
changed. 11 Yet it is to the West that we owe the written fixation and
preservation of what is now called "Gregorian chant." The conclusion is
almost inescapable that this chant, as found in the manuscripts of St. Gall,
Einsiedeln, Metz, Chartres, etc., received its final form in France, in the
period about 800, a form that differed considerably from its Roman model.
A very interesting confirmation of this state of affairs exists in the report of
an anonymous monk of St. Gall who, about 885, speaks of the "exceedingly
large difference between our chant and that of Rome" and tells us that,
through the endeavours of a singer whom Charlemagne had sent to Rome
for instruction and later assigned to the cathedral of Metz, the chant spread
over all France, "so that it is even now called ecclesiastica cantilena
Metensis. 12 Moreover, the non-Roman character of the Mss of St. Gall,

11 There exist a number of reports which, taken together, give an interesting picture
of the altercations and frictions between Roman and Frankish singers, particularly in the
time of Charlemagne. See, e.g., H. Hucke, "Die Einfuhrung des Gregorianischen Gesangs
im Frankenreich" (Romische Quartalschrift fur Christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchen-
geschichte, Band 49 [1954], pp. lyaff).

i^Monachus Sangalliensis (Notker Balbulus?), De vita Caroli magni; see Ph. Jaff6,
Bibliotheca rerum germanicarum, IV (1867), 639, 641. Monachus' book is to a large extent
a collection of legends about Charlemagne and therefore of little historical value (e.g., he
says that Charlemagne who died in 814 assigned the singer to the cathedral of Metz at
the request of his son Truogo, bishop of Metz; actually, Truogo did not become bishop
of Metz until 823). However, this is no reason to doubt the accuracy of information that
refers to his own time. Equally relevant is the following statement of Johannes Diaconus:
"As much as, until now, the chant of Metz is inferior to that of Rome, so much are the
chants of [the other] German and French churches inferior to that of Metz, as is conceded
by all those who esteem the plain truth" (Pair. lat. 75, col. 911). Of particular interest
is the somewhat reluctant recognition ("until now"!) of the superiority of the chant of
Rome, and also the remark about differences among the various churches in Germany
(St. Gall?) and France. It is very unfortunate that no document of the cantus Metensis
has been preserved. Long before the recent re-examination of the Gregorian problem
the importance of Metz (rather than St. Gall) had been emphasized by R. van Doren
(see fn. 8).

82 GREGORIAN CHANT

Einsiedeln, etc., is clearly demonstrated by the fact that they all include
chants for the Feast of the Holy Trinity, a feast of unquestionably Western
origin which was not officially adopted in Rome until the twelfth century
[see p. 8, fn. 6]. None of the Old-Roman manuscripts include this feast.

Different though the theory of Stablein and the one just outlined are,
they agree in one point: the standard repertory of chant is not "Gregorian"
in the historical sense of the word. This does not necessarily mean to dis-
miss the evidence proffered by Morin, Cagin, Wagner, and others [see p.
49], to show that a repertory of chant was formed at the time of Gregory.
This may well have been the case, but we have no information as to what
it was like; for instance, whether it was essentially identical with the Old-
Roman chant. Nor can we say anything definite about the chant that was
formed, fifty years later, under the Roman abbots Catolenus, Maurianus,
and Virbonus. The chief difficulty in both cases is the absence of con-
temporary or approximately contemporary documentation by musical
sources. Any attempt to relate repertories of such early periods to manu-
scripts at least two hundred years later in date is fraught with uncertainty
and danger. This element of risk is almost completely eliminated if we
regard the standard repertory as one that was formed in France between
750 and 850. A manuscript such as the Codex St. Gall 359 is close enough
both to the time and to the place of origin to be considered as an authentic
and reliable testimonial.

We may then assume that what we call Gregorian chant is the result of
a development that took place in the Franco-German empire under Pepin,
Charlemagne, and his successors. This does not mean to say that all the
many thousands of melodies of the present-day repertory were composed
during this time, in the same way as the symphonies of Mozart and
Beethoven were composed during the fifty years from 1770 to 1820. It
means that they represent the final stage, and the only one known to us,
of an evolution, the beginnings of which may go back to the earliest Chris-
tian period and even to the chant of the Synagogue. What changes took
place during the numerous pre-formative stages we cannot say. Some chants
may have changed relatively little, others so much that their original form
was obscured or completely lost. On grounds of probability and plausability
we may assume that the simpler chants were much less affected by the
vicissitudes of a purely oral tradition than those of a highly ornate char-
acter. We shall come back to this question in the final chapter of this book.
For the present time it will suffice to say that it is probably safe to think
of certain very rudimentary types, such as the psalm tones or the archaic
Gloria XV [56] as being a heritage from early Christian, and ultimately
pre-Christian days; of simple Antiphons as dating possibly from the time
of Gregory; and of an Introit, a Gradual, a Tract as being, in its present-

The Development after 600 83

day form, a product of the eighth or ninth century. With such general
ideas in his mind the reader may now turn to a study of "Gregorian
chant." 13

13 The reader's attention is called to Handschin's interesting discussion of "La Ques-
tion du chant 'vieux-romain' " in Annales musicologiques, II (1954; published after the
completion of our manuscript), 492.

General Aspects
of the Chant

CHAPTER ONE

The Texts

THE PSALMS

NOT WITHOUT justification has the Book of Psalms been called the
most influential single source of texts in all music history. In-
deed it is by far the most important textual source in Gregorian chant.
Our previous explanations have made it clear to what an extent the Psalms
prevail in the Office Hours; they are no less important in the Mass, al-
though here their presence is less obvious. In the course of the centuries
various methods of psalm-singing developed, leading to modifications
which, in their final stages, bear scant resemblance to a Psalm. An histori-
cal analysis, however, clearly shows that nearly all the chants of the Grego-
rian repertory have a psalmodic background, the main exceptions being
the Antiphons, the Responsories, and the Hymns.

The early custom of singing complete Psalms is fully preserved in the
Office Hours, to every one of which is assigned a definite number of Psalms,
as shown in the table, p. 23. The distribution of the Psalms among the
various Hours is a matter of no small interest. The basic principle was that
the entire Book of Psalms should be sung once every week. When the
details of the distribution were worked out, the Hours of Matins and
Vespers received primary consideration. The 150 Psalms were divided
into two groups roughly corresponding in size to the number of Psalms,
nine (originally, twelve) and five, prescribed for these two Offices. Thus,
the group for Matins comprises approximately the first hundred Psalms,
that for Vespers, the remaining fifty. To put it more precisely, the Psalms
for Matins comprise Ps. i to 108, those for Vespers, Ps. 109 to 147. In both
groups, a number of Psalms are omitted, and these occur in the other
Office Hours, e.g., the long Ps. 118 which, divided into eleven parts, pro-
vides nearly all the material for the Little Hours, from Prime to None, of
Sunday [ssGff].

The distribution of the Vesper Psalms, as sung during the week from
Sunday to Saturday, is as follows:

88 GREGORIAN CHANT

Sunday [*5o] : Ps - 1O 9 11O > lll > 112 IJ 3

Monday [280]: 114, 115, 119, 120, 121

Tuesday [285]: 122, 123, 124, 125, 126

Wednesday [290]: 127, 128, 129, 130, 131

Thursday [295]: 132, 135- 1 * *35-H i3& 1 37

Friday [301]: 138.1, 138.11, 139, 140, 141

Saturday [307]: 143.1, i43-"> 144- 1 * i44- n 144* 11 *

It should be noticed that the numbering o the Psalms in the Latin version of
the Bible (the so-called Vulgata, Vulgate) differs from that of the English King
James version, since in a few cases two successive Psalms of one version appear
as one Psalm in the other. The concordances are as follows: Lat. i to 8 = Engl.
i to 8; Lat. 9 = Engl. 9, 10; Lat. 10 to 112 = Engl. 11 to 113; Lat. 113 = Engl. 114,
115; Lat. 114, 115 = Engl. 116; Lat. 116 to 145 = Engl. 117 to 146; Lat. 146,
147 = Engl. 147; Lat. 148 to 150 = Engl. 148 to 150.

On certain high feasts the above plan is slightly varied through the
partial substitution of other Psalms, a fact already mentioned in our dis-
cussion of the Ordinary and Proper (p. 18). Invariably, however, the sub-
stitutions are made in such a manner that the ascending order of numbers
is preserved.

At Matins, Ps. i to 108 were originally distributed over the week accord-
ing to a plan similar to that for Vespers. On high feasts, however, the
scheme underwent rather considerable variations, as appears from the fol-
lowing table based on the Psalms of Matins given in L:

NOCTURN I NOCTURN II NOCTURN III

Nativity [371]: 2,18,44 47>?i>84 88,95,97

Maundy Thursday [622]: 68,69,70 71, 72,73 74, 75, 76

Good Friday [666]: 2,21,26 37*39*53 58,87,93

Holy Saturday [713]: 4, 14, 15 23, 26, 29 53, 75, 87

Easter Sunday [77*] i* 2 3

1 Whit Sunday [868]: 47, 67, 103

Corpus Christi [923]: i, 4, 15 19, 22, 41 42, 80, 83

Office for the Dead [1782]: 5,6,7 22,24,26 39,40,41

The original plan of successive numerical order is most fully preserved
on Maundy Thursday. The principle of ascending numbers is never vio-
lated.

A special place is reserved in the service of Matins for Ps. 94, Venite,
exsultemus Domino, which is sung, as an Ordinary chant, at the very begin-
ning of every Matins. Inviting to worship with the words, "O come, let us
sing unto the Lord," it deserves this place as well as the name Invitatory
Psalm.

In the foregoing explanations we have considered the singing of com-
plete Psalms in the Office Hours. In the Mass, this ancient method survives

The Texts 89

only in the Tracts, all the other psalmodic chants having undergone drastic
reductions, which will be considered subsequently (p. 180). As a matter of
fact, this tendency toward reduction has also affected the Tracts, though
not to such an extent as to obliterate their original character. Each Tract
consists of a number of verses, all taken from a single Psalm. Among the
most complete Tracts are Qui habitat, which omits only y. 8-10 of Ps. 90;
Eripe me, which omits y. 1 1-13 of Ps. 139; and Deus Deus meus, which has
twelve out of the thirty-four verses of Ps. 21.* Many Tracts, however, have
retained only three or four verses, some only two. A few Tracts are derived
from Canticles, namely, Cantemus Domino (Canticle of Moses), Domine
audivi (Canticle of Habacuc), and Nunc dimittis (Canticle of Simeon), the
first two much shortened and with altered versions, the last one complete
and with the original text. In addition to the Nunc dimittis, several other
Tracts, all of a later date (twelfth, thirteenth centuries, modern), use texts
from the New Testament (Ave Maria, Luke i; Tu es Petrus, Matthew 16),
while non-scriptural texts also occur, as in Gaude Maria and Tu es vas.

PSALM VERSES

The use of a single psalm verse as text for a chant is of very frequent
occurrence, particularly in the oldest layer of the Mass chants, that is, in
the Introits, Graduals, Alleluias, Offertories, and Communions of the de
tempore. Especially informative in this respect are the Graduals. Each of
these consists of two sections, the respond and the verse. The very name for
the latter suggests that it is a psalm verse, which indeed it is. However, the
text for the respond also is nearly always a psalm verse, and if so, both
respond and verse are taken from the same Psalm. 1 Only a few Graduals
of the old, Gregorian repertory are non-psalmodic, the reason being that
for certain feasts of a very distinct nature a particularly suitable text was
found in other parts of Scripture. Thus, in the Mass of Christmas Eve
the respond of the Gradual has a text, Hodie scietis [360], modelled after
Exodus 16:6-7, which provides a most appropriate commentary for the day
preceding the anniversary of Christ's birth: "This day you shall know that
the Lord will come and save us: and in the morning you shall see his
glory." Similarly, for the Mass of Epiphany, commemorating the arrival of

* It should be noticed that the indication of "Verses" in the Tracts, as given in the
liturgical books, is somewhat misleading. Properly, the ^. should appear also at the very
beginning of the text, since this is a verse of the Psalm (often the first) like all the others.
Briefly, each Tract has one more verse than the number suggested by the signs ^.

1 A rare exception is the Gradual Tollite hostias [G 162], with the respond taken from
Ps. 95, the verse, Revelavit Dominus, from Ps. 28. For all the questions concerning the
texts of the chants, whether from the Psalms or other parts of Scripture, C. Marbach's
Carmina Scriptwrarum is an indispensable tool. Also useful is the table of contents, given
in Wagner I, $80, of the Codex St. Gall 55^ where the textual source is indicated for each
chant.

90 GREGORIAN CHANT

the gift-bearing kings, no more suitable text could be imagined than the
one from Isaiah 60:6: "All they from Saba shall come, bringing gold and
frankincense, and showing forth praise to the Lord."

In the Introits the selection of texts is guided by the same principles.
These chants also consist of two sections (disregarding the addition of the
Gloria Patri; see p. 228), the antiphon and the verse. In the old Introits,
the latter invariably is a psalm verse, and a great majority of the antiphons
are also psalmodic. If so, they are, without exception, taken from the same
Psalm as the verse. Non-psalmodic texts for the antiphons occur in about
one-third of the Masses (thirty out of eighty-six found in the Proper of the
Time as given in L). The percentage of non-psalmodic texts is somewhat
less in the Alleluias and Offertories (about one to five), and only in the
Communions is the majority of the texts non-psalmodic. This reversal of
preponderance is mainly due to the tendency to take the text for the Com-
munion from one of the Lessons prescribed for the Mass, particularly from
that of the Gospels. Thus, the text for the Communion of Holy Innocents,
Vox in Rama [430], forms part of the reading from Matthew on the same
day [429], and that for Whit Sunday, Factus est repente [88s], occurs near
the beginning of the reading from the Acts of the Apostles in the same
Mass [879].

In the manuscripts of the tenth and eleventh centuries the Offertories
which today consist of only one section, the antiphon (or respond; see p.
363) have a number of verses, two or sometimes three, added to the anti-
phon. Without exception, these verses are taken from the same source
(mostly a Psalm) as the antiphon. Therefore, these Offertories represent
the Psalms in about the same stage of reduction as do the Tracts with three
or four verses.

For more complete illustration, the table at the top of p. 91 gives the
textual sources for the chants of a number of Masses from the Proper of
the Time. Plain figures signify Psalms, while other books of Scripture are
expressly indicated.

A perusal of this table shows that on not a few occasions two or more
chants of a Mass draw upon the same Psalm (sometimes even the same
verse) for their text, examples in point being found in Advent I, Ember
Saturday of Advent, the three Masses of Nativity, etc. The most striking
example of a textually unified Mass is that of the First Sunday of Lent,
based entirely on Ps. 90. This, however, is a unique case. Usually no more
than two or three chants are based on the same Psalm, and even these cases
occur in a minority of perhaps no more than ten per cent, if the entire
cycle of Masses is considered.

Even more interesting than the examples of "horizontal" unification are
some instances of seriation which appear if the Masses are considered
"vertically," from one to the next. The most striking of these concerns the
Communions of the weekdays of Lent. As has been explained previously

The Texts

INTROIT GRADUAL

ALLEL.

OFF.

GOMM.

ANT. V.

RESP. V.

24 24

Isa. 30 79

49 49

121

Bar. 5

Phil. 4 95

79 79

Isa. 35

79 79

18 18

(Tr.*) 79

Zach. 9

18 18

79 .79

79 79

Isa. 45 18

144 H4

105

Lukei

Isa. 7

Exod. 16 23

Exod. 16 79

Esdras IV

Isa. 40

2 2

109 109

109

Isa. 9 92

117 117

Zach. 9

Isa. 9 97

97 97

118 118

Acts 7

Acts 6

Acts 7

Eccles. 15 91

John 21 21

John 21

Apoc.4 99

71 71

Luke 2

90 90

(Tr.) 90

24 24

(Tr.)24

118

Phil. 2 101

68 68

(Tr.) 101

101

138 138

117 117

I Cor. 5

Acts i 46

46; 67

Actsi

Wisd. i 67

103; 67

Acts 2

Advent I

Advent II

Advent III

Ember Sat. of Advent

Advent IV

Vigil of Nativity

Nativity, Mass i

Nativity, Mass 2

Nativity, Mass 3

St. Stephen

St. John

Sunday after Epiph.

First Sun. of Lent

Ember Wed. of Lent

Wednesday Holy Week

Easter Sunday

Ascension

Whit Sunday

* Tr. indicates Tract instead of Alleluia.

(pp. 631), the original series of twenty-six days had the texts of its
munions taken in numerical order from Psalms i to 26. In order to illus-
trate this once more, the first seven Communions, with translations, are
here reproduced. The verse indications are those of the King James version
of the Bible.

1. Ash Wednesday
[529; G 90]

2. Feria VI.

3. Feria II. p. Quad.

4. Feria III.

[G 102]

5. Feria IV.
[G 104]

6. Feria VI.
[G 106]

7. Sabbato
[Gin]

COMMUNION

Qui meditabitur

in lege
Servite Domino

in timore
Voce mea ad Domi-

num clamavi
Cum invocarem te,

exaudisti me
Intellige clamorem

meum
Erubescant et con-

turbentur omnes

inimici met
Domine Deus meus,

in te speravi

PSALM
Ps. 1:2. He that shall meditate

in the law
Ps. a: 11. Serve the Lord with

fear
Ps. 3:4. I cried unto the Lord

with my voice
Ps. 4:1. When I called upon

Thee Thou didst hear me
Ps. 5:2. Hearken to my cry

Ps. 6:10. Let all mine enemies
be ashamed and troubled

Ps. 7:10. Lord my God, in Thee
have I put my trust

Another case of "vertical organization" is presented by the Masses for
the Sundays after Pentecost, particularly the group of the first seventeen

93 GREGORIAN CHANT

Sundays up to the Ember Days of September. The basic principle exhibited
here is not the strictly numerical succession which we found in the Com-
munions of Lent, but an ascending numerical order, similar to what has
been observed in the organization of the Psalms for Matins of the high
feasts (see p. 88). This principle is most clearly evident in the Introits, the
first ten of which have texts taken from Ps. 12, 17, 24, 26, 26, 27, 46, 47, 53,
and 54. It also prevails in the Offertories and Communions in which, how-
ever, a few substitutions occur, from Daniel, Matthew, etc. As for the Al-
leluias, the great fluctuation that existed in this field must constantly be
borne in mind, as well as the fact that in some of the earliest sources they
occur as a separate group, without assignment to individual feasts. How-
ever, the tenth-century Codex St. Gall 339 contains at the end a group of
Alleluiae in Dominicis diebus per circulum anni consisting of twenty-six
Alleluias whose verses are once more taken from the Psalms in ascending
numerical order: Ps. 5, 7, 7, 17, 30, 46, 58, 64, 77, etc. 2 Essentially the same
arrangement occurs in most of the later sources and in the present-day
books, although with some modifications resulting from various shifts and
insertions that took place in the series of Sundays after Pentecost, so that
what formerly had been the Mass formulary of the Second Sunday became
that of the First, etc. 3 The only chants which stand completely outside this
plan are the Graduals, as appears from the fact that the series of Psalms
from which their texts are taken begins as follows: Ps. 40, 119, 54, 78, 83,
89, 33, 70, 8, etc. This series occurs as early as the eighth century, in the
Codex Monza, as well as in all the later sources. There is, however, one
exception, the Codex Rheinau (only slightly later than Monza), which has
an entirely different group of Graduals for the Sundays after Pentecost,
and this series shows the same organization according to ascending Psalm
numbers as do the other chants for these Sundays. There can be hardly
any doubt that this series is of a more recent date, resulting from an inten-
tion to make the Graduals conform to the other chants. 4 Although the
Rheinau series did not attain permanent significance, it is interesting
enough to justify inclusion in the subsequent table showing the first ten
Masses after Pentecost. 5

2 Reprinted in Wagner I, 298. Per circulum anni (for the cycle of the year) means
here, as elsewhere, the final part of the year, after Pentecost.

3 See the explanations, pp. 7of.

* Cf. Sextuplex, p. Ixxviii, where Hesbert points out that there is no reason why an
original series showing psalmodic order should have been "volonti&rement brouille 1 ,"
nor, if this was done, why the Graduals only had been thus treated. However, Chavasse
seems to consider the Rheinau series of Graduals as the old one (Revue Be'ne'dictinc,
LXII, 62). The Rheinau series appears also in the Code Mont-Blandin, together with the
normal series of Graduals; see Sextuplex, nos. 173-198.

Items no longer in use for that day are in italics. For the complete series of post-
Pentecost Masses, see Wagner 1, 296; Sextuplex pp. Ixxv, Ixxviii; JRG, XVII, 172 (Hesbert,
"La Messe Omnes gentes").

0) ev

5 2

.55 .S

. <O CO O

-* O* Ot 40

^ Q

0*
c*

00 -C 00

111!

^ I

i i

CO OO

J 3 .5

^* S *^V< -* <^

C O O Q

i 1 1 "1 1 1

=5 S

fc> >

3. S2S

oo oo

2J "S". 5T

-^i -^i

S
a

~ oi

<* >&

94 GREGORIANCHANT

The various instances of, shall we say, "psalm arithmetic/' whether
within one Mass (use of the same Psalm) or within a group of Masses (suc-
cessive or ascending order of Psalms), are not only interesting in them-
selves but also of importance for the study of the historical development
of the Mass repertory. They show beyond any doubt that the formation
of this repertory was the result, not of a single act, but of multiple processes
of one kind or another. Some of these processes had taken place before the
time of Gregory, whose book, as Peter Wagner has pointed out, fully de-
serves its early title, Antiphonarius cento. 9 Others occurred later, between
the seventh and tenth centuries. It is not impossible to separate these layers
and thus gain a certain insight into the historical development of the Mass.

As has been previously pointed out, the earliest components of the Mass
are the Lesson-chants, that is, the Graduals and the Tracts. We have just
seen that, in the group of Sundays after Pentecost, the Graduals are the
only chants that do not participate in the scheme of ascending psalm num-
bers. This statement is also true of the whole series of Graduals, which fol-
low each other in an irregular manner from the beginning to the end of
the liturgical year. As for the Tracts, the few that have survived in the
Proper of the Time are not sufficient to justify definite statements. Those
that remain show no evidence of numerical order, except perhaps the five
Tracts for the Sundays of Lent and Passion Sunday, which are taken from
Psalms 90, 116, 122, 124, and 128. As for "horizontal" agreement between
Gradual and Tract, our table on p. 91 shows three instances: Ember Satur-
day of Advent (Ps. 79), the First Sunday of Lent (Ps. 90), and Ember
Wednesday of Lent (Ps. 24).

When the other Mass chants, Introits, Alleluias, Offertories, and Com-
munions, were introduced, their Psalms or psalm verses were selected to a
certain extent in accordance with that of the Gradual of the same day.
The result of this procedure is evident in a few Masses: e.g., that for the
First Sunday of Advent (Introit, Offertory); for Ember Saturday of Advent
(Introit, Communion; also Tract); for Nativity, Mass i (Communion) and
Mass 3 (Introit verse, Communion); for the Feast of St. Stephen (Introit),
and for that of St. John (Alleluia, Communion); for the First Sunday of
Lent (all items); and for Ember Wednesday of Lent (Introit; also Tract).
In Wednesday of Holy Week it seems to have been the Tract, from Ps. 101,
which influenced the selection of the Introit verse as well as of the Offertory
and the Communion. Possibly the same situation existed in other Masses
in which it is no longer evident because of the replacement of the Tract by
an Alleluia. In some cases the Tract may have been replaced by an Alleluia
taken from the same Psalm; this surmise would explain the agreement that
exists between the Alleluia and some other chants in Mass 2 of the Nativity
and that for the First Sunday after Epiphany.

Yet another step in the formation of the Mass formularies was the assimi-

See List of Data, p. 42, no. 51.

The Texts 95

lation o some of the Communions to the texts of one of the Lessons,
particularly those from the Gospels (p. go).

Finally, there are the two vertical series which obviously represent
separate layers in the formation of the Mass formularies; that of the week-
days of Lent and that of the Sundays after Pentecost. The weekdays of Lent
are a very old component of the liturgical year, and there is no doubt that
the series of the Communions for these days was introduced before Gregory.
As for the Sundays after Pentecost, a plausible assumption would be that
the original Graduals are Gregorian and that the other chants were intro-
duced after Gregory.

NON-PSALMODIC TEXTS

The foregoing considerations have shown that, aside from a negligible
number of exceptions, the texts of the Mass chants are psalmodic. In a
striking contrast to this are the Office chants, the great majority of which
are non-psalmodic and even non-scriptural. One can hardly go wrong in
interpreting this as a deliberate effort to provide a certain balance against
the Psalms, which comprise the major part of the Offices.

The chants to be considered in this context are the Antiphons of the
Psalms, the Responsories of Matins, and the Hymns. The Hymns are, of
course, strictly poetic texts of a character entirely different from that of all
other chants. A brief description will be given later (see pp. 423*1).
As for the Responsories, they constitute a literature "the critical study of
which has yet to be undertaken." 1 It is unfortunate that this statement,
made in 1898, is still valid today, so that we have to confine ourselves to a
few random remarks which do not give a complete and probably not an
entirely correct picture. Very few Responsories are psalmodic. Many take
their texts from the historical books of the Old Testament, such as
Genesis, Kings, Esther, etc. Thus, a Responsory for Septuagesima Sunday
[LR 398] begins with the first sentence of Scripture: In principio creavit
Deus caelum et terrain (Gen. 1:1) and continues with a later verse describ-
ing the creation of man: et fecit in ea hominem ad imaginem et similitu-
dinem suam (Gen. 1:36); while the verse, Formavit igiturDeus hominem de
limo terrae, et inspiravit in faciem eius spiraculum vitae, is taken from
Gen. 2:7.2 Other Responsories of the same type are Locutus estDominus
ad Abram (Gen. 12:1) for Friday and Saturday after Ash Wednesday
[LR 402]; Dixit Dominus ad Noe (Gen. 6:13, 14) for Sexagesima Sunday
[LR 399]; and the first three Responsories from the Feast of St. Joseph
(Spouse of the Virgin) [LR 305*1] which are taken from the story of Joseph:

1 P. Batiffol, History of the Roman Breviary (1898), p. 106. See, however, the remarks
in Marbach's Carmina Scripturarum, pp. 75*ff.

2 In the Antiphonal of Compiegne this is the first Responsory of Sexagesima Sunday,
and is followed by eleven others based on the story of the Creation of Man, Adam, Eve,
Abel, and Cain. See Patr. lat. 78, pp. 748f.

96 GREGORIAN CHANT

Fuit Dominus cum Joseph (Gen. 39:21), Esuriente terra Aegypti (Gen.
42:56), and Fecit me Dominus quasi patrem regis (Gen. 45:6, 7). Such
"historical" Responsories were used particularly for the Sundays after
Pentecost and were actually called Historiae. The Antiphonal of
Compi&gne includes, at the end, a number of Responsories for post-Pente-
cost Sundays, grouped together under such titles as Responsoria de libro
regum (from the Book of Kings), Responsoria de beato Job, de Tobia,
de Judith, etc.*

A number of Responsories belong to ecclesiastical literature of the fourth
and fifth centuries and are of great interest as such. Written in an ecstatic
language of great beauty, they often provide vividly impressive commen-
taries on a liturgical event, for instance, the Nativity:

Hodie nobis caelorum [375]: Today the King of Heaven has deigned to be
born unto us, so that He may redeem the lost man into the heavenly
kingdom. The host of angels rejoices, for the eternal salvation has ap-
peared to mankind, y. Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace
to men of good will.

Hodie nobis de caelo [376]: Today the true peace has descended from the
heavens, today the heavens have been made flowing with honey through-
out the world, y. Today there shines for us the day of new redemption,
of old reparation, of eternal felicity,

Quern vidistis [377]: Whom have you seen, oh shepherds? Tell us, announce
unto us, who has appeared on earth? We have seen the Lord who has
been born, and the choirs of angels praising Him. y. Tell us what you
have seen, and announce unto us the birth of Christ.

As for the Antiphons, the general aspects of their textual sources are well
known, owing mainly to the investigations of Gevaert who has used the
textual categories as a basis for a chronological classification of the melo-
dies. 4 A small number of Antiphons borrow their text from the Psalm with
which they are, or originally were, connected. Following are some examples
(full verses are indicated by numbers, i, 2, etc.; la indicates the first, ib the
second half of the verse):

Tamquam sponsus [372] Ps. 18, y. 5b [372]

Veritas de terra [380] 84, y. 12 [381]

Laetentur caeli [387] 95, from y. 1 1, 12 [388]

Notum fecit Dominus [388] 97, y. 3a [388]

Tecum principium [412] 109, y. 4 [128]

Redemptionem misit [412] 1 10, y. 8 [134]

Exortum est [412] 1 1 1, y. 4 [141]

Apud Dominum [412] 129, y. 7 [179]

De fructu ventris [412] 131, y. i ib [179]

3 Patr. lat. 78, pp. 832*?.

4 La M6lop6e antique dans le chant de I'dglise latine (1895), pp. i6off.

The Texts 97

These examples illustrate a practice which, no doubt, is very ancient
and which, at an early time, may have been almost universal. However, it
survived in only a few instances, such as the Nativity, from which all the
above examples are taken. 5 The great majority of Antiphons, according
to Gevaert more than three-fourths of the total, borrow their texts from
other parts of the Scriptures, mainly the Prophecies, the Histories, and
the Gospels. In the Prophetic Antiphons the scriptural text is often con-
densed, modified, or amplified; as, for instance, in Urbs fortitudinis [332],
which combines portions of Isaiah 26:1, 2 (Sion is the city of our strength,
the Savior will be appointed in it as a wall and bulwark: open ye the
gates) with a free "refrain/' quia nobiscum Deus (for the Lord is with us).
For the purpose of additional illustration it may suffice to mention the
five Antiphons for Vespers of the First Sunday of Advent [32 gf], the first
four of which are taken respectively from Joel 3:18, Zechariah 9:9,
Zechariah 14:5, 7 (condensed), and Isaiah 55: i, while the last, Ecce veniet,
seems to be a new text. As for the Gospels, they are drawn upon par-
ticularly for the Antiphons of the Magnificat. Thus, the first three Sundays
of Advent have the following Magnificat Antiphons:

Ne timeas Maria [326]: Luke i:3ob, 3ia

Tu es qui venturus [333]: Matthew 11:3-5 (condensed)

Beata es Maria [339]: Luke 1:45

Finally a word about strictly poetic texts. These are, of course, omni-
present in the hymns, but otherwise so rare that they are noteworthy only
as curiosities. Among these is the verse of the Gradual Benedicta et venera-
bilis [1264], a distich:

Vtrgd Del Ggnitrix, qulm totus non cdptt drbtis
In tud $e clduslt viscera fdctus hdmo.

The same Mass, for the Feasts of the Virgin Mary, has an Introit with a
hexametric text, from the Carmen paschale of Sedulius:

SdlvS sdnctd Pdrens, entxd p&erperd Reggm
qui cdelum terramqug t$net per sdeculd cuius.*

While these are probably the only poetic texts of the Mass, a few more
occur in the Office, among the Antiphons and Responsories. It will suffice
to mention two Magnificat Antiphons, Hie vir despiciens [1199], a distich,
and Cum pervenisset [1308], which contains the rhymed stanza:

6 The same practice exists in the Vesper Psalms of Sunday, where the Psalms 109 to 113
are sung with the Antiphons Dixit Dominus (Ps. 109, -ft. i), Magna opera (Ps. no, -f. a),
Qui timet (Ps. 111, "ft. i), Sit nomen (Ps. 113, f. 2), and Deus autem (Ps. 113, ^. n).

6 The conclusion of the second line is modified to: regi t in saecula saeculorum.

GREGORIAN CHCANT

O bona crux, diu desiderata
et jam concupiscenti artimo praeparata:
securus et gaudens venio ad te:
ita et tu exsultans suscipias me*
discipulum ejus qui pependit in teJ
For a Responsory with a poetic text, see p. 240.

CHAPTER TWO

The Notation

;HE traditional notation of Gregorian chant employs a number
of symbols called neumes. This name is derived from the Greek
word neuma which means something like "a nod" or "a sign," a term that
probably refers to the fact that originally these symbols were written
representations of manual signs by which the up-and-down motion of the
melody was indicated. In fact, the main difference between the neumatic
notation and that of the present day is the employment, in the former, not
so much of signs for single pitches as for groups of two, three, or more
pitches in various combinations of upward and downward motion.

Another difference is that the neumes have a primarily melodic signifi-
cance and lack the indication of rhythmic values which, in the modern
system, is as basic as that of pitch. This does not necessarily mean that
different note-values were non-existent in Gregorian chant; rather that
they are not clearly and explicitly indicated in the notation, as is amply
demonstrated by the fact that to the present day the problem of "Gregorian
rhythm" remains disputed [see pp. isGff]. In the following discussion the
neumes will be considered exclusively as symbols of melodic motion.

All the hundreds of manuscripts of Gregorian chant, dating from the
ninth to the thirteenth century or later, and written in France, Italy,
Germany or other countries, are notated in neumes. This wide dissemina-
tion in time and space naturally entailed numerous modifications of the
basic system. In the various localities where chant was cultivated we en-
counter notations showing strongly individual traits, and each of these
was also subject to temporal changes. Some of the differences are differ-
ences of penmanship only, but there are also others of an essential nature.
This opens up a wide and highly interesting field of investigation, a field
that has been explored in great detail by a number of scholars. 1 Naturally,
no attempt at a study even approximating completeness can be undertaken
here. We shall begin with an explanation of what may be called the

i The basic books are P. Wagner's Neumenkunde (Wagner II; 2nd ed., 1912) and G.
Sufiol, Introduction a la paUographie musicale grdgorienne (1935).

100 GREGORIAN CHANT

standard system of neumatic notation, that is, the system which is em-
ployed in the present-day books and which is essentially identical with
one that evolved in France during the twelfth century. To this we shall
add a survey of the earliest development as it manifests itself in the manu-
scripts from the ninth through the twelfth centuries, and shall close with
a brief discussion of the problem of rhythm in Gregorian chant

THE STANDARD NOTATION

The neumatic signs can be divided into three groups: the basic neumes,
the liquescent neumes, and the repercussive neumes.

THE BASIC NEUMES

The following table shows the symbols of this group, arranged accord-
ing to the number of notes they contain. 2

FIGURE 5
One note: punctum

virga 1

Two notes: podatus (pes) 3F

clivis (flexa) 4t

Three notes: scandicus

climacus

torculus (pes flexus)

porrectus (flexa resupina)
Four notes: scandicus flexus

porrectus flexus

climacus resupinus

torculus resupinus

pes subbipunctis

virga subtripunctis
virga praetripunctis

REMARKS:

a. Strictly speaking (that is, from the arithmetical point of view) there
should be only one sign in the one-note category, as against two in the
two-note, four in the three-note, eight in the four-note, sixteen in tike five-
note group, etc. However, even the earliest manuscripts employ two signs
for single notes, one in the form of a slanting or vertical stroke (virga, i.e.,

2 The rudiments of the neumatic notation, staff, clefs, etc., are explained in L xviiff.

The Notation 101

rod, line), the other in the shape of a short horizontal dash or of a point
(punctum), and it is from these that the two signs of our table developed.
Originally the virga served to indicate a tone of high pitch or one reached
in ascending motion; the punctum, a tone of low pitch or one reached in
descending motion. Such a distinction was useful and necessary at a time
when the neumes were not yet clearly notated on a staff. When this was
introduced, the distinction lost its significance and, as a result, the virga
tended to disappear. The process of its gradual elimination may be illus-
trated by an example, the Antiphon Assumpta est Maria [1606]. In a Ms
of the early eleventh century (Paris, Bibl. Nat. Cod. lat. 12601; see Wagner
II, 187) this Antiphon has virga signs on all the single notes of higher
pitch:

./ ////. //. ../.

Assumpta est Maria in caelum .... angeli .... benedicunt.

In a codex from the early twelfth century (Paris, B. N. lat. 12044) only
two of these virgae are left, the one on "cae(lum)" and that on "(bene)di-
(cunt)," while in the Liber usualis they are all replaced by the punctum.
In the modern books the virga is found very rarely, and without a distinc-
tive significance. It never occurs singly, but only within a melisma, as in
the Kyrie XI [46; last "Kyrie"] or, more often, at its beginning: e.g., in the
Tract Ecce sic [1290; on "(Ec)ce"], the Gradual Laudate [1275; on "(cae)-
lis," "(excel)sis"], or the Alleluia Dulce lignum [1456; initial melisma].
Only in two of these instances does it represent a higher note.

b. The podatus (pes) has two squares written vertically one above the
other. These are invariably to be read in an ascending direction, beginning
with the lower note.

c. In the porrectus the first two tones are indicated, not by separate
squares, but by a slanting stroke starting and ending at the pitches to be
represented. This form is a mere convenience of writing, and should not
be interpreted as involving any sort of glissando.

d. The designation of the torculus as pes flexus shows that this three-
note neume was considered as a sort of combination of the pes and the
ftexa or, more proper, as a pes followed by a (downward) inflection. Simi-
larly, the porrectus is a ftexa resupina, that is, a ftexa followed by an up-
ward motion. The same terminology is used for the building-up of neumes
with four notes, such as the scandicus ftexus and the torculus resupinus.
It can also be used for the formation of neumes with five notes. Thus, in
the Gradual Benedictus es Domine [910] the first neume on "(Cheru)bim"
is a torculus resupinus flexus.

e. Another method of building up complex neumes is indicated by the
affixes subbipunctis and subtripunctis, terms which signify the addition,
to a simple neume, of two or three notes in descending motion. These

102 GREGORIAN CHANT

invariably appear in the form of lozenges, as in the climacus. Such descend-
ing formations, usually in scalar succession, are extremely frequent in the
Gregorian melodies, as a glance at almost any page of the Liber usualis
shows. In fact, the addition of sub*puncti is the most common way of
building up many-note neumes. Neumes with four sub-puncti are by no
means rare (e.g,, the porrectus subquadripunctis in the Alleluia Loquebar
[1369], or the podatus subquadripunctis in the Alleluia Non vos relinquam
[856]), and occasionally one finds examples of five sub-puncta, e.g., in the
Alleluia Levita [1595] and in the Alleluia Stabat sancta Maria [1633^. As
will be seen later (p. 389), it is no mere chance that all these examples
were quoted from Alleluias.

f. In striking contrast to the frequency of fairly extended groups of
descending notes, ascending motion within a neume is usually limited to
three degrees, as in the scandicus and the scandicus flexus. The virga
praetripunctis, which consists of four ascending notes,' is rather rare and,
in fact, is not included among the neumes explained in L, although it
occurs, without a special name, in the table of neumes found on p. x of G.
Examples occur in the Antiphon O sacrum convivium [959, "me(moria)"]
and in the Alleluia Manum suam [1695, "pal(ma)" and "su(as)"]; these
are always written in the form of two closely joined podatus rather than
of a virga preceded by three puncta. More frequent is a modification of
this neume in which one of the two inner notes is replaced by a quilisma,
an ornamenting sign to be explained later (pp. H3ff). See, e.g., the
Introit In nomine Domini [612] on "id(eo)"; the Responsory Angelus
Domini [774] on "(No)li(te)"; the Offertory Holocaustum [974] on "ca-
(pite)" etc. The Alleluia Tota pulchra [1318] has, in the opening section,
several examples of what would have to be termed a virga praetripunctis
subbipunctis, as well as a virga praequadripunctis.

g. Among the eight possible combinations in the four-note group there
is one, high-low-high-high, which never seems to have received a status of
recognition and a name. It could be called porrectus resupinus. It is, in
fact, extremely rare, and the few examples to be found in the Liber usualis
(Tract Qui confidunt [561], on "(Jeru)sa(lem)" and "hoc"; Alleluia Ex-
sultate Deo [1026], middle of the first line) all involve the quilisma modi-
fication. It will be noticed that this form closes with three ascending notes,
and its scarcity (which is particularly striking if compared with the fre-
quent occurrence of its inverted counterpart, the pes subbipunctis) is, no
doubt, caused by the same disinclination for ascending motion which re-
sults in the virga praetripunctis being so much less frequent than the virga
subtripunctis.

A special case of some importance is the succession of two neumes joined
by a common pitch, e.g., of two clivis such as a-g g-e, or a podatus and clivis

The Notation 103

f-a a-g, or a punctum and podatus f f-a, etc. Such neumes (more correctly,
combinations of two neumes) are known as pressus neumes. They are in-
teresting mainly because they have been the subject of rather heated con-
troversies among modern Gregorianists. The question involved may be
illustrated by Fig. 6, showing three possible methods of performance:

FIGURE 6

The first of these possibilities (a) would seem to represent the "natural"
method of performance, but this rarely enters into the discussion, it usually
being assumed that the common pitch is held over from the first to the
second neume. 8 The real issue is one of accentuation, that is, whether the
accent should fall on the first note of the group (b) or on the joining note
(c). The former interpretation was advanced by Pothier, whose general
view was that in every neume a slight emphasis should be placed on the
first note. Consequently, he explained the pressus neumes as an excep-
tional suppression of the normal accent, in other words, as a syncopation. 4
This view was strongly opposed by Mocquereau who, as we shall see later
[p. 127], introduced a new theory of rhythm and accent in Gregorian chant,
and stated that "the effect of syncopation is foreign to the Gregorian art." 5
Consequently, the Liber usualis (p. xxv) says that the accent (icttis) should
fall on the doubled note. Gastou6 and Wagner more or less adopt Moc-
quereau's view which, however, was vehemently attacked in a more recent
publication by Juget. 6 We cannot help feeling that the whole controversy
is, historically speaking, without point, since the two opposing camps take
it for granted that the common pitch is to be performed as a sustained
note, an assumption which can hardly be proved. At any rate, controversies
about such fine details are somewhat in the nature of "much ado about
nothing," particularly if we realize that we are ignorant about so many
problems of infinitely greater importance concerning the performance of
Gregorian chant.

3 Cf . Mocquereau, "fitude et execution de 1'Apostrophe pressus . . ." (Ross. Greg., VI,
199), an attempt to prove the correctness of this assumption, by citing examples where
a pressus of one manuscript is represented in another manuscript as a single pitch or
marked by the sign cd, i.e., conjunctim. See, however, the exceptions mentioned on
pp. 2195.

4 Pothier, Les Melodies gregoriennes (1881), p. 46: "un effet analogue a celui de la
syncope en musique."

5 Le Nombre musical grdgorien (2 vols., 1908, 1927), I, 128.

Gastoue*, Cows thtorique et pratique de chant grdgorien (1917), p. 18 (exceptions,
p. 19); Wagner, Elemente des gregorianischen Gesanges (2nd edition, 1916), p. 49; Juget,
Des Signes rythmtques de Dora Mocquereau et de leur malfaisance (1931), pp. 6ff.

104 GREGORIAN CHANT

THE LIQUESCENT NEUMES

This is a group consisting not so much of new symbols as of variants of
the basic neumes, characterized by the use of a smaller head for the last
note. Some of these modified symbols received individual names, as fol-
lows:

FIGURE 7

epiphonus (liquescent podatus) T
cephalicus (liquescent flexa) -$

ancus (liquescent climacus)'? -fo
pinnosa (liquescent torculus) ~f-
porrectus liquescens
scandicus liquescens

The liquescent neumes are also called semivocales, and both terms sug-
gest that a special kind of voice production is involved, with the last note
sung in a "fluid" or "half-voiced" manner, somewhat like a grace note that
is only lightly touched upon. Their nature appears clearly from the fact
that they are used almost exclusively when the text presents certain special
phonetic conditions: either two successive consonants as in angelus, inferni,
ubertas, mundi, hosanna, tollis, or two vowels forming a diphthong, as in
autem, euge, also alleluia. Obviously the liquescent neumes were designed
to facilitate the correct pronunciation of such words. In the case of two
successive consonants this may have been done by the insertion of a mute e
(half-vowel, semivocalis), e.g., an(e)gelus, in(e)fer(e)ni> which received the
liquescent note. In the case of a diphthong the phonetic process obviously
involves a separation of the diphthong into its component vowels, the sec-
ond of which was pronounced weak: a-u instead of au, or e-u instead of eu.
This, of course, is the correct Latin pronunciation [see L xxxvii]. It is in-
teresting to notice that the liquescent neumes in a way form an exception
to (or, at least, a borderline case of) the basic principle that a neume can
never fall on more than one syllable. Actually, what appears in writing as
a single syllable with a neume, is separated into two syllables, the second
of which receives the last, liquescent note of the neume. 8

7 In the table of the Liber usualis (p. xxii) the ancus as well as the liquescent porrectus
are represented by the normal, non-liquescent forms. The correct form of the liquescent
porrectus occurs on the first line of p. 961, while that of the ancus seems not to have
been used.

8 Guido of Arezzo gives the following description: Liquescunt vero in multis voces
more litterarum, ita ut inceptus modus unius ad alteram limpide transiens, nee finiri
videatur (Often [the neumes] are made liquescent according to the letters [of the text],
so that there seems to be a limpid transition from one pitch to another, withgut a finish);
see Pothier, "La note liquescente d'apres Guy d' Arezzo" (RCG, IX, 3).

The Notation 105

Examples of liquescent neumes occur on almost any page of the Liber,
e.g., in Benedictus es Domine [3482] many times on "la-udabilis" as well
as on "patrum(e) nostrorum," "tem(e)plo/' "sanctum(e) reg(e)ni," "in-
tuen(e)s," "om(e)nes," etc. It is not always used if one or both of the two
consonants is a sharp labial (especially t), as in benedictus, patrum, sanc-
tum, nostrorum, because these combinations present no difficulty of pro-
nunciation. 9 Finally it may be noticed that, while a liquescent neume nearly
always occurs in connection with the above-described phonetic peculiarity,
the reverse statement is not universally correct. First of all, there are numer-
ous cases in which a syllable of the type under consideration has a single
note (not a two- or three-note neume) which, of course is not capable of
liquescence. Thus, liquescence hardly exists in chants which are strictly or
prevailingly syllabic, such as simple Antiphons, Hymns, the melodies for
the Credo, etc. In the hymns the very fact that they are strophic chants
militates against the consistent use of liquescence even when a syllable is
sung to a podatus or clivis. However, the more elaborate chants also show
not a few instances of inattention to liquescence. It will suffice to mention
the Antiphon and the Introit Dum medium silentium, both for the Sun-
day after Christmas [433]; the Antiphon opens with a liquescent neume
("Dum(e) medium"), the Introit, with a normal podatus.

Particularly instructive for a study of the liquescent neumes are the
cases in which one and the same melody is used for several chants with
different texts. Such a situation exists in the verses of the Introits of a
given mode which, as will be seen later (p. 228), are all sung to the same
melody. The following table shows the beginning of the second half of the
melody for the third mode, with different texts. Those in the left column
employ the normal neumes, clivis and podatus, while in the others the
clivis is replaced by its liquescent variant, the cephalicus, in accordance
with the phonetic peculiarity offered by the words.

FIGURES

6ft ft ft

f& .. ..

A. i

(

901:
1239:

893:

1020:

ct om-ni-t
<jui am-bu-lant

et(e)fti-gi-unt
in(e)- ten-dc

'1478:

his qui

1292:

coD(c)-fi-teancur

1481:

pa-tre

1332:

U-u-da-ce

1683:

S ui.a

1594:

can(e)-u - te

1709:

et ju-sd-ri-am

1608:

in(e) man-da-tl

A more extended table, from the Introits of Mode IV, is given in Wagner H, 28.

Attention may be called to an interesting study by H. Freistedt, Die
liqueszierenden Noten des Gregorianischen Chorals (1929), in which the
customary explanation of the liquescent neumes, as outlined above, is re-
jected. Freistedt points out that the term semivocalis as employed by the

9 See the detailed study in Pal. mus. f II, $7ff.

106 GREGORIAN CHANT

Latin grammarians denotes, not a "half-vowel," but a certain group of
consonants, namely, those that can be sustained in pronunciation, as /, I, m,
n, r, and s (voiced consonants). Accordingly, he maintains that in a word
like angelus the liquescent note falls, not on an inserted (e), but on the
consonant n which is slightly sustained. This theory provides an explana-
tion for the fact that in not a few cases a liquescent neume occurs in the
early manuscripts in connection with a single consonant, e.g. in dom-inus
or tim-ore. It also provides a more sensible explanation for the numerous
cases involving a doubled consonant, e.g., summo, which according to
the customary explanation would require the rather awkward rendition
sum(e)mo. However, Freistedt fails to give a satisfactory explanation for
the frequent occurrence of liquescence in connection with explosive (voice-
less) consonants like t and d, which, of course, cannot be sustained.

THE REPERCUSSIVE NEUMES

Normally, a neume is a syinbol for melodic motion, that is, progression
from one pitch to another. There are, however, a few neumes involving
the immediate repeat of a pitch, an effect known as repercussion. The most
important of these are the bistropha (distropha) and tristropha, represented
in the modern books by two or three puncta written close together and
placed on one syllable. In the early St. Gall manuscripts, however, they
appear not as two or three puncta but as two or three little hooks some-
what in the shape of an apostrophe: " or '". In a few recent publications,
particularly the Ambrosian Gradual (Antiphonale Missarum juxta ritum
Sanctae Ecclesiae Mediolanensis, 1935) and the Antiphonale monasticum
(1934), the early form has been restored by the introduction of a special
form for these neumes, a method that is, no doubt, preferable to that of the
standard publications. Fig. 9 shows the various forms of the bistropha and
tristropha, together with a few other neumes of the strophicus-tamily.

FIGURE 9

St.GallMss. Standard Special

i. bistropha (distropha) D * **

8. tristropha }})

3. ?? ,W ,W

4. flexa strophica /))

5. torculus strophicus rf)

6. bivirga }} ^

REMARKS:

a. Examples of the bistropha and tristropha can be found in practically
every Gradual. Occasionally several of these neumes occur in immediate

The Notation 107

succession, resulting in a six- or seven-fold repercussion on the same pitch,
as in the phrase Ei of Fig. 106 (p. 354). This is a standard formula em-
ployed for the close of many Graduals of the third mode, e.g., Exsurge
autem [604], Salvos fac [447; also end of the respond], Eripe me [570; end
of the respond], Benedidte [1654], etc. Another repercussion of seven notes
occurs at the beginning of the Offertory Reges Tharsis [461], and one of
nine notes in the Gradual Quemadmodum [1478] on "(sui)vit."

b. The neumes given under no. 3, although not infrequent in certain
chants (see, e.g., the Offertory Exaltabo [528] and the Tract Qui habitat
[533 lines 2 and 4]) do not seem to have received an individual name. The
editors of the Liber usualis consider the form as a variant of the tristropha
(p. xxiii), while P. Wagner designates them respectively as apostropha with
bistropha and apostropha with tristropha.^ Apostropha is the name for
the single hook of the St. Gall notation, exactly like our apostrophe. All
the various strophici are derived from this sign which, however, hardly
ever occurs singly.

c. The neumes nos. 4 and 5 show the addition of the apostropha at the
end of some of the basic neumes, apparently only those that close in
descending motion. Such formations are also referred to as oriscus neumes.
Originally the sign of the oriscus was different from the apostropha and
probably had a somewhat different meaning (see p. 1 1 1). At an early time,
however, it disappeared and became identified with the apostropha.

d. The bivirga represents the high-pitch counterpart of the bistropha,
to which it stands in the same relation as the virga to the punctum. It occurs
very rarely in the old manuscripts as well as in the modern books. Examples
are found in the Responsories Jerusalem surge [718], Tenebrae [680,
"(excla)ma(vit)"], and Animam meam [681, "(adver)sa(rii)"], as well as in
the Alleluia Beatus vir Sanctus Martinus [1747, in the melisma].

There can be no question that in medieval practice these neumes were
performed as a real repercussion, that is, a fairly rapid reiteration of the
same pitch. On this point we have the express testimony of a ninth-century
writer, Aurelianus of R6om6, who tells us that the tristropha was sung as
a rapid pulsation like a vibration of the hand. 11 Thus, the bistropha and
tristropha, particularly if they occur in lengthy combinations as in the
example given in Fig. 10, represent a true vocal tremolo, comparable to

10 Wagner 11, 123. In Sunol's PaUographie, p. 5, the name distropha (tristropha)
praepunctts is used, which describes the neume very well.

11 Referring to the tristropha in the third introit tone, on "Sancto" and "semper"
[14] Aurelianus says: Sagax cantor, sagaciter intends ut . . . trinum, ad instar manus
reverberantis, facias celerem tctum (Wise singer, understand wisely that you should make
a quick pulsation, similar to the reverberation of the hand: G5, I, 57a). See C. Vivell,
"Les sons r<percut& dans le chant gr6gorien" (TG, XVIII, 43, 107); A. Mocquereau,
"Etude des strophicus" (Ross. Greg., VII, 96).

108 GREGORIAN CHANT

the violin tremolo. In modern singing this effect is never used, being
contemptuously referred to as "goat's trill" (in German, Bockstriller; in
French, chevrotement). It is not without interest, however, to notice that
it was generally employed, under the name of trillo, as one of the most
important ornamentations of the monodic style in the early part of the
seventeenth century. 12 In the Solesmes books with modern notation the
strophici are reproduced as shown in Fig. 10 under (a), and a note in the
preface of the Liber usualis (p. xxiii) says that the most perfect manner
of rendition would be a soft and delicate repercussion on each single note
(apostropha). In actual practice, as taught by the Solesmes school, the
reiterated pitches are combined into a single sound of double, triple,
quintuple, etc., duration, with a slight emphasis (ictus) on the first note
of each group, as shown under (b). Aside from the more or less complete
suppression of the repercussive effect, this manner of rendition results in
an undue prolongation of the sound. Aurelianus' reference to a "rapid
vibration of the hand" clearly shows that the historically correct per-
formance would be approximately as shown under (c).

FIGURE 10

There is reason to assume that at a certain period the tristropha involved
a lowering of pitch on the middle note (e.g., f-e-f), since in not a few cases
later manuscripts with diastematic notation reproduce it as a porrectus.
Similarly, the distropha is sometimes reproduced as a podatus (e.g., e-f).
Probably the interval involved was not exactly a full semitone, but smaller,
close to a quarter-tone, so that in diastematic notation the group could
with equal justification be represented as f-f-f (f-f) or f-e-f (e-f). 18

THE EARLY NEUMES

Various theories have been offered in explanation of the origin of the
neumes. The one generally accepted today interprets them as being derived
from the grammatical accents of Greek and Latin literature, the same ac-
cents that survive to the present day in the French language as accent aigu,
accent grave, and accent circonflexe. Originally these signs seem to have
indicated not so much accentuation (dynamic stress) as slight inflections
of the speaking voice. In fact, the very term accentus suggests such a semi-
is Caccini, in the preface to his Nuove musiche of 1602. See HDM, under "Tremolo."
13 See P. Wagner, "Die Diatonisierung des gregorianischen Gesanges durch das
liniensystem" (Ross. Greg., Ill [1903], 245; also in Greg. Rundschau, 111 [1904], 140, and,
in French, in TG, X [1904], 144).

The Notation 109

musical connotation, being derived from ad cantum (perhaps signum ad
cantum, sign for the song). Thus, the accentus acutus (high accent) indi-
cated a raising of the pitch, the accentus gravis a lowering, and the accentus
circumfieKUS a combination of both, perhaps with the voice going first
above, then below the normal pitch level. Some of the Latin grammarians
of the fifth and sixth centuries also mention the accentus anticircumftexus,
which would be the inversion of the circumflexus. Although the anti-
circumflexus played only a minor role in declamation, it survived in the
neumes of Gregorian chant. The resemblance between the accents and the

FIGURE 11

a. / \ /\ X

a. Accents i. acutus 2. gravis 3. circumflexus 4. anticircumflexus

b. Neumes i. virga . punctum 3. clivis 4. podatus

early forms of the neumes is so striking as to constitute convincing evidence
of the evolutionary connection between the former and the latter. In fact,
an anonymous writer of the ninth century tells us that "the notational sign
called neuma originated from the accents." 1 The only sign that underwent
a noticeable modification is the accentus gravis, obviously because it en-
tailed a left-to-right motion of the pen which proved inconvenient in fluent
writing. In the earliest neumatic manuscripts from St. Gall it appears as a
little horizontal dash, 2 while later it was written as a dot or little square,
hence the name punctum (point). It is easy to see how combinations of the
four elementary signs led to the symbols for the various three-note and
four-note neumes. All the "basic" neumes are nothing but combinations of
the accent signs, and are therefore usually referred to as accent neumes.
In addition to these, the early manuscripts, particularly those from St.
Gall, employ a number of symbols of a somewhat different graph, character-
ized by the use of rounded lines in the form of a hook or of a half-circle.
These have been called hook neumes (G. Hakenneumen; Wagner), but
actually only some of them show a graph reminiscent of a hook. Perhaps
the term round neumes (G. Rundneumen) may be somewhat more appro-
priate, at least for those that do not clearly belong to the hook family.

1 Vatican Library, cod. lat. palat. 235, f . 38': De accentibus toni oritur nota quae dicitur
neuma (cf. Wagner II, 355). Handschin, in an article entitled "Bine alte Neumenschrift"
(Acta musicologica, XXII, 69) has called attention to a ninth-century fragment in which
the accentus acutus indicates, not a high tone, but a podatus.

2 This sign has played an important role in the controversies about Gregorian rhythm.
Wagner considered it as a variety of the virga, called it virga jacens (horizontal virga),
and interpreted it as a sign for length (quarter-note; see Wagner 77, 381). Mocquereau re-
garded it as an early form of the punctum, called it punctum planum (level punctum),
and opposed Wagner's rhythmic interpretation (Nombre, I, 159).

HO GREGORIAN CHANT

In this group we find the various strophici already mentioned as well as
the early forms of the liquescent neumes shown in Fig. 12.

FIGURE 15!

C/ / cP P

i. epiphonus 2. cephalicus 3. pinnosa 4. scandicus liquescens

Finally, there are a few signs calling for special consideration, mainly
the salicus, oriscus, pressus, quilisma, and trigon [see Fig. 13].

FIGURE 13

salicus oriscus pressus franculus quilisma trigon

Early <gj ^57 A/T/T/^ A
Modern

At the outset it may be remarked that all these neumes are of a more
or less uncertain nature, as appears clearly from the conflicting interpre-
tations they have received at the hand of modern scholars. We shall en-
deavor to present the different views as objectively as possible.

a. The salicus indicates three pitches (sometimes four, very rarely five)
in ascending motion, as does the scandicus. It occurs almost exclusively
in the St. Gall manuscripts. Its graph differs from that of the scandicus in
that the middle pitch (in the four- or five-note forms, the penultimate
pitch) is represented, not by a dot, but by a hook opening toward the
bottom. Very likely this middle pitch was a "forbidden" chromatic tone,
for instance, in d-f Jf-g, or even a quarter-tone, as in e-e+-f . This assumption
would explain the fact that the diastematic manuscripts represent the
salicus either as a normal scandicus (changing d-f J-g into d-f-g) or as a
group with a unison at the beginning (changing e-e+-f into e e-f). Both
these forms appear in the Liber usualis under the name of salicus [p. xxi],
but a remark on p. xxiv warns the reader not to confuse the (ascending)
salicus with the scandicus, the difference being that the former has the
vertical episema placed under the middle note and that the note thus
marked should be emphasized and lengthened. This interpretation goes
back to Mocquereau, who explained and defended it in his Le Nombre
musical (vol. I, 3852). It is, however, open to doubt, and has indeed been
rejected by such scholars as Wagner and Gastou. It certainly cannot be
reconciled with their supposition that this middle pitch was an unstable
tone, chromatic or enharmonic. Such a tone would suggest a rather quick
passing over, a manner of performance which is perhaps also implied in

The Notation 111

the term salicus, derived from Lat. salire, to jump. Gastou^, seconding
Wagner, calls the Solesmes view a "fausse interpretation." 8

b. The oriscus is a strange sign, in name as well as in meaning. The
name has been explained as being derived from Greek horos, limit, end
(cf. horizon). It is indeed usually a sign for a note added at the end of a
neume, either in unison with the final note or a step above it. The standard
Solesmes books represent the oriscus by the normal punctum, while a spe-
cial sign, reminiscent of the early oriscus, is used in the Antiphonale
monasticum [see p. xiii] and other publications. It is shown in Fig. 13.
According, to Mocquereau, 4 the St. Gall manuscripts employ most fre-
quently the upper-degree oriscus, that is, at a pitch a semitone or a tone
above that of the preceding note. However, the unison oriscus is also very
common and occurs frequently between two torculus neumes, particularly
on the sub-semitonal degrees, c' and f, e.g., c'-d'-c' c' a-b-a or f-g-f / d-e-d
(oriscus in italics). Fig. 14 shows some examples from St. Gall 35^ together
with the modern equivalents. 6

FIGURE 14

Grad. Gloriosus, "sanctis"

Tract Comm<w&tf/'mota"
Grad. Tribulationes, "-nes"
Grad. Tribulationes/^m^-i"

Exactly what the oriscus means is very uncertain. Several scholars have
come to the conclusion that, once more, an unstable pitch is involved, not
in the oriscus itself but in the note that precedes it, because in a number
of cases a torculus-plus-oriscus appears in the diastematic sources either
as a torculus-plus-punctum (e.g., f-g-f f) or as a torculus resupinus (f-g-e-f).
It is therefore generally assumed that the note preceding the oriscus was
midway between the e and the f, so that it could be reproduced either way
in diastematic notation. 6

It is obvious, however, that there is more involved in the oriscus than
this. To ascribe to a neumatic sign a "retroactive" function is certainly
not a very plausible explanation in itself. Moreover, it applies only to the

3 See Wagner 11, 144; Origines, p. 175, fn. a.

5 For others, see N ombre, I, 37 if.

6 Wagner II, 143; Origines, p. 174, fn. 5; Nombre, I, 375.

112 GREGORIAN CHANT

unison oriscus, but does not account for the numerous cases where the
oriscus is a degree higher than the preceding note, as in the first two
examples of Fig. 14. Finally, it should be noticed that the oriscus, though
normally attached to a neume, also occurs as an individual sign, placed
alone over a syllable. Several examples of this usage occur in the Antiphons
of the Codex Hartker, e.g.:

FIGURE 15
T T* - I TT

splendo-ribus sanctorum, ex utero
Ant. Tecum principium [412; Pal. mus. f IIJ, 52]

Other examples are found in Adhaesit, on "(De)us" (ibid., p. 59); in
Lapidabant judei, on "Qe)su" (p. 59); in the Responsory Isti sunt sancti,
on "su(a)" (p. 67), etc.

The striking and peculiar shape of this enigmatic symbol certainly sug-
gests that it had a special meaning of its own, probably that of a short
ornament. The first scholar to propose such an explanation was Houdard,
who described the oriscus as a "broderie d'6chapp6e," as an ornament in-
volving the upper and the lower neighbor note, e.g., f-g-e for an oriscus on
f. 7 He based his explanation on the form of the oriscus, saying that the
symbol consists of an epiphonus and an inferior apostropha: v, $.
Wagner tried to show that the oriscus consists of two notes, a main note of
normal duration and a short passing note at the lower second. 8 Fig. 16
shows an example of a unison -oriscus and its various interpretations.

FIGURE 16
Houdard Wagner Solesmes

c. The pressus was previously explained as a combination of two neumes
joined by the same pitch [p. 103]. Originally this effect was expressed by a
special sign, in the general form of an angular or wavy line with a dot
underneath. Mocquereau, who devotes an extended chapter to the study
of the "apostropha-pressus," 9 always represents the pressus by the form

7 In Le Rythme du chant dit grdgorien (1898), pp. logff. Concerning the main thesis of
this study, see p. 129.

& See his article, "Quelques remarques sur la notation du Manuscrit 6ox de la Biblio-
thfcque Capitulaire de Lucques" (TG, XIV, 148).

*Nombre, 1, 300-332.

The Notation 113

with the wavy line, while Wagner considers only the other form, which
seems to be the one more widely used in the early manuscripts. 10 The
pressus was known in two varieties, major and minor, the former distin-
guished by the addition of a little dash. In nearly all the tables of neumes
these are listed at the very end, for instance, in a crude hexameter: t
pressus mindr et mdior, non pluribus titor (and finally the minor and
major pressus, other [neumes] I do not employ). 11

According to Wagner, the pressus is derived from a more elementary
symbol consisting of a virga with a hook attached to the upper end, and
called franculus (from Lat. frangere, to break?). From concordances be-
tween chironomic and diastematic manuscripts it appears that the fran-
culus is nearly always replaced by a podatus, occasionally by a single note.
This would seem to indicate that the original franculus consisted of a main
note and an ornamenting upper neighbor note, thus forming the counter-
part of the oriscus which is characterized by an ornamenting lower neigh-
bor note. The pressus results from the addition to the franculus of a dot,
which always indicates a lower pitch. Accordingly, the pressus should have
about the same significance as a torculus, e.g., a-b-g. Actually, its equivalent
is always a bistropha flexa, e.g., a-a-g. Very likely, the seeming contradiction
between the "a-b" of the franculus and the "a-a" of the pressus can be ex-
plained by assuming that the upper note of the franculus could vary from
as much as a whole-tone to as little as a quarter-tone. Possibly it was such
a microtonic interval that distinguished the pressus from seemingly identi-
cal forms.

Neither the franculus nor the microtonic intervals enter into the ex-
planations given by Mocquereau. He adduces numerous examples show-
ing that the special pressus symbol of the early sources is replaced, in other
manuscripts, by an ordinary neume, e.g., a clivis, joined in unison to the
preceding neume in other words, that it is identical with the pressus
forms of the modern publications. Fig. 17 shows an example from the
Communion Video [4i8]. 12

FIGURE 17

i_ - The neumes in the upper row are from Einsiedeln 2*27, those below

ifr CH from St. Gall 33$. In the Solesmes editions the pressus formation is

unt re P laced b T a simple torculus, g-a-g.

d. The quilisma is, no doubt, the most important among the special
signs we are considering here. It is very frequent, particularly in the oldest
10 Wagner II, 1550*. n Cf., e.g., Wagner 11, io6f. 12 Nombre, 1, 310.

114 GREGORIAN CHANT

manuscripts from the tenth and eleventh centuries. Accordingly, it was
introduced into the modern editions, where it is represented by a special
sign in the form of a jagged note occurring within a neume in ascending
motion. Usually the neighboring notes are each at the distance of a second
(e.g., f-g-a), but there are cases in which the lower neighbor is a third below
the quilisma (e.g., e-g-a). Examples showing the upper note at a wider dis-
tance than a second apparently do not exist.

As for the performance of the quilisma, the Liber usualis* following
Mocquereau, 13 makes the unqualified statement that "it must always be
rendered lightly" and that "the note immediately before the quilisma
should be notably lengthened and emphasized" [p. xxv]. This interpreta-
tion is, no doubt, entirely gratuitous, particularly in its first part. To con-
sider the quilisma as a "lightly rendered" passing tone is a supposition
that is refuted by the notational symbol itself. It is impossible to assume
that a sign of such elaboration and striking appearance could have been
used to indicate nothing but a single tone to be rendered lightly. There
can be no question that it stands for a short ornamenting group involving
several pitches, in other words, that it is a stenographic sign similar to
those employed in modern notation to indicate a mordent, a turn, a trill,
etc. Its exact meaning cannot be determined with certainty. The term is
undoubtedly derived from the Greek word kylisma (rolling), and it is in-
teresting to note that among the notational symbols of Byzantine chant
there is a kylisma which shows a somewhat similar design (Fig. i8a) and
indicates an ornament, perhaps a trill. Fig. i8b shows a number of inter-
pretations given by Gastou6: 14

FIGURE 18

(J =

A different explanation has been given by C. Vivell, 15 who observed that
in early Italian manuscripts the quilisma is written in an ascending form
[see Fig. 13], and that in later Italian manuscripts (eleventh-to-twelfth cen-
tury; transition from chironomic to diastematic notation) the quilisma
sign is replaced by two dots in ascending position. From this he concludes
that the quilisma was an ascending portamento touching upon the chro*

i&Nombre, I, 404; see also his "La Tradition rythmique gr^gorienne a propos du
quilisma" (Ross. Greg., V, 225).
14 Cours, p. 19.
1C "Das Quilisma" (Greg. Rundschau, IV, V, several installments).

The Notation 115

matic, or possibly even enharmonic, pitches between the fixed interval of
the third:

FIGURE IQ

As for the lengthening of the note(s) preceding the quilisma or, as
Mocquereau puts it, the "effect r<kroacti de retard ou m&ne de prolonge-
ment," 16 this view is, on the whole, well supported by numerous examples
from early manuscripts (St. Gall, Metz) in which the note before the
quilisma carries a sign of prolongation, such as the Romanus letter t
(tenere, to hold), the horizontal episema, or actual doubling of the pitch.
Whether it is as universally valid as Mocquereau claims when he says "cette
rfegle ne souffre aucune exception," is another question. Certainly there
are cases where the "retroactive" prolongation is not indicated in the
source, as in St. Gall 359, where repeatedly the quilisma is preceded by a
clivis (sometimes a clivis with episema which, however, affects only its first
note, not the one before the quilisma):

FIGURE 20
b

f\cj fTcJ

a. Pal. mus. t ILii, 85-45, line 11 (bonum); line 12 (regft

b. ibid., ii-3x, line 2 (egressio); 12-53, line i (first neume)

At any rate, the question concerning the note before the quilisma is, it
seems to me, of minor importance compared to that concerning the quilts-
ma itself.

e. The trigon (L. trigonum, triangle) is a neumatic sign consisting, in
its simplest form, of three dots outlining a triangle. Composite forms are
the trigonum preceded and/or followed by one or two dots (praepunctis,
subpunctis), in which one or both of the two sides of the "triangle" consist
of four or even five dots. The trigonum, with its unusually "graphic" de-
sign, clearly suggests a melodic motion identical with that represented by
the torculus, e.g., b-c'-a. The difference between the two signs may have
been one of performance, that is, legato for the torculus and staccato for
the trigonum, or one of note-values, shorter in the latter than in the former.
Of greater importance and of more lasting significance, however, was a
difference of melodic description. While a torculus may indicate any
pitches outlining a low-high-low motion, the trigonum is much more lim-

16 Nombre, I, 399.

Il6 GREGORIAN CHANT

ited in this respect. A comparison with its diastematic equivalents shows,
first of all, that in the great majority of cases its highest tone is one of the
subsemitonal degrees, f, c', or b-fiat. This suggests that its initial interval
was always a semitone, e-f-(d), b-c'-(a), or a-b[>-(g). Actually, there is good
reason to assume that it was a microtonic interval, approximately a quar-
ter-tone. This is proved, almost beyond doubt, by the fact that the diaste-
matic manuscripts nearly always represent the trigonum as a bistropha
ftexa, that is, as f-f-(d), c'-c'-( a )> etc. Fig. 21 shows two examples of the
trigonum (from St. Gall ^55)), together with their later equivalents.

FIGURE 21

Jf .,:. Ai*- b /7-*.-

de-du- cis ml- cus

a. Gradual Qui sedes, -ft. [336] b. Gradual Invent, "ft. [1130]

The first example is interesting because it shows one of the very rare
examples of a single apostropha.

The early neumes that have just been discussed represent the Franco-
German notation of the ninth to eleventh centuries, best known through
the Mss St. Gall 359, St. Gall 339, Einsiedeln 121, and St. Gall 390-391
(Codex Hartker), all published in the volumes of the PaUographie musi-
cale. It is mainly in these sources that we find the "special neumes," salicus,
oriscus, pressus, franculus, quilisma, and trigonum, each of which involves
a peculiar effect such as microtonic intervals, staccato, portamento, or
ornamentations in the character of a trill or a turn. Such effects are also
indicated in the case of neumes that are only recorded in medieval treatises
under strange names such as tremula, vinnula (charming; pleasant; from
vinnus, lock of hair?), concinna (well put together, elegant), cincinnum
(from cincinnus, lock of hair?), sirenimpha (like the song of the sirens?),
etc. 17 Naturally it is impossible to determine the meaning of these terms, if
they ever had a definite one. There can be no doubt, however, that at a
certain time and in certain localities the chant was performed in a manner
which the later manuscripts and present-day books reflect only faintly.

17 in c. 1028, Adhe*mar de Chavannes (also known as the Monk of Angouleme) wrote:
"All the French singers have learned the Roman notes (notam romanam) which they now
call French (franciscam) f except for the voces tremulas or vinnolas or collisibiles (from
collidere^ cf. collision) or secdbiles (from secare, to cut apart?). These the French have not
been able to express perfectly in their song, since, with their natural and barbaric voice,
they break the sounds in their throat (frangentes in gutture) rather than bring it forward
(exprimentes)." See, e.g., J. Handschin in Acta musicologica, XXII, 72.

The Notation 117

Finally, we must mention certain subsidiary signs that are frequently
added to the neumes in the above-mentioned sources in order to clarify the
melodic motion or details of rhythm. These are the so-called Romanus
letters and the episema. The former are named after a somewhat legendary
Romanus who, according to the St. Gall chronicler Ekkehard IV (d. 1030),
came from Rome to St. Gall at the time of Charlemagne and transplanted
the Roman chant to the German monastery. A letter written by Notker
Balbulus (d. 912) contains a table in which practically every letter of the
alphabet is explained as the abbreviation of some significant word, 18 but
only a few of these letters are actually encountered in the musical sources.

MELODIC LETTERS

a ut altius elevetur admonet (warns to raise the voice)

I levare neumam (lift the neume)

s sursum scandere (step upward)

d ut deprimatur (should be depressed)

i iusum vel inferius insinuat (insinuates "below")

e ut equalitur sonetur (should be sung in unison)

RHYTHMIC LETTERS

t trahere vel tenere (to drag or to hold)

x expectare (to await, to retard)

m mediocriter moderari melodiam (moderation, retard?)

c ut cito vel celeriter dicatur (should be sung quickly)

These letters occur in St. Gall 35^ and, with particular frequency, in
Codex Einsiedeln 121 (Pal. mus., IV). The melodic signs are, on the whole,
of little interest since they clarify only the direction of the motion without
giving the exact intervals, for which we have to depend upon the later
manuscripts in diastematic notation. The only exception is the sign e
(equaliter) for a unison, and this has indeed proved valuable for the in-
vestigation of certain questions. 19 The rhythmic letters, on the other hand,
have played a prominent role in the attempts to solve the problem of Gre-
gorian rhythm, which will be discussed later.

Of as great significance as the rhythmic letters is the episema, a hori-
zontal dash on top of a neume, especially a virga or a clivis. Several ex-
amples occur in die illustrations previously given, e.g., the virgae with
episema in Figs. 14 and 15, or the clivis with episema in Figs. 17, 20, and
21. Scholars are generally agreed that this indicates a prolongation. A pro-
longation may also be indicated by the use of a horizontal stroke in the

18 GS, I, 95. Also Pal. mus., IV, 10; Nombre, I, 164.

19 See R. J. Hesbert, "L'interpre*tation de l f equaliter dans les manuscrits sangalliens"
(RG, XVIII, 161).

Il8 GREGORIAN CHANT

place of a dot, the punctum planum or virga jacens, as it has been called
(see p. 109, fn. 2). This occurs not only as an individual sign (e.g., in Fig. 15
on "ex" or in Fig. 21 on "(dedu)cis"), but also in scandicus and climacus
neumes, where frequently one or several of the dots are replaced by a stroke
(cf. Fig. 22, p. 120, first column).

The extended use of such peculiarities as highly specialized neumes,
significative letters, and episematic modifications occurs particularly in the
St. Gall manuscripts, and sets them apart from other sources, written in
Italy, France, and England, which employ a much simpler notation, often
nothing but the basic neumes and their liquescent varieties. The historical
evaluation of this contrast is one of the points of contention among scholars.
In an interesting reversal of national interests, which certainly is to their
credit, most French scholars Houdard, Dechevrens, Mocquereau have
placed the greatest confidence in the St. Gall tradition, while some Ger-
mans, such as O. Fleischer (in his Neumenstudieri) and Wagner, have
considered them as hardly more than curiosities of local interest. Whatever
their value is, they do, of course, represent a tradition, if only a special one,
that cannot be disregarded.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEUMATIC NOTATION

Aside from a few eighth-century fragments, the earliest musical manu-
scripts date from the ninth century. In these, as well as in those of the next
century, the neumes are written in such a manner as to represent only the
general contour of the melodic motion, such as high-to-low (clivis), low-to
high (podatus), etc., without in any way indicating the pitches or intervals
involved. Thus, in the case of a podatus we can be sure that an ascending
motion is involved, but we cannot tell whether this motion comprises the
interval of a second, a third, or a fifth, nor whether it starts on c, on f, or
on some other pitch. Evidently these signs served only as a guide for singers
who knew the melodies more or less by heart, or for the choir leader who
may have interpreted them to the singers by appropriate movements of
the hand. Such neumes are called staffless, oratorical, cheironomic (Greek
for hand sign), or in campo aperto ("in the open field," i.e., without clear
orientation).

Shortly before the year 1000 we find the earliest traces of a more careful
manner of writing, designed to give a clearer visual indication of pitches
and intervals. Without actually writing a staff, the scribes imagined hori-
zontal lines representing lower or higher pitches, and wrote the neumes
not only in lower or higher positions, but also to a certain extent in various
degrees of elongation, so that a podatus standing for an ascending fourth
would reach up higher than one indicating an ascending second. Such
neumes are called diastematic, heightened, or intervallic. Notation of a

The Notation 119

tentatively diastematic character appears for the first time in Italian and
Aquitanian (southern-French) manuscripts of the late tenth century. 1
Later sources of this type often have one or two lines scratched into the
parchment, lines which, however, have no fixed meaning, representing the
pitches d, f, g, etc., depending upon the range of the melody. According to
a sixteenth-century chronicler this innovation was made at the monastery
of Corbie under its abbot Ratold (972-986): "In this time there started in
our monastery a new method of singing, from signs arranged by means of

lines and spaces Until then the Graduals and Antiphonals of our church

had no lines/' 2 This primitive method of diastematic notation persisted in
some countries long after Guido of Arezzo (died c. 1050) had brought
previous experiments to their final solution by introducing a system of
four lines representing intervals of a third, and by indicating the pitch
through colored lines (usually red for f, yellow or green for c') or clef let-
ters, mostly f and c'. To the present day, Gregorian chant is notated on a
four-line staff, with the clef-letters f and c>.

As was pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, the numerous
manuscripts of chant fall into national groups with strong characteristics
of penmanship and notational details. And even within the same coun-
try there were individual schools centered around monasteries where the
chant was especially cultivated. Thus in France we have to distinguish
between neumatic manuscripts from Metz (in the East), Chartres (in the
West), and St. Martial at Limoges (in the South, Aquitania); in Italy,
between those from Novara (North-West), Nonantola and Bologna (North-
East), and Benevento (South). Fig. 22 serves to illustrate the characteristic
traits of five important schools: St. Gall (German neumes); Metz (Mes-
sine neumes); St. Martial (Aquitanian neumes); northern France (square
neumes); and Benevento (Beneventan, Italian neumes).

The early neumes, particularly those from St. Gall and Metz, occur in
varied forms which have rhythmic significance, indicating that one or an-
other of the pitches involved is of longer duration. Especially conspicuous
in this respect are the various forms of the dimacus in the St. Gall manu-
scripts. The Messine notation indicates the tendency to dissolve the neu-
matic signs into signs for individual pitches, a tendency which was fully
realized in the Aquitanian notation. Whenever single signs (dots, etc.) are

1 Wagner believes that the diastematic notation is the original system, developed in
Italy, and that the St. Gall Mss represent a deterioration of it. See Adler's Handbuch der
Musikgeschichte, I (and ed., 1929), 96.

2 Gerbert, De Cantu, II, 61. In an article, "The Musical Notation of Guido of Arezzo"
(MD, V, 15), J. Smits van Waesberghe declares this text to be "not of the slightest histori-
cal value" (p. 49). It certainly lacks the authority of a contemporary document, and is in-
cluded above only with the necessary reservation. On the other hand, it should be noticed
that the report makes no claim for the fully developed Guidonian system with four lines,
but only for a tentatively diastematic notation, such as probably existed before Guido.

120

GREGORIAN CHANT

written in a strictly vertical arrangement, they are to read from top to
bottom [see the dimacus under II and III]. For further details the reader
is referred to the Plates, which show the Mass chants for Easter Sunday as
they appear in manuscripts from the ninth to the twelfth century. The
following remarks are designed to facilitate their study.

FIGURE 22
II III

punctum, virga
podatus
clivis
scandicus

dimacus
torculus
porrectus
scandicus flexus
pes subbipunctus

I. St. Gall

_ X

x/c/*-

V '

-A

II. Messine III. Aquitanian IV. Northern
V. Beneventan VI. Modern

French

PLATE i. St. Gall 35^ (c. goo). The earliest complete manuscript preserved. A
Cantatorium, which gives the full text and music only for the solo chants, Grad-
uals, Alleluias, and Tracts, the Introits, etc., being indicated by their incipits.

Incensum tantum (only incense to be used)
Static ad Sanctam Mariam (Stational Church)
^(ntiphon) Resurrexi et adhuc (Introit)

Psalmus. Domine probasti me (verse of the Introit)
U(esponsorium) G(raduale) Haec dies . . .

F(ersus) Confitemini Domino . . .
Alleluia Pascha nostrum . . .

The neumes of the first row are: clivis with letter t (tenere); dimacus (with
episemaf); clivis; a special form of the podatus, sometimes called pes quassus
(N 'ombre, I, 159); bistropha; dimacus; porrectus; virga with episema; podatus;
bivirga; bistropha; torculus; dimacus; virga with episema; porrectus with episema;

The Notation 121

tristropha. Middle of line 2, on "(exul)te(mus)": clivis; climacus praebipunctis;
trigon (in later sources modified into a pressus, c'-c'-b). Line 3, several instances of
c (celeriter). Beginning of line 4: two virga jacens (punctum planum) with e
(equaliter), probably meaning an a (today a c 7 ); epiphonus; two virgae; clivis with
c (celeriter); climacus praebipunctis. Line 5, on "bonus": virga (with episema?)*,
trivirga; two climacus in which the puncta are replaced by virga-jacens forms;
clivis with episema. Line 7, last neume, quilisma with episema.

Alleluia , line i: three puncta; pes quassus with episema, t, and / (aim fragore,
with a loud noise); torculus resupinus (probably b-d'-c'-d'; today b-d' d' d');
pressus with i (today omitted). Line 3: several climacus with one punctum and
one vz'rga jacens. Line 4: punctum; salicus "cum fragore."

PLATE n. St. Gall 332 (tenth century).

In die ad missam (on the day for the Mass)
A. Resurrexi et adhuc . . . a(l\)e(\)uia a(ll)e(l)uia.

Ps(almus) D(orm)ne p(ro)6a(sti)
JRG. Haec dies . . . V. Confitemini . . .
Alleluia Pascha nostrum . . .

V. Epulemur in azimis sinceritatis et veritatisP
O/(fertorium). Terra tremuit . . .

V. Notus in Judea . . . V. Et factus est . . .

V. Ibi confregit . . . 4
Co(mmunio). Pascha nostrum . . .

The significant letters have completely disappeared, and only the episema is
retained. The notational symbols are practically the same as in St. Gall 35^. Note
that the second clivis on "(exul)te(mus)" (after the trigon) has an episema, which
is missing in St. Gall 35^.

PLATE m. Codex Chartres 47 (c. 1000). Contents are the same as in St. Gall 339.
The captions R., V. f Of., Co., are written in color, which hardly shows in the
photographic reproduction. Note that the Alleluia Pascha nostrum, y. Epulemur
is only indicated, without music (line 7). The marginal signs indicate the mode
and probably the initial tone, for example, for the Communion Pascha nostrum:
ut in vi, that is: start with the first tone (ut of the hexachord) of the sixth mode. 5

The notation shows the characteristic traits of the French system, particularly
in the tendency to dissolve the neumes into single signs. Thus, the initial clivis of
Hec dies is written as two dots placed in a vertical line; the first neume on
"(exulte)mus" (beginning of line 5), a podatus subbipunctis, appears as a single
dot followed by three dots written vertically from top to bottom; and the scandicus
on "et" (same line) is given as two puncta and a virga. Of special interest is the
transformation of the trigon into a rectangular form. Note that dots written in a
vertical position are always to be read downwards, in contrast to those appearing

3 For Alleluias with two verses, see p. 185.

4 For Offertories with verses, see pp. igaff.

5 The abbreviation em in the marginal note for the verse Ibi confregit stands perhaps
for emmeles, an early term for the subfinal.

122 GREGORIAN CHANT

in a slanting position. In order to save space, longer melismas frequently extend
beyond the syllable to which they belong, as for instance that for "(fe)dt" (line 4),
which continues above the neumes for "dominus." Obviously, the notation is com-
pletely non-diastematic.

PLATE rv. British Museum, Egerton 857 (late eleventh century). Contents are
the same as in St. Gall 339, but without the Offertory verses.

The neumes show a noticeable tendency toward diastematic writing. The nota-
tion is French (probably northern French), but does not show the characteristic
traits noticed in the Chartres manuscript. The climacus, in particular, is always
written in the earlier manner. This specimen is also interesting because it illus-
trates the beginning of the square neumes, particularly in the podatus, which
always has a little square for each of the two pitches, the lower one to the left, the
upper to the right of the connecting stroke (see, e.g., "quam" of Hec dies). In the
twelfth century it became customary to place both squares to the left of the stroke,
and this became the final form of die podatus. The clivis, on the other hand, ap-
pears in a strange form (somewhat like the figure 7) which completely fails to
indicate or suggest the pitches involved. This appears from a consideration of
the beginning of Hec dies, where the first clivis stands for a-g, the second for a-f.

PLATE v, Paris, Bibl. nat. lat. 776 (from Albi, nth century). The beginning of
the Introit, Resurrexi et adhuc, is written in a highly decorative manner, with
the letters interspersed, for instance, u and r within the S. The Alleluia includes
two tropes, which are designated as P(ro)saJ

This is a pure example of the Aquitanian notation. Neumes of the earlier type,
written in a continuous graph, have almost completely disappeared. The dots, into
which they are segregated, are carefully arranged on lines scratched into the
parchment.

PLATE vi. Montpellier H. 159 (nth century). This is a famous manuscript,
unique in its tonal arrangement of the Mass chants (tonale missarum), its "bilin-
gual" notation, in neumes as well as in letters, and its signs for quarter-tones. Our
page contains chants of the fourth mode, as indicated by the inscription deuterus
and the marginal indication /(agius). The first complete chant is the Introit
Resurrext, with the remaining portions of the Easter Mass, Ps. Domine probasti,
]JT. Hec dies, All. Pascha nostrum, Of. Terra tremuit, and Co. Pascha nostrum, indi-
cated on the right margin.

The neumes are similar to those of Plate IV. Notice the incipient square form
of the podatus, e.g., on "sum" (line 2 of the page) and on "(mi)ra(bilis)" at the
beginning of line 4. The most important feature is the letter notation, which
transcribes the non-diastematic neumes in a clearly readable form, making this one
of the earliest manuscripts that can be accurately deciphered. The letters have
their present-day meaning, but continue, above g, with the subsequent letters of

6 The cephalicus appears in the shape of the figure 9. Repeatedly there occurs a
strange symbol in the form of a reclining 8, which is always followed by a punctum in
lower position. Both signs together replace a clivis of other Mas.

7 See pp. 43gff for a discussion of Alleluias with tropes.

% ; * ^^' - ^ ^ ^

tneW ** v G>nArt^tnmi

V ipwfe

300

to - ctif

- '

1 bt

mttr*

Plate II. St. Gall jjp

mur- UIA TimtT rtncrr-t tacaT <**tt*rtnr

*' '

can A r^tt

ocfr- ttit Aj~tam ^
> ^-^^ / .^^ ^

TU rnirmbi

ttOrrtxaf &ertti JUBTUA, Atfx

I C-

. , ; v.. -

J.^intM .!' 4U*"" 'MM, .

-*/ /.

-' : "--

Plate III. Charlies

ir J(*tf mum fm

fl'f

)

mix A f

f v

mur

,, MK // 7>/v/,

7 ' f

mu r tna. Jtwtf

' V

ortrcmt

Plate IV. London, Brit. Mus. gerton ^'5

t V'LL^.^1 2:^^.

: ^

Plate V. Paris, Bibl. nat.

r jt"

if iw .

I + / / A'

xff f*,***
JO/ It ui tt

K .
efltr
/ I

sfjf M.
j fu if

j/ / / J

" c- aflp.f.f^-fr

.WIT* WiC^o oT *fa.

. > / J I J / 4 f * /I . M ' / *

|f ,4,, A , |
uo toivcueaiAM mi n&wwer J^At icLu u.

* JS js'J j / / / / / tf

fw ft ct'Jt'fwwdfc^iHpaf f&rm a?

J " J / I / t / x / / 7 / /> /

.fJ 4ii f ^ t xrM ^ ^ fr-
m v- tuff . \ flin^tC. :*. omntA

o J xv.,." i r^ y ^ /I J

(3 er f f ff- fitfrfe:> rfirV

A /

f" <*
rtwn cu

niwifmer if tf ftiw mcx*" mi nr-

Plate VI. Montpellier, Bibl. de llcole cle Med. H. i;y

> :
i

- j.r

H 1 V a fcS w

I r- i .;

' *

* '
. fS

., .v* -a d

*^ 3 P * *i <t ?^ *iT ^** * * ** *" 3 K

S *^, *~ !* Ep < * a %-^ ** n 5 **a *, f 1

,r s \ B !*! zj'8* ^^ *^ b ' Ci ^

\ 4 J ' '1^

Plate VIII. Paris, Bibl. nat. lat. 17436

The Notation 1*3

the alphabet, so that- h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p stand for a, b, c', d', e', P, g', and a'. 8
For instance, the letters fgh hg on "(posu)isti" ^ ine ^ indicate f g a a g. The
ornamental signs of the neumatic notation are reproduced in an interesting way,
the quilisma by a short wavy stroke, [see "(su)per" on line 3], the oriscus by a
small hook [see "(volunta)ti" at the beginning of line 7]. At the beginning of In
voluntate (Introit for the Twenty-First Sunday after Pentecost [1066]) repeated
use of the sign ^ is made, which indicates, without doubt, the quarter-tone or
some micro-interval below f. 9

PLATE vii. Rome, Vatican Libr. lat. 5319. This is one of the four sources of the
Old-Roman chant mentioned on p. 77. The Introit has two verses, Domine
probasti and Ecce a Domine, the first, as usual, designated as Ps(almus). The
Alleluia Pascha nostrum has the verse Aepulemur, as in St. Gall 339 (Plate II)
and in most of the earlier sources.

The notation is an example of the Beneventan neumes, completely diastematic
with lines and clef letters. In the original the F-line is red, the C-line yellow,
the others are scratched in without color. The melodies, as will easily be seen,
are completely different from those of the other manuscripts. (See the transcrip-
tion of Resurrexi, Fig. 167, p. 488).

PLATE vni. Paris, BibL nat lat. 17436 (Antiphonal of Compiegne, with musical
entries of the eleventh century). This facsimile is given chiefly as an example of a
sequela with verb a [see p. 449]. It is written in an early, non-diastematic type of
Aquitanian neumes, which may be compared with the later, diastematic type of
Plate V. The elongated scrolls are signs of repeat, probably meaning denuo (again,
twice). For further details the version of Fulgens praeclara in A. Hughes, Anglo-
French Sequelae (1934), p. 41, may be consulted.

We need not carry this survey any farther, because with the beginning
of the thirteenth century the square neumes were universally adopted.
Only in Germany a special type of over-decorative script was cultivated,
the Gothic neumes, also called Hufnagelschrift because of their resem-
blance to horse-shoe nails. 10

THE NOTATION OF THE SOLESMES BOOKS

We owe the present-day books of Gregorian chant, such as the Graduate
Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, the Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae
Ecclesiae, and the Liber usualis, to the Benedictine monks of Solesmes
who, under the leadership of Dom Gu6ranger (1805-75), Dom Pothier
(1835-1923), and Dom Mocquereau (1849-1930), did the spadework which

8 See p. 152, system Anonymus IL

$ See J. Gmelch, Die Vierteltonstufen im Messtonale von Montpellier (1911). Also, e.g.,
G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, p. 136.

10 See the table of neumes in Grove's Dictionary f III, 648 (omitted in the new edition,
1954) or in HJDM, s. v. "Neumes." They are obviously derived from the late (twelfth-
century) Messine neumes.

124 GREGORIAN CHANT

led to the restoration of the medieval tradition. Without their efforts the
study of Gregorian chant would be immensely more difficult, as would,
for instance, the study of the works of Bach without the volumes of the
Bach Gesellschaft, or that of Machaut, Josquin, and Palestrina without
the modern editions of their complete works. Although none of these pub-
lications can wholly replace the original sources least of all in the field
of chant, the complete repertory of which far exceeds the contents of the
modern books they provide a reliable basis of ample proportions which
the student may safely use for numerous investigations.

There is, however, a certain difference between the editorial principles
and methods employed in the volumes of the Bach Gesellschaft (as well as
in the other musicological publications just mentioned) and those adopted
by the monks of Solesmes. Aware of their primary obligation which, of
course, was to the Church rather than to musicology, they aimed at an
edition that would not only restore the medieval tradition but also make
it a part of the present-day liturgy, so that the old melodies would be sung
again after more than a thousand years, as indeed they now are. Conse-
quently it was felt necessary that some indications which would facilitate
their performance by present-day singers and choirs should be added to the
original melodies. Useful and perhaps indispensable though they may be,
they tend to put the Solesmes books into the same category as, for example,
a practical edition of Bach with its customary trappings of phrase marks,
dynamic signs, etc. In either case it is important for the student to know
what is authentic and what is an editorial addition.

The series of modern publications of Gregorian chant started with the
Liber gradualis prepared by Dom Pothier and published, in two editions,
in 1883 and 18Q5- 1 Here the only editorial signs are vertical strokes of two
different lengths designed to indicate the end of phrases or of sections.
They more or less agree with the full bar and the half bar of the later
editions, prepared under the direction of Mocquereau, the author of a
special theory and practice of Gregorian rhythm generally known as the
Solesmes method. He obtained permission from the Sacred Congregation
of Rites in Rome to incorporate his method into the new editions (Solesmes
edition) which, consequently, contain considerably more material of an
editorial nature. In addition to the above-mentioned phrase marks the
Solesmes editions make consistent use of five other signs: the quarter bar,
the comma, the dot, the horizontal episema, and the vertical episema. Fol-
lowing is a brief explanation of these signs.

a. The full bar, half bar, quarter bar, and comma are signs for phrasing
or breathing [see, for example, the Gradual In sole, L 344], Without ques-
tioning their practical usefulness, we may well (and often have to) disre-
gard them in our analytical studies, except for the full bar, extending

i See p. 17.

The Notation 125

through the entire staff like the modern bar line. This bar often serves to
separate melodic units which are of basic importance particularly in the
Tracts, Responsories, and Graduals, as will be seen later. 2 None of these
signs occur in the medieval manuscripts.

b. The dot, called punctum-mora (L. mora, length, duration), is placed
after a note or, occasionally in neumes, above it. It doubles the value of the
affected note, making it a quarter-note rather than an eighth-note. Like
the phrase signs, the dot does not occur in the early sources.

c. The horizontal episema (Gr. additional sign) is a horizontal stroke
placed over a note or, occasionally, a group of two, three, or four notes
[see the end of the Offertory Posuisti, L 438]. In the Solesmes system it in-
dicates a slight lengthening of the notes above which it appears [see L, p.
xx]. These horizontal episemas are not editorial marks, as are the other
signs. They were adopted from the early St. Gall manuscripts which, as we
have seen, frequently employ the episema particularly in connection with
the virga and the clivis and also letters that pertain to details of rhythm.
Mocquereau and his followers have given a prominent role to these manu-
scripts, which they have termed "rhythmic manuscripts." 3 The Solesmes
episema is also used where the rhythmic manuscripts have the letter t or a
specially formed neume believed to indicate lengthening of a note. For
instance, in the Gradual Haec dies [778] the episema over the initial neume
reproduces the t of the Codex St. Gall 555* [see Plate I]; that over the fourth
neume stems from the special form of the podatus; those over the two
climacus groups in the melisma "bo(nus)" stem from the climacus form
with horizontal strokes (punctum planum) instead of dots. Now and then
a rhythmic indication of the original is reproduced as punctum-mora, e.g.,
in the "special podatus with episema" near the beginning of the final
melisma on "(e)jus."

d. Finally, extensive and consistent use is made of the vertical episema,
a short vertical dash placed above or, occasionally, beneath a note. More
than any other sign, this is bound up with Mocquereau's interpretation of
Gregorian chant and the Solesmes method of singing derived from it. This
method employs, in a very prominent position, the so-called ictus, i.e., a
subtle emphasis or impulse which recurs on every second or third note, re-
sulting in small rhythmic entities (feet) of two or three notes, often in
irregular alternation. The rules for the placement of the ictus are fully
explained on p. xxviii of the Liber usualis. The vertical episema serves
to indicate the position of the ictus in all those cases in which it is not
apparent from the general rules. Needless to say, there is no trace of the
vertical episema in any of the medieval sources, and the historical validity
of the ictus theory is, to put it mildly, highly questionable. We shall return

2 See, e.g., the tables on pp. 271, 273.

3 See, e.g., Sunol, PaUographie, pp. 13 iff.

126 GREGORIAN CHANT

to this problem in the next section, dealing with the rhythm of Gregorian
chant

THE PROBLEM OF RHYTHM

Some time ago, when I told a friend of mine about my work on the
present book he said: "How can you write a book on Gregorian chant; you
don't know anything about its rhythm." It is true that I don't know any-
thing about Gregorian rhythm, anything certain, that is nor does any-
body else. In contrast to my friend, however, I do not consider a knowledge
of this matter a sine qua non, or ignorance of it a serious obstacle to fruit-
ful and valid investigation in our field. On the contrary, I cannot help
feeling that the importance of the rhythmic problem has been somewhat
exaggerated. The numerous efforts made in this direction appear to me
like so many answers to a question that was never raised. This does not
mean to say that Gregorian chant had no rhythm. Music without rhythm
is obviously a contradiction in itself. However, rhythm is not the same as
a fixed rhythmic system, that is, a clearly formulated and consistently ap-
plied set of rules governing the duration of the notes and other matters
pertaining to rhythm in the most general sense of the word. It is toward
the discovery of some such system that the efforts of so many scholars have
been directed without any incontestable or generally accepted result.
Could it be that they were chasing a phantom, .that they were trying to
find something that never existed? I believe so, for at least two reasons.
One is that the melodies of the chant, in their specific melodic design, lend
themselves to a rhythmic (or better, a-rhythmic?) rendition of the greatest
flexibility and variability, similar to what we find in so many f olkmelodies
(e.g., American Indian) of a "rhapsodic" character. In such folkmelodies
rhythm is present only as an accessory, not as a preconditioning element as
it is in tunes pertaining to dancing. Their rhythmic structure, if that is
what it should be called, is so evasive that it is bound to undergo variations
from individual to individual, and even more so from generation to genera-
tion. It seems to me that Gregorian chant is equally susceptible to such
vicissitudes.

The other reason is, that I am convinced there would be some tangible
evidence of systematic rhythm either in the musical sources or in the
medieval treatises if there ever had been a stable tradition in this field
comparable to that which we find in the purely melodic aspect of the
chant. True enough, there are the "rhythmic manuscripts" such as St. Gall
355>, which, no doubt, represent an effort in the direction of indication of
some rhythmic details. However, they are extremely limited in number
and locale, their importance as testimonials of the "true chant" has been
contested, and their indications more than anything else have been the

The Notation 127

source of disagreement and controversy among scholars. The latter remark
applies also to the few hints about rhythm that have been found in
medieval treatises. Every one of them has been interpreted as evidence of
opposite theories.

In view of this state of affairs at least, the way I see them I would like
nothing better than to close this chapter right here. Since, however, the
problem still looms large in the minds of scholars and students, it cannot
very well be omitted in a book on Gregorian chant without inviting strong
criticism. We shall therefore give a short resum of the various theories
that have been proposed.

It is customary to group these theories and their proponents into two
categories equalist and mensuralist. The chief difference is that the
former admit only one basic time-value, while the latter insist that various
time-values are involved. To the former group belong Pothier and Mocque-
reau; to the latter, Houdard, Riemann, Dechevrens, Fleury, Jeannin,
Wagner, and, more recently, Lipphardt and Jammers.

I. Pothier. Pothier developed his ideas about Gregorian rhythm in his
Les Melodies gregoriennes (iSSi). 1 It is difficult to gain an entirely clear
picture of his ideas from this book, and even more so from the writings of
the few followers he had. 2 Although he is usually, and to a certain degree
perhaps properly, considered an equalist, he repeatedly speaks about "des
notes plus longues et d'autres plus breves" (p. 184), and even says that
there are "plusieurs sortes de longues, comme aussi plusieurs sortes de
br&ves" (p. 185). Obviously what he had in mind is a "free rhythm" ad-
mitting numerous subtle deviations from the basic time unit. Beyond this,
he considered the Latin text with its accents a basic factor of the rhythmic
life, particularly in the syllabic and neumatic chants or passages, in which
the textual accent should make itself felt in the performance as a stress of
the corresponding note of the melody. In melismatic passages the accent
falls on the first note of each neume. His theory has been termed: "free
oratoric rhythm."

II. Mocquereau. In opposition to Pothier, Mocquereau developed what
has become known as the Solesmes systefn or, in distinction from Pothier's
theory, as "free musical rhythm." He proposed this first in vol. VII of the
Paleographie musicale and elaborated it in great detail in his Le Nombre
musical. His system is incorporated in the modern publications of the
Solesmes edition, which usually carry the remark: rhythmicis signis a Soles-

1 Dom Gajard, in an article "Le Chant grgorien et la Mthode de Solesmes" (RG,
XXIX, as, etc.) mentions a book by Gontier, Mdthode raisonne de plainchant (1859) as a
first attempt in this direction (pp. ayf). This may have been in opposition to others who
interpreted the neumes in terms of sixteenth-century mensural notation, e.g., the climacus
as a longa followed by two semibreves.

2 For instance, Dom Lucien David, Le Rythme verbal et mitsical dans le chant romain
(1933). For a relatively clear summary see Gajard's article (fn. i), p. 29.

128 GREGORIAN CHANT

mensibus monachis diligenter ornatum (carefully provided by the Monks
of Solesmes with rhythmic signs). He is much more an "equalist" than
Pothier, insisting, as he does, on a "rythme precis" as the foundation of
the performance. All notes have equal value except for those marked by
the horizontal episema, which are to be slightly lengthened, and those
marked by the punctum-mora, which are to be approximately doubled.
The latter occur only at the end of phrases or sections. However, doubled
and even tripled values also result from unison groups, as in the pressus
or in the distropha and tristropha. More fundamentally different and novel,
however, are his views about accentuation. Completely discarding Pothier's
idea of the text and of stress (intensite) as governing elements, he considers
the rhythm as a purely musical phenomenon, as a motion consisting of
6lan and repos (arsis and thesis; approximately, up-beat and down-beat).
These follow, not in regular patterns, but in irregular successions of groups
of two or three notes. The constantly recurring "impulse" involved in this
performance, the ictus, is indicated by the vertical episema whenever
necessary. These elementary groups, always binary or ternary, are com-
bined into rhythmic division of higher orders, incises, members, phrases,
and periods. For the clarification of these ideas and for teaching purposes
extensive use is made of cheironomic drawings (chironomie), wave-like
lines drawn between and above the notes in order to give a visual impres-
sion of the mouvement rythmique.

Mocquereau's system has not only been universally adopted in the
churches but has also found ardent admirers elsewhere. Perhaps its main
merit lies in the field of musical education, where it has effectively counter-
acted the mechanizing influence of time-beating. In fact, Mocquereau him-
self seems to have considered it as such, rather than claiming historical
correctness for it. Certainly, there is no historical foundation whatever for
the central part of his theory, the binary and ternary groups with the
ictus. 9 He devoted painstaking research to the "rhythmic manuscripts,"
from which he adopted the various signs for prolongation (episema, letters
t, x> m), disregarding, however, the signs for acceleration (c) or those that
indicate various degrees of intensity (f, cum fragore; k, clange). Thus, his
work represents a mixture of historical exactitude and ingenious fancy.
Considered aesthetically, its aim is to avoid manifest effects by introducing

3 Among his most outspoken critics were M. Emmanuel and Gastoue" who, in a re-
view of Le Nombre musical (TG, XIV, 258) said: "La tolerance que Dom M. a obtenue de
Rome pour ses signes rythmiques lui permet par un abus singulier d'aller au bout de
son dessin, qui est d'imposer 'au monde entier* son interpretation personelle des rythmes
mdivaux. II est temps de protester centre cette prevention, peu justified. II ne faut pas
que les practitiens du plain-chant se laissent r^genter par un savant qui defend sa
propre gloire, avec trop de partialiteY' An excellent presentation and well-balanced
criticism of Mocquereau's method is found in G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, pp.
1415.

The Notation 129

various layers of emphasis that balance each other, such as the textual
accent, the ictus, and the episema. In an ideal case (which is often realized)
these three kinds of "stress" would appear each at a different place.

III. As for the mensuralists, we can only briefly indicate the appallingly
different results they have arrived at, often upon the basis of the same
sources (St. Gall 55^; Codex Hartker) and the same theorists (e.g., Guido).

a. Houdard. Each neumatic symbol has the same temporal value (quar-
ter-note). Thus, the punctum and virga have the duration of a quarter-
note; in the podatus and clivis each tone is an eighth-note; a climacus, etc.,
is reproduced as eighth-note triplets; a four-tone neume as sixteenth-notes,
etc. See Le rythme du chant gregorien (1898).

b. Riemann. Transcription in strict 4/4-meter and phrases of four
measures, on the basis of the text, which is arbitrarily forced into Am-
brosian-hymn meter [see Handbuch der Musikgeschichte Lii, (1905), p. 34]:

//. // /../.. //
Da I mi- hi in / dis- co / caput Jo- annis bap-/ ti- stae /

/ / / . . / / . / . / /

Jet contri-/ status est rex / propter jusju- /ran- dum /

c. Dechevrens. After an early attempt (Etudes de science musicale, 1898)
he proposed in Les vraies melodies gregoriennes (1902) a rendition of the
Vesper Antiphons in regular meter (4/4, 2/4). The rendition is based on
the neumes of the Codex Hartker, which are interpreted as variable de-
pending upon the neighboring neumes. Thus, a virga with episema is a
half-note if followed by a virga (quarter-note), but a dotted quarter-note
if followed by a punctum (eighth-note). He makes extended use of grace
notes, e.g., for the quilisma and for the liquescent podatus. 4

d. Fleury. He emphasized the importance of the St. Gall episema and
the Romanus letters for prolongation, interpreting them as indications for
exactly doubled values (half-notes), the sign c (celeriter) as an indication
for halved values (eighth-notes). The three note values are combined ac-
cording to principles of the metrical feet. He gives no examples of tran-
scription. [See Ueber Choralrhythmus (transl. by Bonvin, in Publikationen
der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft,Beihefte, 1907).]

e. Wagner. Originally a champion of the Pothier-type of free rhythm
(Neumenkunde, ist edition, 1905), he later proposed an interpretation in
measured values (eighth-note, quarter-note, dotted quarter-note), but with-
out meter. His main tenet was that the virga as well as the punctum
planum (which he called virga jacens) indicate doubled values, which are

4 In the appendix to Les vraies melodies, Dechevrens gives two transcriptions of the
Vesptral, in Notation rythmique ancienne (1) and in Notation rythmique moderne (II).
Both are practically identical, save for the addition of bar-lines and meter in the latter.
He revised his theory once more in Composition littSraire et composition musicale (1910).
For an example see Gajard's article (fn. i), p. 23.

l$o GREGORIAN CHANT

increased to triple values (dotted quarter-note) by the episema. He also
assigned a fixed metrical scheme to each neume. [See Wagner II, 3538:; also
Adler's Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft I, (1924), 93 and losff.]

f. Jeannin. He admits only two time values, quarter- and eighth-note,
which are arranged in irregular measures, 3/8, 4/8, 5/8, etc., at least for
simple chants such as Antiphons. [See Etudes sur le rythme grdgorien
(19*6).]

g. Lipphardt studied the Antiphons on the basis of the Codex Hartker,
and, in contrast to Dechevrens [see under c.], arrived at a rendition in
triple meter, essentially an alternation of longs and short in the manner
of the first rhythmic mode. [See "Studien zur Rhythmik der Antiphonen"
(Die Musikforschung III, (1950), 47, 224).] Similar results had been formu-
lated by Sowa, in Quellen zur Transformation der Antiphonen (1935).

h. Jammers also studied the Antiphons as found in the Codex Hartker,
with more careful attention to the neumatic symbols. Like Dechevrens, he
concludes that all the Antiphons are essentially in 4/4-meter. [See Der
Gregorianische Rhythmus (1937)-]

For the purpose of further illustration, examples from the various men-
suralists are given in Fig. 23. In one case and another it has been possible
to show the same melody in different rhythmic interpretations. These are
grouped together.

If, in conclusion, I am permitted to express my own views, I would say
that for the over-all tradition of the chant the method of Pothier comes as
close to being a plausible and practicable solution as may be expected. It
recommends itself by the fact that it involves no "difficult problem" and,
for that reason, no "ingenious solution. 11 Its main premises, the importance
of the textual accent and of the first note of each neume, are clearly im-
plied in, and easily intelligible from, the notation as we find it in the great
majority of the manuscripts. I would not, however, advocate a strictly
equalistic performance of the melodies. In the neumatic and melismatic
chants particularly I would admit subtle nuances of rhythm on the basis
of Houdard's theory, the merits of which, it seems to me, have been slighted
or altogether overlooked. I would not go as far as to maintain that a five-
note neume should be sung in exactly the same time as one of two or three
notes, but the idea of subtly varying the speed according to the number
of notes found in a neume appeals to me, because it is as simple and
natural as the principles advocated by Pothier.

In offering these suggestions I do not mean to exclude the possibility of
seeking, and perhaps finding, special solutions for individual rhythmic
manuscripts, such as St. Gall 359 and 33^ Einsiedeln 121, or the Codex
Hartker. Here the main question is whether the rhythmic signs or letters
indicate only nuances (Mocquereau) or really different note values (men-
suralists). I agree with the position taken by practically every musicologist

The Notation
FIGURE 23

Sta - tu it e . i Do . mi

Ill'l 1 1 1

-go pru-

ft si - ma, quo pro- $n>

<fe- ris

| TT nnr^TE K y \ 11 I | 1 r
. i. ... *

Da mi- hi indis-co. caputjoannis bap-tis*tae et con-tria - ta-tua est rex propter jus-ju-ran-dum.

PlPffUr Mil BIT p

vc-ni -at bi-bat: et de ven-trc e*

jus

fluent aquae, vivac.

a. Houdard (after Gaudeamus, in Lc Rythme du chant grdgorien, p. 195)

b. Riemann (Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, I.ii, 34)

c. Dedievrens (Les mates melodies grtgoriennes, Vesp^ral I, p. 78)

e. Wagner (Adler, Handbuch, 1, 112)

f. Jeannin (Etudes sur le rythme grdgorien, p. 26)

g. Lipphardt (Die Musikforschung, III, 235)

h. Jammers (Der gregorianische Rhythmus, Examples, p. 46)

that the latter interpretation is correct. 5 Of all the various renditions listed
above it seems to me that those given by Wagner are by far the best, because
they are free from preconceived notions such as regular meter, notions
which belong to a considerably later period of music and which, if applied
to the Gregorian melodies, always involve some deviation from, or forced
interpretation of, the original. Wagner, on the contrary, has given rhythmic
interpretations which reflect every detail and nuance of such highly com-

5 To quote only one of the most recent statements: "The outstanding trait of Gregorian
cantillation, mentioned through all the Middle Ages, though neglected today, is the
mingling of short and long notes; the contemporary writers insist again and again on a
careful distinction between the two values." (C. Sachs, Rhythm and Tempo, 1953, p. 152).
See also the remarks in Stablein's article "Choral" (MGG, especially pp. i288ff)-

132 GREGORIAN CHANT

plex notations as that of St. Gall 555* and of similar manuscripts of the
ninth and tenth centuries. By the consistent application of the principle
that the stroke (virga or virga jacens) represents a long value, the dot
(punctum) a short one, he has succeeded in giving plausible explanations
for the various modifications of the neumes, for instance, the different
forms of the podatus or the dimacus to which we have called attention in
our description of Plate I [see p. 120]. His table showing the rhythmic
equivalents of all the neumes 6 provides a solid basis for the interpretation
of the early manuscripts, and his transcriptions of the Graduals Sciant
gentes and Specie tua, as well as of other melodies, demonstrate the prac-
tical applicability of his method, 7

I am less confident about Wagner's attempts to apply the same rhythmic
interpretation to such a late source as a German manuscript of the fifteenth
century. 8 All evidence points to the fact that the rhythmic performance of
chant was an early practice which was lost after c. 1000. One of the most
eloquent testimonies comes from Aribo, who, in his De Musica of c. 1070,
says: "In earlier times not only the inventors of melodies but also the
singers themselves used great circumspection that everything should be in-
vented and sung in proportion (proportionaliter et invenirent et canerent).
This consideration perished some time ago and is now entirely buried." 9

e Wagner II, 395ff; a short excerpt also in Adler's Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, I
(and ed., 1929), 93.

7 See Wagner 11, 405; Adler's Handbuch, pp. 105, ii2f. Wagner points out that different
early manuscripts, such as St. Gall 35$ and Einsiedeln 12 i, often show different rhythmic
readings [Handbuch, p. 112]. This fact, however, does not invalidate the premise of
Wagner's research. It only shows that rhythm (in the sense as we understand it here)
was an accessory element which was greatly variable in time and locale. Each of the early
manuscripts has its own rhythm.

8 See Adler's Handbuch, p. 107.

9 GS, II, 22^a; also J. Smits van Waesberghe, Aribonis De Musica (1951), p. 49. Unless
we admit the possibility that the melodies themselves underwent fundamental changes
that caused them to lose their "proportion" (of phrases?) a surmise never seriously con-
sidered by Gregorianists Aribo's remark can only refer to proportional note-values.

CHAPTER THREE

The Tonality

THE CHURCH MODES

tonal basis of Gregorian chant is a system of eight tonalities,
-known as church modes. Each of these is an octave-segment of the
diatonic (Omajor) scale, with one of its tones playing the role of a central
tone or tonic, comparable to the tone C in the C-major scale. The octave
range is called ambitus, the central tone, finalis. There are four such finales,
namely, d, e, f, and g. To each of these belong two modes which differ in
their ambitus: one of them starts with the final and extends to its upper
octave, while the other starts a fourth below the final and extends to the
fifth above it. Those of the former type are called authentic, of the latter,
plagal. 1 For the complete system, two sets of names were used. The older
terminology employs the Greek terms protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrar-
dus (first, second, third, fourth) for the finals and uses the terms authentic
or plagal for additional distinction. The other terminology, more com-
monly employed from the tenth century to the present day, simply num-
bers them from one to eight:

MODE FINALIS AMBITUS

Protus authenticus Primus tonus i d d-d'

Protus plagius Secundust. 2 d A-a

Deuterus auth. * Tertiust. 3 e e-e'

Deuterus plag. Quartust, 4 e B-b

Trims auth. Quintust. 5 f f-P

Trims plag. Sextust. 6 f c-c'

Tetrardus auth. Septimus t. 7 g g-g'

Tetrardus plag. Octavus t. 8 g d-d'

Yet another terminology reverts to ancient Greek theory, in which the
names Dorian, Lydian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, and others were employed
to designate octave species or complete scales. Modern scholars have made

l Fom Gr. plagios, slanting, sideways, subsidiary. The Commemoratio brevis employs
the terms auctoralis and subjugalis.

133

!4 GREGORIAN CHANT

numerous attempts to solve the problem of the relationship between the
two theoretical systems, the Greek and the medieval, without having been
able to arrive at a universally accepted answer. For our purpose it suffices
to say that the above names were applied in Greek theory to octave seg-
ments starting respectively on e, d, c, and B; while in the system of the
church modes they denote octaves starting respectively on d, e, f, and g,
so that they are synonymous with protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus.
The plagal varieties are indicated by the prefix hypo-, so that hypodorian
is the second mode, hypophrygian the fourth, etc. Considering everything,
it is probably best not to use the Greek names at all in connection with
Gregorian chant. 2

It is hardly necessary to point out that each of the eight modes represents
a tonal realm of individual structure, the basic difference being the posi-
tion of the half-tones with regard to the final. Thus, in mode i the half-
tones (e-f and b-c') begin at the second and sixth degrees; in mode 3 at the
first and fifth; in mode 5 at the fourth and seventh; and in mode 7 at the
third and sixth; while in the plagal modes one is above, the other below
the final.

The four authentic modes are sometimes called Ambrosian, the others
Gregorian, with the implication (or explicit statement) that the former
were "invented" by St. Ambrose, the latter "added 11 by St. Gregory. There
is not the least bit of evidence to support this story, nor even to make it
appear probable or possible. First of all, there is no difference, as to tonal
structure in general, between the Ambrosian and the Gregorian reper-
tories, both of which employ the complete system of eight modes in gen-
erally the same way. Both repertories, moreover, give clear evidence of
having been formed some time before the system of the eight modes was
established. Otherwise there could not be so many melodies as there actu-
ally are that do not conform in one way or another with the theoretical
system. The earliest allusion to this is found in a fragmentary treatise by
Alcuin (735-804), friend and adviser of Charlemagne [see List of Sources,
p. 54, no. 17], Very likely it was in this period, sometimes called the
"Carolingian Renaissance/' that the tonal aspect of the Gregorian reper-
tory became the subject of investigation and classification. The impulse
for this may have come from Byzantium which exercised considerable
influence on Western thought during the eighth century. Not only are the

2 Most of the important theorists employ the names protus, deuterus, etc., or primus
secundus, etc. The earliest mention of the Greek scale designations is in the Mustca
cnchiriadis: ". . . protus autentus or plagis, deuterus autentus or plagis, or modus Dorius,
Phyrgius, Lydius, etc., names that have come from the vocabulary of the gentiles" (GS t I,
i5gb). Exceptional, because of its exclusive use of the Greek names, is a tenth-century
treatise -written in Old High German and ascribed to Notker, in which, however, the
terms Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian denote the scales respectively on c, d, e
and f, not on d, e, f, and g (De octo modis; GSj I, 98).

The Tonality 135

early designations, protus, deuterus, etc., authenticus, plagius, all derived
from Greek words, but thejiystem of eight modes has an exact counterpart
in Byzantine theory, where it is known as octoechos (eight tones). In short,
the term "tonal basis" used in the first sentence of this chapter is correct
only in the technical, not in the historical sense of the word.

Occasionally we shall employ a term which occurs in some of the medi-
eval treatises and which, although rarely used by modern musicologists
and Gregorianists, nevertheless is not devoid of usefulness. This is the term
maneria, which implies a classification, not of eight, but of four categories,
one for each of the finals. Thus, the four maneriae are the protus, deuterus,
tritus, and tetrardus, without the subdivision into authentic and plagal. 3

The previous statement that the ambitus of each mode is an octave, is a
somewhat artificial simplification, for most of the Gregorian melodies re-
quire the addition of one degree below the bottom note of the octave seg-
ment, which thus becomes extended to a ninth. This additional tone is
required especially in the authentic modes, in which it represents the
degree below the final, a degree often touched upon in cadential or semi-
cadential formulae, but which may also occur elsewhere during the course
of the melody. It is called subfinalis or subtonium modi, the former name
being less commendable because it properly applies only to the authentic
modes.

While the earliest medieval theorists recognize only the octave ambitus
dividing it into a fifth plus fourth (diapente, diatessaron) in the authentic
modes and into a fourth plus fifth in the plagal modes a more realistic
point of view prevails in the tenth-century Dialogus in musica of Oddo of
Cluny (or one of his pupils; see List of Sources, no. 25). Here we find the
octave ambitus enlarged not only by the subtonium modi, in all the modes
except the sixth, but also often by one degree above the octave, so that
the total range becomes a tenth. The following table shows Oddo's ex-
planations in a condensed form: 4

AMBITUS ACCORDING TO ODDO
AUTHENTIC PLAGAL

Mode: i. c-d' (ninth) 2. G-b (tenth)

3. d-e' (ninth) 4. A-c' (tenth)

5. e-P (ninth) 6. c-d 7 (ninth)

7, f-a' (tenth) 8. c-e' (tenth)

In modern explanations the modes are usually described as having yet
another characteristic property, i.e., the so-called dominant, a secondary

3 See G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, p. 153. Cf. GS, II, g66a (Tonale S. Bernardi)
and CS, II, i57a (Guido de Caroli-Loco, Guide of Cherlieu). Probably the Tonale is also
by Guido (d. 1158); see "Bernhard von Clairevaux" in MGG.

4 G5, I, 2 59 ff.

136 GREGORIAN CHANT

tonal center which, as a rule, is a fifth above the final in the authentic
modes, and a third above it in the plagal modes. However, the dominant
can hardly be said to be a characteristic of the mode, because the great
majority of the melodies of a given mode fail to show any clear evidence
of the dominant. Nor does the dominant occur in any of the medieval
descriptions of the modes. Actually, the dominant is a characteristic prop-
erty, not of a mode in general, but of a few special melodies associated with
that mode, such as the psalm tones or other recitation tones. In these the
dominant (more properly called tenor) does play a prominent role as the
pitch for the recitation while, on the other hand, the basic characteristics
of the mode, final and ambitus, are often absent. Naturally, among the
many thousands of chants there are not a few in which the dominant is
clearly recognizable. Particularly among the melodies of the second mode
there are a number which emphasize the f as a reciting pitch, e.g., the Anti-
phon Dominus Jesus [661], the Introit Dominus dixit [392], the Com-
munion Dominus regit [567], or the Offertory Ad te Domine levavi [321].
Many others, however, show no evidence of it. Moreover, in some chants
with a recognizable recitation tone or pitch of emphasis this is not the
pitch of the psalm-tone tenor. Thus, several Introits of the fourth mode,
e.g., Accipite [890], Involuntate [1066], Judica me [603], or Misericordia
[816], show recitation on f or g, rather than on the tenor of the psalm tone,
which is a. On the whole, it cannot be said that the dominant is a char-
acteristic of the mode; it is a characteristic of the recitation tones associated
with the mode and of a number of melodies derived from or related to
these recitation tones.

Finally, mention may be made of attempts to describe and define the
church modes, not as abstract scale formations determined by final, am-
bitus, and possibly pitch of emphasis, but as categories characterized by a
number of standard formulae or motives recurring in the melodies of that
mode. This phenomenon, often referred to in modern musicological
studies as "melody type," 6 is fairly clearly evident in various musical cul-
tures of the East; e.g., in the Byzantine and Armenian echoi (octoechos,
system of eight echoi}, in the Syrian risqolo, the Javanese patet, the Hindu
ragd; and the Arabian maqam. Whether a similar state of affairs existed in
Roman chant at an early time, as some scholars have maintained, is en-
tirely conjectural. The repertory as we know it shows hardly any evidence
for such a surmise. True enough, standard formulae play a prominent
role in certain types of chant, particularly in the Tracts, Responsories, and
Graduals; but the method employed in them seems to have little more in
common with the "melody-type" phenomenon than the general principle
of standard formulae which, of course, can be applied to widely different
procedures. At any rate, the standard-formula method is a characteristic

6 See HDM, s.v. "Melody Type."

The Tonality 137

only of certain special categories, not of a mode. The Tracts of the eighth
mode have different formulae from those of the Responsories of the eighth
mode; and neither of these, nor any others, recur consistently in the over-
all repertory of this mode.

MODAL CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION

With the exception of some very simple chants such as the recitation
tones for the prayers and readings [g8ff], each Gregorian melody is assigned
to one of the eight modes. The basis of this classification is the final note
of the melody. According to whether this is d, e, f, or g, the chant is in the
category of protus (modes i and 2), deuterus (3 and 4), tritus (5 and 6), or
tetrardus (7 and 8). The range of the melody determines the choice be-
tween the authentic or plagal variety. In the modern books the mode is

indicated by a figure placed underneath the title, e.g.: offert - or Comm -

5* *

[480, 481]. The modal classification is also indicated in the index (by the

figure preceding the initial word of the chant), and this makes it easy to
examine the frequency of each mode in the over-all repertory as well as
in the various types of chant. The following table provides an insight into
this question.

TABLE OF MODAL DISTRIBUTION 1

Maneria: Pr. Dt. Tr. Tet.

Mode: 12 34 56 78

1. Introits (L) 29 18 34 18 12 12 16 18

2. Introits (Cod. Einsiedeln) 29 18 26 20 10 12 19 13

3. Graduals (L) 15 23 14 5 57 o 14 i

4. Graduals (St. Gall Mss) 35 13 47 15

5. Alleluias (L) 48 25 14 23 62 28 24

6. Alleluias (different melodies) 33 14 8 13 32 23 18

7. Tracts (L) o 18 o o o o o 29

8. Offertories (L) 22 21 .15 24 8 12 i 27

9. Offertories (Codex Einsiedeln) 27 27 17 30

10. Communions (L) 39 17 10 17 14 18 16 29

11. Communions (Cod. Einsiedeln) 25 18 9 18 1421 15 25

12. Antiphons (Cod. Lucca) 369 132 90 167 32 73 252 449

13. Antiphons (Regino) 336 55 99 137 30 34 196 348

14. Responsories (Codex Hartker) 91 79 62 78 38 22 125 139

15. Hymns (L) 32 20 15 21 02 3 35

iThe tabulations marked L are taken from the Liber usualis. Those referring to
medieval manuscripts have been taken from the following books: nos. 2, 4, 91 11, 12 from
P. Ferretti, Esihetique grdgorienne (1938), pp. 276, 161, 195, 276, 247; no. 12 from
Wagner III, 303; no. 13 from AfGG, s.v. "Antiphon" (B. Stablein).

1^8 GREGORIAN CHANT

To start with the most numerous chants, the Antiphons, a glance at the
table shows two facts: a decided preference for the modes i and 8, and a
relatively weak representation of the modes 5 and 6, that is, of the f-tonality
(tritus). Very dose to the Antiphons in regard to modal distribution are
the Alleluias, as appears from the following table showing the percentages
for the four maneriae, i.e., authentic and modal combined in one group:

D E F G

Antiphons 32 16 7 45 (%)

Alleluias 44 20 5 32 (%)

Most of the other chants show essentially the same picture, though with
a tendency toward a more even participation of all the modes, a tendency
which is particularly evident in the Introits and Communions. A striking
contrast, however, is presented by the Graduals, Tracts, and Hymns. In
the Graduals the tritus tonality, usually the weakest, becomes by far the
strongest, represented by almost one-half of the total. No less striking is
the complete absence within this maneria of the plagal variety, that is, of
mode 6. Mode 8, which has a full share in all the other chants, is repre-
sented by only one example, Dilexisti justitiam [12 16], 2 Yet another plagal
mode, mode 4, is very rare in the Graduals. The five examples given in L
are actually reduced to two melodies, that of Domine praevenisti [1207]
which is also used for Benedicta et venerabilis [1264] and Dolorosa et
lacrimabilis [1633^, an( i that of Tenuisti manum [591] which recurs, with
some omissions, in Memor fui [1580].

A very peculiar situation exists in the Graduals of mode 2. This mode
seems to be rather fully represented, its number being second only to that
of mode 5. From the musical point of view, however, this number is highly
deceptive, since all the Graduals of mode 2 employ one and the same
melody or, to put it more correctly, a small number of fixed melodic phrases
that recur in various combinations. They are all representatives of one
and the same melodic type, usually referred to as the "Gradual-type Justus
ut palma" [see p. 357]. An exception is the Gradual Adjutor meus [G 1 15],
which, together with its modern adaptations, Improperium and Repleta
est, is assigned to the second mode. Actually it is vaguely related to the
Graduals of the first mode and could just as well be classified as such [see
PP- 35 lf ]- In any case, this does not affect the general picture of modal
distribution in the Graduals, which can be briefly described as one in
which the plagal modes are represented only by a very small number of
melodies. It is tempting to speculate on the historical significance of this
fact by interpreting it as evidence of an early stage of Gregorian tonality
in which this was limited to the authentic modes, in other words, as evi-

2 In G also Deus vitam [G 1*8] and Deus exaudi [G 156], both having the same melody.

The Tonality 139

dence in favor of the "Ambrosian-versus-Gregorian-modes" theory previ-
ously alluded to. However, it should be noticed that the Gradual of Easter
Sunday, Haec dies unquestionably one of the oldest in the whole group
belongs to the second mode. Moreover, an entirely different picture of
modal distribution is presented by another type of chant no less ancient
than the Graduals, that is, the Tracts.

Turning to these, we are confronted with the most striking aspect of
Gregorian tonality, there being Tracts in no modes other than the second
and the eighth. As in the case of the Graduals of mode 2, the figures given
in our table eighteen for mode 2 and twenty-nine for mode 8 are de-
ceptive, since in each of these two modes we find a situation quite similar
to that presented by the Graduals of mode 2, characterized by the exten-
sive use of standard phrases which recur in all the melodies [see pp. 5158].
This method of "composition," often referred to as centonization, is the
very opposite of "original creation" and unquestionably represents a very
archaic technique. It bears a striking resemblance to the ta' amim tech-
nique which plays an important role in Jewish chant [see p. 363]. On the
basis of these considerations P. Wagner has come to the conclusion that the
plagal scales of the deuterus and tetrardus are the "urchristliche Tonarten"
(arch-Christian tonalities). 3 In this connection it is interesting to notice
that centonization plays an important role in yet another category of
chants, the Responsories of Matins. Unlike the Tracts, Responsories exist
in all the modes, but those of modes 2 and 8 stand apart from the others
because of their much more extended and consistent use of standard
phrases and centonization technique. Thus, the Responsories provide ad-
ditional evidence for the theory that the plagal scales of the deuterus and
tetrardus occupied a special place in the formative process leading to the
fully developed system of the church modes.

The tendency, previously noticed in the Antiphons and Alleluias, to
avoid the tritus is most fully realized in the hymns. Not a single hymn in
the fifth mode is found in the Liber, and the more complete collections
given in the Antiphonals include only one such melody, Aeterne rector
[AR 867] = Orbis patrator [AM 1069], obviously of a late date, as appears
from its cadential formula, e-c-d-e-f (e-c-d-f-f in AM). The two hymns in
the sixth mode which are given in the Liber are Stabat mater [1424] and
Virgo virginum [1424], both sung to the same melody, for the late Feast
of die Seven Dolours. Originally, the Stabat mater (text by Jacopone da
Todi, d. 1306?) was composed as a sequence [i634 T ]. The Antiphonals
have three other hymns in the sixth mode.

The question is often raised as to whether there exists in Gregorian
chant a tendency toward tonal unification between the chants sung during
one and the same service, for instance, at Mass or at Matins of a given

3 Wagner III, 525.

140 GREGORIAN CHANT

feast. The answer is an unequivocal "no." As a rule, the chants show no
attempt whatever at tonal organization. The only exceptions are certain
Offices of late feasts, for which chants were occasionally written in a seriate
arrangement of modes, starting with mode i and continuing with modes 2,
3, etc. Thus the five Antiphons for Vespers of Trinity Sunday [914] as well
as those for Lauds and Vespers of Corpus Christi [939, 956] are successively
in modes i, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The same principle occurs in the nine Respon-
sories of Matins which, for both feasts, employ the order of the eight
modes in the first eight Responsories, the ninth being in mode 4 (for
Trinity) or in mode i (for Corpus Christi). 4 In the present-day liturgy for
Corpus Christi [g26fF| the original order is somewhat modified, as shown
here:

4- 5- 6 -

Original: Panis quern (4) Coenantibus (5) Acceptt (6)
Present: Coenantibus (5) Accepit (6) Ego sum (7)

The last Responsory of the original series, Unus pants (i), is replaced by
the Te Deum.

MODAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MELODIES

On the basis of the above-described system of the church modes and
classification of the chants, we shall now turn to the important question
concerning the "practical application of the system" or (to avoid any
implication of precedence) the relationship between the modal theory
and the melodies themselves. A comprehensive investigation of this prob-
lem would involve the individual consideration of nearly all the chants
of the Gregorian repertory and, therefore, would require not only an ex-
cessive amount of labor and time but also a much greater portion of this
book than can reasonably be allotted to it. On the other hand, to base
the study on a limited number of examples picked at random here and
there may mean to admit the dangerous element of chance or, even worse,
of preconceived notions. Probably the best way out of this dilemma is to
investigate the problem on the basis of a clearly circumscribed segment
of the repertory, such as exists in the various types of chant. We shall
select the Communions, which commend themselves for this purpose be-
cause of the relative shortness and simplicity of their melodies as well as
by the fairly even distribution of the modes. Using these chants as a point
of departure, we shall draw on other chants in order to make the picture
more complete.

It may be stated at the outset that the answer to our initial question

* See, e.g., Wagner III, 349, 351.

The Tonality 141

will be far less simple and unequivocal than may be expected; far less so,
indeed, than would be the answer to an analogous question in a more
recent period of music for instance, the question as to the relationship
between the system of major-minor tonalities and the compositions by
Haydn or Mozart. While there are numerous chants that readily fall in line
with the theory of the church modes, there are many others that do not.
Examples of non-conformity are especially frequent in the Communions,
and this fact is an additional reason for selecting them as the basis of our
study. They represent, in a convenient frame, nearly all the aspects of
Gregorian tonality, from the simplest to the most perplexing.

In the subsequent study we shall start with a consideration of the regular
chants, those which fully conform with the theoretical system, proceeding
thereafter to those that show some irregularity of tonal (or modal) be-
havior. Such irregularity may result from one or several of the following
factors: limited ambitus, excessive ambitus, use of b-flat, transposition,
each of which will be considered in a separate section. The material for the
investigations are the chants as given in the modern publications, par-
ticularly the Liber usualis. This remark is not quite as superfluous as it
may appear to be at first thought. It means that we shall rely on the
Solesmes editions not only for the melodies as such, but also for their
modal assignment. Can we assume that these data are entirely reliable?
In general, the answer to this question is undoubtedly positive, since in
the great majority of cases the mode is clearly apparent from the final
and the ambitus. There are, however, not a few melodies, probably more
than two hundred, whose modal assignment presents problems of one
kind or another. The most problematic are those considered in our last
section, entitled "Modal Ambiguity." 1

THE REGULAR CHANTS

As a point of departure, there is indicated below for each mode one
Communion which fully accords with the theoretical requirements of
finalis and ambitus.

Mode i: Viderunt omnes [410] Mode 5: Dico vobis [984]

2: -Ego sum pastor [439] 6: Exsultavit [35?]

3: Gustate [1015] 7: Dicite [337]

4: Quoddico [1173] 8: Modicum [824]

l To my knowledge, this is the first attempt at a detailed description of Gregorian
tonality, assuredly one of the most difficult problems of the chant. I am fully aware of
its limitations, but I hope that it will provide a basis for further studies of a more ample
scope and of a more definitive character. A very useful study of some of the aspects in-
volved, especially of the theoretical foundation, is F. S. Andrews, Mediaeval Modal
Theory (unpublished dissertation, Cornell University, 1935).

14* GREGORIAN CHANT

Although these eight melodies are certainly not sufficient in themselves
to prove anything, they are nonetheless indicative of certain traits which
we will find confirmed by the investigation of additional material. One of
these is a contrast between the authentic and the plagal modes in the
extent to which .they utilize the degrees of their respective ranges. The
melodies of the authentic modes move freely within their full ambitus,
with perhaps the exception of the subfinal and the octave above the final,
which are only occasionally touched upon. In the plagal melodies, on the
other hand, the upper fifth is the only part of the ambitus fully exploited,
while the notes below the final are rarely used, in some cases only once.
The difference can be conveniently indicated by the modern term tessitura
which "differs from range in that it does not take into account a few
isolated notes of extraordinarily high or low pitch." 2 The difference, then,
is that in the authentic modes the tessitura comprises most of the ambitus,
while in the plagal modes it takes up only its upper fifth.

Another important trait, noticeable at least in some of the examples, is
the tendency toward what may be called tonal (or modal) instability. The
meaning of this term will become clear if we draw upon a modern (though
not too modern) example for comparison. In a melody by Bach, Mozart,
Beethoven we can take it for granted that its tonality is established not
only by the final cadence but from the very outset, being achieved by the
constant emphasis on the characteristic degrees of the scale, tonic, fifth,
third, etc. Nowhere in the wide boundaries of major-minor tonality is
there place for a melody such as shown here:

FIGURE 24

=t=t=

It is precisely this tonal behavior to which the term "tonal instability"
refers, and which, though impossible in music of a more recent period, not
only occurs frequently in Gregorian chant but actually forms a character-
istic trait of some of its modes. As the reader may perceive from a pe-
rusal of the above eight Communions, and as can easily be confirmed by
many other examples, the melodies of the deuterus, with the final on e
(modes 3 and 4) are the ones most liable to tonal instability. There are
numerous chants in this group whose opening phrases, through their out-
line and cadential points, suggest any other tonality than E; among the
shorter chants there are not a few in which this tonality is never estab-
lished until the very last note appears, the Introit Intret oratio [541] being
an example in point. In fact, it is quite difficult to find a chant such as the
Responsory Omnes amid [671] in which the E-tonality is indicated by the
first cadence at least, though hardly by the opening notes.

2 HDM, s.v. "Tessitura."

The Tonality 143

In contrast to the peculiar evasiveness of the deuterus, tonal stability
prevails in the tetrardus, particularly in the melodies o the seventh mode
which, it will be noticed, comes closest of all the modes to the modern
major. Of this, the Communion Dicite indicated above is a characteristic
example, with its cadences on g, d', b, and g. In the two other groups,
protus and tritus, the situation is more ambivalent although tonal stability
seems to prevail. Possibly a detailed study of the complete repertory, di-
vided according to types and modes, would lead to more definite statements
than we are able to make. As a modest contribution to such a study, the
Alleluias of mode i may be considered briefly. Each of these begins with a
well-defined opening phrase accompanying the word "Alleluia." Among
the thirty-three different melodies found in this group there are eighteen
in which this opening phrase ends on d, seven on a, three on f, and five
on g. The general impression is that of tonal stability established at the
very beginning of the melody by a cadence either on the "tonic" or on
the "dominant."

We must leave it to the reader to examine other chants of the "regular"
type which will serve to put the previous explanations on a fuller and
more secure basis. In order to facilitate this important task, there follows
a list of additional examples for each mode.

Mode i: Antiphon Apertis thesauris [463]; Alleluia Laudem Domini
[448]; Introit Exsurge [504]; Hymn Deus tuorum militum [419].

Mode 2: Antiphon Ante luciferum [463]; Introit Veni et ostende [343];
Alleluia Dies sanctificatus [409]; Offertory Ad te Domine [321]; Re-
sponsory Comedetis [927].

Mode 3: Antiphon Adhaereat [297]; Gradual Adjutor [498]; Alleluia
Cognoverunt [817]; Offertory Domine exaudi [620]; Responsory O
magnum mysterium [382].

Mode 4: Antiphon Candor est [1380]; Hymn Ad regias [814]; Introit
Reminiscere [545]; Responsory Quern vidistis [377].

Mode 5: Antiphon Domine tu mihi [661]; Introit Loquebar [1215]; Of-
fertory Expectans [1043]; Responsory Flange [722].

Mode 6: Introit Esto mihi [511]; Offertory Domine in auxilium [1046].

Mode 7: Introit Puer natus [408]; Gradual Benedictus Dominus [478];
Alleluia Exivi [831]; Responsory Beata [383].

Mode 8: Introit Ad te levavi [318]; Alleluia Angelus Domini [786]; Of-
fertory Beata es [1272]; Responsory Astiterunt [732].

The reader wishing to enlarge this list will soon discover that, except
for a few groups such as mode 2 and mode 7, it is not too easy to find
perfectly regular examples, that is, melodies fully conforming with the
theoretical system. In the field of the Communions, which we selected as
the basis of our study, an examination of the complete repertory shows
that in two modes, mode 4 and mode 5, the examples previously given are

144 GREGORIAN CHANT

the only ones that could be called regular; and that in all the other modes,
with the sole exception of mode 7, the number of regular examples is less
than that of melodies showing some irregularity of their tonal (or modal)
behavior. We shall now turn to a consideration of the various aspects of
this phenomenon.

LIMITED RANGE

The distinction between the authentic and the plagal mode of the same
final (manerid) is based on the ambitus. Common to both is a range ex-
tended from the sub-final to the fifth above the final. Therefore the dis-
tinction depends upon the degrees above the fifth or those below the
sub-final. If none of these degrees occur in a given melody, the situation
is, a priori, ambivalent, as, for instance, in a melody closing on d and
confined to the range from c to a (schematically represented by the symbol
d:c-a), which theoretically could be assigned to mode i as well as to mode 2.
One may be inclined to dismiss the whole question as rather moot, pre-
ferring in such cases simply to indicate the maneria, about which there
is no doubt. Actually, the question has practical significance for chants
such as Antiphons, Introits, and Responsories (formerly also Communions),
since these are connected with a Psalm or a psalm verse sung to a standard
"tone" (psalm tone, etc.), which is selected according to the mode of the
chant.

As early as the beginning of the eleventh century, theorists discuss the
problem presented by the small-range melodies, and inform us that they
should be considered as plagal. Thus, Berno of Reichenau says: "If a chant
does not reach up to the fifth nor include the lower fourth, it is customary
to consider it as plagal because of its shortness and imperfection." 3 This
rfieans that chants of the type d:c-g and d:B-g should be regarded as plagal,
as indeed they always are. 4 A little treatise, Quomodo de arithmetica
procedit musica, states that a chant is authentic if it descends one or two
degrees below the final and ascends one or more degrees above the fifth
(e.g., d:c-b); plagal if it extends more than two degrees below the final,
even though going up one or two degrees above the fifth (e.g., d: A-c'); and
also plagal if it has a small range, not exceeding a fifth (e.g., d:og or
d:d-a).

An examination of the chants shows that these rules are by no means
regularly observed. To start with the last statement, it suffices to point out
that among the chants of the type g:g-d' there are two, the Alleluia Crastina
die [361] and the Antiphon Terra tremuit [641], which are assigned to

4 With the possible exception of some Antiphons, since in this category modal assign-
ment depends primarily on melodic types. See pp. 223, 394ff.

5 G5, II, 6oa.

The Tonality 145

mode 8, while the Antiphons Magnificatus est [364] and Responsum
accepit [1366] are assigned to mode 7. The second statement of the Quo-
modo treatise concerns melodies with an excessive range (more than an
octave), which will be considered in the next chapter. As for the first state-
ment, we should like to postpone its consideration until after the study
of a type which, although the most interesting of the various small-range
configurations, is not mentioned by Berno nor in the Quomodo treatise:
these are melodies which extend from the sub-final to the upper fifth
(d:c-a), thus employing exactly that range common to both authentic and
plagal ambitus. Turning to a study of these chants, we may begin once
more with a list of the Communions that fall under this category:

Mode i: Petite [843]; Amen dico [1206]; Visionem [1587],
2: Dominus Jesus [657]; Vos qui secuti [1614],
4: Memento verbi [1065].

8: Introibo [508]; Pater si non [601]; Spiritus ubi vult [906];
Panem caeli [1495].

It appears that most of the subfinal-to-fifth Communions occur in the
protus and tetrardus, while, on the other hand, there are no examples of
the triius. This means that all the Communions with the final on f have
an ambitus clearly indicative of either mode 5 or mode 6. As for the modal
assignment, this is exclusively plagal in the deuterus (mode 4) and tetrardus
(mode 8), but predominantly authentic in the protus (modes i, 2).

Naturally, the number of chants included in this list is too small to
serve as a basis for general conclusions. Interestingly enough, however, a
fuller investigation confirms each of these findings. Following is a tabu-
lation based on all the chants of the Liber usualis:*

CHANTS WITH SUBFINAL-TO-FIFTH RANGE
MODE TOTAL ADVENT TO EASTER

Protus i c. 35 10 [331; 338; 365; 373; 443; 463; 466; 468; 550; 771]

2 C. 22 7 [427; 59<>; 651; 657; 663; 736; 770]

Deuterus 3 o o

4 c. 10 2 [336; 443]

Tritus 5 oo

600
Tetrardus 7 o o

8 c. 50 17 [333; 376; 406; 474; 508; 513; 580; 622; 624; 630;
640; 666; etc.]

6 Hymns and Short Responsories have been disregarded. The preparatory work for
this tabulation was done during a Seminar on Gregorian Chant (UCLA, Summer 1954)
by Miss Diane Kestin and Messrs. Sidney H. Appleman, William P. Malm, and Clyde E.
Sorensen. The figures of the "Total" column are approximate, while those from Advent
to Easter have been checked and can be assumed to be correct.

146 GREGORIAN CHANT

REMARKS:

a. Chants of this type are completely absent in the tritus, relatively rare
in the deuterus, and particularly frequent in the protus and tetrardus.
Their absence in the tritus results largely from the fact that the subtonium
below f is practically never used, so that chants in the tritus either stay
above the final, in which case they are authentic, or go two or more de-
grees below it, thus becoming plagal. Naturally, for a proper evaluation
of the figures given in the tabulation, the fact should be borne in mind that
in the total repertory of chants the protus and tetrardus occupy a consider-
ably more prominent place than the other two, there being approximately
750 chants in the protus, 450 in the deuterus, 250 in the tritus, and 900 in
the tetrardus. This, however, changes the result only by degrees, without
affecting its general validity. Percentage-wise, chants of the type under
consideration are most frequent in the protus (c. 12%), about half as
frequent in the tetrardus, and half again as frequent in the deuterus.

b. Another question of interest concerns the distribution of the small-
range melodies among the various types of chant. As may be expected, the
largest share, approximately one-half of the total, is held by the Antiphons
which, because of their shortness and simplicity of style, are bound to
include many melodies of a limited range. Contrary to expectation, how-
ever, the chants next in frequency are the Alleluias, with close to one-fifth
of the total. The Alleluias are commonly thought of as highly ornate,
melismatic chants. This they are indeed; nevertheless a surprisingly large
number of them are confined to a rather small range.

c. As for the modal assignment within each maneria, our figures con-
firm what was suggested by the Communions, that is, a near-exclusive
preference for the plagal assignment, except in the protus where assign-
ment to the authentic mode clearly prevails. It is not easy to find a con-
vincing reason for the strikingly different procedure encountered in the
protus. Nearly all the "authentic" melodies are short Antiphons which
move to a large extent within the third or fourth above the final, touching
the fifth only a few times, as Ecce in nubibus [331], Levate capita [365;
same melody], or Erat Pater [468]. In some cases the authentic assignment
could perhaps be defended because of certain details of the melodic design,
such as the ascending motion, from d to a, at the beginning of Germinavit
radix [443] and oiPostulavi [771]; the high beginning, with f-a, in Diffusa
est [373]; or the jump d-a that occurs twice in Tribus miraculis [466].

We can now return to the statement of the treatise Quomodo, according
to which chants ascending one or two degrees above the fifth are to be
considered as authentic, even though they descend one or two degrees be-
low the final. Without examining all the various configurations referred
to in this statement, we shall confine ourselves to the simplest of them, that
is, the one with an ambitus from the subfinal up to the sixth above the final

The Tonality 147

(type d:c-b). Considering the fact that the sixth lies outside the plagal
ambitus, one would expect to find the judgment of the treatise fully borne
out by the facts. Actually this is far from being the case. The over-all
picture presented by the subfinal-to-sixth chants is not much different from
that of subfinal-to-fif th chants, only slightly more balanced in favor of the
authentic assignment:

CHANTS WITH SUBFINAL-TO-SIXTH RANGE
MODE ADVENT TO EASTER

Protus i 13 [356; 357; 357; 412; 420; 426; 483; 491; 494; 515; 652;

692; 694]

* 2 [405; 474]

Deuterus 3 i [333]

4 6 [428; 462; 484; 654; 708; 781]

Tritus 5 o

6 o

Tetrardus 7 6 [398; 491; 578; 588; 726; 782]

8 6 [320; 371; 482; 557; 761; 783]

The strikingly large number of examples in mode i is explained by the
fact that nearly all of them are Antiphons modelled after exactly the same
standard theme which is characterized by a rising fifth (usually: c-d-a-b-a)
at or near the beginning, and often by a recitation on the fifth degree. 7 By
contrast, the two examples of the second mode, the Antiphon Et Jesus and
particularly the Alleluia Dominus regnavit, show an emphasis on f, which
is the reciting note (tenor) of the second mode (more correctly, of the
second psalm tone). Thus the distinction between authentic and plagal
chants is justified by inner criteria, that is, certain characteristics of the
melodic line which often assume decisive importance in cases where the ex-
ternal criterion of the ambitus fails.

As for the assignments in the deuterus and tetrardus, most of them can
be explained in a similar way. In the deuterus group, the Antiphon Ecce
Dominus [333] is the only melody which shows an emphasis on the fifth
degree (b), while all the others move mainly around the lower pitches, a, g,
and even f [see the Introit Omnis terra, 484], touching only occasionally
upon the c' and upon the b which, moreover, is usually lowered to b-flat.
Similar distinctions prevail in the tetrardus group. Several melodies of
mode 7 begin with a rising fifth (Antiphon Facta est [398]; Responsory
Recessit [726]), while others begin directly with the fifth degree and empha-
size it during the further course of the melody (Antiphons Cum angelis
[588] and Et ecce [782]). The melodies of mode 8, on the other hand, move
mainly around the fourth degree, c', which is the tenor of the eighth psalm
tone.

7 Gevaert, Mtlopde, th&me 4 (p. 236) and thtme 5 (p. 238). The opening motive fre-
quently appears with b-flat, see p. 153.

148 GREGORIAN CHANT

The foregoing explanations will suffice to illustrate the importance of
the internal criteria in the question of modal assignment for melodies of
an ambivalent ambitus. We may only add that occasionally they assume
the decisive role even against the clear evidence of an unequivocal ambitus.
An example in point is the Offertory Benedixisti [337] which, in view of
its ambitus (e:d-d'), is clearly authentic; nevertheless it is assigned to mode
4 because of its internal characteristics, which are the same as the ones
shown by the fourth-mode melodies of the above table.

Although in the great majority of cases the modal assignment of the
small-range melodies is corroborated by internal evidence, this is not al-
ways so. There are a number of chants in which the inner criteria them-
selves are uncertain or ambivalent, so that they fail to provide a basis for a
clear-cut decision. Moreover, in some cases the assignment is rather clearly
contradicted by the melodic design, a striking example being the Com-
munion Mirabantur [491], for which mode 8 would seem to be much more
proper than mode 7. Following are a few other chants whose modal assign-
ment could be challenged:

Mode i ors: Antiphons Venit lumen [463]; Postulavi [771]; Erat Pater

[468].
Alleluias Repleti fructu [1545]; Ego sum pastor [818]; O

quam bonus [898]; Dominus regnavit [405].
Communion Vos qui secuti [1392].
Mode 7 or 8: Alleluias Vos estis [1548]; Videbitis [1483],

Most of these chants contain some phrases suggestive of the authentic,
others of the plagal, mode. Usually the decision is made in favor of the
mode indicated by the opening phrase. We shall see later [p. 173] that in
the ninth and tenth centuries the mode of a chant, particularly of the
Antiphons, was determined by its beginning, even if this was in contradic-
tion to the mode (or rather, maneria) indicated by the final.

EXCESSIVE RANGE

This category includes chants whose range exceeds the authentic as well
as the plagal ambitus. The minimal range for such melodies is that of an
octave starting two degrees below the final and going up to the sixth above
it for instance, from c to c' in the deuterus, where the low c is outside the
authentic ambitus, the high c' outside the plagal. By going one or two
steps below or above the octave the range may increase to that of a ninth,
tenth, or occasionally even an eleventh, as in the Gradual Qui sedes [335].*
As may be expected, the modal assignment, whether authentic or plagal,
of these chants is as variable as in the field of chants with a limited range.

s We are not considering here the case of an extended ambitus resulting from the
combination of a lower-range respond and a higher-range verse, frequently encountered
in the Graduals and Offertories. See pp. 150!

The Tonality 149

No end would be served by entering into a detailed consideration of this
question. We shall limit ourself to a list of examples which will enable the
reader to form an idea as to whether, or to what an extent, the assignments
find their justification in specific traits such as have been indicated for the
small-range melodies.

CHANTS WITH EXCESSIVE RANGE

A. Extending Two Degrees below the Final

Protus:
Deuterus:
e:c-c'

e:c-d>

Tritus:
f:d-d>
f:d-e'
f:d-f

Tetrardus:
g:e-e'

none

All. Beatus quern [1479]

Com. Exsulta [406]

Off. Doctrinam [1513]

Ant. Dixit autem [1409]

Com. Jerusalem [563]

Ant. Postquam surrexit [660]

Com. Intellige clamor em [549]

Com. Dicit Dominus [487]

Com. Quinque prudentes [1228]

Grad. Exaltent eum [1331]

Ant. Dixi iniquis [640]

Com. Hoc Corpus [573]

All. Haec est vera [1508]

Mode 3
4
4
3
4
4

5
5

7
8
8

B. Extending Three Degrees below the Final

Qui docti [1466]
De venire [1499]
Contra spem [1353"*]
Tupuer [1505]
Timete Dominum [1726]
Stetit Angelus [1656]

Quemadmodum desiderat [1478]
Ecce sic [1292]
Respice in me [981]
Qui mihi [1141]
Laetabitur [1149]

Ecce apparebit [332]
Video caelos [418]
Fili quid [477]
Precatus est [1030]
Beata Agnes [1338]

Protus:

d:A-b(b)

All.

Intr.

Com.

d:A-c'

Grad.

Off.

Deuterus:

none

Tritus:

f:c-d>

Grad.

Com.

f:c-e'

Intr.

:c-P

Com.

Tetrardus:

g:d-e'

Ant.

Com.

Ant.

g:d-f>

Off.

Ant.

5
6
6
5
5

7
8
8
8
8

150 GREGORIAN CHANT

A separate and particularly interesting category of melodies with an
excessive range is formed by chants consisting of two or more distinct sec-
tions, each of which employs a different ambitus. Quite a number of
examples of this type are found among the responsorial chants, consisting
of a respond sung by the choir and one or more verses sung by a soloist.
The types we have to consider in this connection are the Graduals and the
Offertories. 9 The normal phenomenon in these chants is that the range of
the verse is one or two tones higher than that of the respond. A typical
example is the Gradual Beatus vir [i 136], mode 5, which has the range d-e'
in the respond, f-f in the verse. Here, as in most of the Graduals of this
mode, the difference in range is apparent to the eye by the use of two
different positions for the c-clef. In a few cases the difference of range is
more considerable:

MODE RESPOND VERSE TOTAL RANGE

Gr. Jacta cogitatum [982] 7 g:f-f d-g' eleventh

Sciant gentes [506] i d:c-c' d-f eleventh

Suscepimus [1562] 5 f:oc' f-f eleventh

Universi [320] i d:A-b c-e' twelfth

Domine praevenisti [1207] 4 e:c-c' A-c' tenth

Iii two of these Graduals, Suscepimus and Universi, the respond moves
as clearly in the plagal ambitus as does the verse in the authentic. Natu-
rally this precludes a "correct" assignment to either variety. The most
sensible thing to do is to renounce this distinction altogether and indicate
only the maneria protus, deuterus, etc. following the precedent of the
Codex Montpellier [see p. 167]. More than any other Gradual, Universi,
which stands at the very beginning of the liturgical year, has presented a
thorny problem. Pothier, in his Liber gradualis of 1895, marked it 2.et i.;
Wagner strongly insisted that it is in mode s; 10 and in the Graduate
Romanum it is given as mode i. Perhaps it is not merely a printer's error
that on p. 320 of the Liber usualis it is marked i, while in the Index (p.
1895) it appears with the symbol 2. We shall briefly return to this question
in the chapter on the Graduals [p. 352].

In the Offertories a difference of range between the respond and the
verse or the verses (not a few Offertories have more than one verse) is even
more frequent and more pronounced than in the Graduals. It will be suf-
ficient to indicate a few particularly striking examples: 11

9 From the stylistic point of view, the Offertories have to be considered as responsorial
chants, although originally they belonged to the antiphonal type.

10 Wagner III, 375.

11 Page references are to C. Ott, Offertoriale sive Versus Offertoriorum (1935).

The Tonality

TOTAL

MODE 1^. y. 1 Tf. 2 "JP". 3

RANGE

d:c-c'

c-e'

g-g 7

a-g'

twelfth

d:G-g

d-e'

thirteenth

d:G-g

e-d'

f-d'

e-e'

thirteenth

d-c-a

A-a

c-c'

twelfth

d:A-bb

d-e'

e-g'

fourteenth

a:e-f

f-e>

F-g

two octaves

a:d-d'

G-a

c-d'

twelfth

f:f-c'

c-d'

ninth

f:d-c'

c-bb

c-a

f-f

twelfth

f:d-c'

f-e'

f-f

tenth

g:f-d'

f-d'

g-g 7

ninth

OFFERTORY

Super flumina (p. 119)
Ad te Domine (5)
Laudate Dominum (40)
Deus Deus meus (66)
Anima nostra (145)
Tollite portas (14)
Dextera Domini (25)
Sicut in holocausto (92)
Desiderium (90)
Gloriabuntur (135)
Immittit angelus (102)

Nowhere in the entire repertory of Gregorian chant (except in the late
sequences) do we find melodies of such a wide range as among the Offer-
tories of the second mode. Some of these, e.g., Ad te fiomine, Laudate
Dominum, and Anima nostra, exploit the lower part of their gamut in the
respond, the higher part in the verses. Even more exceptional and remark-
able are Tollite portas and Dextera Domini which start with a respond
transposed to the upper fifth, and therefore moving in a high range, but
descend to the lowest pitches in one of the verses. Tollite portas is unique
in the entire repertory of Gregorian chant because of its two-octave range
and of its use of the low F, a pitch not admitted by any of the theorists of
the tenth or eleventh centuries:

d-B|? c-
2. e-

A-B[>-G G G-F B[> c-d-c
um et su-per

In some Offertories the contrast between the various sections becomes
even more striking if we consider the tessitura rather than the range. For
instance, in Deus Deus meus the last verse touches upon the lower notes of
' the range (c, d, e) only at the beginning and at the end, moving mainly
within the fifth from f to c 7 , while the second verse rarely goes beyond the
f or g. In chants like this one is almost led to assume that the verses were
sung by different soloists.

Naturally, no "correct" modal assignment can be expected in chants of
such an excessive range. Confronted with the problem of accounting for
melodies moving in the authentic as well as in the plagal ambitus, later
theorists coined the terms tonus plusquamperfectus, mixtus, and commix-
tus, thus merely conceding that the system of the eight modes is not appli-
cable. 12 For melodies with an excessive range the simpler system of the
four maneriae: protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus provides a much

12 See, e.g., Marchettus de Padua's Luddarium of c. 1309 (GS f III, 101).

15* GREGORIAN CHANT

more suitable basis of tonal classification. True enough, the modal system
does not work too well either for melodies with a limited range, but here
it is indispensable because this group includes a considerable number of
Antiphons, Introits, Communions, and Responsories chants which have
to be classified according to modes because of their connection with a psalm
tone, introit tone, etc. Finally, the fact should not be overlooked that the
chants with a limited or excessive range, numerous though they are, con-
stitute only a fraction of the total repertory. In the great majority of chants
the eight-mode system does provide a workable and valuable basis for tonal
classification and investigation.

THE B-FLAT

Considering the admirable variety of tonal realms afforded by the eight-
mode system on a strictly diatonic basis (a variety much greater than the
major-minor system was able to elicit from the much fuller material af-
forded by the chromatic scale), one cannot help pondering about the rea-
sons that led to the addition of the b-flat, the single "black sheep," as it
were, among the "pure-white" flock of the Gregorian pitches. Whatever
answer may be given to this question the most obvious one being that it
was added in order to avoid the tritone above f it is interesting to notice
that the b-flat is not officially recognized in the earliest treatises containing
information about the tonal material of the chant. This appears most
clearly from a consideration of the various systems of letter designation
advocated by the theorists of the ninth century: 13

Modern: A B c d e f g a b c' d' e' f g' a' b' c"
Scholia enchiriadis: ABODE F G H I KLMNOP

Anonymus II: ABCDEFGHIKLMNOP

Hucbaldi Musica: FGABGDEFGABGDEFG

The first indication of the recognition of the b-flat occurs in the Divisio
monochordi of the so-called Anonymus de la Page, which employs the
system of Anonymus II, adding the letter R for the b-flat. 14 The tenth-
century Dialogus de musica generally ascribed to Oddo of Cluny [see List
of Sources, p. 55, no. 25] is the earliest treatise to distinguish the b-flat
from the b-natural by the use of two shapes of the letter b, the b rotundum
(round b) for the former, and the b durum (hard, angular b) for the latter,
forms which persist in our present-day signs \> and \\. Does this mean that
the b-flat represents an innovation of the ninth century? We can only raise
this question without trying to give an answer. At any rate, it should be
realized that absence of official recognition does not necessarily mean ab-
sence de facto. As we shall see [pp. 1621], there is good reason to assume

13 GS, I, 209, 342, and 118.

14 J. A. de la Fage, Essais de diphtirographie musicale (1864), p. 73.

The Tonality 153

that originally the tonal material of the chant included also other chro-
matic notes, mainly the e-flat and the f-sharp, which, however, were never
adopted into the theoretical system.

Turning from the theoretical to the practical sources, it is hardly neces-
sary to state that the earliest musical manuscripts, that is those written in
neumes without indication of pitch or intervals, never prescribe a b-flat.
Perhaps the first manuscript to do so is the Codex Montpellier of the
eleventh century which, in addition to staffless neumes, notates the chants
by means of the letter system of Anonymus 77, in which the degree of b is
represented by the letter i. Similar to Oddo's two shapes of the b, the Codex
Montpellier employs two shapes of the i, an upright (i) for the b-natural
and a slanting (i) for the b-flat. 15 Diastematic manuscripts dating from
about the same time, such as the Beneventan Gradual and the Codex Lucca
of the eleventh century, indicate the b-flat in the usual manner, as do all
the later sources.

A comparative study of these sources reveals a situation disconcertingly
similar to the one that exists in polyphonic music of the thirteenth through
the sixteenth centuries, where to the present day scholars argue about
musica ficta and editorial accidentals. A detailed investigation of the b-flat
in the medieval manuscripts of Gregorian chant still remains to be under-
taken, but there can be little doubt that it would reveal hundreds of cases in
which one manuscript shows a b-flat at a certain place where it is absent
in another source of equal authority. An important preparatory study is
J. Jeannin's "Du si b&nol grgorien" [TG xxv, 1928, pp. 143, 175], in
which he points to the numerous "contradictions . . . entre excellents
t&noins de la tradition," the contradictions between equally excellent
sources.

The similarity between the Gregorian b-flat and that of early polyphonic
music also extends to the modern publications which, in either case, show
a tendency to conform with nineteenth-century principles of tonality by
introducing numerous chromatic alterations that are, to say the least, o
doubtful authenticity. Certainly, the basic Solesmes editions, Liber usualis,
Graduate, and Antiphonale^ contain numerous b-flats which cannot be
justified. In a recent article, "Du r61e des principales families de manu-
scripts" [RG xxx, 1951, p. 6], J. Gajard reproached the editors for their
"dfrence pour les habitudes de 1'oreille moderne," the deference to the
habits of the modern ear. The case most frequently noted is the formula
c-d-a-b^-a found at the beginning of many Introits and Antiphons of the
first mode. According to the best manuscripts this should read: c-d-a-b-a.
The faulty version of the standard Solesmes books has indeed been cor-
rected in more recent publications based on more exacting principles of

15 See, e.g., the facsimile in Sunol's PaUographie, p. 395: g h i h (line i, "populi"); h i
k i h (line 3, "e-os").

154 GREGORIAN CHANT

research and scholarship: e.g., in the Antiphonale monasticum (1934),
which contains the Office Hours according to the Benedictine (not the
official Roman) rites; the Officium et Missa ultimi Tridui Majoris Hebdo-
madae (1947), containing the Office and Mass for the last three days of
Holy Week (also Easter Sunday) according to the monastic rites; and the
In Node Nativitatis Domini, juxta ritum monasticum (1936), a similar edi-
tion of the liturgy of the Nativity. In these books the Antiphons Traditor
autem [652], Posuerunt [694], Tecum principium [412], and others appear
without a flat. Similar corrections should be made for many Introits, e.g.,
Rorate [353] and Gaudeamus [437], not only at the beginning but also at
other places where the Liber usualis has a b-flat. 16

Nor are the Solesmes editions always consistent in the application of
the b-flat. This appears particularly from the study of chants employing
standard phrases, that is, complete melodic units that are transferred from
one chant to another, a procedure which is of basic importance in the
Tracts, Responsorie's, and Graduals. 17 Occasionally such a phrase appears
with a b-flat in one chant, without it in another. An example in point is a
phrase employed for the close of several Responsories of the fourth mode
(end of the respond), e.g., in Aestimatus sum [733], Quern vidistis [377],
Qui Lazarum [1786], and Subvenite [1765]. In the first two chants this
phrase appears with a b-natural, resulting in a tritone formation, f-g-a-b,
which is changed into f-g-a-b^ in the last two.

Earlier editions of the chant are even more inaccurate in this respect.
Thus, the Liber responsorialis, published in 1895, shows the Responsory
Sicut ovis (p. 339) with a flat for every note b, while the Liber usualis [716]
and the Officium . . . Tridui (p. 196) have it entirely without b-flat, a
version born out by the medieval manuscripts such as the Codex Worcester
[PaL mus., XII, Plates, p. 126]. There are many similar cases in which future
research will lead to a correct version. Many others, however, will probably
always remain doubtful because of the lack of agreement between the
sources.

In spite of the great uncertainty in details, some general principles con-
cerning the b-flat can be unequivocally stated. First of all, the use of the
altered pitch does not affect the classification according to maneriae and
modes, which rests on the final. Thus, a melody on d was considered a
protus, regardless of whether it employed the b-natural, the b-flat, or both.
Theoretically speaking, each of the four standard scales is available in two
varieties; one with the semitone b-c', the other with the semitone a-b|j,

the Codex Lucca the Antiphon Hodie Christus natus [413] does not have a
single flat (see Pal. mus., IX, facsimiles, p. 59). The flat is extremely rare in this manu-
script, but not entirely absent. Thus, it does occur in the Responsory Oremus omncs
(ibid., p. 494) in connection with a direct tritone, on "Dominum:"f-b|j b|j-a-g . . .

The Tonality 155

the former a fifth, the latter a fourth above the fixed semitone e-f (or, if
this occurs in the higher octave, e'-P, the former a fourth, the latter a fifth
below it):

FIGURE 25

B-natural B-flat

protus

deuterus
tritus

It will be noticed that each of these eight scales represents a different
tonality, if this term is understood to indicate the position of the two
semitonal intervals with respect to the final. The only exception is the
b-flat tetrardus which, aside from a transposition at the distance of a
fourth, is identical with the b-natural protus. However, this does not mean
that, owing to the addition of the b-flat, the number of maneriae is raised
from four to seven or that of the modes from eight to fourteen. Such an
increase of tonalities would presuppose the existence of a number of chants
making consistent use of the b-flat, side by side with others which employ
the b-natural exclusively. Actually there is no such dichotomy. Practically
all the chants are either strictly diatonic or show a fluctuation between the
b-natural and the b-flat. There are a few chants in the tritus (particularly
in the sixth mode; see p. ig6) there are "completely flattened," but prob-
ably all of them are either of a late date or owe their "F-major" tonality
to the conforming tendencies of modern editors. At any rate, their number
is so small as to be negligible.

In order to provide a basis for the study of the b-flat, as it occurs in the
various modes, a list of Communions follows:

Mode i: Data est [803]; Amen dico [1077]; Ecce virgo [356].

2: Multitude* [1337]; Potum meum [620]; Tu puer [1502].

3: Qui meditabitur [529]; Scapulis suis [537].

4: Semel juravi [1132]; Tanto tempore [1450].

5: Adversum me [611]; Non vos relinquam [899]; Intellige [549]-

6: Defructu [1031]; Diffusa est [1572].

7: none

8: Domine memorabor [1046]; Omnes gentes [449]; Dum venerii

156 GREGORIAN CHANT

From these examples, together with others found in various categories
of chant (Graduals, Antiphons, etc.), the following general conclusions
can be drawn:

Mode i shows fluctuation between b-natural and b-flat, the latter being
often introduced when the b occurs as a peak tone (a-b-a) or in a tritone
position (f-b or b-f). As was indicated previously (p. 153), the beginning
of Amen dico, where the b occurs above the ascending fifth (c-d-a-b-a)
should probably have a b-natural.

In mode 2 the b lies outside the proper ambitus. Whenever it occurs,
as a peak tone, it is invariably b-flat.

The occurrence, not at all infrequent and documented by the best
sources, of the b-flat in modes 3 and 4 is the strangest phenomenon in the
field under consideration. In both these modes the b (natural), situated a
fifth above the final, holds such an important position in the scale that it
cannot be altered without impairing the very nature of the mode. How-
ever, we have already pointed out (p. 142) that the two modes of the
deuterus are greatly given to instability and variability of tonal structure.
Internal cadences on f are found in practically every melody of some ex-
tension, and these account for many of the b-flats, e.g., that on "ve-(ritas)"
in Scapulis suis. However, even cadences on e quite frequently have a
b-flat because of a preceding f, as on "ac nocte" in Qui meditabitur [529],
or on "alleluia" in Tanto tempore [1450]. In fact, cadential formulae with
the general outline of f-b^-e are among the most characteristic traits of
nearly all melodies in the modes 3 and 4. One of the most striking instances
of the use of the b-flat occurs at the end of the initial phrase of Tanto
tempore, which closes on the low b-flat (B-flat), thus employing for its
cadential point a note foreign not only to the mode but also to the medieval
gamut. Parenthetically, it may be remarked that the B-flat occurs in a stand-
ard formulae of the Responsories of mode 2 (see Fig. 94, p. 333: Gi).

Mode 5 presents a situation similar to mode i, that is, fluctuation be-
tween the b-natural and the b-flat. Not a few melodies employ the flat
throughout, in which case the resulting tonality is the modern major. A
nearly perfect example is Adversum me [611], the only b-natural occurring
in the liquescent clivis (cephalicus) on "mul(titudine)." 18 Intellige [549],
on the other hand, has b-natural throughout, except for the final cadence.
The Responsory Flange quasi virgo [722] may be cited as one of the rela-
tively few examples of an extended chant of mode 5 without a b-flat.

Mode 6 seems to be very similar to mode 5 in its use of the b-flat. Two
extreme examples are the Responsories Tradiderunt [686] and Accepit
Jesus [932], both of which are completely "flattened," the former by trans-
position on c', the latter by its having (at least in L) a b-flat signature.

is For the rules governing the validity of the flat in the Solesmes editions, see L, p.
xviii.

The Tonality 157

Mode 7 is the only one that remains virtually untouched by the b-flat,
thus retaining its characteristic interval, the major third. The special
problem presented by the Antiphon Urbs fortitudinis [332] will be con-
sidered later (p. 177!:).

Mode 8, for which the major third would seem to be equally typical,
does not show the same resistance. The difference is caused by the fact
that, in the plagal mode, the subfinal frequently serves as an inner caden-
tial point. These cadences on f entail the b-flat, as is shown by the Com-
munions mentioned in our table as well as by numerous other chants,
e.g., the Tracts of the eighth mode. One of the standard formulae of
these Tracts (gs of Fig. 89 on p. 320; see Nunc dimittis [1363], on
"(popu)lo(rum)") shows the b-flat and the b-natural in such close succes-
sion as almost to convey the impression of true chromaticism.

TRANSPOSITION

The system of the church modes is built upon the foundation of four
final notes, that is, d, e, f, and g. Properly, every chant should close on one
of these pitches. There are, however, not a few melodies which employ
higher notes for their finals, namely the so-called affinales (co-finals) a, b,
and c'. 19 This phenomenon is generally referred to as transposition, the
surmise being that originally such chants did close on one the four basic
finals and that, for some reason or other, they were later sung and notated
at a pitch different from the original one. The evidence for this surmise
and the reasons why some chants were transposed are questions to be con-
sidered later. Our first task is to acquaint ourselves with the facts, thus
providing a basis for the discussion of the various problems involved in this
matter.

The only transpositions that can cause a chant to close on a, b, or c' are
those to the upper fifth or upper fourth, for instance, from d to a or from
e to a. Theoretically, the co-finals could also be reached by transpositions
up a second (from g to a) or up a major third (from f to a, or from g to b).
However, these are impossible because of the chromatic tones that would
result. For instance, transposition up a second would entail an f-sharp
(for e) and a c-sharp (for b), or would presuppose an e-flat and b-flat in
the original position. We shall see later that such transpositions probably
did occur. However, they always involved a modification of some intervals
and therefore are not transpositions in the strict sense of the word. More-
over, they seem to have taken place only within the four basic finals (e.g.,
from f to g), and therefore need not be considered here where we are con-
cerned with transpositions leading from a finalis to an affinalis.

19 A few chants, probably all of a late date, close on the low c, e.g., the Alleluia
Beatus vir Sanctus Martinus [1747] and the processional Antiphon Cum audisset populus
[586] for Palm Sunday.

158 GREGORIAN CHANT

Naturally, transpositions to the upper fourth and fifth also produce in-
admissible chromatics, namely e-flat (upper fourth of b-flat) and f-sharp
(upper fifth of b-natural). The difference is that here the chromatic tones
have their origin in the degree of b, and therefore disappear if this is
chromatically altered. Thus, transposition to the upper fourth is possible
if (and only if) the basic scale has a b-natural, while transposition to the
upper fifth is possible if (and only if) the basic scale employs the b-flat. In
addition, certain transpositions are ruled out for other reasons, for instance
inadmissible finals (b-flat, d') or a range exceeding the Gregorian gamut.
The diagram, Fig. 26, serves to illustrate the possibilities of transposing
the modes (the symbols i:t|, etc., stand for mode i with b-natural, etc.).

FIGURE 26

Transposing to Fourth

5. *ft

(OW)

a 74; 8:k

(e)

Notes:

a. final would be g
c. scale would have e-flat
e. mode 3 too high
g. mode 7 too high

Transposing to Fifth

i:t

8 4:\

8 &

0>)00

b. scale would have f-sharp
d. final would be b-flat
f. mode 5 too high
h. final would be d'

To sum up: modes i and 2, with b-flat, can be transposed to the upper
fifth; modes 3 and 4, with b-natural, to the upper fourth; mode 4, with
b-flat, to the upper fifth; mode 6, with b-flat, to the upper fifth; and mode
8, with b-natural, to the upper fourth. Modes 5 and 7 cannot properly be

The Tonality 159

transposed because the resulting range exceeds the Gregorian gamut.
Transposition would be possible only for specific melodies with a limited
ambitus. We have seen, however, that such chants are likely to be classified
as plagal rather than as authentic. By grouping the transposed modes ac-
cording to affinales, we arrive at the following picture:

Co-final a: Modes i:|>; s:[>; yty 4:^
b: Mode 4:^
c': Modes 6: b; 8:lj.

Turning now to the melodies themselves, we find the preceding theoreti-
cal demonstration fully borne out. There exist examples for each of the
transpositions represented in the diagram, while, as far as I can see, there
are none for those that have been ruled out. 20 A seeming exception is the
Offertory Eripe me . . . Domine [605] which is in the third mode and closes
on b. Actually, this is not a transposed chant at all, as appears from its
range which extends from d to d'. The final b results from the incomplete
reproduction in modern editions, which omit the verses of the Offertories.
The complete version, given in Ott, p. go, shows, after the second verse, a
restatement of the respond with a different ending which correctly closes
on e. As for the truly transposed chants, the following list of examples will
suffice to give a general view of the situation.

TRANSPOSED CHANTS 21
FINAL a

Mode i:

Com. *Pa$ser invenit [556]
Intx. *Exaudi Domine [854]

Mode 2:

Com. *Cantabo [963]; Cantate Domino [83$]
Intr. Venite adoremus [G 371]

All Graduals, e.g., *Haec dies [778], *Justus ut palma [1201], etc
All. Confitemini . . et invocate [1060]

Off. Tollite [362]; Exaltabo [528]; Dextera [656]; Vir erat [1069]
Resp. Sancta et immaculata [384]; Locutus est [LR 402]
Ant. Magnum haereditatis [444]

Mode 3:
Com. *Beatus servus [1203]

20 D. Johner, in his A New School of Gregorian Chant (1914), p. 57, includes mode 5
among those that can be transposed to the fifth. Perhaps there are some examples with a
limited range, from b or c' to g / . On the other hand, he omits mode 8, for which there is
at least one example, indicated in our list of Transposed Chants.

21 The asterisk indicates chants having a b-natural as well as a b-flat; see p. 163.

l6o GREGORIAN CHANT

Mode 4:
Ant *Factus sum [730]; *Apud Dominum [412]; *Ecce veniet [324]; Ex

Aegypto [1081]; and many others of the same type. 22
FINAL b

Mode 4:

Com. Tollite hostias [1058]; Dilexisti [1241]; Per signum [1457]
Off. Domine fac mecum [G 133]
Gloria I [16]

FINAL C>

Mode 6:

Com. *Circuibo [1009]

Off. *In virtute [1205]

Resp. Twdiderunt [686]; *Gaude Maria [PM 146]

Mode 8:

Resp. *Jesum tradidit [687]

It may be noticed that nearly all the transposed chants are plagal, and that
transpositions to the final a are by far the most frequent.

We can now turn to the various questions and problems arising in con-
nection with the transposed chants. The most urgent, of course, is: are we
justified in considering the chants closing on a, b, and c' as "transposed?"
If so, why were they transposed? The obvious answer to the second question
would be that this was done in order to bring them into a more convenient
range; but this answer is hardly satisfactory since hundreds of other chants
continued to be sung at the lowest part of the medieval gamut. As for the
first question, one might be inclined to answer it in the positive because the
co-finals lie outside the system of the church modes. Once more, this argu-
ment carries little weight since it is universally recognized that this system
is not the historical basis for the Gregorian melodies, but represents a
relatively late attempt at tonal classification.

Fortunately, we can give a very definite answer to each of these questions.
The question as to whether the chants are transposed is to be answered in
the positive, provided this term is properly understood. It does not neces-
sarily imply that they were originally sung at a lower pitch and later
brought up to a higher one. In order to understand the issue involved we
have to bear in mind that originally the chants were not notated at all,
or if they were, that this was done in a staffless notation which, aside from

22 This group of Antiphons (thtme ap of Gevaert's Milopie, pp. 322-30) will receive
our attention on several other occasions; see pp. 162, 399. They require for the Psalm the
fourth tone in "another position of the same tone" [L 115], specified by the terminations
c, A or A* (the normal terminations of the fourth tone are g and E). In the index of
AM these Antiphons are distinguished by the use of the italic figure 4. The correspond-
ing psalm tone is called Quartus modus "alteratus" seu cum alteratione chromatica
[AM 1215]. Actually, the "chromatic alteration is present, not in the psalm tone, but in
the Antiphons.

The Tonality 161

many other uncertainties, contains no indication of pitch whatsoever. This
means that they could be sung at any pitch that was convenient or cus-
tomary. The only things that mattered were the intervallic relationships
in other words, the position of the semitones with regard to the final but
these are, of course, entirely independent of the pitch, whether (to use
modern equivalents) d, e, or f-sharp. This state of affairs underwent a radi-
cal change with the introduction of the staff and of diastematic notation.
This made it necessary to allocate each chant in such a way that its semi-
tones were properly represented on the staff. The majority of the chants
apparently offered no great problems in this respect, or if there were
problems (e.g., quarter-tones) they were solved by some compromise. In a
number of cases, however, a satisfactory solution could be found only if
the chants were notated at a higher pitch, so that they closed on one of the
co-finals, and these are the chants that we usually call "transposed." Some-
what more properly we might say that they were notated so as to appear
in transposition.

As for the reason for the "transposition," this was done, not in order to
bring them into a more convenient range, but because of the intervallic
structure of the melody, which could be represented in staff notation (or
letter notation) only if the melody was interpreted as closing on one of the
co-finals. The most convincing proof of this exists in a passage found in the
Prologus ad tonarium by Berno [see List of Sources, p. 54, no. 16]. Because
of their unusually informative character, we quote the major part of
Berno's explanations: 23

It should be noticed that there exists such a concordance between the lower
finals and those a fifth above them that certain melodies are found to close on
the latter as if they were regular finals. ... In a miraculous way it happens that
the [basic] finals have associates not only at the upper fifth, as we have said, but
also comparable ones at the upper fourth. 24 . . . Indeed, each mode, whether
authentic or plagal, is found to recur in a miraculous and divine concordance if
considered at a fourth from its location, ... in such a manner that a good number
of melodies, if begun on their [proper] final or, as the case may be, at some
other tone above or below it do not come out well because of the lack of semi-

23 GS f II, 74b: "Notandum vero est , . .*' We offer a somewhat simplified translation,
in which, e.g., the Greek terms mese, etc., are replaced by their modern equivalents. The
basic work on chromaticism in Gregorian chant is G. Jacobsthal, Die chromatische
Alteration im liturgischen Gesang der abendlandischen Kirche (1897). More than twenty
years earlier, R. Schlecht had called attention to chromaticism in the chant, in Caedlia
(ed. Hermesdorff, Trier), 1874. Chromaticism also plays a role in several articles by J.
Borremans (TG, XIX, XX [1913/14]), in which he discusses Alleluias in versions of
Cistercian and Premonstratensian manuscripts. Apparently he had no knowledge o the
studies by Schlecht and Jacobsthal, since he says in conclusion: "II y a dans la thorie
actuelle du chant gregorien une lacune grave qu'il importe de combler a tout prix."

24 The "concordance" at the upper fourth presupposes, of course, the use of the b-flat,
e.g., d-e-f-g = g-a-b^-c' (or, of the f-sharp, e.g., d-e-fjf-g = g-a-b-c'?).

l62 GREGORIAN CHANT

tones; if, however, they are begun at the higher level, then they continue smoothly
without detriment to any pitch and close quite properly on the associated final.

In order to illustrate this more clearly, let us take as an example the following
antiphons of the fourth mode: Factus sum, O mors ero, Sion renovaberis, Sion
noli timere, and Vade iam. If you try to begin these antiphons on g, a third
above their [proper] final [that is, e], your melody will be defective because you
will not find a semitone at the place where it should be. If, however, you consider
the tone a [as a final] and if, through the interposition of the b-flat and b-natural,
you begin these antiphons on c', you will notice that the entire melody can be
sung without any damage, until it closes on the associate final a. Similarly, if you
insist on beginning the antiphons of the same mode, Ad te Dominum levavi and
Ex Aegypto vocavi on their (proper) final, you will see that in the middle part
they won't come out right. If, however, you begin them on a, they can be sung
without distortion (dispendium, loss) of the neumes, until they close on the same
note [on which they began]. People who don't see this maintain that these anti-
phons and similar ones belong to the seventh rather than to the fourth mode,
although they don't deny that they close in the fourth.

The same defect of notation (defectus neumarum) occurs in the communion
Beatus servus of the third mode, unless it is transposed from e to a. ... If you
start to sing the communion of the eighth mode, De fructu operum, on its final
[i.e., g], you will see that in the middle the melody does not come out properly,
because of the semitones. If, however, it is started on c', you will notice that the
entire series [of tones] of this melody is related, in an orderly progression, to its
associated final [i.e., c'].

The same thing may happen at the distance of a fifth. Unless the antiphons of
the sixth mode, Alias oves habeo and Domine qui operati mnt, are transposed
to the upper fifth (in quintum transponantur locum), that is, from f to c', they
in no way retain their order in the regular monochord.

The meaning of these explanations becomes immediately clear if we
consider one of the transposed modes of our table, for instance, the deu-
terus raised to the fourth, and replace in this the b-flat by a b-natural.
This means, in the original position, to replace the f by an f-sharp, and it
is this f-sharp to which Berno alludes when he says, in connection with the
Antiphons Factus sum and others, that "you will not find a semitone at
the place where it should be." Obviously, there existed melodies which
involved, at different places, progressions such as e-f-g and e-f #-g, thus
presupposing the availability of a semitonal cluster (e, f, f #, g) which
occurs in the medieval gamut only at a place a fourth above (a, b^, btj,
c'). Thus it is only by transposing the entire melody to the upper fourth
that the pitches involved can be expressed in the "regular monochord"
and in writing. Conversely, it appears that originally these chants were
sung a fourth below their notated pitch, e.g., Factus sum?*

25 Factus sum as well as the other Antiphons mentioned by Berno together with it be-
long to the previously mentioned th&me 29 of Gevaert's Mtlopde. Gevaert changes them
into what he believes to be their original form, with a close on b instead of on a.

The Tonality 163

FIGURE 27

Fac-tus sum si- cut ho-mo si- ne ad-ju-to - ri o, in -termer- tu- os Ii-ber.
_l

original

Perhaps it is not superfluous to remark that expressions such as "sung
a fourth below" do not have quite the same meaning here as they have in
present-day practice. The difference is in the frame of reference, which
consists not so much of actual pitches but of the theoretical degrees of
the diatonic scale as represented by the tone-letters.

If we apply the same line of reasoning to a transposition of a fifth, our
table shows that normally all the modes involved include only the b-natu-
ral, the fifth above e. It is possible, however, to introduce into such a
transposed mode a b-flat which, in the original position, would correspond
to an e-flat. Assuming that there were melodies including d-e-f as well as
f-e[j-d, it appears that the degrees involved (d, e|>, e, f) are available only
in the semitonal group a, b[>, bl], c', in other words, only by transposi-
tion to the upper fifth. Since the examples, Alias oves and Domine qui>
cited by Berno are not found in the modern books, 26 we reproduce here
two relevant passages from the Communion Circuibo [1009]:

FIGURE 28

' Cif-cu- i- bo. . . can- ta- tx> . . . Dp -mi-

original

We can now make the following general statement: If a chant transposed
to the upper fourth (modes 3 and 4 on a, mode 8 on c') contains a b-natural,
this indicates an f-sharp in the original melody. If a chant transposed to
the upper fifth (modes i and 2 on a, mode 4 on b, mode 6 on c r ) contains
a b-flat, this indicates an e-flat in the original melody. Our table of Trans-
posed Chants [p. 159] includes a number of additional examples, marked
by an asterisk.

The earliest clear evidence of chromatically altered tones is found in
the Scholia enchiriadis of c. 900, in which a considerable number of penta-
chords (scale segments comprising a fifth) are accurately indicated by means

26 Alias oves is given in A and AM, but as an untransposed melody of the eighth mode.
See, however, Gevaert, p. 199. Domine qui operati sunt occurs in the Codex Lucca (Pal.
mus. f IX, Plates, p. 475), transposed on tf but without b-flat.

164 GREGORIAN CHANT

of daseian signs. 27 In addition to diatonic pentachords such as c-d-e-f-g and
d-e-f-g-a (both upward and downward) the author describes formations such
as c-d-ej^-f-g (up and down), c-d-e-f jf-g (up and down), as well as others of
a mixed type, e.g., ascending with e-flat and descending with e-natural. He
calls these chromatic variants absonia. We may therefore assume that in
the ninth century and possibly even earlier singers made use of the e-flat
and f-sharp, probably without fully realizing that, in doing so, they were
transgressing the boundaries of the tonal system which, for that matter,
may not as yet have existed or have been universally recognized. Gradually,
musicians must have become aware that such usage was not quite proper.
The very name absonia (off-sound) which the author of the Scholia enchi-
riadis uses indicates a slight disapproval, and this attitude is even more
evident when he calls them vitium (vice) and compares them to "bar-
barisms and solecisms" in poetry. Such designations are on a level with
the terms musica ficta and musica falsa by which writers of the fourteenth
century condoned the use of chromatic alterations in polyphonic music.
After all, it was not until the twentieth century that the chromatic tones
received a status fully equal to that of the diatonic tones.

Whatever the attitude toward the e-flat and f-sharp may have been in
those early days, the development of musical theory was not favorable to
them. The first obstacle must have occurred when the tone-letters were
introduced. We have seen (p. 152) that the earliest systems of letter desig-
nation were purely diatonic. The first indication of recognized chro-
maticism exists in the addition, to the diatonic series A to P, of the letter
R for b-flat. It would have been easy to add the letter S for e-flat and T
for f-sharp, but apparently these tones were so rare in comparison with
the b-flat (which, we must remember, is almost a diatonic degree in the
tritus) that this was not done. When Oddo (who seems to have taken a
hostile attitude toward the chromatic tones) introduced his new system of
letters, from a to g, he provided for two b's, the b rotundum and the b
quadratum,; but neither for two e's nor for two f s. 28 The general accept-
ance of this system more or less implies the abolishment of the e-flat and
the f-sharp. In many cases they were probably modified into some adjacent
degree. Transposition into the recognized chromaticism of the b was their
only means of survival, and it is in the few melodies of this type that we
can trace them.

27 GS f I, 1752. For an explanation of the daseian signs, see, e.g., W. Apel, Notation of
Polyphonic Music (1942), p. 204.

28 in his tables showing the transpositions of the diatonic scale, G to a', Oddo con-
sistently uses the letter m (mysticum?) whenever a chromatic tone occurs, e.g., A B m d
for G A B c transposed a second upward [GS, I, 274]. Later he speaks about "quampluria
mysteria" which he disregards "ne tenerum lectorem magis suffocare superfluis cibis, quam
lacte nutrire videremur" (lest we should seem to suffocate the gentle reader -with super-
fluous food, rather than nourish him with milk).

The Tonality 165

A second obstacle, even more definitive, was the staff notation which
developed shortly after the letter notation. Essentially diatonic, like the
oldest systems of letters, it borrowed from Oddo the two shapes of the
letter b (^ and t)) which, whenever necessary, were placed in front of the
note indicating the pitch b. Although the same signs could have been used
equally well for the pitches e and f, this was never done in Gregorian
chant. 29

The theory that chants closing on an affinalis are transposed in order to
accommodate (or disguise) chromatic pitches, does not necessarily apply
to every chant closing on a, b, or c'. Our table of Transposed Chants con-
tains a number of melodies (those lacking the asterisk) that do not include
the crucial pitches b-flat for transpositions of a fifth, b-natural for trans-
positions of a fourth indicative of hidden chromaticism. It is perhaps
no mere coincidence that most of these are Offertories, a type of chant
characterized by numerous exceptional traits, among them a tendency to
move in unusual ranges. It is entirely conceivable that some of the Offer-
tories were originally and always sung at a high level of pitch and that,
strictly speaking, they should not be listed with the chants which we have
good reason to assume were transposed. The same line of reasoning applies
even more cogently to certain chants of a late date, such as the Kyrie IV
or the Antiphon Ave regina [274], the former closing on a, the latter on c'.
With other melodies closing on one of the affinales the question of "trans-
posed or not transposed" is difficult to decide. Examples in point are the
numerous Graduals of the type Justus ut palma, all in the second mode
and closing on a. In the Solesmes version each of these closely related
melodies has one b-flat, e.g., Justus ut palma [1201] on "cedrus," Haec dies
[778] on "Haec," and it is this b-flat that accounts for their being con-
sidered as transposed chants. 30 However, Ferretti states that the b-flat of
Haec dies is not authentic, an assertion that would remove the only tangi-
ble evidence for transposition. 31 There is no point in quibbling over single
examples. What matters is the general principle, and this is placed beyond
doubt, mainly by Berno's testimony. 32

29 The only exception I have found is an e-flat in the final melisma of the second
verse of the Offertory In virtute: c'-a-f f-g-efc f-d [Ott, p. 153].

30 See Wagner 111, 370. The b-flats occur in standard phrases, A x and A* of our table
on p. 360.

31 Esthttique, p. 163.

32 in an article, "L'Insuffisance du systeme d'6criture guidonien" (ACI, p. 202), D.
Delalande attempts to prove the existence of chromatic tones on the basis of evidence
provided by certain variants found in German manuscripts, particularly the replacement
of a second by a third (e.g., e'-f'-e' by e'-g'-e'), which have long been recognized as a
peculiarity of the "German chorale dialect" (Wagner). According to Delalande, this
phenomenon shows that originally there was a "note mobile*' (f -sharp), which was low-
ered (to f) in the Latin, but raised (to g) in the German sources.

l66 GREGORIAN CHANT

MODAL AMBIGUITY

In the preceding explanations we have considered what may be called
"open transpositions," this term referring to the fact that the transposition
is apparent from the use of the co-finals, a, b, and c'. There is reason to
assume that transposition also occurred within the four basic finals, d, e, f,
g, and these could be termed "hidden transpositions," because the melodies
do not show any outward sign of being transposed. Obviously each such
case involves a change of mode, a modal ambiguity. What we are con-
cerned with, actually is not the problem of authentic-versus-plagal arising
with melodies of a limited or excessive ambitus, but ambiguity of maneria.
This is a most interesting, but also highly complex phenomenon. The
whole problem arises from the fact that, in a considerable number of cases,
the medieval sources show a striking disagreement of modal assignment,
one and the same chant being classified as mode i in one source, 3 in an-
other, 6 in a third, and 8 in a fourth (to quote an extreme example).

Before entering upon our explanations, it will be well to describe the
source material pertinent to the question at hand. It falls into three cate-
gories: theoretical treatises, tonaries, and liturgical books (Graduals, An-
tiphonals). A typical example of a theorist providing information about
modal assignment is Aurelianus, who in Chapters X to XVIII of his Musica
disciplincfiz discusses the eight modes and indicates individual chants rep-
resentative of each mode. Significantly, he limits himself to Antiphons, In-
troits, Offertories, Responsories, and Communions, that is, to those chants
for which, because of their connection with a recitation tone (psalm tone,
introit tone, etc.), the modal assignment is of practical significance, but
excludes the Graduals and Alleluias for which it has only theoretical
interest. 84 Considerably more extensive is the material provided by the
tonaries, e.g., the Tonarius of Regino, from c. 900. They contain more or
less complete lists of Antiphons, Introits, Communions, etc., grouped ac-
cording to modes. Again, Graduals and Alleluias are disregarded, but also
the Offertories. As for the liturgical books, the earliest source of informa-
tion is the Gradual of Corbie of c. goo which, although without musical
notation, indicates the modes of the Introits and Communions by marginal
signs, AP and PP for authenticus protus and plagis proti (first mode, second
mode) and similar ones for the other six modes. 85 In the neumatic Codex
Einsiedeln 121 (PaL mus., IV) the modes of the Introits and Communions
are identifiable through their psalm verses, while the Codex Chartres 47
(PaL mus., XI) has marginal indications of the mode, as can be seen on
Plate III [see the explanations, p. 121]. A central position in this question

33 See the List of Sources, p. 54, also for the tonaries, etc., mentioned subsequently.

34 The fact that Aurelianus includes the Offertories in his "catalogue of modes" is of
great historical interest. See p. 512.

35 See Sextuplex, p. cxxiii.

The Tonality 167

is held by the Codex Montpellier, in which the Mass chants are grouped
according to their modes. Here we find modal indications ior all die Mass
chants, Introits and Communions as well as Graduals, Alleluias, and Of-
fertories. The Graduals are grouped, not according to modes, but accord-
ing to maneriae, and in many cases the respond and the verse dairy in-
dividual modal designations, PL (plagius) and At. (authenticus), e.g.:

PL Up. Adiutor raeus. At. y. Confundantur.

The main source for the modal assignment of the Office chants is the
Codex Hartker, in which the mode of each chant is indicated by Latin
or Greek letters:

a = Mode i u = Mode 2

e = Modeg ^=Mode4

i = Mode 5 y = Mode 6

o = Mode 7 co = Mode 8

The Codex Lucca adds to each Antiphon the E u o u a e, that is, the
termination of the psalm tone, 86 thus giving an indirect indication of the
mode of the Antiphon.

In the great majority of cases these sources agree in their modal desig-
nations, but the number of chants carrying different assignments is by no
means inconsiderable. As for the Mass chants, a comprehensive study of
modal ambiguity has been made by U. Bomm, in his important study,
Der Wechsel der Modalitatsbestimmung in der Tradition der Messgesange
im IX. bis XIII. Jahrhundert (1929). This deals with close to one hundred
Mass chants which occur with different designations of the mode, a num-
ber which represents a little less than one-tenth of the total Mass repertory
(c. 1100 chants). No similarly complete study exists for the Office chants,
but the number of cases is here probably even higher. Thus, there may be
three hundred or more chants the modal assignment of which is prob-
lematic. It may be noticed that, at least in the Mass chants studied by
Bomm, the ambiguity does not (or not primarily) involve that of authentic-
versus-plagal, which we have considered in connection with the chants of
limited or excessive ambitus, but rather a decision between different
maneriae. The problems presented by these chants are not only of practical
significance (in the Introits, Communions, etc.), but also important from
the historical and analytical point of view. Their examination affords an
interesting insight into the evolutionary processes of the chant and illumi-
nates certain special traits of its tonal behavior.

For some unexplained reason, modal ambiguity prevails in the Com-
ae See p. 2so.

l68 GREGORIAN CHANT

munions to a much larger extent (about one-fifth of the total) than in any
other type of Mass chant. It is least frequent in the Graduals. The list
of chants included in Bomm's study consists of fourteen Introits, four
Graduals (excluding duplications of a melody with different texts), seven-
teen Alleluias, nineteen Offertories, and thirty-eight Communions. From
this ample material we shall select a few examples which illustrate the
causes and reasons for the variation that exists in the field of modal assign-
ment. In many cases these reasons are by no means clear, and we can
only speculate upon what this or that writer had in mind when he
ascribed a chant to this or that mode. One of the most striking examples
in point is the Communion De fructu [1031], which appears in the modern
books as an f:c-c' melody properly assigned to mode 6. The medieval
sources, however, are by no means unanimous on this point. Both Aure-
lianus and Regino ascribe the melody to mode 3, as does also the Gradual
of Corbie. In Berno's Tonarius and in the Graduate Sarisburiense it ap-
pears as mode 8, and in Guide's Tonarius as mode i, while the designation
as mode 6 occurs in the Codex Montpellier. It is very difficult, if not im-
possible, to say what caused such an appalling disagreement. The extended
commentaries which Jacobsthal and Bomm devote to this melody (the
former on pp. 52-58 and 136-178; the latter on pp. 60-61 and 97-103) are
sufficient evidence of the highly problematic character of this Communion
which, no doubt, underwent certain changes during the ninth, tenth, and
later centuries. Fortunately, there exist some examples of a less complex
nature, and it is on these that we shall draw for the subsequent explana-
tions, which are designed to expose some of the reasons for differences in
modal assignment.

By far the simplest case is that of melodies with a small range. We have
already noticed that a small range is bound to lead to uncertainty in the
distinction between the authentic and the plagal mode of the same maneria
(p. 144). It may, however, cause more essential variations of modal assign-
ment, involving a shift from one maneria to another. A case in point is that
of a melody using the scale segment known as the hexachord, that is, six
notes with a semitone between the third and the fourth degree. If this
hexachord occurs in the position g-a-b-c'-d'-e' (hexachordum durum), the
melody would be a tetrardus, on g. However, the same hexachord occurs
on f : f-g-a-b^-c'-d', and in this position the melody would be a tritus. An
example in point is the Communion Tu mandasti [1062] which in L as
well as in most of the medieval sources (Corbie, Regino, Berno, Guido)
occurs as a tritus (mode 5), notated in f, g, a, ty, c', and d'. However, two
sources (Montpellier, Salisbury) have it notated on g, so that it becomes
a tetrardus (mode 7). The latter notation and assignment would seem to
be preferable because it does away with the continuous b-flat of the tritus-
version. Since, however, the *n*ws-designation is by far the older of the

The Tonality 169

two, we have to accept it as the original and proper one. Possibly, the Com-
munion was not always sung with a "b-flat signature/' but with vacillation
between b-flat and b-natural, in which case it would have to be a tritus. A
similar example is the Alleluia Benedictus es [904, 911), a purely penta-
chordal melody which occurs in L as mode 8 (g-a-b-c'-d'), in Montpellier
as mode 6 (/-g-a-b^-c 7 ). The same ambiguity exists in its musical model,
the Alleluia Crastina die [361], which, however, seems to have been uni-
versally assigned to mode 8.

The same ambiguity may occur in melodies of a more extended range,
if the tonal material within this range shows a gap. Thus, c-d-/-g-a-b[) (/ is
the final) is equivalent to d-e-g-a-b-c'. An example in point is the Com-
munion Venite post me [1306], which L as well as most of the medieval
sources notate as a tetrardus on g (mode 8). Corbie, however, designates it
as authenticus tritus, and Berno lists it under the Communions of the
plagis triti, which means that the melody is interpreted as being on f.
Probably a number of similar examples occur among the Antiphons, many
of which have a limited or defective range.

If a melody exploits the full range of a mode, ambiguity of assignment
often involves some melodic variant or hidden chromaticism. The Anti-
phons Postquam surrexit and Si ego Dominus from Maundy Thursday
[660, 662] are given in the standard Solesmes books as melodies with a
range from c to d' and closing on e, and assigned to mode 4. In an appendix
to the more recent Officium . . . Tridui, containing the chants of Maundy
Thursday "ad fidem codicum restitutae," they appear transposed to the
upper fourth and are labelled: i transp. The transposition alone would
not, of course, account for the change of mode, from 4 to i. This results
from the fact that in the new version (which appears to be the original
reading) the final is lowered from a to g or, if we disregard the transposi-
tion, from e to d, as shown in Fig. 29 (Antiphon Postquam):

FIGURE 29

Liber usualis Officium tridui untransposed

The difference of assignment not only extends to the maneria, which
changes from the deuterus to the protus, but also involves a change from
the plagal to the authentic variety. The plagal designation of L is obviously
based on the fact that the melody, although extending as high as d 7 , touches
(only once, in the closing cadence) upon the c, which is a third below the
final. With the final lowered from e to d, this c becomes the subfinal, with
the result that the authentic designation becomes imperative.
As has been mentioned before, in many cases of multiple assignment

IfO GREGORIAN CHANT

its raison d'etre cannot be definitely ascertained, particularly if the differ-
ing designation occurs in sources that fail to give the melody (as, e.g., the
Gradual of Corbie or the tonaries) or which have it notated in nondiaste-
matic neumes (e.g., the Codex Einsiedeln). To this group belong many
of the examples discussed by Jacobsthal and Bomm, whose explanations
are often necessarily tentative and inconclusive. There are, however, some
chants in which the situation appears to be reasonably clear and un-
equivocal, among them the following:

i. Communion Principes. L [1238]: mode i; Regino, Corbie, Einsie-
deln: mode 3.

The melody, as it is given in L, extends from d to d', with b-flat and
b-natural. The assignment to the third mode probably means that it was
considered as extending from e to e', a position which requires the f-sharp
for the second degree. Strictly speaking, a c-sharp would be necessary in
place of the b-natural, but probably the c-natural was used throughout:

FIGURE 30

Liber
mode i

Regino
mode 3

s. Communion Ego damavi. L [1073], mode 8; Montpellier: mode 6.

In Montpellier the melody is a fifth higher, but with a different end-
ing which closes, not on d', but on c'. Since the melody is assigned to mode
6, it will have to be transposed to close on f, that is, a fifth below the
notated pitch. This leads to the same version as in L, except for the cadence.
Moreover, this cadence includes a b-flat, which becomes an e-flat in the
transposition:

FIGURE 31

1*=^-

h * - -

^bcM
SPrin-
-f

ci-pes-

** *-+-+-

... e - lo- qui - a

... dul*

- - -
ta.

**nri II

Liber
modeS

8 E go da-ma.* vi . . . ver - ba me- a.

Montpellier & ^ S* 7% ^
mode 6 "

transposed

mode 6 <$ f* m f m * *"3 *'i ff^i^c^

Thus, the transposition involves here a melodic variant as well as a chro-
matic degree.

The Tonality 171

3. Alleluia Laetatus sum. L [329]: mode i; Montpellier: mode 3.

As in the previous case, Montpellier shows the melody notated a fifth
higher, but otherwise identical (aside from minor variants), thus closing
on a. Because of the designation as a deuterus, with a final on e, transposi-
tion to the lower fourth is required. In addition, the Montpellier melody
fluctuates between b-flat and b-natural, the latter being used for the initial
section of the verse, from "Laetatus" to "domum," the former, for the
opening "Alleluia" as well as for the close of the verse, from "Domini" to
"ibimus" (as in most of the Alleluias, the close of the verse restates the
melody for the Alleluia). This "modulation," from b-flat to b-natural to
b-flat, appears in the transposed version as one from f-natural to f-sharp to
f-natural:

Al-le-... V.Laeu. .,. mi- hi ...Do-

Montpellier
mode 3 3

transposed
mode 3

A comparison of the first and the third version shows that the middle
section (B) is transposed from d to e, while the first and last sections (A
and C) change from the d-mode (protus) to the e-mode (deuterus). Exactly
the same situation occurs in the Alleluia Timebunt gentes [1056], which
Montpellier notates on a, with b-flat from the beginning to "reges," b-natu-
ral for "terrae gloriam tuam," and return to b-flat for the final melisma.

4. Communion Circuibo. L [1009], Guido, St. Gall 381: mode 6; Cor-
bie, Berno, Einsiedeln, Montpellier: mode 8; Regino: mode 2.

Although this example is somewhat more problematic than the others,
it is worth considering because of the multiplicity of assignments and
transpositions involved. Both L and Montpellier have it in transposed
notation, on c', with alternation of b-flat and b-natural, and with the same
melody, except for an extra note on b-flat near the end, on "(di)cam,"
which does not occur in L (nor in Einsiedeln). However, while L and some
of the medieval sources assign the melody to mode 6, Montpellier and
others characterize it as mode 8. The former designation implies trans-
position to the lower fifth, on f, with alternation of e-flat and e-natural;
the latter, to the lower fourth, on g, with f-natural and f-sharp. Finally,
Regino assigns the melody to mode 2, which may mean that he heard it
on d, a fourth below the g-position which perhaps could be considered as
the original one. Thus, the melody may have occurred in four different
positions:

GREGORIAN CHANT
FIGURE 33

Liber, Montpellier

notated

Cir-cu- i- bo ...can- bo- ...-cam Do-mi- no.

transposed to f
mode 6

transposed to g
mode 8

transposed to d
mode 2

The presence, in Montpellier, of the b-flat (transposed: f), i.e., of the
sub ionium (whole-tone below the tonic) shortly before the close justifies
and, in fact, demands the assignment to the g-mode. Whether Regino's
indication, mode 2, actually means that he heard the melody transposed
down to d, is not certain. 37 If so, there is little doubt that the passage on
"cantabo," which in strict transposition would show a c-sharp, was modi-
fied, perhaps as is indicated by the "editorial" accidentals.

It will be noticed that all our examples of ambiguous modal classifica-
tion, whether resulting from incomplete range or from chromatic altera-
tions, involve transpositions between neighboring maneriae f more specifi-
cally, between protus and deuterus, or between tritus and tetrardus, and
this statement can be extended to all the melodies falling under this
classification. The reason is, of course, that the two former maneriae are
related to each other by having a minor third, while the other two have
a major third. The essential character of these degrees practically pre-
cludes exchange from one pair to the other. The only exchange possible
would be between the protus and the tetrardus with b-flat, but these scales
are actually identical, so that, at least theoretically, any melody of the
protus (particularly mode 2) could also be assigned to the tetrardus with
b-flat (particularly mode 8 in which, as we have seen, the b-flat is quite
common).

This does not mean that modal ambiguity between protus and tritus or
between deuterus and tetrardus never occurs. Actually a number of such
cases exist, but probably all of these belong to a different category, to
which we shall now turn.

As has been pointed out previously (p. 142), a considerable number of
chants show a vacillation between two or more tonal realms, a tonal in-
stability which expresses itself most clearly in the use of intermediate
cadences that are totally unrelated to the final cadence. This phenomenon
is particularly frequent in, in fact characteristic of, the deuterus modes,
but not at all confined to these.

37 Cf. Jacobsthal, pp. 5off; Bomm, pp. 58ff.

The Tonality 173

Less obvious than the phenomenon itself is its connection with the
problem under consideration here, that is, ambiguity of modal assignment.
No transposition is involved in the melodies of this group, nor variants of
transmission resulting in a different final. What is the reason for assigning
different modes (properly speaking, different maneriae) to a chant with an
unvariable final? The answer is that in the earliest period of modal theory
it was the beginning rather than the end of a melody which determined
the modal assignment, at least in the Antiphons, Introits, and Commun-
ions. Strange though this may at first seem to be, there are good reasons for
it. After all, the beginning of a melody is at least as important from the
point of view of "tonal impression" as its conclusion, and if we consider
an example such as the Offertory Laetentur caeli [394], which from the
beginning almost to the end is a clear example of a second mode, it is
rather incongruous to label it: mode 3, only because the final note is e.

There was, however, a more cogent reason for considering the beginning
of a melody as the mode-determining factor, a reason most clearly apparent
in the Antiphons of the Office Hours (Vespers, etc.), which today are sung
before and after a Psalm, but originally were repeated after each of its
verses (see p. 187):

AVi AV 2 A Vs... AV n A

In this rondo-like concatenation foremost attention was given to tonal
unity of the whole. This was achieved by providing, for the verses, eight
recitation melodies (psalm tones), one for each mode, and by selecting
the psalm tone according to the mode of the Antiphon; for example, the
first psalm tone for an Antiphon in the first mode, the second tone for an
Antiphon in the second mode, etc. Moreover, most of the psalm tones were
provided with a number of different closing formulae (terminations) de-
signed to make a smooth transition to the initial note of the subsequent
Antiphon. 38 From this it appears that an important part of the scheme,
namely, the selection of the psalm tone, depends upon the mode of the
Antiphon. In the majority of the cases this poses no problem. If, however,
the Antiphon is of instable tonality, starting in one mode and closing in
another, a decision has to be made. The present-day practice, which de-
veloped in the mid-tenth century, is to consider the end of the Antiphon,
in particular the final note, as the decisive criterion, a procedure which
connects the Antiphon with the subsequent verse and gives the Antiphon
somewhat the character of an introduction. Originally, however, it was
the beginning of the Antiphon which determined the psalm tone, so that
the Antiphon appears as a postlude to the verse, which, no doubt, is its
proper function. Indeed, one might perhaps conclude that originally the

38 For more details, see pp. 2i8ff.

174 GREGORIAN CHANT

Antiphon was not sung at all before the Psalm, and that the performance
consisted purely of verse plus Antiphon:

Vi + A,

This arrangement clearly reveals the importance of the beginning of the
Antiphon, since it is this section that forms the point of connection with
the preceding verse. Essentially the same situation existed in the Introits
and Communions which, probably as late as the ninth century, were sung
with a more or less complete Psalm exactly like the Office Psalms. 39

The theorists of the ninth century speak very clearly about this point.
Both Aurelianus and Regino insist that in the antiphonal chants it is the
beginning that determines the mode, and that only in the elaborate chants
of the responsorial type is the mode determined by the final.

AURELIANUS:

It should well be noticed that in the Offertories, Responsories [i.e., Respon-
sories of Matins as well as Graduals] and Invitatories the mode (tonus) should
be sought only at the point where the verses are inserted [i.e., at the end of the
Offertory, Gradual, etc.] ____ In the Introits, however, as well as in the Antiphons
and Communions the mode should always be looked for at the beginning. 4 **

REGINO:

The wise singer should observe most diligently to pay attention to the be-
ginning of Antiphons, Introits, and Communions rather than to their end, in
respect to their mode. In the Responsories, on the contrary, he should consider
the end and close rather than the beginning. 41

It is perhaps significant that Aurelianus, who wrote about 850, speaks
only about the beginning of the Antiphons, etc., while Regino, some forty
years later, mentions both the beginning and the close, although insisting
that the former should be regarded as decisive. Yet another thirty or forty
years later, Oddo clearly pronounces the modern point of view in the fol-
lowing words, placed right at the beginning of the Prooemium (Introduc-
tion) to his tonary, in which he obviously addresses himself to the monks
of his abbey:

The formulae for the chant, which I have procured for you in writing, designed
to show how every singer of the church should execute the tones for the Anti-
phons, Introits, or Communions, should be most diligently studied by whoever
wants to attain the peak of mastery in the ecclesiastical chant. . . . Whoever

so See pp.

*o GS, I, 44b: Notandum sane . . . The somewhat puzzling ubi fines versuum intromit-
tuntur has been translated as "where the verses are inserted." Cf. Bomm, p. 176.
*i GS, I, 2$ib.

The Tonality 175

wishes to gain full knowledge of the chant, should read these formulae [i.e., the
psalm tones and their terminations (differ entias)] every day, and when he is
about to begin the Antiphon, he should not look at its opening, but quickly
run to its end, and whichever tone he finds there, in that he should begin the
psalm. . . .*2

Later writers are unanimous in adopting this view:

GUIDO:

If you begin a chant, you don't know what will follow; if, however, you have
finished it, you know what has preceded. Therefore, it is the final tone which
should rather be considered. 43

COTTO:

One should not make hasty judgment about the modes, but rather should he
cautiously wait until the end upon which all judgment about the mode depends.
Otherwise, if he has judged the mode prematurely, he may repent not to have
remained silent when the end refutes his pronouncement. 4 *

From Cotto's statement it would appear that still in his day (c. 1080)
there were musicians who considered the beginning of an Antiphon as the
decisive mark of modality.

Regino's De Harmonica Institutione is particularly revealing for the
question of tonal instability and the modal ambiguity that results from
it. The above-quoted remark is only the concluding sentence of a whole
paragraph in -which he discusses Antiphons called nothae (bastards), that
is, "degenerate and non-legitimate Antiphons which begin in one mode,
belong to another in the middle, and finish in a third/' For the purpose
of illustration he enumerates fourteen Antiphons and twelve Introits,
adding with each a remark such as: "a tertio tono incipiunt, sed octavo
finiuntur." Among the Antiphons we find Ex Aegypto, Ad te Domine,
Sion renovaberis, O mors, and Vade iam> that is, the same group of
Antiphons which Berno uses in order to illustrate the presence of a chro-
matic f-sharp, saying that "some people maintain that they belong to the

4 2 GS, I, 248a.

4 3 Mtcrologus, cap. xi: Incepto enim . . . (GS } II, iaa; ed. by Hermesdorff, p. 68; ed. by
Smits van Waesberghe, p. 144).

44 De Musica, cap. xvi: Cantus toni . . . (GS, II, 25 ib). See also J. Smits van Waes-
berghe, Johannes Affligemensis, De Musica cum Tonario (1950), p. 111. Waesberghe main-
tains that Johannes, usually called Cotto and regarded as an Englishman (Cotton),
actually was a Belgian connected with the abbey of Afflighem. This theory has been dis-
puted by Ellinwood [Notes f VIII (1950), 650] but once more defended by Waesberghe
[MZ>, VI (1952), 139]. Although Waesberghe's arguments have considerable weight, we
see no reason to drop the name Cotto by which the author of the treatise has been known
for a long time.

X/^6 GREGORIAN CHANT

seventh rather than to the fourth mode, although they don't deny that
they close in the fourth" [see p. 162]. This remark is clearly addressed to
Regino (or his disciples) who, about a hundred years before Berno, says
indeed: "a septimo toiio incipiunt, et in quarto finiuntur tono." The
ambiguity of his modal assignment finds its justification in the fact that
in all these Antiphons the first and second phrases of the melody definitely
suggest the seventh mode, the cadences being respectively on d' and g,
while it is only in the short concluding phrase that the fourth mode makes
its appearance: 45

Cadence on: d' g bj>-a

Factus sum sicut homo since adjutorio inter mortuos liber

Ex Aegypto . . . meum veniet ut salvet populum meum

Sion renovaberis et videbitis . , . tuum qui venturus est in te

O mors, ero mors tua morsus tuus ero inferne

Sion noli timere ecce Deus tuus veniet, alleluia.

Regino's interpretation is entirely convincing if we read these Antiphons
in their present-day notation. It is rather less so if, following Berno, we
consider this as a transposition from an original notation a fourth below,
as we did in the section on Transposition [p. 162]. Here the cadential
points of the beginning change to a and d, tones both of which are foreign
to the seventh mode. However, the melodic line, with its characteristic
f-sharp, remains, of course, the same, regardless of the pitch. In this con-
nection it is interesting to notice that in the Commemoratio brevis [see
List of Sources, no. 23] the Antiphon Ex Aegypto is assigned to the second
mode. 46 The simplest explanation for such an assignment is to consider
the melody transposed to the lower fourth [as in our illustration for Factus
sum, p. 163], but with an f -natural instead of the f-sharp and, of course,
with the beginning as the mode-determining element.

In addition to the group of Antiphons we have just considered, Regino
mentions several others as "imbued with ambiguity and doubt" (ambigui-
tatibus et dubietatibus permixtae), but judging from his description all of
these must have existed in his day with melodies different or varying from
those that have reached us. Relatively clear cases are the Antiphons Qui
odit [262] andEJ respicientes [783], both of which he describes as beginning
in mode 3 and closing in mode 8 (final g), while the preserved melodies close
on e. We must assume that there existed an earlier version in which they
had g as a final. Similar examples are mentioned by Aurelianus who says
that the Antiphons Puer Jesus [437] and Vobis datum est [510] begin in

45 See the reproduction of Factus sum, Fig. 27, p. 163; also p. 160, fn. 22.

46 GS, I, 217. Later manuscripts, such as the Tonary of Oddo, the Codex Hartker, and
the Codex Montpellier assign the Antiphons of this type to mode 4. See Mtlopte, pp. 205-
12.

The Tonality 177

mode 6 but close in mode i (final d), in contrast to the present versions
which have them in mode 6 throughout, with f as a final. 47 Actually, these
versions are suspicious because they involve a cadential motion from the
lower fourth, c-f (c-d-f for Vobis datum est), which is extremely rare in
Gregorian chant 48 and which strikes one as being out of place, especially
in such simple chants as these Antiphons. Fortunately, Aurelianus* ex-
planations permit us to state with a high degree of probability how these
changes came about. He says that, as long as the Psalm is sung, the Anti-
phons should be sung with their proper ending which, in his day, was in
the first mode, hence on d. For the last repeat, however, i.e., after the last
verse of the Psalm, they should close in the same mode in which they begin,
that is, on f . The reason for this modification is obvious. Since for him (as
well as Regino) it is the beginning of the Antiphon which is the decisive
tonal criterion, the Antiphons Puer Jesus and Vobis datum est both require
the sixth psalm tone (actually that of the Magnificat) for each verse. Thus,
the entire chant, with its alternation of verses and Antiphons, proceeds
in the sixth mode, except for the d-cadences of the Antiphons. These mat-
ter little as long as they occur in the middle, where they have the function
of an inner cadence, resulting in a momentary modulation which actually
introduces a rather desirable element of tonal variation. In the last state-
ment, however, the inner cadence becomes the final cadence and, as such,
constitutes a violation of the basic principle of tonal unity. It is therefore
necessary to change the final note in the last statement of the Antiphon:

FIGURE 34

Ptt-cr Je- sus ...De- o cc ho- mi-ni-bus."

V.l. Ma-gni - fi- cat ... me -a Do-miaum. Pa-er ...

flV. ********* II ^^

V.2.Et ex sul-ta-vit. . .sa-lu-ta-ri me - o. Pu-er .,.

Vi 2. Si -cut e-rat . . . sae-cu-lorum. A -men. Pa-er ... ho - mi-ni-bus.

It is only natural that, with the omission of all the inner repeats of the
Antiphon, its melody survived in the varied form of the final statement.

One of the thorniest problems (discussed at length by Jacobsthal) is pre-
sented by the Antiphon Urbs fortitudinis [332], a chant of mode 7 with
b-flat in the first half, b-natural in the second. Oddo lists it under the

47 GS, I, soa, b.

48 See p. 266.

178 GREGORIAN CHANT

"Quinta differentia septimi toni," but Regino assigns it to mode i (there-
fore with and f-sharp), and in the Alia musica it is said to begin in the
first and to end in the eighth mode (GS, I, i4oa). Perhaps we have here a
similar case to that of Puer Jesus: Originally Urbs fortitudinis started on d
and closed on g, but a modified ending was employed for its final state-
ment, after the Psalm (sung to the first psalm tone). It survived with this
modified ending as an Antiphon of mode i (Regino), but since it also had
an f and f-sharp, it was finally transposed to mode 7 (Oddo).

It remains to consider briefly some of the other cantus nothi mentioned
by Regino, namely, the Introits. As with the Antiphons, several of his
examples are no longer clear to us, no doubt because of changes that oc-
curred after him. Four or five of them, however, are quite clear, and these
are listed below, together with two Communions that belong to the same
class of can tus nothi, although they are not mentioned by Regino: 49

Intr* Deus dum egrederis [89?]: Modes 8 and 4 (or 3)

Victricem manum [796]: Modes 3 and 8

Accipite jocunditatem [890]: Modes 8 and 4

Eduxit Dominus [804]: Modes 4 and 8 (as to mode 4, transpose the

beginning to the lower fifth).

Com. Domus mea [i 253] : Modes 7 and 5

Unam petti [1005]: Modes 5 and 7

To conclude these lengthy and often involved explanations we should
like to call attention to a relatively little-known treatise of the late eleventh
century, preserved in the Codex lat. 1492 of the University Library of
Leipzig, and published in H. Sowa, Quellen zur Transformation der Anti-
phonen (1935). Its first part is a tonary of Antiphons, a number of which
receive commentaries indicative of modal changes. 60 The tonary is fol-
lowed by a short treatise, in which the author distinguishes between trans-
formatio and trdnspositio, saying that there is between these "a great but
rather useful difference." Transpositio is caused by the "lack of a semi-
tone" and involves change into a co-final (affinis), while transformatio
means a change "into the final of another mode" (vox alterius modi). It
appears that what we have called "modal ambiguity" could well be sub-
sumed under the term "transformation."

49 Additional examples are given by Berno [see GS, II, 73!)]. See also Pal mus. t XIV,
208, 211, for Introits and Communions which occur in Beneventan Graduals with end-
ings and, therefore, modal indications different from those of the Roman books.

60 Some of these "ambiguous" Antiphons are discussed in Sowa's publications, which
thus forms a counterpart to Bomm's study of the Mass chants.

CHAPTER FOUR

Methods and Forms of Psalmody

'N A PREVIOUS chapter we have discussed the importance of the
Psalms as a source of texts for the Gregorian repertory, Office as
well as Mass. We shall now examine the musical aspect of this phenomenon,
as reflected in the various methods of psalm singing and in the resulting
forms.

DIRECT PSALMODY

The simplest method of psalm singing is the so-called direct psalmody,
which means that the Psalm is sung straight, without any additional text
such as occurs in the other types of psalmody. Natural though it is, this
method is rarely employed in Gregorian chant. It is most clearly repre-
sented by the psalmus directaneus (psalmus in directum, sometimes mis-
spelled indirectum) which is used for some Psalms sung during the Little
Hours of certain days of a somber character, for which an especially simple
manner of singing was deemed proper:

Ps. 145, Lauda anima mea: Vespers of the Office of the Dead [1776]
Ps. 129, De profundis: Lauds of the Office of the Dead [1805]
Ps. 69, Deus in adjutorium: Procession of Rogation Days [839]
Ps. 4, 90, and 133 at Compline of Holy Saturday [76s] 1

In all of these cases the music consists of a very elementary recitation
formula which is repeated for every verse, somewhat similar to a strophic
song. The resulting form can be indicated by the scheme:

A A A . , . A.

In addition to this type of direct psalmody, which belongs to the Office,
there is another which occurs in the Mass, namely, the Tracts. Originally,

1 According to Ferretti, Esthdtique, p. 155, direct psalmody was also prescribed for the
Psalms of the Lesser Hours of Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday,
which in present-day usage are merely said [L 654, etc.].

179

l8o GREGORIAN CHANT

each Tract also was a complete Psalm sung in essentially the same manner
as the Psalms in directum of the Office. However, in keeping with the much
greater liturgical importance of the Mass, the melodies were, or became
considerably more elaborate and extended, including numerous melismas
and showing only scant traces of the recitation style characteristic of the
Office Psalms. With melodies of such richness which, for a single verse,
easily take ten times as long to perform it became impossible to sing
complete Psalms, not a few of which have twenty or more verses. The
resulting conflict between music and text was solved in favor of the former,
as it was also in all the other departments of psalmody where a similar
situation arose. As the melodies grew more and more elaborate, the Psalms
were reduced by omitting more and more verses, so that none of the extant
Tracts, except the very short Laudate Dominum (Ps. 116), represents a
complete Psalm; most of them consist of four or five verses. As for the
music, the simple repeat scheme of the psalmus in directum was replaced
or, at least greatly modified by a complex process based on the interchange
of standard phrases, which will be studied in detail later [see pp. 3152].

RESPONSORIAL PSALMODY

This is a type of psalmody characterized by the alternation of a soloist
and a group of singers, originally the congregation, later the church choir
(schola cantorum). The ancient Jewish roots of this method are clearly
recognizable in Ps. 136, whose every verse closes with the words: "for his
mercy endureth for ever"; in Ps. 118, which has the same refrain at the
end of y. i to 4 and 29; or in Ps. 32 and 87, several verses of which close
with the word "Selah." That responsorial singing was not limited to the
choral-refrain practice nor to the few Psalms for which this is expressly
indicated, appears from a number of passages found in the Talmudic
writings in which various methods of singing a Psalm with congregational
participation are described. 1 One method is for the leader to sing the first
half of each verse, while the group answers with the second. Another is to
have each half-verse immediately repeated by the group. Yet another is
the use of a choral refrain consisting of a short exclamation such as
"Alleluia" or "Selah." Finally there is the possibility of having the first
half-verse restated by the group after each of the subsequent half-verses.
Here the congregation participates by singing a refrain which is taken
from the Psalm itself. This method is of particular interest because it is
the one that was adopted in Christian practice. In the earliest examples

1 See A. Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in its Development, pp. aof and, particularly, H.
Avenary, "Formal Structure of Psalms and Canticles in Early Christian and Jewish
Chant" (MJD,VII, i).

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 181

of Christian responsorial psalmody, especially in the Graduals, the choral
refrain (respond) is indeed taken from the Psalm itself. 2 Later, however,
sentences from other parts of Scripture were used for the responds.

Turning from Jewish to early Christian sources, the Church Father
Tertullian (c. i$$-c. 222), St. Athanasius (d. 373), the Spanish pilgrim
Etheria (fl. c. 380) and St. Basil (c. 330-79) are among those who tell us
about responsorial psalm singing in Carthage, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and
other places of the Orient. 8 Particularly illuminating are the words of
Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636): "Responsorial songs were adopted by the
Italians a long time ago, and are thus called because the chorus in con-
sonance gives answer (respondent) to the solo singer (uno canente)." 4 Such
psalms must have been performed according to a rondo-like scheme such
as:

R Vi R V 2 R V 3 . . . R V n R,

where Vi, Va, etc. are the verses of a psalm, sung by a soloist, and R a
refrain sung by the chorus.

At some time, possibly as early as the fourth century, when the Church,
having been officially recognized by Constantine the Great (ruled 306-337),
entered into its first period of flowering, elaborate methods of singing
developed, resulting in more extended melodies not only for the psalm
verses but also for the respond which, originally sung by the congregation,
was now entrusted to the trained church choir. Also from the textual point
of view there was a tendency toward extension, since responds in the
character of short exclamations such as "For his mercy endureth forever,"
or "Selah" disappeared, being universally replaced by complete sentences
adopted from, or similar to, a psalm verse. Obviously it was impossible to
sing entire Psalms, with ten or more verses, in this manner. The remedy
taken was the same we observed in the Tracts, that is, a reduction of the
number of psalm verses. Probably because of the presence of the respond,
the reduction here went much further, so that in most cases only one
psalm verse remained. It is in this stage that responsorial psalmody sur-
vives in the Office, where it is represented by the Responsories of Matins,
and in the Mass where it is represented by the responsorium graduate, that
is, the Gradual. The latter consists now of a respond followed by a single
verse, R V, but the fuller form R V R, which represents the medieval
practice, is also permitted [see L 320]. The Responsories of Matins have
forms such as R V R' (Immolabit, 926), R V R' R (Flange, 722), R Vi

2 See the table on p. 91.

3 See List of Data, pp. jgf, nos, 10, 15, 24, 27,

4 Ibid., no. 53.

l82 GREGORIAN CHANT

R' V 2 R" (Subvenite, 1765), R V R' D R (Hodie, 375), or R V R' D R>
(Quern vidistis, 377). 5

R', R", etc., indicate successively shortened versions of the respond, resulting
from the omission of its first half, two-thirds, etc., so that only the concluding
section is retained. The corresponding places are indicated in the text of the re-
spond by the signs *, f, J. Rather confusingly, the asterisk is also, and more
generally, used in the modern books for an entirely different purpose, that is, to
indicate where in performance a solo incipit comes to an end and the chorus
picks up. This is the meaning of the first asterisk in Subvenite, while the second
(at "Suscipientes") indicates die beginning of R'. The letter D in the above and
in several subsequent schemes stands for the so-called Doxology (word of praise):
Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto: Sicut erat in principle, et nunc, et semper,
et in secula seculorum. Amen (literally: Glory be to the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost: as was in the beginning, and [is] now, and always, and in the ages of
ages. Amen). At an early time this was added to Psalms as a final verse, and it
survives in this position in various types of psalmody. In the Responsories it oc-
curs in its older form, comprising only the first sentence, Gloria . . . Sancto . 6

Among the various forms given above for the Responsories, the shortest,
R V R', is the normal one. The more extended forms are usually reserved
for the last Responsory of each Nocturn, as appears from the following
table:

R V R' R: Nos. 3, 6, 9 of Maundy Thursday [6s8ff), Good Friday

[67iff], Holy Saturday [7i6ff]
R V R' D R': Nos. 3, 6, 8 of Nativity [375ff] and Corpus Christi [gaGffJ;

Nos. 2 of Easter Sunday [775] and Whit Sunday [875] 7
R Vi R' Va R': Nos. 3, 6, 9 of the Office of the Dead [17850*]
R V R 7 D R: No. i of Nativity [375] and Easter Sunday [774]

The Liber responsorialis, which contains the service of Matins for
numerous feasts, usually in the fuller, monastic structure with four Re-
sponsories for each Nocturn, has the form R V R' for the first three, and
R V R' D R' for the fourth Responsory of each Nocturn.

There survive a few chants showing the rondo structure of responsorial
psalmody in a more complete form. One of the most interesting examples
occurs in Easter Week. There are six Graduals in this week, from Easter
Sunday [778] to Friday [801], each showing the simple form R V (R). The

5 Properly speaking, the Responsories do not fall under the category of responsorial
psalmody, since their texts, responds as well as verses, are rarely taken from the Psalms.
See pp. 95!.

6 This text is known as the Lesser Doxology, in distinction from the Greater Doxology,
the Gloria in excelsis from the Mass Ordinary.

7 On these feasts the last Responsory is replaced by the Te Deum. See p. **, fh. 5.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 183

remarkable fact, however, is that they all use the same respond: Haec dies,
quam fecit Dominus: exsultemus and laetemur in ea, and that this, as well
as all the verses (except for one), is taken from the same Psalm, Ps. 117:

Respond: Haec dies Ps. 117:23

Verse, Sunday: Confitemini Domino 1 17: i

Monday: Dicat nunc Israel 117:2

Tuesday: Dicant nunc qui redempti sunt 106: a

Wednesday: Dextera Domini 117:16

Thursday: Lapidem quern reprobaverunt 117:21

Friday: Benedictus qui venit 117:25

Moreover, the melodies used for the different verses are nearly identical.
The conclusion is almost inescapable that originally these six Graduals
formed one extended responsorium graduate with six verses that was sung
on Easter Sunday, but later distributed over the whole Easter Week. Un-
equivocal confirmation of this theory is found in the Gradual of Mont-
Blandin, which indicates for Easter Sunday the Haec dies with six verses
as above, the only difference being that the third verse is Dicat nunc
domus Aaron, that is, y. 3 of Ps. 117, so that we have here the original
form in which all the verses are taken from the same psalm in ascending
order. 8

Another interesting case is the Gradual Tenuisti [591] from Palm Sun-
day, which is striking for its unusually long verse, Quam bonus. Actually
this verse comprises y. i (Quam bonus Israel Deus rectis corde), y. 2
(Mei autem pene moti sunt pedes, pene effusi sunt gressus met), and y. 3
(Quia zelavi in peccatoribus, pacem peccatorum videns) of Ps. 72, while
the respond is y. 23 of the same Psalm [see L 635^. Probably these were
originally treated as separate verses, with repeat of the respond, either full
or in part, after each verse. 9

Nor are these the only indications of an early Gradual with several
verses. The Gradual Ecce quam bonum [1071] from the Twenty-Second

8 See Sextuplex, p. 100, no. 80. The theory regarding the Easter Gradual was ad-
vanced by Wagner (I, 79). However, his statement (ibid., fn. i) that the complete Haec
dies with all its original verses occurs in the Graduate Compendiense of Migne's Patrologia
latina vol. 78, p. 678, is erroneous. The text given in Migne under the title Liber anti-
phonarius is actually taken from the Codex of Mont-Blandin, not from the Codex of
Compi&gne, in spite of Migne's repeated references to Compendiensis. The mistake goes
back to 'earlier editions which Migne used as his source. See the explanations in Sextu-
plex, p. xvi, fn. i.

9 Gastou> who proposed this reconstruction (Cows, pp. 1411), states that the Gradual
Tenuisti "fut, au moyen age, execut conformement a la coupe du texte original, et avec
autant de reprises." I am not aware of any documentary evidence that would justify the
unequivocal statement "it was executed/' since all the early manuscripts give it with

' only one long verse. However, Gastou's interpretation is certainly a plausible and even
probable conjecture.

!84 GREGORIAN CHANT

Sunday after Pentecost was sung with two verses, Sicut unguentum and
Mandavit Dominus, as late as the eleventh century. 10 Only the first of these
survived. Furthermore, there is good reason to believe that originally a
number of Tracts of the second mode, perhaps all of them, were Graduals;
in other words, that they were sung, not in directum as they were later,
but with the first verse repeated, like a refrain, after each of the subsequent
verses. The clearest example occurs in the Mass of Wednesday in Holy
Week, which today has the Gradual Ne avertas and the Tract Domine
exaudi [614]. However, the Ordo Officii in Domo S. Benedicti says that at
this Mass there were "read two lessons, and sung two graduals, each one
with five verses." No traces of a five-verse Gradual Ne avertas survive, but
the Tract Domine exaudi has indeed five verses and is actually called
graduate in the Graduals of Monza and Compiegne. Moreover, one of the
most important early liturgists, Amalarius, in describing the ceremony of
Wednesday in Holy Week, calls the Domine exaudi a responsorium and
states that it has five verses. In the Consuetudines of the monastery of
Corbie this chant appears already under the name of tractus, but is de-
scribed as having the form of a Gradual, with repeats of the initial verse
sung by the entire "conventus monachorum." Similar evidence exists in
the case of other chants, now classified as Tracts of mode 2, which origi-
nally were Graduals with several verses, as appears from the designations
responsorium or responsorium graduale with which they occur in the
earliest manuscripts. From this it has been concluded that the whole
group of Tracts of the second mode originally were Graduals, with several
verses and choral refrains, and that at some time before the tenth century
the repeats of the first verse were omitted, a process by which the chant
adopted a form similar to that of the real and original Tracts, that is, those
of the eighth mode. 11

Among the Responsories there are several with more than one verse
(not counting the Doxology verse). Three examples with two verses, all
from the Office of the Dead, have been mentioned previously in our table
showing various forms of the Responsories [p. 182]. The most complete
Responsory on record is the Libera me . . . de morte from the Burial
Service which has five verses in the Codex Hartker, six in the Codex
Worcester, and seven in the Codex Lucca. 12 In its late-medieval and
present-day form it has three verses. Next in completeness is the Aspiciens
a longe from Matins of the First Sunday of Advent, with three verses and
the Doxology. Following is a list of Responsories with two or more verses:

10 Thus in the Graduals of Compiegne, Senlis (Sextuplex, p. 136, no. 1200), St. Gall
55^ (Wagner I, 296), Lucca (Pal. mus, IX), etc.

11 For fuller discussions of this question see Wagner 7, 78; Ferretti, Esthttique, pp.

Sextuplex, p.li.

12 Cf. Pal. mus., Ser. 2, 1 (Hartker), 392; XII (Worcester), 438; IX (Lucca), 557.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 185

Domine quando veneris [1787]: R Vi R' 2 R'

Ne recorderis [1792]: R Vi R' Vz R'

Libera me . . . de viis [1798]: R Vj. R' V2 R'

Aspidens a longe [PM 18]: R Vi R 7 V 2 R" V 3 R" D R

Libera me ... de morte [1767]: R Vi R' V 2 R" V 3 R

Iste Johannes [PM 33]: R Vi R' V 2 R' V 3 R'

M6?dm vito [PM 45]: R V a R' V 2 R 7 D R'

Brief mention only need be made here of the short Responsories (respon-
soria brevia or responsoriola), which are sung after the Chapter of the
Lesser Hours and of Compline. These are short chants in a simple style,
with repeat forms such as R R V R' D R or simply R V D. The complete
form is used for Prime [229], Compline [269], and normally for Terce
[237], the short one for Sext [243], None [247] and Terce during Advent,
Lent, and Paschal Time [2381]. The short Responsories of the Proper of
the Time generally follow the same scheme, e.g., on Christmas Eve [359,
363, 364] and Nativity [407, 411, 411], Each Responsory is followed by a
so<alled versicle, consisting of two short sentences sung to the same melody,
a very simple recitation formula. These versicles, however, are not really
a part of the Responsory, since they are also sung after hymns [see, e.g., L
118].

In addition to the Graduals and Responsories, the Alleluias are usually
placed in the category of responsorial psalmody. They have the form A'
A V A, where A' stands for the word "Alleluia/* and A for the same word
(and melody) followed by a melisma, the so-called jubilus. It should be
noted, however, that in the Alleluias the verse is probably not a remnant
of an earlier, more complete form (as is the case in the Graduals and
Responsories), but results from a later addition. Originally, the Alleluia
was not a psalmodic chant. As late as the sixth century it was nothing but
the word Alleluia itself followed by an extended jubilus, as we know from
Cassiodorus (c. 485-^ 58o). 18 Perhaps it was not until the time of St.
Gregory that a full text, usually taken from the Psalms and therefore called
verse, was added to the Alleluia. In the earliest Mss we find a few Alleluias
with two verses, as, e.g., in the Codex St. Gall 35^ which contains twelve
such Alleluias, mostly for high feasts. Thus the Easter Alleluia has the
verses Pascha nostrum and Epulemur [see Plate I], that for Easter Monday
the verses Angelus Domini and Benedictus es, and that for Holy Innocents
the verses Laudate pueri and Sit nornen Domini. None of these Alleluias
with two verses survived in later practice.

ANTIPHONAL PSALMODY

While direct psalmody is entirely soloistic and responsorial psalmody
calls for alternation, of a soloist and the choir, antiphonal psalmody is
is See List of Data, p. 41, no. 45.

l86 GREGORIAN CHANT

characterized by the use of alternating half-choruses. Such singing is occa-
sionally mentioned in the Bible: for instance, after David's return from
the victory over the Philistines, "And the women answered one another
as they played" (Sam. 18:7); or at the celebration after the wall of Jerusalem
had been built, "Then I ... appointed two great companies of them that
gave thanks, whereof one went on the right hand upon the wall . . . and
the other . . . went over against them . . ." (Neh. laigi-gS). 1 Philo of Alex-
andria (born c. 20 AD.) gives an interesting description of antiphonal
singing among the Therapeuts, a Jewish sect near Alexandria: "After the

meal . . . they form two choruses, one of men, the other of women Then

they sing hymns to God in many meters and melodies, partly together and
partly alternating (antiphonois)." About A.D. 300 Eusebius, bishop of
Caesarea in Palestine, mentions Philo's report and says that the same prac-
tice exists among the Christians of his time. In the early fourth century,
antiphonal singing flourished in eastern Syria in the secluded Christian
communities that form the root of monastic life. Two monks transplanted
it to the orthodox Church of Antioch in order to combat the Arians who
had found in the hymns of Bardesanes (d. 223) a very popular form of
worship. Apparently antiphonal singing, with its characteristic element of
liveliness and active participation, proved effective. Near the end of the
fourth century St. Basil introduced it in Nicea, St. Chrysostom in Con-
stantinople, and Ambrose in Milan, whence it spread to all the other
centers of the Latin church. 2

The traditional term for this method of singing, antiphony, is derived
from the Greek word antiphonos (literally, counter-sound), which in Greek
theory denoted the octave in contradistinction to symphonos, the unison,
and paraphonos, the fifth. The original meaning of the term suggests that,
in the earliest days of antiphonal singing, the second of the two alternating
groups consisted of women or children singing an octave higher than the
men. In fact, Philo expressly says that one chorus was formed by men,
the other by women.

Aside from this, nothing specific is known about the early manner of
antiphonal singing. St. Basil is the first to mention it as a method of singing
the Psalms. It is plausible to assume that all the verses of the Psalm were
sung to the same melody, probably nothing more than a simple recitation
formula, and that the two choruses, under the guidance of their leaders,
alternated either from verse to verse or in half-verses. It is this method
that survived in the psalmus in directum, which at an early time may well
have been performed by two groups.

At some time, possibly as early as the fourth century, the cantus anti-

1 There is, however, no evidence for the antiphonal singing of Psalms. See the article
by Avenary mentioned on p. 180, m. i.

2 See List of Data, pp. g8ff, nos. i, 17, si, 30.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 187

phonarius was enriched by the addition of a short text sung before and
after each verse, and called antiphona. There resulted a refrain-like struc-
ture similar to, and perhaps suggested by the cantus responsorius:

AVi AVs AV 3 ...AV n A.

Usually, the report of Etheria (c. 380) is regarded as the first evidence for
this stage of antiphonal singing. Previously [see pp. 45!!] we pointed
out that the evidence is not entirely convincing, but there can be hardly
any doubt that the method of singing Psalms with an interspersed Anti-
phon originated at about this time. In fact, the church historian Sozomenos
informs us that c. 362, because of the anti-Christian edicts of Julian the
Apostate (361-363), the relics of the Martyr St. Babylas were brought to a
safe place in Antiochia, and that during the accompanying procession the
"experts" sang a Psalm (Ps. 96?), while the people repeated after each
verse: Gonjusi sunt omnes (Ps. 96, y. 7). 3 This report is also interesting
because it shows the popular, one might almost say, "activistic" nature
of early antiphonal psalmody.

The introduction of the additional text (and melody) brought about a
noteworthy change in the meaning of the term antiphonal psalmody, that
is, the change from a term descriptive of performance (alternating choirs)
to one indicative of structure (refrain form). How completely the original
meaning of the term was lost appears from the fact the psalrmis in directum
is generally considered as a type in opposition to antiphonal (as well as
responsorial) psalmody, although actually it is the purest representative
of antiphonal psalmody in the proper meaning of the term*

While in responsorial psalmody the refrain is a natural part of the
structure, it forms a rather extraneous and arbitrary element in antiphonal
psalmody, a willful addition which may well be regarded as the earliest
instance of troping. Responsorial psalmody is impossible without a re-
frain, the respond, which provides that contrast between solo and choral
performance that is essential in responsorial singing. Antiphonal singing,
on the other hand, is in no way predicated upon the use of a refrain. In
fact, it is not at all clear how this refrain, the Antiphon, was fitted into
the antiphonal (that is, double-chorus) method of performance. We can
only speculate whether it was sung by both choirs combined, or whether
it was also sung antiphonally by being divided into two phrases, a method
which seems to have been practiced in the ninth or tenth century under
the name of ad antiphonam respondere.

8 Migne, Pair, graeca 67, p. 1275. Sozomenos also reports that under Theodosius (379-
95) the Arians, divided into groups, sang Psalms antiphonally, with the addition of
"closing sentences" (akroteleutia) written according to their dogma, and that St. John
Chrysostom (d. 407) "urged the people of his flock to sing Psalms in a similar way" (Patr.
graeca 67, p. 1535). Perhaps akroteleutia is the Doxology.

l88 GREGORIAN CHANT

The extraneous character of the Antiphons is also clearly noticeable in
their musical style. In the responsorial chants both the responds and verses
are rather similar to each other and, in fact, are often closely related
through the use of identical or similar musical material. No greater con-
trast, on the other hand, can be imagined than that between the monotone
recitation of a psalm verse and the free melodic flow of an Antiphon. It is
this very contrast which provides both an historical explanation and an
aesthetic justification for the introduction of the Antiphons.

As in the case of responsorial psalmody, the full form of antiphonal
psalmody, with its refrain-like repeat of the Antiphon, proved too long;
therefore it was reduced by omitting either verses of the Psalm or repeats
of the Antiphon, The full form, however, may still be seen in a few spe-
cial chants, such as the Invitatory Psalm, Venite exsultemus, of Matins
[368, etc., with varying Antiphons]; the Canticle Nunc dimittis as sung
during the distribution of the candles at Purification [1357; with the Anti-
phon Lumen ad revelationem]; or the Versus Psalmi 44. cum Antiphona,
in tono olim usitato (in the tone formerly used) as given in Variae Preces
for the Feast of Assumption [VP 201]:*

Venite exsultemus: A A Va A V 2 A' Vs A V* A' V 5 A D A' A

Nunc dimittis:* A Vi A Vs A Va A Di A D 2 A

Eructavit cor meum: A Vi Vs A Va V* A Vs Ve A Vr Vs A Di Da A

By far the most frequent type of antiphonal psalmody is that represented
by the Office Psalms sung during the Office Hours, from Matins to Com-
pline. Here the Psalms are sung complete, with the Doxology added at the
end to form two additional verses; but the Antiphon is sung only before
the first and after the final verse:

AViV2Va...V n DiD 2 A,

and its initial statement is often reduced to an incipit [see p. 217]. How-
ever, even in this greatly curtailed form the Office Psalms betray their
original refrain structure by an interesting detail, that is, the differentiae,
a number of different formulae provided for the conclusion of the psalm
tone (i.e., the recitation melody employed for all the verses) for the purpose
of making a smooth connection between the end of the Psalm (D 2 ) and

^Ferretti (Esthttiquc, p. 2515) and others (e.g., Batiffol, History of the Roman Breviary,
p. 100) consider the Invitatory as a responsorial, not an antiphonal Psalm. True enough,
it is sung today (and probably was in medieval practice) in a responsorial manner, but so
are all the antiphonal Psalms. Certainly, from the point of view of musical style the
Invitatory is as close to antiphonal psalmody as it is different from the responsorial
types. Moreover, all the responsorial types are post-lesson chants, while the Invitatory
has the function of an "introit" for Matins.

5 D! and D a stand for the first and the second half of the Doxology, each of which is
treated as a single verse.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 189

the beginning of the Antiphon sung thereafter [see p. 218]. According to
this function, the specific differentia would be required only for the last
verse of the Doxology. Actually it is used at the end of every verse, thus
showing that originally the Antiphon was indeed repeated after each
verse.

The antiphonal chants of the Mass are the Introit, the Offertory, and
the Communion, or, as they are occasionally called in the early books, Anti-
phona ad Introitum, Antiphona ad Offertorium, and Antiphona ad Com-
munionem. Each of these items is a chant accompanying a liturgical ac-
tion: entrance of the priest, offering of the gifts, and distribution of the
Holy Wafers. This puts them into a marked contrast to the responsorial
chants, the Graduals, Alleluias, and Responsories (as well as to the purely
solo Tracts), which are contemplative postludes to the reading from
Scripture. There can be no doubt that this distinction is the result, not
of coincidence, but of careful planning guided by a fine feeling for the
liturgical property and propriety of each type, a feeling which also mani-
fests itself in a basic difference of the musical styles: the responsorial "les-
son-chants" are highly melismatic, while the antiphonal "action-chants"
employ a relatively simpler style. An exception are the Offertories which,
in the course of time, acquired richly ornate melodies so that from the
stylistic point of view they belong to the responsorial category.

Considering the fact that the melodies of the antiphonal Mass chants
are simpler (and, consequently, shorter) than those of the responsorial
group, one might expect to find here fuller forms, with several verses and
refrain-like repeats of the Antiphon. Such forms did indeed exist at a
relatively late date, between the eighth and twelfth centuries, when the
responsorial chants had long since been reduced to their simple form.
Eventually, however, the tendency toward reduction caught up with the
antiphonal chants as well, leading to even more severely curtailed forms.
The Introit was reduced to one verse and the Doxology, preceded and
followed by the Antiphon: A V D A. In the Communion the Psalm was
completely eliminated, so that only the Antiphon remained a complete
reversal of its original function. The Offertories retained their verses, from
one to four, throughout the Middle Ages, and did not lose them until the
fourteenth century. Today the Offertories are similar to the Communions
in that they consist only of the Antiphon. Only in the Mass of the Dead
do we find a Communion, Lux aeterna, and an Offertory, Domine Jesu
Christe, with a verse.

Evidence of the early, more complete forms just alluded to is found, first
of all, in certain literary documents called Ordo Romanus, which contain
rather detailed descriptions of the Mass as celebrated by the pope. The
earliest of these, usually referred to as Ordo Romanus Gerbert> dates from
the early eighth century (c. 700-730); the next, universally called Ordo

100 GREGORIAN CHANT

Romanus primus, was written in the second half of the eighth century;
and the third, known as the Or do of St.-Amand, dates from the ninth cen-
tury. 6 The first of these sources describes the Introit as consisting of the
first verse of a Psalm, the first and second half of the Doxology, and another
psalm verse, each of these in alternation with the Antiphon which is also
taken from the same Psalm:

AVi ADi ADs AV 2 A

The Ordo Romanus primus contains a minute description of the cere-
monial that opened the pontifical Mass: the pope arriving at the sacristy
and being clothed with the sacred vestments; the dignitaries gathering
there and entering the nave of the church; the solemn procession to the
altar; the pope inspecting the "Sancta" (consecrated bread), prostrating
himself in prayer and giving the kiss of peace to the priests, after which
he gives the sign for the Gloria, that is, the beginning of the Doxology;
another prayer by the pope who kneels before the altar together with the
priests; die priests rising and saluting the altar, during which ceremony
the Sicut erat, that is, the second part of the Doxology, is sung by the
choir; finally the pope also rising, kissing the Gospel and the altar, and
returning to his throne. No doubt the major part of this long ceremonial
was accompanied by the singing of the Introit, and it is obvious that even
the fuller form indicated above would not nearly have sufficed to fill the
time. Probably the Introit started with an indefinite number of verses
of the Psalm, sung in alternation with the Antiphon until the pope gave
the signal to sing the Gloria and, somewhat later, the Sicut erat. The final
part of the ceremony was once more accompanied by psalm verses, the
so-called versus ad repetendum (or, simply, repetenda), that is, one or two
additional verses added ad libitum depending upon the time required to
finish the action. An Introit sung according to this scheme must have had
a form somewhat like the following:

A Vi A V 2 A Vs A Di A D 2 A V* A Vs A (V 4 , V B = repetenda)

It is interesting to notice that this form shows the same structure as the
one actually described in the earlier Ordo Romanus (the Anonymus Ger-
bert), but in greater fullness. In each case the Doxology appears in the
middle, preceded and followed by one or several verses of the Psalm.

Naturally, the elaborate ceremony of the pontifical Mass in Rome was a
unique phenomenon. In other churches the introductory celebrations were
much simpler and less time-consuming, so that considerably shortened
Introits were sufficient. The early form is still partly preserved in the

See List of Sources, p. 53, nos. 4 to 6. The following explanations are taken from
J. Froger, Les Chants de la messe aux Vllle et IXe si&clcs (1950).

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 191

eleventh-century Ms St. Gall 381, in which the initial Psalm is already
reduced to a single verse, but one or two verses ad repetendum after the
Doxology are fully indicated. 7 In the later codices these disappear, but
occasionally we find evidence that the Antiphon was repeated, not only
at the end, but also between the verse and the Doxology: A V A D A. 8
Finally it may be observed that to the present day the verse of the Introit
is marked, not y, (Verse), as in the Graduals, Responsories, Tracts, etc.,
but Ps. (Psalm), a last reminder of the fact that originally it was a com-
plete Psalm.

The magnificent prelude of the pontifical Mass, as described in the
sources of the eighth and ninth centuries, is matched by a scarcely less
impressive postlude, the Communion, during which everyone present
received a piece of the consecrated bread and a sip of the consecrated
wine, in representation of the flesh and blood of Christ. First the pope,
seated on his throne, received the communion from the archdeacon (archi-
diaconus); then the bishops received theirs from the pope; the first bishop
attended to the other members of the clergy; and finally the bread and
wine was given to the people. Except for the communion of the pope,
which took place in silence, the whole ceremony was accompanied by the
choir singing the chant called Communion. Like the Introit, this con-
sisted of a whole Psalm or as much of it as was needed, followed by the
Gloria Patri and a final verse ad repetendum, the whole enframed by the
Antiphon: "If there are many clerks participating in the communion, the
entire Psalm is sung with the Antiphon, until the priest makes the sign
of the cross on his forehead to sing the Gloria Patri. And after the Gloria
a verse of the Psalm is repeated and finally the Antiphon is sung." 9 Al-
though this description does not specify the repeat of the Antiphon after
each verse, there is little doubt that this was actually done. The early
form of the Communion, therefore, corresponded in every detail to that
of the Introit. Like this, it was greatly curtailed in the ensuing centuries,
because the practice of giving Communion individually to every member
of the clergy and to the people was abandoned. For a while the Com-
munion underwent the same process of reduction as the Introit, as ap-
pears particularly from the previously mentioned Codex St. Gall 381, in
which the Communions have exactly the same form as the Introits one
verse, the Doxology, and one or two verses ad repetendum. For instance,

7 The Gradual of Laon (Pal. mus., X) had a versus ad repetendum for every Introit,
but these were carefully erased at a later time. Some of them are still visible, e.g., Intr.
Esto mihi; Ps. In te Domine; Ad R. Inclina (p. 34). For the Easter Introit with two
verses, see Plate IV.

8 The Consuetudines antiquae Cluniacensium prescribed for the Mass of Sunday that
the Antiphon should be sung half after the verse, and full after the Doxology.

Froger [fn, 6], pp. 371".

1Q2 GREGORIAN CHANT

the Communion Circuibo from the Sixth Sunday after Pentecost [1009]
appears there in the following form: 10

C(ommunio): Circuibo et immolabo . . .
(Ps.): Dominus illuminatio mea et salus mea quern timebo.
ad -R(epetendum): Dominus protector vitae meae a quo trepidabo.
ad R.: Exaudi domine vocem meam qua clamavi: miserere mei et exaudi
me.

The Doxology is not indicated, but its insertion after the Psalm was
taken for granted, as well as the repeats of the Antiphon. For the Com-
munion of Easter Sunday, Pascha nostrum [781], the same codex prescribes
as many as six versus ad repentendum, after the initial verse (Ps.) and the
Doxology:

A Ps A D A Vi A Va A V 3 A V* A Ve A Ve A

In the twelfth century only the initial verse (Ps.) and the Doxology
remained, at least in some sources, leading to a form exactly like that of
the present Introit. Moreover, the parallelism between the Introit and
the Communion is enhanced by the fact that the verses of the latter were
always sung to the same eight recitation melodies (one for each mode)
that were, and still are, used for the verses of the former [see p. 228].
Eventually, however, the Communions lost the last vestiges of psalm
verses, the only exception being that of the Mass for the Dead, Lux
aeterna, which to the present day has retained a verse, Requiem aeternam,
as well as the repeat of the second half of the Antiphon, Cum sanctis

Finally we have to consider the Offertory, that is, the chant which ac-
companies the offering of bread and wine at the altar. Originally every
member of the clergy and of the congregation participated in this pious
act by bringing gifts which were consecrated and of which they received a
part during the Communion. The usage of singing a Psalm during this
action existed in Carthage as early as the fourth century, as we know
from St. Augustine who speaks about "the custom, just started at Carthage,
of singing hymns from the Book of Psalms, either before the offering or
during the distribution of what has been offered." 12 The Ordines romani

10 See the facsimile reproduction in Wagner II, 264. In the Gradual of St. Yrieix
(eleventh century) the Communion Viderunt omnes [410] appears in the following form:
Viderunt omnes fines terrae salutare Dei nostri. Ps. Jubilate Domino omnis terra, cantate
et exultate et psallite. Viderunt (. . . nostri). (Gloria Patri . . .) seculorum amen. Salutare
(. . . nostri): A V A D A' (Pal. mus., XIII, Plates, p. 21).

11 The Sacred Congregation of Rites has recently approved the reintroduction of the
full Introit, with several verses (see JRG, XXVI [1947], 146). Attempts in the same direc-
tion are made for the Communion.

12 See List of Data, p. 41, no. 33.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 193

give little specific indication about the chant of the Offertory. All we
hear is that "the pope descends to receive the offerings of the people, and
gives a sign to the archdeacon of the schola (choir) to say the offertory"
[Ordo of St. -Amand\, and that for the conclusion, "the pope inclines a
little to the altar, looks at the schola, and gives them the sign for silence"
[Ordo Romanus primus]. The express reference to the schola suggests that
at this time the Offertory was still an antiphonal chant, probably an entire
Psalm or the major part of it sung antiphonally, similar to the Introit
and the Communion. In the earliest musical manuscripts, however, it ap-
pears already as a responsorial chant, with highly florid melodies, and with
from one to three verses. It was not until the twelfth century that the
Offertories lost their verses, the only exception being that of the Mass
for the Dead, Domine Jesu Christe, which to the present day has retained
one verse, Hostias et preces [1813].

The Offertories with their medieval verses have been published by C.
Ott under the title of Offertoriale sive versus Offertoriorum (1935). Among
the no Offertories of this collection, we find about a dozen with one verse,
c. seventy with two, twenty-five with three, and one, Vir erat from the
Twenty-first Sunday after Pentecost, with four. In most of them repeat
of the Antiphon or, usually, of its second half is indicated, so that the fol-
lowing form emerges as the normal one:

AViA' V 2 A'
Those for the highest feasts usually have three verses, e.g.:

NATIVITY: Tut sunt caeli, y. i. Magnus et metuendus, y. 2. Misericordia,

y. 3. Tu humiliasti
EPIPHANY: Reges Tharsis, y. i. Deus judicium, y. 2. Suscipiant monies,

y. 3. Orietur in diebus
SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY: Bonum est confiteri, y. i. Quam magnificata, y. 2.

Ecce inimici; y. 3. Exaltabitur
ASH WEDNESDAY: Domine exaudi, y. i. Ne avertas, y. 2. Quia oblitus sum,

y. 3. Tu exsurgens
EASTER SUNDAY: Terra tremuit, y. i. Notus in Judaea, y. 2. Et factus est,

y. 3. Ibi confregit [cf. Plates II, III, IV, etc.]
PENTECOST: Confirma hoc, y. i. Cantate Domino, y* 2. In ecclesiis, y. 3.

Regna terrae
Also those for the oldest of Saints, e.g., St. John the Baptist.

In a number of Offertories with several verses the repeat of the Antiphon
is not indicated, or not indicated after each verse. In the great majority of
the cases, this is probably due to scribal negligence. For instance, it can
safely be assumed that in Scapulis suis [Ott, p. 32] the second part of the

1Q4 GREGORIAN CHANT

Antiphon, from Scuto, is repeated, not only after y. i and y. 3, where it
is prescribed, but also after y. 2, where it is not. In other cases the repeat
is necessary in order to bring the piece to its proper close, on the final of
its mode. An example in point is Bonum est confiteri [Ott, p. 26] which, be-
ing in mode 8, requires g as the final, which indeed appears as the last note
of the Antiphon. The last verse, however, closes on e, an obvious impos-
sibility for a composition in the eighth mode. It appears that the Antiphon
has to be repeated after the last verse, as well as after the two others which
employ the same cadential formula as the final verse. Still other Offertories
reveal their repeat structure through the presence of a peculiarity that
could be called musical rhyme. This consists in the use, at the end of each
verse, of the same cadential formula which, in the Antiphon, immediately
precedes its second part (that is, the part which is repeated after each
verse), as follows (A', A" are the first and second part of the Antiphon):

Thus the repeated refrain (A") each time is introduced and announced
by the same connecting formula. An example is the Offertory Confor-
tamini [Ott, p. 9], from which the three passages pertaining to the present
question are reproduced in Fig. 35. Others are Deus tu convertens, Laeten-

FIGURE 35

A. C a - -^J H I - **

. V" E J* 8 ' ^ " ' " a " : V-

retrl- bu- ct iu-dl-ci- um : * Ipse ve- ni- et

1 , I- ' ^ R. . > ""

et cla- m e* rit lingua mu-to- rum. * Ipse veniet.

f.*

^=s=&

c- ius Emma- nu- el. * Ipse veniet.

tur caeli (in which each verse terminates with the complete A'), Tui sunt
caeli, Domine vivifica (y. i only), Domine fac mecum (y. 2), Eripe me . . .
Domine, etc. While in these Offertories the repeat of the Antiphon (or,
rather, its second half) is properly indicated, there are others lacking this
indication but showing exactly the same peculiarity of identical cadential
formulae in the middle of the Antiphon and at the end of the verses; e.g.,
De profundis [Ott, p. 126], from which three passages are reproduced in
Fig. 36, the first from the inner melisma, "meam," of the Antiphon, the
others from the close of the two verses. It is obvious that the respond

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 195

FIGURE 36

nem me- am : <j c pro- fun- dis

scrvi tu-

8j
-*

LI*. *

3aL. w -

. U *M*

should be repeated, not from the beginning but after the melisma [for
more details regarding this Offertory see p. 371]. A similar example is
Super flumina [Ott, p. 119], the first verse of which borrows its ending
from the melisma "flevimus" of the Antiphon, thus suggesting repeat of
its dosing section, "dum recordaremur tui, Sion."

Finally it should be noticed that in a few Offertories the refrain is taken,
not from the Antiphon, but from the closing section of the first veirse.
Thus, after the third verse of Benedictus es . . . in labiis [Ott, p. 28] the
indication for repeat reads: "*In labiis vel *Aufer a plebe," giving an
option between the repeat of the closing section of the Antiphon or- that
of the first verse. 13 Similar cases are Super flumina [Ott, p. 119], where the
repeat "*Qui dixerunt" after y. 3 refers to the closing section of y. 2;
Mihi autem [Ott, p. 128; repeat "*Nimis" from y. i], and Anima nostra
[Ott, p. 145], where the melody indicated for the repeat "*Laqueus" shows
that this is the "Laqueus contritus est nos, liberati sumus" from the end of
y. i, not from the end of the Antiphon which closes with the same words,
but set to a different melody.

These and other structural peculiarities 14 place the Offertories in a
category all their own. No other type of chant shows so many variants
of its basic structure. In reality these variants are even more numerous
than appears from a study of Ott's publication, since not a few Offertories
occur in different manuscripts with different numbers of verses or with
divergent indications for the repeat of the Antiphon. It is not easy to give
a satisfactory explanation for the great amount of structural variability
found in these chants. Froger tries to account for their "physionomie si
originale" by considering them as representatives of "po&ie lyrique," 15

13 Musically, the refrain "In labiis" is preferable, since it starts with e, thus making
for a smooth connection with the verses, all of which close on e. The refrain "Aufer a
plebe" starts with c* and therefore would produce an upward leap of a sixth.

14 For more details, see pp. 37off.
16 Froger [fn. 6], p. 89.

ig6 GREGORIAN CHANT

but it is difficult to see how this designation, if at all applicable to Grego-
rian chant, could serve to distinguish the Offertories from the Introits or
Graduals, in which we find texts no less "poetic" and "lyrical" than those
of .the Offertories. A more prosaic, but probably more reasonable, expla-
nation is that the Offertories have survived only in a relatively late form,
dating from the second half of the ninth century [see pp. 375, 513],

QUESTIONS OF PERFORMANCE

Originally and properly, the terms responsorial and antiphonal pertain
to matters of performance, the former indicating the alternation between
a soloist and a choir, the latter, between two choirs. In later usage they
acquired somewhat different meanings, becoming primarily associated
with differentiations in the field of musical style (responsorial = elaborate;
antiphonal = simple) or of forms and types (responsorial = Graduals,
Alleluias, etc.; antiphonal = Introits, Communions, etc.). The question
arises whether and to what extent the original meaning survived in the
practice of the Middle Ages and of the present day; in other words, whether
all or some of the responsorial chants continued to be sung responsorially,
the antiphonal chants antiphonally.

As for the responsorial chants, the answer is clearly in the positive. As
far as can be ascertained, the Graduals, Alleluias, and Responsories of
Matins were always, and are at present, sung responsorially, the verse or
verses being entrusted to the soloist, the respond to the choir; e.g.,

A .v A .P. .5*

(straight lines indicate choral, dotted lines solo performance). In the twelfth
century, if not earlier, this method was modified in such a way that the
beginning of the respond was sung by the soloist, and the conclusion of the
verse by the choir. Each of these contrasting sections comprise from one
to three words, marked off from the rest by an asterisk, e.g. [409]:

IJT. Viderunt omnes * fines terrae . . . omnis terra, y. Notum fecit
Dominus . . . ante conspectum gentium revelavit * justitiam suam.i

The use of a solo opening means that the chant is intoned by the solo
singer, a practice which is justifiable not only aesthetically but also from
a practical point of view, the soloist assuming the role of one who gives
the pitch to the choir. It is equally imperative, on aesthetic grounds, that
each chant should be closed by the choir, and this principle is also uni-
versally observed. It operates automatically if the Gradual is sung in its

1 This manner of performance is of basic importance in the organa of the School of
Notre-Dame (Leoninus, Perotinus; c. 1200), in which the solo sections only have poly-
phonic music, the choral sections being sung in plainsong.

Methods and Forms of Psalmody 197

early, fuller form, with the respond repeated after the verse. In this case
the verse is sung entirely by the soloist. The later custom of omitting the
repeat of the respond necessitated the introduction of a choral close for
the verse. The present-day Roman rite permits both the full and the
shorter form of the Gradual. Following is a schematic representation
showing the alternation of soloist and choir in the responsorial chants

(the sign indicates a choral section with solo opening, the sign ...

a solo section with choral close): 2

Gradual: R^ y_ or ^R_ V. R,

Responsory; R_ V K/ or R_ V. B/ ^

Alleluia: A A^+j^ V_ A+j_ (A = Alleluia; j = jubilus)

Turning now to the question of antiphonal singing, we face a more dif-
ficult problem. As far as the authorized present-day practice is concerned,
antiphony has completely disappeared in what is called "antiphonal"
chants. The Psalms are sung in alternation between the cantor (soloist)
and the choir, the former singing the first, the latter the second half of
each verse. 3 Some monasteries, particularly in Germany, employ an antiph-
onal performance two half-choirs alternate with full verses, while the
Antiphon is sung by both groups together, except for a solo incipit. As
for the medieval practice, this seems to have varied. As has been previously
pointed out, antiphonal singing was introduced as a decidedly "popular"
(perhaps, more precisely, popularizing) method of worship. It found its
way into the Church because of its activistic, even propagandistic qualities,
not dissimilar to those found today in the Salvation Army. It is easy to
understand that these qualities were of the highest value for the Church
when she was fighting for survival, but it is also understandable that they
lost their importance when the victory was won, and when the general
character of the worship changed from exuberant jubilation to pious de-
votion. According to recent investigations, the Psalms were sung, in the
sixth century and later, in a responsorial manner, the verses by a soloist
and the Antiphon after each verse by the entire group of monks. 4 In the
ninth century, however, Amalarius says that "the antiphon is begun by
one singer of one choir, and in accordance with its mode the psalm is sung
by the two choirs (in alternation); but in the antiphon itself both choirs
join." 5 Thus, both the "responsorialists" and the "antiphonalists" of the

2 See the indications L, p. xv, also pp. 32off.

3See 251.

4 Cf. C. Gindele, "Doppelchor und Psalmvortrag im Friihmittelalter" (Die Musikfor-
schung, VI [1953], 296).

5 De Ecclesiastico Officio, IV, 7: Antiphona inchoatur ab uno unius chori; et ad eius
symphontam psalmus cantatur per duos choros; ipsa enim, id est antiphona, coniunguntur
simul duo chori (ed. Hanssens, II, 433).

igS GREGORIAN CHANT

present day can cite historical authority for their views, the former from
the sixth to the eighth, the latter from the ninth and possibly the fourth
century.

Turning to the antiphonal chants of the Mass, the Introit is the only
one of sufficient extension to permit alternation of performing bodies.
Nothing definite seems to be known about the medieval practice. At pres-
ent, it is performed responsorially; e.g.:

Cantor Choir

Ant. Ad te levavi *animam meam . . . non confundantur.

Cantor Choir

Ps. Vias teas, Domine demonstra mihi: *et semitas tuas edoce me.

Cantor Choir

Dox. Gloria Patri . . . Sancto. *Sicut . . , saecula saeculorum. Amen.

Choir
Ant. Ad te levavi , . . non confundantur.

The Roman usage prescribes one cantor on weekdays and Simple Feasts,
two on other Feasts and Sundays, and four on Solemn Feasts. 6 Thus, on the
last-mentioned occasions, the effect approaches antiphony.

Antiphonal singing is employed today mainly for chants that have no
connection with antiphonal psalmody; e.g., the Kyrie, the Gloria, the
Hymns, the Sequences, or the bilingual Sanctus of Good Friday [705], It is
also used for the Tracts which have completely lost their solo character.
The verses of the Tract are sung alternately by two choirs (or by the cantors
and the full choir)y except for the opening and the closing passage (marked
off by an asterisk), the former of which is given to a soloist, the latter to
both choirs combined.

L, p. xv.

Stylistic Analysis

CHAPTER ONE

The Liturgical Recitative

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

WITH this chapter we turn from a consideration of the more basic
and general aspects of Gregorian chant liturgical structure, no-
tation, tonality, types, and forms to the study of its inner organism, in
other words, of its style.

The basis of stylistic analysis of Gregorian chant is the customary dis-
tinction of three styles, syllabic, neumatic (group), and melismatic. The
syllabic chants are those in which each syllable of the text receives one,
occasionally two or three notes. In a neumatic chant the majority of the
syllables are sung to a group of two, three, four, or more notes, each group
being represented by a single neume (hence the name neumatic style for
this class). In a melismatic chant there are a number of syllables carrying
a true melisma, consisting of ten, twenty, thirty, or more notes. As is im-
plied in these definitions, the neumatic chants also include syllables hav-
ing only one note, and the melismatic chants consist of a mixture of single
notes, short groups, and extended melismas. If we select an example of
each class and count the number of notes appearing with, e.g., fifteen
syllables, this number may be about twenty in a syllabic, thirty to forty in
a neumatic, and close to one hundred in a melismatic chant.

The style of a given chant is determined by the liturgical category to
which it belongs. Each category, whether part of the Office or of the Mass,
has its distinct style from which there is a hardly ever a deviation, and
which conforms with its liturgical importance and solemnity. Thus, start-
ing with the Offices of weekdays and going on to the Day Hours of Sun-
days and feast days, to Lauds and Vespers, to the night service (Matins),
and finally to the Proper of the Mass, we proceed from the simplest to the
most elaborately adorned melodies.

Following is a table which illustrates this point in greater detail, the
various types of chant being listed approximately according to the position
they hold in the stylistic order of rank:

201

202 GREGORIAN CHANT

Syllabic: Lesson and Prayer Tones

Psalm Tones; Tones for the Introit Verses
Psalm Antiphons; Short Responsories; Hymns; Sequences;
Glorias; Credos

Neumatic: Sanctus; Agnus Dei

Introits; Communions
Processional and Marian Antiphons

Melismatic: Kyries

Great Responsories; Offertories; Tracts
Graduals; Alleluias. 1

The statement that the individual chants closely adhere to the general
style of their class is particularly evident in the psalm Antiphons, Short
Responsories, Hymns, and in the Proper of the Mass. Some of the Great
Responsories show neumatic rather than melismatic style; e.g., Qui Laza-
rum [1786]. Particularly striking is the considerable variation found in
the Kyries, as, for instance, between the highly melismatic Kyrie I and
the very modest Kyrie XVIII. With good reason the former is used today
(and probably was in medieval practice) for Solemn Feasts, the latter for
the weekdays of Advent and Lent.

Although the classification according to syllabic, neumatic, and melis-
matic style is basic, it is, needless to say, by no means sufficient to account
for the whole range of stylistic variety found in Gregorian chant. We
have only to consider the fact that the syllabic group includes such widely
heterogenous chants as the lesson tones, the psalm Antiphons, and the
Hymns in order to realize that many other points of view enter into
the picture. The most important of these aspects are those resulting
from the innumerable manifestations of melodic motion: which may be
stationary, oscillating, or scalar; narrow or wide in range; conjunct or
disjunct, the latter with intervals ranging from a third to a sixth or more,
with or without leaps in the same or in a changed direction; involving
variation of a basic design, recurrence of standard formulae, etc. On an-
other level we have to consider structural elements such as over-all length,
division into phrases, repeat of phrases and sections, symmetry of phrase-
ology, etc. Finally, as to the relationship between the music and the text,
the consideration of the number of notes assigned to a syllable is only
the beginning of investigations of a more subtle nature, such as accentua-
tion, emphasis placed on important words, word painting, and others.

1A famous example illustrating the close relationship between musical style and
liturgical category is provided by the psalm verse Justus ut palma which, at different
occasions, is sung to melodies ranging from a monotone recitation to the most profusely
ornamented type of chant; L 1125: Versicle (tones on p. 118); 735: psalm tone (^. 12);

4: Introit; 1193: Offertory; 1201: Gradual; 1207: Alleluia. See Wagner HI, 7fL

The Liturgical Recitative 203

Turning now to a study of all these aspects, we shall largely follow the
outline of Wagner's Gregorianische Formenlehre, in which the repertory
is divided into two categories, the "Gebundene Formen" and the "Freie
Formen." The former category includes the chants having the character
of a recitative; the latter those having (or, at least, including) freely in-
vented melodies. In each group we shall proceed from the simplest to the
more complex types, in somewhat the order given in the table shown on
the preceding page.

THE TONES FOR THE READINGS AND PRAYERS

The most elementary stage of the liturgical recitative is represented by
the melodic formulae used for the musical delivery of the readings and
prayers that form a part of the Office and of the Mass. In view of the close
relationship which generally exists between degrees of musical elaboration
and degrees of liturgical significance, it is perhaps surprising to encounter
such rudimentary types of chant not only in the Office Hours, but also (in
fact, much more prominently) in the solemn liturgy of the Mass. The
explanation is that these are not musical items in the proper sense. They
are essentially spoken texts, the meaning of which would be destroyed by
any but the simplest manner of musical delivery. Here, as well as in the
slightly more developed formulae used for the Psalms, the music has no
independent significance and value, but only serves as a means of obtain-
ing a distinct and clearly audible pronunciation of the words, so that they
will resound into the farthest corners of the church. Today, these texts are
often recited recto tono, that is, on one unchanged pitch, and with a slight
pause to mark the end of phrases or sentences. 1 This, however, is not a
medieval practice. It was introduced, together with many other modifica-
tions, through the reforming work of Giov. Guidetti (1530-92), whose
Directorium chori of 1582 is perhaps the most important of the various
reform editions of that period, much more so than the notorious Editio
Medicea of 1614.

The formulae used for the musical delivery of such texts as readings and
prayers (also the Psalms; see p. 208) are called tones, in translation of the
Latin term tonus commonly used for them in the Middle Ages. As may be
expected in the case of such semi-musical chants, the medieval books show
considerable variation in the details of the various toni. These variants
have been fully studied by Wagner, 2 but they are hardly important enough
to be included in the present book. The basic principles are always the

1 See L, p. 99.

2 See Wagner III, 37-82.

204 GREGORIAN CHANT

same, and become sufficiently evident from a consideration of the tones
given in the modern books of chant.

The Liber usualis prescribes tones for the prayers (collects) and the read-
ings from Prophecy, Epistles, or Gospels that form a part of the Mass, as
well as for the short Chapters of the Day Hours and the more extended
Lessons of Matins. 3 All these tones are essentially monotone recitations
sung at a certain pitch called tenor (in medieval books also tuba, in char-
acterizing reference to its loudness, like that of a trumpet), and with down-
ward inflections at the various points of punctuation, as indicated in the
text by a comma, colon, semicolon, interrogation mark, or period. In the
earliest manuscripts the recitation is made preferably on a, with inflections
down to g and L In twelfth-century sources we find the first examples of a
tenor on c', with inflections down to b and a, or on f with inflections down
to e or d. This change is an indication of a tendency, often noticeable in
Gregorian chant, to replace a subtonal tenor by a subsemitonal tenor; that
is, a tenor having a whole-tone below it (g, a, b) by one forming a semitone
with its lower neighbor (f, c'). We shall see later that the tendency toward
subsemitonal tenors also plays an important role in the formation of the
psalm tones. As for the tones of the prayers, etc., the liturgical books of the
present day prefer the subsemitonal tenors, listing the others as "Ancient
Tones." Nearly all the tones given in L have a tenor on c', the only excep-
tions being the ancient tones for the Prayer given on pp. loof, for the
Gospel on p. 108, and for the Lessons of Matins on p. 121.

The melodic punctuations where the singer deviates from the mono-
tone recitation are called positurae or pausationes. They are chiefly four,
namely, flex (flexa, originally punctus circumflexus), metrum (usually called
punctus elevatus in medieval sources), the interrogation (punctus interro-
gationis), and the full stop (punctus versus, i.e., final stop of the verse). The
flex usually involves a simple downward motion to the lower note, such
as a-g, and roughly corresponds to a comma of the text. The metrum in-
volves a down-and-up motion, as a-g-g-a or a-g-f-a, and generally occurs at
the place of a colon. Interrogative sentences usually call for a recitation
at the pitch below the tenor, but with a final rise up to the tenor, for
example, g . . . g-a, or g ... g-f-g-a. The full stop normally involves a final
motion down to a lower pitch, e.g., from a tenor on a to g: a-g-f-g, or down
to d: a-f-g-d. Most of the tones also provide a somewhat more extended
formula for the Conclusion, that is, the very last words of the text.

For further illustration a table follows which shows the punctuation
formulae for some of the ancient tones given in L. 4

3 See L, pp. g8ff, i2off, etc.

4 The dashes serve to indicate the position of the accented syllable. Cf . Wagner Ill 9
46, for a number of instructive examples.

The Liturgical Recitative 205

FIGURE 37
Flex Metrum Interrogation Full Stop

V Lf ^^J

7 .

i. Prayer [100] 2. Gospel [108] 3. Lessons [122]

The signs given at the top of the figure are the ones used in the medieval
books to indicate the various punctuations punctus ftexus, elevatus, in-
terrogativus and the corresponding inflections of the melody. The reader
will easily recognize that the sign for the punctits interrogativus is an early
form of our question mark, which thus reveals an interesting musical an-
cestry. While this sign only underwent a modification of its form, the
medieval signs for the flex and the metrum were abandoned about 1500,
and were replaced by the signs + and * which are still in use today. 5

Finally, we reproduce in Fig. 38 [from L 108] an excerpt showing how
the punctuation formulae were applied to a text, in this case from the
Gospels:

FIGURE 38

Mttrulm.

In illo-tSmpore : Df-xit Jsus discipu-lissu- is : Vos stis sal t&rae.

Interrogation.

1 <>

Quod si sal evanu-e-rit. in quo sa-li--tur?

On the three days preceding Easter, that is, on Maundy Thursday, Good
Friday, and Holy Saturday, the lessons of Matins take on a more solemn
form than usual. On each of these days the three lessons of the first Nocturn
are taken from the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and are sung to a tone of a

5 See L, p. 124,

206 GREGORIAN CHANT

slightly more elaborate character than the one normally employed for the
lessons of Matins. 6 The recitation is made throughout on the subtonal
tenor a, with three inflections which can be said to represent the flex (F),
the metrum (M), and the full stop (S). The normal succession of these
inflections within a verse is FM : FS, the verse being divided, in the
manner of the psalm verses, in halves, the first of which closes with the
metrum, the second with the full stop, both of them being subdivided by
the flex. In verses whose text is not long enough to accommodate the full
scheme, either the first or the second half is sung without the flex, so that
the inflections occur in the succession M : FS or FM : S. A special feature,
adopted from the original text, is the enumeration of the verses by the
letters of the Hebrew alphabet: ALEPH: Quomodo sedet sola . . . BETH:
Plorans ploravit in node . . . , etc. Each of these letter names is sung to a
special formula.

FIGURE 39
F: Hex M: Metrum S: Full Stop Letters

-i--

ALEPH.

Brief mention only need be made of the tones for the Absolutions and
Blessings [i 19], which are sung at Matins [e.g., 375], and which are very
similar to the tones just described. They are preceded by a versicle, i.e., a
short text consisting of two lines of similar length designated y (verse) and
"tip (respond), which are sung to the same melodic formula consisting of a
straight recitation with a closing melisma of eight to ten notes [374]:

FIGURE 40

. Tamquam sp6nsus.

ty D6minus procdens de thdlamo su-<x

Similar versides, usually sung to the same tone, occur after each Vesper
hymn [e.g., 259], and after each Short Responsory [e.g., 229]. A more ex-
tended versicle, concluded by the Gloria Pairi, is the Deus in adjutorium,
which is an invariable opening chant of every Office Hour. Three melodies

See L, pp. 626, 669, 715. A detailed study of the Lamentations is found in Wagner
III,

The Liturgical Recitative 207

are provided for it, a Simple Tone for the Little Hours and Compline [263],
a Festal Tone for Matins, Lauds, and Vespers [250], and a Solemn Tone
for Vespers of very solemn feasts [112], The last differs from the others (in
fact, from all the tones we have so far considered) by its having an in-
tonation, that is, an initial motion, f-g-a, leading up to the tenor on a. In
this respect it resembles the psalm tones and other tones of a more elabo-
rate character which will be studied later. Another tone opening with an
intonation is that of the Prefaces [109], which serve as introductions to
the reading of the Canon of the Mass [5]. An extended study of the various
melodies with which the Prefaces occur in the medieval books is given in
Wagner III, 69-80.

Among the various other recitatives used for special occasions the Te
Deum [1832], the Exsultet frgg], 7 etc. we shall consider only one which
is interesting, and unique in Gregorian chant, because of its dramatic
character; that is, the tone (or tones) for the Passions. The four versions
of the Passion story are recited during Mass on four days shortly before
Easter: that from Matthew on Palm Sunday [596], from Mark on Tues-
day in Holy Week [607], from Luke on Wednesday [616], and from John
on Good Friday [700]. Today these are generally read, but the medieval
practice was to sing them in a manner designed to bring out the contrast
between the participants of the story: Christ, the Jews, and the Evangelist
who narrates the events. This was done by providing for a recitation at
three different pitch levels and speeds, low and slow for the words of
Christ, high and fast for those of the Jews, and medium for those of the
Evangelist. The earliest manuscripts (ninth and tenth century) distinguish
only between the words of Christ and the rest of the text by marking the
former t (tarde, slowly), the latter c (celeriter, quick). Later the letter $
(sursum, high) was added to characterize the turba Judaeorum, the crowd
of the Jews- Finally, the letter t was interpreted as the sign of the Cross, f*
and the two others adopted a different meaning, that is, C for Chronista
and S for Synagoga.

The complete chant for the Passion according to St. John, on Good
Friday, is included in the Officium et Missa ultimi tridui Majoris Hebdo-
madae (1947), pp. 149-169. The Chronista has a recitation on c', with a
mediant down to a (c' b a c') and a termination down to f (c' g a f or, before
the words of Christ, c'-b^-a g f). The words of Christ are recited on f, with
inflections down to c, while those of the Synagoga are sung an octave
higher. Fig. 41 shows a section of this dialogue chant, which contains the
roots of the liturgical drama.

7 The Praeconium Paschale (Paschal laudation), a psalmus idioticus similar to the Te
Deum, sung on Holy Saturday during the Blessings of the Paschal Candle [L 739]. For the
music see Officium . . . Tridui, p. 227,

208 GREGORIAN CHANT

FIGURE 41

. - -

- - * -

regnum roe- urn non est hinc. C. Di-xit j-taque e- i Pi- la- tus : 5. Ergo Rex estu?

t . %v.

*C. Respondit Je- sus-^Tu di- tis, qui-aRexsum e-go. Ego in hoc na-tus sum etc,

As early as c. 1300 Johannes de Grocheo remarked that lectio, epistola,
evangelium> and oratio "ad musicum non pertinet" (does not concern the
musician), because they are governed only by the rules of accent and
grammar. 8 In particular, they are practically the only chants that stand
outside the system of the church modes. The very narrowness of their
range, often including only three pitches, prevents their being assigned to
a definite mode. In spite of their primitive style and limited tonality, how-
ever, they are not without artistic interest and significance. They certainly
represent an admirable solution of the difficulties involved in the loud
and clear delivery of a prose text, achieving, as they do, with a minimum
of means a remarkably high degree of liturgical propriety, artistic order,
and aesthetic satisfaction. Needless to say, they are extremely interesting
from the historical point of view. They represent a stage in which music
is shaped exclusively and in every detail by the requirements of textual
pronunciation. Forgoing any attempt at musical elaboration for its own
sake, they are the purest embodiment of that principle which, more than
a thousand years later, when the recitative was reborn, Monteverdi ex-
pressed in the famous words: L'orazione sia padrona dell'armonia e non
serva (The word should be the mistress of the music, not the servant).

THE PSALM TONES

The psalm tones are the melodic formulae used for the singing of the
complete Psalms which form the nucleus of the service in all the Office
Hours. In their essential traits they are very similar to the tones discussed
in the previous chapter, consisting of a tenor recitation with inflections
at the places of punctuation. The similarity is particularly striking in the
case of one special psalm tone, the so-called tonus in directum (tonus
directaneus), employed on a few occasions for a Psalm sung without anti-
phon [see p. 179], It consists of a recitation on c' or on f (in medieval
sources also on a ) with two inflections identical with the flex and the
metrum of the lesson tone shown in Fig. 37 [p. 205]. It is even simpler than
this tone, because it lacks the interrogation (hardly ever required in a
Psalm) and employs the formula of the flex also for the full stop. Fig. 43

E, Rohloff, Der Mwiktraktat <to Johannes de Grocheo (1943), p. 59,

The Liturgical Recitative 209

shows the elements of the tonus in directum [see L 1776; the white notes
are designed to take care of extra syllables in dactylic words]. As in all

FIGURE 42
Flex Metrum Full Stop

Psalms, this formula is repeated for each verse, the flex being used only for
the relatively few verses in which the length of the text requires a division
into three phrases.

Psalms without an Antiphon also occur around Easter, namely, at Com-
pline of Holy Saturday [762] and at the Little Hours of Easter Sunday
and Easter Week [777, 784]. Also included in this group are the Psalms
of the Little Hours (Prime to None) of Maundy Thursday and Good
Friday, which, however, today are merely said [654]. All these Psalms are
sung to one and the same tone, also called tonus in directum [see L, p. 1 18],
which differs from the one previously mentioned mainly because it has
an intonation:

FIGURE 43

The same melody is also employed for the Canticle Nunc dimittis at Com-
pline of Easter Sunday [784].

We now turn to the regular psalm tones, that is, those employed for the
Psalms sung with an Antiphon. Considered individually, these tones closely
resemble those for the lessons, etc. True enough, they all begin with an
intonation, but this is used for the first verse only, so that all the subse-
quent verses start directly with the tenor and thus employ formulae very
similar to those considered above. As a group, however, the psalm tones
present a new aspect because they became an integral part of the system
of the church modes. Even the earliest sources containing detailed in-
formation about the singing of Psalms, e.g., the Commemoratio brevis de
tonis et psalmis modulandis of the ninth century, 1 present the psalm tones
as a fully developed system of eight toni, one for each mode. The reason
for this organization is the ancient usage of connecting the Psalm with an
Antiphon sung at the beginning and end of the Psalm, originally also
between the verses [see p. 187]. These Antiphons are freely composed chants
which vary from feast to feast and which show definite modal character-
istics, some being in the first mode, others in the second, etc. It was con-

iSee List of Sources, p. 55, no. 23. The musical examples for the psalmody are
transcribed in Ferretti, Esthdtique, pp. 303^

2io GREGORIAN CHANT

sidered necessary to sing the Psalm in such a way as to produce a tonal
unity of the two constituent parts. By devising a different psalm tone for
each mode a very ingenious solution was found for the problem presented
by the combination of a fixed element, the psalmodic recitative, and a
variable one, the Antiphon. Eight psalm tones were sufficient to accommo-
date the several thousands of Antiphons.

Each psalm tone consists of a tenor with three main inflections, the
intonation (intonatio, initium) at the beginning, the mediant (mediatio)
in the middle, and the termination (terminatio) at the end. The mediant
corresponds to the metrum, the termination to the full stop of the prayer
and lesson tones, while the consistent use of the intonation introduces a
new element into the liturgical recitative. As is well known, nearly every
psalm verse falls into halves, which often express the same thought in two
different ways (parallelismus membrorum), as in Ps. 83:17: "Let them be
confounded and troubled for ever; yea, let them be put to shame, and
perish." The tenor recitation with three inflections fully corresponds to
this binary structure of the text. The intonation falls on the initial sylla-
bles (usually the first two) of the verse, the mediant on the closing syllables
of its first half, the termination on those of its second half, while all the
other syllables are recited on the tenor note. Occasionally there are psalm
verses of such length that a strict application of the general method would
lead to an overly protracted recitation. For these the first half of the verse
is subdivided by a small inflection, the flex. The general scheme of a psalm
tone therefore is as follows:

Intonation Tenor (Flex- Tenor) Mediant Tenor Termination
e.g., in the eighth tone:

FIGURE 44

" * "

Int. Tenor FL Tenor Med. Tenor Termin.

The previous statement, that the psalm tones are integrated into the
system of the eight church modes, should not be interpreted to mean that
a given psalm tone is a melody of the corresponding mode. That this is
not the case appears from the fact that often a psalm tone does not con-
form with the most basic requirement for a melody of a given mode, that
is, that it close on its final. As we shall see later (p. 219), the terminations
of the psalm tones are variable, and if one or the other closes on the tonic
of the mode, this results from entirely different considerations than ad-
herence to modal characteristics. The decisive element of the psalm tones
is not the final, but the tenor, which is determined by the rule that it falls
on the fifth above the final in the authentic modes, and on the third above
the final in the plagal modes:

The Liturgical

Recitative

final

Mode i

protus auth.

plag.

deuterus auth.

plag.

trims auth.

plag.

tetrardus auth.

plag.

211

tenor
a

f
b*

g*
tf

a
d'
b*

This, however, is not entirely the actual state of affairs. In present-day
practice as well as in the common usage of the Middle Ages the three tenors
marked by an asterisk are each a tone higher; for the third psalm tone the
tenor is on c', for the fourth on a, and for the eighth on c'. The reason for
this deviation from the regular scheme is perhaps to be found in the aver-
sion to making prominent use of the tone b, a scale degree suspect to the
medieval mind because of its association with the tritone (f-b) and because
of its chromatic variability (b-natural or b-flat). This line of reasoning
would explain at least the change of the two tenors on b into tenors on c 7 ,
in the third and eighth psalm tone. As to the fourth tone, it has been sug-
gested that its tenor was raised in consequence of the raise made in the
third tone, in order to preserve in the deuterus group the normal relation-
ship between the plagal and the authentic tenors, at the distance of a
third. We shall, however, see soon that this explanation is not tenable.

The present-day system of the psalm-tone tenors, as just described, ap-
pears as early as the eleventh century, in the De Musica of Johannes
Cotto, 2 and remained unchanged thereafter. It is only when we turn to
the earliest source, the Commemoratio brevis of c. 900, that we get an
insight into the original state of affairs. The Commemoratio describes
two series of psalm tones, one requiring a "slower tempo, as in the canticles
of the New Testament" (ubi moriosori cantu opus est, utpote ad cantica
Evangeliorum), and another, somewhat simpler in style, for the Day Offices
(ad cursum canendum). In both of these the third psalm tone has a recita-
tion on b, not on c'. s The fourth psalm tone of the first series has a tenor
on a; but for that of the second series a recitation on g is clearly indicated,
at least for the first half of the verse, while a similar indication for the
second half is unfortunately missing because of the shortness of the text,
so that it is difficult to decide whether, for a more protracted text, the
recitation would have been made on g or on a. We reproduce here the

2GS, II, 243. Also Waesberghe, Johannes Affligemensis* De Musica cum Tonario
(i95o)> PP- 82ff.

8 See the tables in Wagner III, 89, 90, and in Ferretti, Esthtiique, pp. 303 and 307.
The recitation on b for the third psalm tone has been restored in AM, p. 1212: "Tonus
in tenore antique."

212 GREGORIAN CHANT

original notation (replacing the daseia signs by their equivalents in staff
notation) together with two interpretations for the second half. 4 Both

FIGURE 45

term.

*>*' '"* - II

Cmrnemorata

Tu m&ndflsti rn 30 jft t& cu & cut *sto di ci oi mis*

Wagner and Ferretti [p. 308] interpret the second half as under (b), so
that the psalm tone has two different tenors, as in the tonus peregrinus.
The fact that in the original notation the tone a appears twice in succes-
sion (in Wagner's transcription three times), while the pitch g is reached
only once, would seem to favor this interpretation. It should be noticed,
however, that this interpretation leaves only two syllables, nimis, for the
termination, while the terminations of all the other psalm tones in the
Commemoratio have four or five syllables, either the standard (secu)lorum
amen, or lege Domini > (man)data tua, etc. This certainly is a fairly con-
vincing argument in favor of the interpretation (a), with the termination
-dm nimis and, consequently, with the recitation on g in the second as
well as in the first half of the psalm tone. At any rate, it appears that at
the time of the Commemoratio the tenor of the fourth psalm tone was
either g or g-a. It also appears that the change to a, adumbrated here and
established not long thereafter, could not possibly have been made in
consequence of the raise of the tenor in the third psalm tone, since this
tenor had not yet changed. Finally, as to the eighth psalm tone, all the
examples of the Commemoratio have the tenor on c'. However, traces of
a recitation on b occur in certain chants of psalmodic derivation, e.g.,
in the verses of the Responsories. 6

In addition to the eight regular psalm tones there is the tonus peregrinus
(foreign, strange tone), characterized by the use of two different tenors,
on a for the first half of the verse, and on g for the second [i 17]:

* The transcription in Wagner 111, 90, with a recitation on a in the first half and with
the mediant closing on a, is wrong.

5 See p. 236. There can be no doubt that in the Tracts of the eighth mode the recita-
tion was originally on b, not on c' [see, e.g., the Tract Cantemus, L 745, on "Dominus
conterens"]. The clearest evidence for the recitation on b is found in the Beneventan Mss

g-a-b-c' b b b b c'

published in Pal. mus. f XIV, in which the above passage reads: Do- mi-nus con-te-rens
[Pal. mus. f XIV, Plates, p. 67; PL xix, xxiv; also XV, Plates, p.

The Liturgical Recitative
FIGURE 46

-i --

This tone is used today for Ps. 112, Laudate pueri [152] and P$. 113, In
exitu Israel [160], on certain occasions, e.g., Vespers of Sunday [254],
Vespers of the Common of Two or More Martyrs [1154], and Second Ves-
pers of the Dedication of the Church of St. Michael [1660]. Actually, its use
is predicated not so much on liturgical occasions or specific Psalms as on
the Antiphons with which these Psalms are sung in the cases just men-
tioned. All these Antiphons, Deus autem, Martyres Domini, Angeli Do-
mini, as well as others no longer in general use, belong to the same melody
type which escapes modal classification and which was considered prob-
lematic as early as the ninth century. 6 Aurelianus [GS, I, 5ib] lists this
group of Antiphons under the eighth mode as an "eleventh division which
in all respects stands apart from the normal track (orbita, wheel-rut) of
the eighth mode." Indeed, it is easy to see that the eighth psalm tone,
with its g-a-c'-b-c'-a-g outline, does not harmonize at all with a melody
such as that of Deus autem [256], which starts on the low c and includes
a characteristic a-b^-a near the end. Obviously the tonus peregrinus., with
its a-bjj-a beginning and its close on d, was "made to order" for these
Antiphons. In fact, Aurelianus [G5, I, 5^a] refers to it, with obvious dis-
approval, as a neophytus tonus (a new-fangled tone), thus indicating
that this tone, generally considered by modern scholars as an archaic for-
mula, 7 was a late addition to the system of psalm tones. The author of the
Commemoratio reproduces it [GS, I, 218] under the name of tonus novis-
simus. This tone, shown in Fig. 47, differs from the later version not only in
the mediant but also in the tenor of the second half, which is predominantly
on a. Thus it appears that the distinctive trait of the tonus peregrinus is
(or was) not the two different tenors, but the special intonation and
termination formulae made to harmonize with the melodic outline of the
Antiphons.

FIGURE 47

Afferte D6mino. fi-li- i De- i : * afterte D6mino fi-li- os a-ri- etum.

The medieval books contain several other "irregular" psalm tones,
which apparently were used only for certain occasions and in certain lo-
calities. The Antiphonale monasticum indicates a tonus irregularis [AM

6 Gevaert's theme 28; see p. 400.

7 H. Gaisser, in "L'Origine du tonus peregrinus" (Congres d'histoire de la musique,
1900, ed. by Combarieu [1901], p. 127), derives it from Byzantine models, while C. Vivell,
in "Le tonus peregrinus" (RCG, XVIII, XIX), declares it to be of Hebrew origin. See also
the study of the tonus peregrinus in Ferretti's Esthetique, pp. 324!!

GREGORIAN CHANT

1219] which, like the tonus peregrinus, is used in connection with a few
Antiphons of a certain type, e.g., the Antiphon In matutinis [AM 372].
Particularly interesting are two psalm tones reproduced in the Variae
preces collection. One of them used for Ps. 50, Miserere mei Deus, during
Lent is a tonus in directum (without Antiphon) with two different tenors
(like the tonus peregrinus), on f and on e [VP 108]. The other is a tonus
solemnis for Ps. 46, Omnes gentes, on the Feast of the Ascension, which
actually employs two different psalm tones, both of the double-tenor type:
one, with recitation on e and f, for the odd-numbered verses; the other,
with recitation on a and g, for the even-numbered ones [VP 153]. Fig. 48
shows the beginning of this Psalm, in which the Antiphon, Alleluia, is
repeated after each verse.

FIGURE 48

1 ,{!_,., J .,.*..

11 A *._,

3 . .

1 H ' fVi

1 -

Alle- lu-ia. Alle-lu-ia. al-le- lu-ia. Omnes gentes plaudi-te ma-nibus : ju-bl-Ia-te DC- o

rfc"

''" P

L J

in vo-ce exsulta-ti- o-nis. Alle-lu-ia, alle- lu-ia. Quo-ni- am Domi-nus excelsus, terd-bi- fis:

rex magnus su-per omnem terrain. Alle-lu-ia : alte-lu-ia, alle- lu-ia. Subje-cit popu-los etc.

PSALM TONES AND PSALM TEXTS

As was stated at the beginning of the preceding section, the psalm
tones are the melodic formulae used for the singing of the complete Psalms.
This is done by repeating the formula for every verse of the Psalm, as well
as for the two verses of the Gloria Patri added to it as a conclusion. 1 Thus
the over-all form of a Psalm is not unlike that of a strophic song, a hymn,
for example, every stama of which is sung to the same melody. In the
hymns the repeat of the melody presents no problem, since they have
poetic texts with identical versification in every stanza. The Psalms, how-
ever, are prose texts, and each verse differs greatly from the other as to
number of syllables and distribution of accents. In order to sing all these
verses to the same melodic formula (we purposely avoid using the term
"melody" in this context), special methods of adaptation have to be de-
vised. It is not within the scope of this book to enter into a detailed ex-
planation of all the rules pertaining to this matter, since they are important
chiefly from the practical point of view. 2 The general principles will ap-
pear from the consideration of a typical example, that is, the first psalm
tone applied to Ps. 111, Beatus vir [i4of; see Figure 49].

1 The Doxology is omitted from Passion Sunday to Easter [see L 568].

2 See, e.g., L njff and D. Johner, A New School of Gregorian Chant (1914), pp. 6gff.

*
s

i*s

"1
"i-a

-I-

> >r *K vS -i 00 CN, <=>

a 15

2l6 GREGORIAN CHANT

REMARKS:

(a) The intonation of this psalm tone takes care of the first two syllables
of the first verse, the first syllable being sung to the initial pitch, f, the
second to the clivis g-a. With the third syllable the recitation on the tenor
begins, and this continues until we come to the flex or, if there is no flex,
to the mediant. The intonation is employed only for the first verse. All
the subsequent verses start directly with the tenor recitation. 3

(b) The flex is used only for unusually long verses, such as y. 5 of the
Psalm under consideration. It may be noticed that in Ps. 115, Credidi
propter quod [16 if], y. 7 has a flex while y. 8 has none, although this
actually has a considerably longer text. The reason is that this verse cannot
be readily divided into three distinct phrases. The flex calls for a lowering
of the pitch on the last two syllables of the phrase if the third syllable
from the end has an accent, so that the phrase closes with a dactylic group
of syllables, /.. , such as Domino or (pau)peribus (y. 7, 8). Here the flex
takes on the form of a-g-g. In all other cases the pitch is lowered for the
last syllable only, so that the flex appears as a-g. Usually this means that
the phrase closes with a trochaic group of syllables, /. , such as (ira$)cetur
(y. 9). However, the two-note flex is to be used also for a phrase ending
with a group, such as vivifica me or dripe me, in which the last accent is
further away from the end than the third syllable. In other words, the flex
can have no other form than a-g or a-g-g, the latter exclusively for dactylic
groups of syllables. The extra tone required in the latter case is indicated
by a white note.

(c) The rules governing the mediant are essentially the same as those
given for the flex. The tones 2, 5, and 8 have a "mediant of one accent,"
and this is treated exactly like the flex. Tone 4 has a "mediant of one ac-
cent with two preparatory syllables," which means that the two syllables
preceding the accent are sung to the pitches g-a. Tone i (as well as 3, 6, and
7) has a "mediant of two accents," and the rules to be followed here can
be most easily understood if such a mediant is considered as consisting of
two successive flexes, first from b|j down to a, then from g up to a. The
second "flex" takes on the form g-a-a or simply g-a depending upon whether
the last three syllables form a dactyl or not, and the same criterion is ap-
plied to the preceding syllables in connection with the first "flex." Usually
the textual accentuation clearly indicates the form of the mediant, e.g.:
b[j-a-a g-a-a for Domine Dominus or satculum saeculi (y. 8); b^-a g-a-a
for timet Ddminum (y. i) or (mise)rdtor Dominus; b^-a-a g-a for Ddmino

3 Originally, particularly at the time when the Antiphon was repeated after each
verse, all the verses started with the intonation. This practice is still preserved in the
Commemoratio, where the three first verses of Ps. 97, Cantate Domino, are given each
with the intonation; see GS, I, 217, and Ferretti, p. 309. The custom disappeared later
(eleventh century?), but survived in the Canticles [see p. 226].

The Liturgical Recitative 217

meo or scito cor meum; bjj-a g-a for domo ejus (y. 3) or nunc, et semper
(y. 11). Occasionally, however, the textual accents cannot be used as a
guide, because they are more than two syllables apart from each other, e.g.,
in exaltdbitur in gldria. Here the last three syllables are dactylic, while
the three preceding syllables are nondactylic. The mediant therefore is
b[?-a g-a-a, for -tur in gldria. In diligentibus te or in singuldriter in spe
there is no dactyl at the end. Therefore the mediant closes with g-a, pre-
ceded by bjj-a in the former case, by bj^-a-a in the latter. 4

(d) The termination of our example is "of i accent with 2 preparatory
syllables." It consists of four units, the single note g, the single note f, the
clivis g-a and the climacus g-f-e-d, with an optional g between the clivis
and the climacus. These two neumes are treated like the flex. They are
sung to the last two syllables except in the case of a dactylic group at the
end, which calls for the interpolated tone, so that the dims falls on the
third syllable from the end. The two preparatory notes are sung to the
two syllables preceding the one that falls on the divis, regardless of their
accents. From this it appears that the termination covers the last five
syllables if there is a dactylic group at the end, as in (sde)culum saeculi
(y. 3) or in commovebitur (y. 5); otherwise the last four, as in volet nimis
(y. i) or in (be)nedicetur (y. 2) or in (saecu)lorum. Amen (y. 11). In the
Liber usualis all syllables falling on what is called an "accent of the medi-
ant or the termination" (not identical with an accent of the text) are
printed in boldface, and the preparatory syllables of the termination in
italics. It may be noticed that the fourth psalm tone has a mediant with
two preparatory syllables, which is treated exactly like the termination
just described.

PSALM TONES AND ANTIPHONS

Aside from a few cases mentioned on pp. 2o8f, each Psalm is sung in
connection with an Antiphon. The standard medieval practice was to
sing the Antiphon before and after the Psalm, omitting all the internal
restatements inherent in the original form of antiphonal psalmody. In
the late Middle Ages it became customary to reduce the initial Antiphon
to its incipit, consisting often of no more than one or two words. This
method has been adopted in present-day practice [see, e.g., L 224-228], al-

4 According to Wagner III, 124, the strict application of these rules is an innovation of
the Solesmes School, derived from their principle of the ictus which permits only groups
of two or three notes in the melody, as well as from their propensity for a conflict be-
tween the textual and the musical accent. In medieval practice the two accents of a two-
accent mediant simply fell on the two last accents of the text:

bjj a a aga a a bfc> a g a

Medieval: D6minum de coelis Solesmes: D6minum de coelis

2l8 GREGORIAN CHANT

though it amounts to a mutilation generally deplored by liturgists. Only
on feasts of the double class (marked d. or D. in the Roman Calendar [pp.
xiiffj) is the full Antiphon sung at the beginning.

From the earliest time about which we have documentation, the con-
nection between the Antiphon and the Psalm was made with a distinct
view toward tonal unity. Each Antiphon was assigned to one of the eight
modes, and the Psalm was sung to the corresponding psalm tone. Thus, if
the Antiphon is in the first mode, the Psalm (or Psalms, if several of them
are grouped together under one Antiphon, as is the case in the Little
Hours) is invariably sung in the first tone. It was this close connection
between Antiphon and Psalm that led to the establishment of the two
parallel systems, that of the eight modes and that of the eight tones.

It appears that in the case of the Antiphons the modal classification is
not only of theoretical interest (as it is, for example, in the Graduals or
hymns), but also, and primarily, of practical importance, serving to indi-
cate the correct psalm tone. An interesting illustration of this aspect is
provided by the tonaries of the ninth, tenth, and later centuries, such as
the Tonarius of Regino, the Intonarium of Oddo, and the De modorum
formulis ascribed to Guido. 1 These are catalogues in which the Antiphons
are grouped according to their mode, in order to enable the singer to
select the proper psalm tone. Such assistance was, of course, particularly
important at a time when the chants were still written in staffless neumes,
so that the singers were largely dependent upon their memory. Usually
the tonaries group the Antiphons not only according to their modes but
also in subdivisions three, four, or more for each mode which, as we
shall see, served a no less important practical purpose: that is, to bring
about a smooth transition at the points where the Antiphon and the Psalm
are joined.

As appears from the general scheme Antiphon Psalm plus Doxology
Antiphon, there are two places of joining: one at the beginning, between
the end of the Antiphon and the intonation of the psalm tone, the other
at the end, between the termination of the psalm tone (sung to the last
words of the Doxology, seculorum. Amen) and the beginning of the Anti-
phon melody. The first of these presents no problem, since all the An-
tiphons of a given mode close at the same pitch, the final of the mode. It
can easily be seen that in every mode the intonation does indeed make a
smooth connection between this final tone and the recitation pitch of the
psalm tone: 2

1 See List of Sources, nos. 13 to 16.

2 This simple and natural state of affairs is, of course, completely destroyed if the
Antiphon is reduced to its beginning, so that it may well close on a different pitch, a
third, a fourth, or even a fifth higher than the final.

Liturgical Recitative
FIGURE 50

219

* -

d "'
i

The other connection, however, at the end of the Psalm, does present
a difficulty since it involves the beginning of the Antiphon, which is not
at all an unalterable pitch. An Antiphon of the first mode, for instance,
may start on such different notes as c, d, f, g, or a, and similar divergences
occur in most of the other modes. Obviously, no one termination can
serve satisfactorily in all these cases. The problem was ingeniously solved
by providing, under the name of differentiae, a number of terminations
closing on different pitches, and by selecting for a given Antiphon that
termination the closing notes of which harmonized with the initial notes
of the Antiphon. The number of terminations varies greatly from mode
to mode, there being as many as ten in the first mode, three or five in
others, while a few have only one ending. All the terminations are fully
listed in the Liber usualis on pp. iigff, and are identified by a letter in-
dicating the final note, this letter being written as a capital if the final
note is the final of the mode. Thus, for the first psalm tone there exist
terminations labelled D, f, g, etc., while the third tone has terminations
E and g. Some tones have several terminations ending on the same pitch,
and these are distinguished from the main termination by superior figures,
e.g., a, a 2 , a 3 , etc.

Accordingly, each Antiphon carries an indication not only for the psalm
tone but also for the termination. For instance, the five Vesper Psalms of
Sunday [25 iff] are sung with five Antiphons (i. Ant, 2. Ant, 3. Ant., etc.)
each of which is accompanied by a symbol such as f.c 2 , j.b, 4-g, etc. This
means that the first Psalm is to be sung in the seventh tone with the
second termination on c; the second Psalm, in the third tone with the
termination on b; the third, in the fourth tone with the termination on g,
etc. After each Antiphon the Psalm follows, with the psalm tone and its
proper termination given in full, and with the formula for the flex added
at the end for those Psalms in which the flex is needed for one or more
verses, as, for example, in Ps. 110 [252]. Properly speaking, only one of
the two ways in which the psalm tone and its termination are indicated
would be required. In fact, this double method is used in the Liber usualis
only for Vespers and Compline of Sunday and Saturday, in order to facili-
tate the psalmody at these Offices which are of greater importance and more

22O GREGORIAN CHANT

regularly observed, even in small churches, than the others. Another con-
cession to "popular demand" is the exact indication as to how and when
the Antiphon should be sung; i.e., partly before the Psalm and in full after
the Psalm, e.g. [252]:

2. Ant. Magna opera Domini.

3-b

Psalm no

Ant. Magna opera Domini, exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus.

A more common way of writing Antiphon and Psalm is that used, for
instance, for the Vesper Psalms of Monday [sSoflFj. Here the Antiphon is
given only once, before the Psalm, with an asterisk marking off that short
initial portion that is to be sung before the Psalm. Following an old medi-
eval tradition, the termination to be used for the psalm tone is indicated,
aside from the figure-and-letter symbol, at the end of the Antiphon, no-
tated above the letters E u o u a e. These are the traditional abbreviation
of seculorum. Amen (represented by the vowels), the last words of the
minor Doxology, Gloria Patri, which is nearly always added to each Psalm
and forms its last two verses. Thus, the words seculorum. Amen are in-
variably sung to the termination formula and have therefore become asso-

FIGURE 51

4.JULUi a fl

7.b C fl*

P " ,

Lama- vi, *

et Dominus exaudf-vit me. E u o u a e.

dated with it. The above example illustrates this manner of writing which,
it is perhaps not superfluous to state once more, does not mean that the
entire melody is sung as it stands. The performance starts with the passage
Clamavi, then follows the Psalm with every verse employing the termina-
tion indicated above E u o u a e, and after this the entire Antiphon is sung
(of course, without the E u o u a e).

In the Proper of the Time, the Common of Saints, and the Proper of
Saints, i.e., for individual feasts, the Psalms are sung with proper Anti-
phons. Here the Psalms are not printed, but are only indicated by their
number, with the termination to be used and with reference to the page
where the complete text can be found; e.g., for Second Vespers of the
Nativity [411]:

Psalms, i. Dixit Dominus. i.g. p. 128. 2. Confitebor tibi. 7,a.
p. 139. 3. Beatus vir. y.b. p. 146 (etc.).

Then the five Antiphons follow in the same style as in the above example.

The Liturgical Recitative 221

The usage of prescribing for a given Antiphon not only the psalm tone
but also its termination is as old as the earliest documents about psalm
singing, such as the Musica discipline the Alia musica, or the Commem-
oratio brevis. Although the details underwent some changes and fluctua-
tions, there has never been a deviation from the principle that special
terminations should be used in order to provide for a smooth transition
from the end of the Psalm to the beginning of the subsequent Antiphon.
This raises the question as to what methods were employed in order to
effectuate this smooth transition, in other words, which rules govern the
relationship between the end of the psalm tone and the beginning of the
Antiphon. A possible solution would have been to make consistent use of
one interval, such as the unison or the upper second, and to provide a
different termination for each initial note that may occur in the Antiphons
of a given mode. For instance, in the first mode we find Antiphons starting
on c, d, f, g, and on a. Consequently, a "smooth transition" could be
effected by providing five terminations closing on the same tones or, per-
haps, on their upper seconds. It is easy to see that no such methodical pro-
cedure was followed. The mere fact that in some psalm tones the number
of terminations is considerably greater than that of initial notes in the
Antiphons (e.g., in Tone i), in others smaller (e.g., Tone 5), shows that
the situation is more complex than outlined above. Moreover, an inspec-
tion of a handful of Antiphons shows that the intervallic relationship
between the two crucial notes is far from being uniform. The juncture
can be made by any interval from the unison to the fifth, most of them
either ascending or descending. A tabulation of about one half of all the
Antiphons in the Liber usualis shows that the connection is made most
frequently by the unison or by the descending second, the former account-
ing for about one half, the other for an additional one third of the total.
The remaining part, about one fifth of the total, includes junctures at the
ascending second, descending and ascending third, descending fourth, and
descending fifth. The ascending fourth and fifth do not occur:

INTERVALS FROM TERMINATION TO ANTIPHON

Unison 287 Fourth down 27

Second down 180 Fourth up o

Second up 64 Fifth down 26

Third down 77 Fifth up o

Third up 23 Total 584

The general conclusions to be drawn from this tabulation are: first, that
the wider an interval is, the more rarely is it used, except for the fourth
and fifth which are about equally frequent; second, that every interval is

222 GREGORIAN CHANT

used much more often to make a downward connection than one leading
upward, the fourth and fifth occurring exclusively in downward motion.
As to further details, an examination of the medieval treatises is very
informative and interesting. An early description of the differentiae is
found in the Alia musica of c. 900, particularly in its commentary entitled
Nova expositio [see List of Sources, p. 55, no. 22]. Here each tonus is
described as having a number of differentiae as well as loca? The loca
(places) turn out to be the initial notes of the Antiphons, as appears from
the examples given. For the purpose of illustration we reproduce here the
detailed indications for the first mode:

Diff. L closes on a locum i on a: Veniet Dominus [338]

locum 2 on f : Apertis thesauris [463]

Diff. II. doses on g locum i on g: Canite tuba [356]

locum 2 on d: Ecce nomen [317]

locum 3 on c: Intempesta node

Diff. HI. closes on f locum i on c: O beatum pontificem [1750]

Diff. IV. closes on e locum i on e: Inclinans se Jesus [1092]

Diff. V. closes one locum i on c: Euge serve [1181 or 1195]

locum 2 on d: Sint lumbi

The archaic character of this system appears clearly from the fact that
it includes only five terminations for the first tone, while the later sources
indicate ten or even more. Moreover, it does not give the impression of
being a workable solution, because it does not provide an unequivocal
correlation between the loca and the differentiae. Our table shows that
for an Antiphon beginning with c there was a choice of three different
terminations, II, III, and V; and for an Antiphon beginning with d, a
choice of two, II, and V. Unless there were additional rules or practices
not mentioned by the author of the Nova expositio^ his system was bound
to be ambiguous and confusing.

The later treatises reveal quite a different and more realistic ap-
proach to the problem. The underlying principle of the system as it appears
in the tenth century and later was to make a connection, not so much be-
tween two notes (which seems to have been the governing principle of the
Alia musica), as between two groups of notes, that is, the termination
formula of the psalm tone and the initial passage of the Antiphon. Evi-
dently such a method would be impossible or, at least, highly impracticable

3 For instance, the first tpne "habet 5 differentias et 9 loca in nocturnis" (GS, I, i3oa).
"In nocturnis" seems to refer to Lauds, Vespers, Compline, and Matins; "in diurnis" to
the Day Hours. In this treatise the pitches are indicated by the so-called Boethian letters,
ABCEHIMO, etc., an early designation f or A B c d e g a, etc. Canite tuba begins
in L on f, in AM 226 on e, in Codex Lucca (Pal. mus. f IX, 21) on g. Euge serve begins
(in all these sources) on c, Inclinans se Jesus (later Indinavit se Jesus) on d. Sint lumbi
vestri begins in Cod. Lucca (p. 554) on g. The indication "sesquioctavum remissum" for
Sint lumbi should probably read: "sesquioctavum elevatum" (a whole-tone up).

The Liturgical Recitative 223

if the Antiphons were entirely free melodies, each beginning (and con-
tinuing) in its own way. Actually, this is not the case. As has been shown
in a famous study by Gevaert, 4 the many thousands of Antiphons can be
grouped into a relatively small number of types (called themes by Gevaert),
perhaps thirty or forty, each of which includes many Antiphons of some-
what similar design and, in particular, with an identical or nearly identical
beginning. It is therefore possible to classify the Antiphons not only as to
modes but also, within each mode, in subdivisions characterized by a com-
mon initial motive, which we shall call incipit. The basic principle of the
standard system of terminations is to assign to each incipit a suitable
termination.

The clearest evidence of this principle is found in the medieval tonaries.
In these the Antiphons (occasionally also Introits and Communions) are
arranged, within each mode, according to subdivisions, one for each dif-
ferentia. These tonaries, therefore, are a very convenient and indispensable
tool for the study of the Antiphons and of their connection with the psalm
tones. Particularly useful is the aforementioned Intonarium of Oddo which
seems to have had considerable authority in the tenth and eleventh cen-
turies. The copy (probably dating from the twelfth century) which Cousse-
maker used for his edition bears the inscription: Incipit intonarium a
Domno O clone (Oddone) abbate diligenter examination et ordinatum, a
Guidone sanctissimo monaco, Optimo musico, examinatum, probatum
legitime, approbatum et autenticatum . . . (Here begins the tonary dili-
gently examined and put together by the abbot Oddo, and examined,
legitimately approved and authenticated by Guido, most holy monk and
excellent musician.) 5 We have used it as a basis for the subsequent study
of the termination-mc^^ question.

Significantly, Oddo prefaces his catalogue with the motto: Omnes anti-
phone habentes tale principium debent habere tale seculorum (All the
antiphons having such an incipit must have such a termination), thus
clearly indicating its aim and purpose. 6 Minor variations notwithstanding,
his system of terminations is much the same as that of present-day use. For
the first mode he lists nine differentiae, saying, however, that often ten or
eleven are prescribed. In accordance with the late medieval practice, the
Liber usualis has ten terminations for this mode. For the modes 3 and 4
Oddo indicates four terminations, while the Liber usualis has five; for
mode 7 he has six, two of them nearly identical and treated later as one;

La Melopee antique, pp. aasff: "Catalogue th&natique des antiennes." Gevaert
distinguishes 47 themes. See p. 394.

*CS t II, 117.

In Guide's Tonarius (CS, II, Sob) the same principle is stated as follows: "The
differentiae of these modes are disposed according to the beginning of the antiphons
(cantuum) ... so that there may be a good connection (pulchra connexio) between the
two parts through an appropriate intervallic motion (motus)" [free translation].

224

GREGORIAN CHANT

and for mode 5 he indicates two, only one of which has survived. The
other three modes have the same number of terminations as today, one
for modes 2 and 6, and three for mode 8. As to the formulae themselves,
most of them are identical with those of present-day use, the greatest
variation being found in mode 4, which in every respect is the most ir-
regular of all the modes. Nearly complete agreement as to number and
design of differentiae exists in mode 7, and it is for this reason that we have
selected the seventh mode for a detailed presentation of its psalm-tone
terminations and the Antiphon incipits connected with them. Fig. 52
shows Oddo's six terminations (with their present-day designations) as well
as the incipits associated with them. 7

FIGURE 52
Terminations and Incipits, mode 7

/*>*

Terminations

7.b

Th. 23 vat.

f * - ,

" II

Sae-cu-lo-rum. A - men
fl IL 7.c

- H

ft Th.23 b Th.24 c Th. 22

^ m

H _ H
Th.21

..IV. 7.- ft

ff m m * m

ft Th. 19,19 vat b Th. 27 c Th. 25 4 Th. 21 vftt

' '' c II " =*^? II " "

~f. ^

Th.26

?** * ||

0VL 7. c 2

Th.20

-* II

KEMASKS:

a. Following Gevaert, we have indicated subdivisions for the two termi-
nations most frequently employed, II and IV, in order to illustrate the
modifications that occur within the basic design of the incipit. Although,
from his point of view, Gevaert was justified in distinguishing between
groups such as his themes 22, 23, and 24, the close relationship of their
incipits is apparent, as is also the case with the groups under IV.

b. Some of the Antiphons in group Ha start out with the note d' twice,
three times, four times, and even six times in succession, e.g., Ecce sacerdos
[1176] with dM'-b, Annulo suo [1340] with d'-d'-d'-b, and Gratias tibi

7 C, II, 13 la. For a list of Antiphons for the various groups, see pp. 3g6f.

The Liturgical Recitative 225

[1371] with d'-d'-d'-d'-b. For such cases Oddo allows special divisions en-
titled ad duo, ad tres, ad quatuor, ad sex. They also occur in other groups.

c. Oddo's sexta differentia (VI) was later identified with his tertia dif-
ferentia (III), from which it differs only in the grouping of the last three
notes. Today all the Antiphons of group VI and group III have the same
termination, y.c 2 , although the former begin with b, the latter, with c'.
Gevaert considers them, not without reason, as two different groups
(themes 20, 21), as does Oddo.

d. Oddo's quinta differentia (V) is slightly different from the present-
day ?.d, which closes with b-d' instead of c'-d' hardly an improvement,
whether considered in itself or in relationship to the subsequent incipit.

e. Naturally, the incipits also underwent modifications in the course o
time. For instance, the Antiphon Magnificat est appears in L [364] with
the beginning g-b-c'-d'-c'-a, while in Oddo's Tonarium this is given as
g-a-c'-d'-c'-a. For the same incipit Oddo gives three more examples, De
celo veniet, Cantate Domino, and Afferte Domino. 8 None of these are in
general use today. The first two are included in the Benedictine Anti-
phonary (Antiphonale Monasticum, pp. 199 and 202) but with the incipit
g-b-c'-d'-e'-d' (group IVa of our tabulation). It seems that Oddo's formula,
so interesting for its archaic flavor, has completely gone out of use. It is
perhaps also worth noticing that, on the other hand, the most "modern"
of all the incipits, that of our group IVc, does not occur among the ex-
amples given in the Tonarius.

By way of a summary it can be said that in the seventh mode the incipits
of the Antiphons and the terminations of the psalm tone form two very
closely corresponding systems. One cannot help feeling that in every in-
stance the termination is well adapted to the ensuing incipit, somehow
anticipating its outline and indeed providing a "smooth transition" be-
tween the Psalm and the subsequent Antiphon.

It is not necessary to consider the corresponding formulae of the other
modes, since they generally follow the same principles. We cannot, how-
ever, pass over the question as to why there exists such a striking variation
in the number of terminations, ranging from a single one in modes 2, 5,
and 6 to as many as ten in mode i. Although there is no entirely satisfactory
answer to this question, it is not difficult to see that, in general, the
number of terminations provided for a given psalm tone agrees with
the number of different incipits found among the Antiphons of the cor-
responding mode. This appears from the subsequent table showing the
number of terminations in various sources as well as the number of th&mes
according to Gevaert. 9

8 CS, II, 133.

For possibilities of revising Gevaert's catalogue, see p. 395, n. 8.

6 GREGORIAN CHANT

MODE NUMBER OF TERMINATIONS THEMES (Gevaeit)

L Od Re

i 10 9 5 10 12 (Th. 1-11,31)

3 1111 3 (Th. 45-47)

3 5465 5 (Th. 34-38)

4 4458 4 (Th. 29, 30, 32, 33)

5 1233 3 (Th. 42-44)

6 1111 3 (Th. 39-41)

7 5^67 9 (Th. 19-27)

8 3333 7 (Th. 12-18)

THE TONES OF THE CANTICLES

The method used for the chanting of the Canticles is very similar to that
employed for the Psalms. The main difference is that the intonation is
used not only for the beginning of the first verse but for that of all the
other verses as well. Obviously the Canticles were considered as a some-
what more solemn type of chant than the Psalms.

This special character is also apparent in the medieval tones for the
Canticles, eight recitation formulae similar to but slightly more elaborate
than the psalm tones, as are also the Antiphons for the Canticles. Today
these medieval canticle tones are used for the highest feasts only. In the
Liber they are given under the title of Solemn Tones for the Magnificat
[213-218], but are also used for the other major Canticles on high feasts,
e.g., for the Benedicts at Lauds of Nativity [402] and of Maundy Thurs-
day [652]. Actually therefore these are the solemn tones for all the Can-
ticles, of which the Magnificat is the most important and the only one
fully represented in the Liber * A similar remark applies to the simple
tones for the Magnificat [207-212], which are used for the Magnificat
throughout the year, but also for the other Canticles except at the highest
feasts. They are identical with the psalm tones, except for a somewhat
more elaborate intonation (borrowed from the solemn tones) of the second
and the eighth tone.

The solemn (or medieval) tones employ the same tenors as the psalm
tones and also the same terminations, but have more ornate formulae for
the intonations and particularly for the mediants, with podatus and clivis
groups instead of single notes. Fig. 53 shows the various formulae of both
systems, together with those of the Introit tones, which will be studied
later (p. 228). It will be seen that the essential outlines are the same. The

10 L = Liber usualis; Od = Tonarius of Oddo; Re = Tonary of Regino; Lu = Codex
Lucca.

i In the Roman and Benedictine Antiphonale the Benedictus of Lauds is as fully repre-
sented as is the Magnificat of Vespers.

The Liturgical Recitative

227

substitution of two-note neumes for single notes is especially evident in the
intonations of modes 2 'and 8, and in the mediants of modes 3 and 7. In
modes i, 4, 5, and 6 the mediant is expanded by the addition of one unit,
while in modes 2 and 8 the number of units is increased by three. A strik-
ing exception occurs in mode 5, whose formulae were taken over, virtually
without change, for the Canticles as well as for the Introits. The accentual
structure of the mediants is the same in the psalm tones and canticle tones,
except for modes i and 6 (which employ identical formulae). Here the
two-accent mediant of the psalms is changed into a one-accent mediant
with three preparatory syllables. The rules for the adaptation to dactylic
and non-dactylic groups of syllables are the same as in the psalm tones.

FIGURE 53

buaatiau
Canticle Inttoit

Mediant*

Inooit

It may be noticed that on three occasions the Nunc dimittis appears
with melodies different from those just described. At Compline of Holy
Saturday [764] it is sung to the psalm tone 8.G., that is, without the more
elaborate intonation prescribed for the canticle tones (both normal and
solemn) of this mode. On Easter Sunday [784] it occurs with that special
tonics in directum which is employed for the Psalms (sung without Anti-
phons) at Compline of Holy Saturday and at the Day Hours of Easter
Sunday and Easter Week [see p. 209]. At Compline of the Commemoration
of All the Faithful Departed (All-Souls' Day, November 2) the Nuncdimit-

228 GREGORIAN CHANT

tis is sung to a special tone [1735] which is also indicated (ad libitum) for
the Psalms sung at that service [1733]. There is some logic in the last case,
and it is interesting to notice that the same logic would also prevail in
the two other cases if the two tones for the Nunc dimittis were exchanged,
that of Holy Saturday being employed for Easter Sunday, and vice versa.
As it is, the Compline Psalms of Holy Saturday are sung in the tonics in
directum and the Canticle Nunc dimittis in the psalm tone 8.G., while on
Easter Sunday the Compline Psalms are sung in the psalm tone 8.G. and
the Canticle in the tonics in directum.

THE TONES FOR THE INTROITS

As was pointed out in our study of the psalmodic forms [p. 190], the
Introits originally were full Psalms combined with an Antiphon which was
repeated after each verse. Later the Psalm was reduced to one verse and
the Doxology, the Antiphon being sung only at the beginning and at the
end: A V D A. The reduction, however, did not affect the musical style
of the Introit. It always was, and still is, sung essentially like an Office
Psalm, that is, with a free melody for the Antiphon and with a recitative
formula for the verse and the Doxology. The analogy goes even further.
Similar to the psalm tones and canticle tones, the melodies for the verses
of the Introits form a system of eight tones, organized along the same lines
as the other systems. Until the twelfth century the Communions had the
same form as the Introits, with a verse and the Doxology. However, no
new system of "Communion tones" was ever used (as far as we can ascer-
tain), since the Communion verses were always sung to the tones of the
Introits. Thus, the author of the Commemoratio brevis, after having
briefly enumerated the eight toni (meaning here modes), says: "According
to the properties of these eight modes (tonorum) we employ individual
tones (modulationes) for the responsories, and others for the major anti-
phons, that is, those sung in the introit of the Mass or at the end of the
celebration in the communion." 1 Only one of the Communions, Lux
aeterna of the Mass for the Dead [1815] retained a verse, Requiem aeter-
nam dona eis Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis (not a psalm verse), but
this is sung to the eighth psalm tone, not to the eighth tone for the Com-
munions (or Introits).

The structure of the Introit tones (more correctly, of the tones for the
verses of the Introits) is essentially the same as that of the psalm tones.
The main difference is that an opening formula is provided not only for
the beginning of the verse but also for its second half. These formulae are
usually distinguished as intonation and second intonation. The general
scheme therefore is:

The Liturgical Recitative 229

Intonation Tenor Mediant; Second Intonation Tenor Termination.

As for the Doxology, this is treated as a single verse (not as two verses, as
in the psalm tones and canticle tones) divided into three phrases:

Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto.
Sicut erat in principio, et nunc, et semper,
et in saecula saeculorum. Amen.

Consequently the melody falls into three distinct sections, each consisting
of an opening and a closing formula with a tenor recitation in between.
Properly such a scheme would require six different formulae, but actually
the four mentioned above are made to serve for all the sections, the second
intonation being used for sections 2 and 3, the mediant, for i and 2. This
tripartite scheme is employed only for the Gloria, never for the verses,
although some of these are at least as long as the Doxology, for example,
Dominus regnavit from the Introit Dum medium [433]. Following is an
example illustrating the method of singing the verse and the Doxology
(Ii = intonation; 12 = second intonation; M = mediant; Tr = termination;
T = tenor):

11 T M

( TP: Dominus regnamt, de- corem indutus est:

i D: Gloria Patri et Filio et Spi~ ritui Sancto:

1 2 T M

D: Sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper

I 2 T Tr

i^: indu- tus est Dominus fortitudi- nem, et praecinxit se.
D: et in saecula sae~ culorum. Amen.

A minor deviation from this method is encountered in the sixth mode,
since here the intonation for the middle phrase of the Doxology (Sicut)
is not identical with the second intonation, only similar to it. As we
shall see later, the sixth introit tone differs in various respects from the
normal scheme.

Since the introit tones are conveniently arranged on p. 14 of the Liber
usualis, it is unnecessary to reproduce them here in full. The pitches for
the tenor recitation are the same as in the psalm tones, except for the sixth
tone, which we shall consider separately. 2 The formulae for intonation
and mediant show a degree of elaborateness very similar to that of the
canticle tones, with clivis and podatus groups. In fact, most of them are
nearly identical, as appears from the table, Fig. 53, on p. 227. The only
essential difference occurs in mode 6, where the mediant for the Psalms
and Canticles closes on a, that for the Introits on f . As in the psalm tones

2 See pp. 233!

230

GREGORIAN CHANT

and canticle tones, the intonations of the introit tones are invariable, that
is, they are sung to the first two or three syllables regardless of the textual
accents. The mediants are variable, depending upon the textual accents,
as are those of the psalm tones and of the canticle tones. In Fig. 53 the me-
diants are given in their simplest form, as used in connection with two
trochees, e.g., et nunc et semper. If the passage in question (that is, the
end of the first half of the verse) includes one or two dactyls, one or two
notes are added, but the rules concerning these additions are not as simple
and uniform as they are in the psalm tones [see p. 216]. This will appear
from Fig. 54, showing the mediant of the first and of the eighth tone, each
with a number of different texts:

FIGURE 54

Tone

i Tone 8

i .,'_

2 3

5 6

T-0

3 4

-*HI

T..t.

T.T*.

Spi- if-

et
m i
met

tfm.per
Sin -cto
mi aum

141
14
17591

J. -

Spi-
ope-

et
ri-
ca

wine
ttt-
cd-

et sm-
i S&.
a EK5-

per 16\
cto 16]
ne 821]

j*.

sti to

- mi QO

1448]

<fc-

c6-

ten

in- da*

cus

est 404]

It appears that in both cases additional notes are provided to account
for a maximum of six syllables, as required by two dactyls. Aside from this,
the two methods of adaptation are strikingly different. The mediant of
the eighth tone clearly represents a formula of "one accent with three
preparatory syllables," like the mediants of the canticle tones i, 2, 4, 6,
and 8 [see p. 227]. Unit 4 invariably receives the last accent, while the
preceding syllables are underlaid without regard to accent. The mediant
of the first tone, however, is treated in a very special manner, not en-
countered elsewhere in the Gregorian recitative. The only regularly ac-
cented unit is the first (i), bearing the penultimate accent, while the
position of the last accent varies. If die final group of syllables is trochaic,
it falls on the clivis 5, if dactylic, on the additional note preceding it. For
texts ending with two dactyls the formula provides for the use of two
additional notes in succession, in contrast to the psalm and canticle
formulae which never have more than one additional note at a time. Per-
haps the mediant under consideration could be described as having "one
accent with three, four, or five subsequent syllables." 8

To the type of mediant i belong also mediants 3 and 7; to the other,
mediants 2 and 4. All the mediants of the first group (authentic modes)
dose with two neumes, while those of the second group (plagal modes)
dose with one neume and a single note. Very likely, this is the inner reason

SFerretti (p. 284) describes the mediant of tone i (as well as 3 and 7) as "a deux ac-
cents, sans preparation."

The Liturgical Recitative 231

for the different treatment. The mediants of the tritus, 5 and 6, present
special cases. 4

We turn finally to the terminations o the introit tones. Here we find a
situation considerably simpler than in the psalm tones. Differentiae, that
is, different terminations for one tone, do exist, but to a much lesser
degree: three for the first tone, two for the tones 4, 5, 6, and 8, while the
remaining three tones have only one termination. The medieval sources
show some fluctuation in the number of differentiae of the introit tone?,
but always within the same limits never more than three. 5 The formulae
are more elaborate than those previously encountered, some of them in-
cluding neumes of three, four, and occasionally even six notes. Their
main interest, however, lies in the field of relationship between text and
music, where they represent a new principle, that of non-adaptation. This
places them in a different category from the terminations of the Psalms or
Canticles (as well as from the mediants), which admit modifications ac-
cording to the prosodic structure of the text. Such formulae are called
tonic. The terminations of the Introit, on the other hand, are invariable
formulae of five units which always accommodate the last five syllables of
the text, regardless of its prosodic structure. Formulae of this type are
called cursive. Fig. 55 illustrates the principle of cursive formulae, showing
the termination of the third tone with a number of texts.

FIGURE 55
2 3

=EE3

Dooi

<5m.

nis

*ra

1594)

t**T.
**
!?*

in
frf-

tt-

cu-

lum

e
Dtf*

mi.

CO-

jus
01
C

893
1239]
1150]

COQ

e-
ga-

d-
d-

me
ne

isSj

In such cursive formulae the consideration of the textual accent, which
is an essential trait of the tonic formulae, is not present. The music be-
comes autonomous and follows its own course, forcing the text into sub-
mission. In order to justify such a role of leadership, the music must offer

4 Mediant 5, the simplest of all, consists of three elements, d' d' c% and is treated like
a flex, with the accented syllable on the second d' and with an inserted tf for dactyls,
e.g., in Ddmino: d' d' c' c' [970]. Mediant 6, on the other hand, is the most complex as
well as the most variable in treatment. According to Ferretti (p. 284), it is not always cor-
rectly treated in the Vatican edition.

5 See the table in Wagner III, 167, compiled from nine sources ranging from the
ninth-century Aurelianus to the seventeenth-century Graduate Medicaeum (1614-15) and
the Vatican edition of 1908. The late medieval and present-day practice is to employ the
secondary endings, if at all, only for the Doxology, not for the psalm verse which always
closes with the main termination. See, e.g., the Introit Exclamaverunt [1448], at "collauda-
tiones" and at "E u o u a e."

2^2 GREGORIAN CHANT

sufficient interest of its own, and it is hardly necessary to say that this
aesthetic law is carefully observed in Gregorian chant. Without exception,
the cursive formulae show an elaborate musical design (particularly in the
tones of the Responsories; see pp. 235f), while the elementary formulae, of
little interest in themselves, derive their validity largely from the careful
attention to prosodic declamation. In fact, it is this principle which ac-
counts for an exceptional case among the Introit terminations, that of the
fifth tone. This is purely syllabic, c'-d'-b-c'-a, consequently it is treated as
a tonic formula, as may be seen from the following examples:

c'c' d' b c' a d' b c' a a

libe-rd'tor me- us [497] col- lau- da- ti~ o [970]

d' b b c' a d' b b c' a a

fd-ci-e e-jus [1024] D6-mi-ni i-bi-mus [560]

A formula like this is "tonic" in the proper sense of the word because,
as they frequently do in Gregorian chant, the accented syllables fall on
higher pitches, a phenomenon known as tonic accent. 6 If the termination
of the fifth tone were treated cursively, like the others, the tonic accent
would disappear in the case of dactylic groups:

c' d' b c' a c' d> b c> a c> c' d' b c' a

col- lau- dd- ti- o fd-ci-e 6- jus D6-mi-ni i-bi-mus

It is more difficult to account for the fact that tonic treatment is also
used, at least partly, for the termination of the eighth introit tone, as the
following table shows:

u-
fortitudi-
Domi-
cae-
in

i
c'c'b
ni-
nem
no
li
d-

ga
ver-
et
in
com-
tri-

3
c'b

sa
prae-
lae-
mo-
a

4
a

Ur-
du-
ti-
rd-
D6-

(a)

xit
ti-
bi-

mi-

5
g
ra

se
a
tur
ni

[910]
[404]
[478]
[532]
[1645]

Here the five-syllable termination is extended into one of six units for
texts closing with a dactylic group, so that the last accent always falls on
unit 4. Judging from the few available examples, the termination of the
sixth mode is treated in the same manner [see L 1 133, 1 190]. One is tempted
to explain this peculiar method by the fact that the two final units of this

See p. 277. It may be noticed that most of the psalm-tone formulae are tonic in this
specific sense of the word, though not all of them; e.g., the terminations i.a and 2, or
the mediants 6 and 7.

The Liturgical Recitative 233

termination are single notes, not neumes. However, the termination of the
fourth tone, which also closes with two single notes, is always treated as
a cursive formula [see, e.g., L 1067, 1162, 1433]. The only noticeable dif-
ference is that in terminations 6 and 8 these two notes form a descending
second, while in termination 4 they are a third apart. 7

We close our study of the introit tones with an examination of the sixth
tone which holds a special position within the system, mainly because it
employs two different tenors, a in the first half, and f in the second half
of the verse. In this respect it is similar to the tonus peregrinus and other
early psalm tones with two recitation pitches, and even more so to the
plagal tones of the Responsories [see p. 235], because the second recitation
takes place on the tonic of the mode. Also exceptional is the second in-
tonation, which consists of four units, f-ga-ac'-g, while all the other tones
have only two units for this formula, e.g., gf-ga in the first tone, fd-df in
the second. 8 Since the termination has five units, the three components of
the second half of the verse, i.e., second intonation, tenor, and termination,
require at least ten syllables. In not a few cases the second half of the
verse simply is not long enough for this scheme. Here the second intonation
is reduced to a-ac'-g, occasionally even to a two-unit formula, ac'-g, or com-
pletely omitted. For unusually long verses, on the other hand, it is ex-
panded by the insertion of a tenor recitation on a between the second and
the third unit, f-ga-a . . . -ac'-g, with the result that the second half of the
verse has two tenors, first a, then f. It will be noticed that all these ir-
regularities occur in the second half of the verse. Fig. 56 shows a number
of typical examples.

FIGURE 56
Second Intonation Termination

8 la ju- stf- d- a cu- a li- be* ra me

Rex mi- gnus su- per 6m- nem ter- ram

jubila- te De*- o. Ja- cob

psal-mum dicite nomi- oi e* jus, date glori- am lau- di- jus [(7 398]

Additional examples (from the 13th-century Gradual of St. Thomas, Leip-
zig) showing the initial recitation on a are given in Wagner's vol. Ill, p.
161. Unfortunately these are incomplete, and do not show to what an
extent the second recitation, on f, is employed. Finally it may be noticed
that the Introit of the Mass for the Dead, Requiem aeternam [1807], em-
ploys a "sixth tone" all its own, with recitation on a throughout, and with

7 1 am not in a position to say whether this is the explanation, nor whether the ex-
ceptional treatment of terminations 6 and 8, as evidenced in the Solesmes editions, has
medieval authority.

8 The fifth tone has only one, g.

25J4 GREGORIAN CHANT

special formulae for the mediant, the second intonation, and the termi-
nation.

A study of the medieval sources shows that the tones of the Introits are
nearly identical in all the manuscripts. 9 They were much less subject to
fluctuations than were those of the Psalms. It was not until the sixteenth
century that the old tradition deteriorated and that many variants were
introduced which, fortunately, were eliminated in the Solesmes editions. 10

THE TONES FOR THE GREAT RESPONSORIES

The Great Responsories (responsoria prolixd) of Matins consist of an
opening chant, the respond, and one or several verses alternating with the
repeated response in schemes such as R V R', R V R' V R', R V R' D R',
etc. [pp. i8if]. While the responds (like the antiphons of the Introits)
belong to the category of free melodies, the verses are sung to fixed recita-
tives similar to those for the verses of the Psalms or Introits (though con-
siderably more elaborate), and form a complete system of eight tones, one
for each mode. Full tables of these tones are available in Grove's Dic-
tionary, under "Psalmody" (vol. IV, 266); in W. Frere's Antiphonale
Sarisburiense (I, 4); in the Solesmes books, Liber responsorialis (LR, p.
50) and Processionale monasticum (PM, p. 14) with the text Gloria Patri;
in Wagner's Gregorianische Formenlehre (pp. igoff); and in Ferretti's
Esthetique gregorienne (pp. 248ff). The first two tables, both prepared by
Frere, are essentially identical, as are also those given in the Solesmes
publications. Aside from these duplications, all the tables differ slightly
in some particular or other became they are based on different sources. 1
Thus they illustrate the fact that the medieval tradition of the responsorial
tones is not entirely uniform. It is less stable than that of the introit tones,
though not as variable as that of the psalm tones. The subsequent explana-
tions are based on the versions given in the Solesmes publications.

Structurally, the responsorial tones are similar to those of the Introits.
They consist of two phrases: intonation, tenor, and mediation for the first,
and second intonation, tenor, and termination for the second. An im-

* That is, approximately from the eleventh century on. However, Aurelianus (GS, I,
550) gives a description of the Gloria for the Introits of the first mode which, although
rather vague, dearly results in a strikingly different melody, tentatively as follows:

Glo-ri- a Pa- tri et Fi - li- o ct Spi - ri- tu - 1 San* cto

10 A detailed study of the vicissitudes of the Introit psalmody is found in Wagner III,
139-175-

l Frere: Antiphonale Sarisburiense; Wagner: Antiphonary of St. Maur-des-Fosses (Bibl.
Nat. 12044); Ferretti: not indicated.

The Liturgical Recitative 235

portant difference, however, is that there are two recitation pitches, one
for the first half and another for the second half, similar to the tonus
peregrinus and to the exceptional introit tone of the sixth mode. The basic
principle is, that in the authentic modes the first tenor is at the fourth
above the tonic, the second at the fifth, while in the plagal modes the first
tenor is at the third, and the second at the tonic. It will be seen that the
sixth introit tone, with its tenors on a and f, conforms to the rule for the
plagal tones of the Responsories. The principle just indicated is not
strictly observed in the fifth mode, for good reason the fourth degree
forms a tritone with the tonic. Here the b is invariably replaced by the c',
so that this tone has the same recitation pitch in both parts. Recitation
on b is also required in the second half of tone 3 (fifth above e) and in the
first half of tone 8 (third above g). In both of these cases it forms a normal
and permissible interval with the tonic, and is therefore often employed.
However, the tendency toward elimination of b as a tenor, which played a
decisive role in the final formation of the psalm tones [pp. 21 if], made
itself felt in the responsorial tones also, with the result that in most Re-
sponsories the recitation takes place on c' rather than on b. Probably as
a concomitant of this change, the second tenor of the fourth tone was
usually raised by a semitone, from e to f . No plausible explanation, how-
ever, can be given for the fact that the first tenor of the sixth tone is a
third higher than it should be, c' rather than a. In the following table
the original tenors are given in parentheses.

TENORS OF THE RESPONSORIAL TONES
AUTHENTIC PLAGAL

i. g a 2. f d

3- a (b)c> 4- g (e)f

5. c' c' 6. (a) c' f

7. c' d' 8. (b) c' g

Since the responsorial tones have extended formulae for their intona-
tions, mediant, and termination, often only one or two syllables, sometimes
none, remain for the recitation. An example in point is the Gloria Patri
text which is used in the tables of the responsorial tones in LR and PM ,
but which is too short to show all the details of these tones. It is only in
connection with extended texts that their structure appears clearly. An
additional difficulty encountered in the study of the responsorial tones is
the fact that only a small fraction of the Responsories (c. 70 out of more
than eight hundred found in the medieval manuscripts) are reproduced in
the Liber usualis and that not a few of these have their verses set to dif-
ferent melodies of later origin [pp. ajgf]. For instance, the Liber usualis
contains not a single good example of the first tone. For this reason we
reproduce in Fig. 57 the verses of three Responsories of mode i:

S?36 GREGORIAN CHANT

FIGURE 57

^ -^ ^> X%, ^W. _ . ^-^ ^^ <^^ ^ rt^ ^^ ^

1 Aedifi -dt-vit x U-pi-dibus al-t - tc in honorem D6-min fundeos o -fe-um d-su- per;

2. D *QS - nim cteavic me in jus - tf - ti- a:

3. D<5-mus puditi pe - ctoris templum re- pen -re fie D- fc

lot. Tt&r . ^ Ttrminath*

L cc be- oedixic e- urn D us, di- cens.

let *p- prchcoditnu- oum m6- am, ser-vi- vie me.

3. in- ca- eta ccsci- ens vf- mm, vecbo con- c- pit & U- urn.

i, Dum iret Jacob [LR 406] 2. Ego # ore [LB 266] 3. Confirmatum est [PM 166]

This figure illustrates a typical trait of the responsorial tones, that is,
the animation of the recitative by means of inflections which invariably
fall on accented syllables. The first tenor may have one, two, or even three
such inflections, depending upon the length of the text, while the second
tenor rarely has more than one.

The "original" tenors mentioned previously are of considerable impor-
tance because they are among the few remnants of that early psalmody in
which the tenors were consistently a fifth or a third above the final of the
mode. Responsories showing the original tenors are very rare, but the few
which are preserved are for that reason of great interest. Following are all
the examples I have found: 2

Tone 3, tenors a and b:

IJT. Omnes amid, y. Inter iniquos [671]
Tone 4, tenors g and e:

^T. Ecce quomodo, y. Tamquam agnus [728]

IJT. Sicut aviSj'Jf. Tradidit in mortem [7i6fj
Tone 8, tenors b and g:

IJT. Unus ex discipulis, y. Qui intingit [640]

Ip. Vinea mea, y. Sepivi te [675]

2 The study is based on the Responsories found in Z, LR, and PM, with occasional con-
sultation of the Antiphonals of Lucca and Worcester. Here, as in all" studies concerned
with the Responsories, the absence of a complete and reliable modern edition is a great
handicap. Both LR and PM are early Solesmes publications which probably do not
always represent the best tradition. I have been unable to find an example of the
"originaT tenors, a and f (rather than c* and f), in the sixth tone. Ferretti (p. 250) gives
a formula for the sixth responsorial tone which, in the first half, includes a recitation on
tf followed by one on a, and gives three examples, ^. Ecce in pulvere (from $r. Paucitas
dierum), f. Supra montem (from ^. Clama in fortitudine), and ^. Si ascendero (from ?;
the responds are not indicated). My attempts to verify Ferretti's versions have been unsuc-
cessful.

The Liturgical Recitative 237

It is interesting to notice that all these Responsories belong to the
triduum before Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Satur-
day. Even such an old feast as the Nativity did not remain immune to the
change, as appears from the Responsory of mode 4, Quern vidistis [377],
whose verse, Dicite quidnam, has the recitation on f (rather than on e) in
the second half. In Hodie nobis [376] of mode 8, however, a trace of the
original tenor seems to have survived on the word "illuxit" (ab-b-ba),
while the continuation, "nobis dies" shows the raised tenor (c'd'-c'-c'd'-
</<'). This intermediate stage, with a recitation starting on b and con-
tinuing on c', is more clearly indicated in the version of Hodie nobis as
given in LR, as well as in a few other Responsories of the eighth mode
shown in Fig. 58:

FIGURE 58

A Int. Tenor

;

4
5.

a- i u .

il* luxic QO
in- jecissent manus
in- vene
ma* ne una sab*

xit 06- bis di
bis di* cs fedem*
in J- sum ec
rant pi* erum cum Mari-
ba* o5- cum veoiuot ad moau- min-

es re-dan.pcionis
ptioais

16 QuiS'SCflt

ft matte

i. Hodie nobis [376] 2. Hodie nobis [LR 57]

3. Tamquam latronem [679] 4. Stella quam [LR 78]

5. Maria Magdalena [LR 85]

The foregoing study of the tenors of the responsorial tones may be sup-
plemented by a brief consideration of their opening and closing formulae.
Because the Liber usualis includes a relatively high number of Respon-
sories of the eighth mode, we shall use the eighth tone as the basis of our
discussion. Fig. 59 shows its four formulae in connection with the verse
Insurrexerunt of the Responsory Anirriam meam [681], with fragments of
other texts added underneath. A is the intonation, B the mediant, C the
second intonation, and D the termination. Each of these four formulae
consists of several units which are here numbered successively for con-
venient reference.

FIGURE 59

2 3 45678 9 10 11 12 15 14 15 16

B In-sui-te-x- runt... ml- se- ti-c<5r-di- t, ec noa i- oi- mie mf- i

H5.& c .:. *fr 6- nil o&- vie (377 J
Ar-on-df. ce(727]
Qui- re [732)

A. Intonation. In its shortest form this consists of the two units 2 and
3, as used for the word Qud-re. If the text starts with a dactylic word, the
formula is amplified by a prefixed c' (unit i), as in Hd-di-e. For one or

238 GREGORIAN CHANT

more syllables preceding the first accent this initial c' is repeated, so that
the intonation starts with a short recitation, as in Insurre-xe-runt. Not a
few Responsories reveal a tendency to postpone the main units, 2 and 3,
so that they appear on the second rather than on the first accented syllable,
a practice which leads to a fairly extended initial recitation. Thus, in the
verse Et intrdntes ddmum [LR 79] the unit 2 falls on d6- 9 preceded by a
four-note recitation on c/. 8 An extreme example occurs in the Responsory
Constantes estate* where the verse, Vos qui in pulvere estis, has initial
recitation for six syllables, with unit 2 falling on es-.

B. Mediant. The mediant belongs to the type of formulae with "one
accent and three preparatory units" which we have repeatedly encountered
in the tones for the Canticles and the introit verses [see p. 227]. The three
syllables preceding the last accent fall on units 4, 5, and 6. If the accent
is followed by two syllables (dactylic), units 7, 8, 9 are employed, otherwise
only 8 and 9. All the mediants of the responsorial tones show this structure.
Actually the mediant of Tone 8 forms to a certain extent an exception,
since it often occurs with four preparatory syllables, i.e., with a clivis c'-b
(rather than the simple reciting note c') on the fourth syllable before the
accent. Once more, the medieval sources are not consistent in this detail.

C. Second Intonation. This is a very simple formula, always consisting
of two units (io, 11) for the first two syllables of the second half of the
verse.

D. Termination. The terminations of the responsorial tones are five-
unit formulae of an elaborate design, often with seven or eight notes to one
unit, and with as many as twenty-five notes for the whole group. Their
structure is invariable and strictly cursive, without regard for the prosodic
accents of the text. Within the Gregorian recitative they represent the
clearest manifestation of the principle of musical autonomy. It is very in-
teresting to observe that this principle was fully recognized in the ninth
and tenth centuries, and perhaps more generally practiced in this period
than later. Thus, the anonymous author of the Instituta patrum de modo
psallendi vel cantandi says: 5

3 In LR the intonation starts, not with c', but with a podatus g-tf (in the Gloria Patri
verse on p. 51 as well as in the individual psalm verses). This variant, obviously intended
to make a connection from the end of the respond, is, on the whole, not borne out by the
medieval sources. The Liber usualis has the g-c* beginning only for the Responsories
from the Office of the Dead, Credo quod [1785], Domine quando [1787], and Domine

, secundum [1798]. Only the first and second of these have this beginning in the Codex
Lucca, while in the Codex Worcester all three start without the podatus. In Wagner
III, 197, the eighth tone starts with a podatus a-c', following Cod. 12044 of the Bibl. nat.

4 From the Vigil of the Nativity; Lucca, p. 29 (with initial podatus g-tf), Worcester,
p. 55 (starting directly with c>).

5 GS f 1, 6b/7a. Smits van Waesberghe (Muziekgeschiedenis der Middeleeuwen, II, i97ff)
considers the Instituta as a work of Ekkehard V, while S. A. van Dijk ascribes it to St.
Bernard (1091-1153) [see MD, IV, 99]. Judging from its contents, I have no doubt that it
actually describes a considerably earlier practice.

The Liturgical Recitative 239

We shall now say how the tones should be treated in their cadences (m finalibus)
with regard to varying accents (diversos accentus). All the adaptations of the
tones in the mediants as well as terminations (in finalibus mediis vel ultimis) are
to be made, not according to the word accent, but according to the musical melody
of the tone (musicalem melodiam toni), as Priscius says: "Music is not subject to
the rules of Donatus, as little as are Holy Scriptures." 6 If accent and melody
agree, they should be treated accordingly; if not, the tone of the chant or psalm
should be concluded according to the melody. Nearly all the tones are treated in
such a manner that the music, through its melody, disregards (supprimit, sup-
presses) the syllables and obscures (sophistical) the accent in the cadences of the
verses, and this particularly in the psalmody. If therefore the close of a verse is
made according to a tone (deponitur tonaliter), it is often necessary to infringe
(infringatur) upon the accent. For instance, if we have the six syllables saeculorum
amen, they have to be adapted in the treatment (depositione) of words and sylla-
bles to six notes of the tone.

It is very unusual, as well as highly interesting, to find in so early a docu-
ment such a clear statement about a specific detail. From the author's in-
sistent reiteration of the same point one has the impression that he worked
in a place (St. Gall?) where a different practice prevailed. Of particular
interest is tie fact that he speaks about toni in general and that he ex-
pressly mentions the mediant together with tie termination as formulae
not subject to the rules of the word accent. Very likely in his time the use
of cursive terminations was much more common than is indicated in the
musical manuscripts of the twelfth century. Another interesting detail is
the fact that he describes the saeculorum. Amen as a six-syllable formula,
in contrast to the later (and present) practice of treating it as one of five
syllables (u o u a e), the first syllable of saeculorum being included in the
tenor recitation. 7

The classical system of the responsorial tones does not include any dif-
ferentiae. There is only one termination for each tone. Attempts in the
direction toward different endings can be traced in some of the earliest
Antiphonaries, e.g., in the twelfth-century Antiphonal of St. Maur-des-
Fosses (Paris, B. N. 12044), in which the termination of the fourth tone
occurs not only with the normal close on d, but also in variants closing on
e or /. 8 That this was not a general practice appears from other Mss of the
same period (e.g., the Codex Lucca) in which these differences are absent.

Of greater importance and of lasting significance was the tendency to
employ for the verses of the Responsories free variants of the responsorial

GDonatus, a Roman grammarian o the late fourth century, teacher of St. Jerome.
Priscius lived c* 500.

7 Thus Aurelianus: "We beseech the singer that in the nocturnal responds he start the
dose of all the verses at the fifth syllable before the last" (GS, I, 58a: Id autem ora-
mus . . .).

8 Wagner III, 210.

240 GREGORIAN CHANT

tones or new melodies of a completely different design. A decisive impulse
for this practice came from the introduction, in the ninth century and
later, of new feasts such as the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary or Corpus
Christi, and of special rites such as the Burial Service and the Office and
Mass for the Dead. The most striking examples are the Responsories of
Corpus Christi. Not a single one of their verses is sung to the standard
tones. Two of them, Comedetis [927] and Coenantibus [931], employ the
first half of their responsorial tones, but continue with considerable modi-
fication in the second half. In Accepit [932] the entire melody of the verse
is a free variant of the responsorial tone (the sixth) or, at least, could be
interpreted as such. In all the others the verses are sung to entirely free
melodies, conspicuously different from the responsorial tones in their wide
range and fluctuating design which shows no trace of recitation. An ex-
ample is the verse of the Responsory Misit me [938] adapted from Ver-
bum caro [LR 67] for Nativity which may be compared with the eighth
responsorial tone that would normally be used in connection with it.
Even more radically free is the melody used for the verse of Immolabit
[926]. Its unmistakable emphasis on the degrees of tonic and dominant
(d, a, d') clearly marks it as a late product. The Office for the Dead has a
Responsory, Peccantem [1797], whose verse employs the second half of the
first responsorial tone but has a different recitation in its first half, in
opposition to the just-mentioned Responsories of Corpus Christi in which
the second half of the tone is modified. The last Responsory of the same
Office, Lib era me . . . de viis [1798], has a free melody, used for both of its
verses, Clamantes and Requiem, while the celebrated Libera me . . , de
morte [1767] has a different melody for each verse, Tremens, Dies ilia, and
Requiem. Another famous example is the Responsory Gaude Maria Virgo
for the Annunciation of the Virgin [PM 146!]. Its verse, Gabrielem Arch-
angelum, is remarkable not only for its free melody but also for its rhymed
text, consisting of three extended lines:

Gabrielem Archangelum scimus divinitus esse affatum:

uterum tuum de Spiritu Sancto credimus impregnatum:

erubescat Judaeus infelix, qui dicit Christum ex Joseph semine esse natum.

Yet another example of a free verse occurs in Descendit de caelis from
the Nativity. Famous for the neuma triplex in the repeats of the respond
[see p. 343], this Responsory is also unique in having a long melisma at the
beginning of the verse, Tamquam sponsus, and the Gloria:*

FIGURE 60

Glo- - ri _a patri

See PM 27. In LR 59 all the melismas are omitted.

The Liturgical Recitative , 241

Less exceptional but also interesting is the verse of Ecce jam for the
Feast of St. Stephan [PM 31]. It is sung to a recitative showing the general
characteristics of the first responsorial tone, but with a tripartite structure
(similar to the Doxology of the Introits) and with individual formulae for
intonation, mediant, and termination. Other examples of a "free" recitative
occur in the Responsoria de Tempore (Responsories for Sundays); e.g., in
Jerusalem cito veniet for the Second Sunday of Advent [LR 392], Domine
ne in ira for the Sundays after Epiphany [LR 398], Cum turba plurima
for Sexagesima Sunday [LR 400], and Videntes Joseph for the Third Sun-
day in Quadragesima [LR 408], There is no reason to assume that these
are melodies of "decadent days." 10 Their liturgical connection as well as
their style suggest that they come from a preparatory period in which the
system of responsorial tones was not yet fully established and standardized.

Finally, mention may be made of a number of Responsories which ap-
pear in early manuscripts with two verses, the first of which is set to a
standard tone, while the second is free. An example in point is the IJT. Iste
est Joannes from the Feast of John the Apostle and Evangelist [PM 33],
for which there exist three verses, Fluenta Evangelii, Joannes hie Theo-
logus, and Gloria sit Altissimo. The first verse is in prose and is sung to
the first responsorial tone. The two others, however, are hymn stanzas,
textually as well as musically, e.g.:

Gloria sit Altissimo
genitori ingenito
ingenitique Genito
et flamini Paraclito.

These, of course, are additions from decadent days, probably not earlier
than the twelfth century. 11

THE TONES OF THE INVITATORY PSALM

The Night Office, during which the Great Responsories are sung, in-
cludes another chant representing the Gregorian recitative in its most
elaborate form, that is, the Invitatory Psalm, Venite exsultemus Domino
[see pp. 20, 88]. The special esteem accorded this psalm is evident in its
unique liturgical position, at the very beginning of what was formerly
the most important Office Hour, as well as in the fact that to the present
day it has retained its full rondo form, with repeat of the Antiphon after

10 As Frere implies (Grove's Dictionary, IV, 369!)): "In decadent days even the respon-
sories of the Office have their verses set to a special melody and not to the common
tone."

11 The Antiphonals of Hartker, Lucca, and Worcester have only one verse, Valde
honorandus, sung to the standard tone.

S>43 'GREGORIAN CHANT

each verse [see p. 188]. It also stands apart from the other Office Psalms,
e.g., those of Vespers, in having a set of special tones for the verses, dif-
ferent from, and much more elaborate than the ordinary psalm tones.

In the medieval sources the Invitatory is represented by numerous An-
tiphons, one for each feast, and a number of tones for the Psalm. For
instance, the eleventh-century Codex Hartker contains over sixty, the
Codex Worcester of the thirteenth century close to one hundred Invitatory
Antiphons. The latter also has thirteen Invitatory tones. In other manu-
scripts the number of tones is sometimes smaller, sometimes greater. In
fact, the Invitatory tones never became organized into a standard system
of eight tones, one for each mode, as we find it in the tones of the ordinary
Psalms, Canticles, Introits, and Responsories. Several modes are repre-
sented by a number of tones while, on the other hand, there are no tones
for two modes, the first and the eighth. Their absence conforms with the
fact that there exist no Invitatory Antiphons in these two modes. Most
sources have one tone for modes 2, 3, 5, and 7, but several for modes 4
and 6. The Liber responsorialis [pp. 6ff] restricts itself to eight tones, three
for mode 4 (distinguished as 4.g, 4.E, and 4-d), and one for each of the
other modes (except, of course, i and 8), as does also the Codex Lucca
of the twelfth century. Since this set is fully sufficient for a study of the
methods employed in the Invitatory tones, we have selected it as the basis
of the subsequent presentation. 1 The Liber usualis includes only four In-
vitatory tones: 4.g. for Nativity [368; Antiphon Christus natus], 4.E. for
Corpus Christi [918; Antiphon Christum re gem], 5. for Whit Sunday
[863; Antiphon Alleluia Spiritus Domini], and 6. for Easter Sunday [765;
Antiphon Surrexit Dominus\ 9 and the Office of the Dead [1779; Antiphon
Regem cui\^

The archaic character of the Invitatory appears also from the fact that
its text is taken, not from the standard Latin translation of St. Jerome
known as the Vulgate, but from an earlier translation referred to as the
Itala. Aside from several variants, this includes the words "Quoniam non
repellet Dominus plebem" which are missing in the Vulgate (as well as
in the English translation, O come, let us sing, Ps. 95). Also different is
the division of the text into verses, the Itala text having only five verses,
each of which corresponds to two or three of the eleven verses of the Vul-
gate. As a result, the verses of the Invitatory psalm are considerably more
extended than the ordinary psalm verses, and are therefore treated as a
tripartite recitative, similar to the Doxology of Introits, with an initial

1 Ferretti, Esthetique, pp. S27ff, offers a list of fifteen tones; Wagner 111, 177) gives one
of ten. A Solesmes publication, Psalmus Venite exsultemus per varios tonos cum invita-
toriis (1895), has not been available for the present study. See also Pal mus., IV, i65ff.

2 Because of its joyful character, the Invitatory is omitted during Holy Week, e.g., on
Maundy Thursday.

The Liturgical Recitative 243

and a closing formula for each of the three sections. We have seen [p.
229] that in the introit Doxology only four different formulae are em-
ployed, the first intonation (Ii) being used for the opening of the first sec-
tion, the second intonation (12) for the openings of the second and third
section, the mediant (M) for the close of the first two sections, and the
termination (T) for the close of the third section. Several of the Invitatory
tones follow a similar procedure, but with the first intonation used twice.
Others, however, have three intonations, a different one for each section
(Ii, 12, Is). There is always only one mediant, but in some tones this occurs
in two modifications (M, M') differing in their final notes, not dissimilar to
the ouvert and clos endings of the fourteenth-century ballades and virelais
(Machaut) or to the modern prima and seconda volta. The two final notes
are always at the intervallic distance of a second, as is also normally the
case in the ouvert and clos of the fourteenth century.

Between each opening and closing formula the tone continues with
recitation. This shows not only occasional inflections such as occur in the
responsorial tones, but also major deviations suggestive of half-cadences
in the middle of a section, or fluctuations from one tenor pitch to another.
No other type of Gregorian recitative shows such varied modulation, such
flexible treatment of the reciting voice as is found in the Invitatories. 3 The
following table shows the outlines of the eight Invitatory tones given in
the Liber responsorialis. The closing notes of the mediants are added in
parentheses.

TENOR TENOR TENOR

Tone 2 Ii M (d) Ii f M (d) I 2 d T

3 Ii a M (c') I 2 d'-a M' (b) I 3 c' T

4.g Ii a-g M (g) I 2 a-g M (g) I 8 g T

4.E Ii a M (e) Ii a M' (d) I 2 f T

4.d Ii g M (d) I 2 g M' (e) I 3 f T

5 Ii c' M (d') I 2 c' M> (c>) I 8 c' T

6 Ii c'-a M (f) Ii c'-a M (f) I 2 f T

7 Ii d' M (c') I 2 d' M (d') I 3 d' T

For the purpose of more detailed illustration it will suffice to consider
two examples, tones 4-E and 5. The former is used in the Night Office of
Corpus Christi [918], the latter in that of Whit Sunday [863]. In order to
show all the details, it is best not to use the first verse, Venite, because
it is relatively short and therefore lacks the recitation in the third section.
In Fig, 61 both tones are given with the fourth verse, Hodie, divided into
its three sections.

3 The versions of Ferretti (given without sources) have even more inflections than
those of LR and the Liber usualis, particularly the version of the third tone.

J44 GREGORIAN CHANT

FIGURE 6l

Invitatory Tone 4-E
t, M I.

* g g fa B " , . , - , I

- i+t g * r* ' * "~

Hodi-e si vocem e-jus audi- e-ri- tis, no-li-te obdura-re corda vestra, sicut in

fra. fc^fltx .>

- - - - - - - " - --->-

- .

exacerba-ti- one secundum dl- em tenta-ti- onis in de-ser- to : ubi tentave-runt
Mr % T

^a-l 3 >a a> an a ^^r

me patres vestri, probaverunt, et vide-runt ope-ra me- a.
Invitatory Tone 5

Hodi-e, si vocem ej us audi- e-ri-tis, no-li-te obdura-re corda vestra, sicut in exa

B , ^ ^ , ^ !

cerba-ti*one secundum di- em ten tati-onis in de-serto :ubi tentave-runt me patres ve*

ti-^.

its

stri, probaverunt, et viderunt o- pe-ra me- a.

It is not necessary to enter into a detailed analysis of the intonations, '
mediants, and terminations of the invitatory tones, as this would add noth-
ing new to our previous explanations. Suffice it to say that the terminations
are all cursive, applied to the last five syllables of the text (opera mea in
the verse of our illustration). For some reason, tone 2 has two different
terminations, one for the odd-numbered verses, the other for the even-
numbered verses. This probably has to do with the fact that the Antiphon
is repeated in full after yy. i, 3, 5, while after the others its second half
only recurs. However, there is no obvious reason why this principle, uni-
versally observed in all the Invitatories, should have affected only one of
its tones.

THE SHORT RESPONSORIES

The difference, in liturgical importance, between Matins and the other
Office Hours is dearly reflected in the Responsories assigned to them.

The Liturgical Recitative 245

Those of Matins, the responsoria prolixa or Great Responsories, are ex-
tended and elaborate chants which, at least in their responds, often ap-
proach the highly melismatic character of the Graduals. Quite different
from these are the responsoria brevia or Short Responsories, which are
sung after the Chapter of the Lesser Hours, from Prime to None, and of
Compline. 1 These are extremely short and almost completely syllabic, in
their responds as well as in their verses. Their normal structure is R R V R'
D R or simply R V D [see p. 185]. As in the Great Responsories, the Dox-
ology is reduced to its first half, Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto.

The music of this rubric follows principles quite different from those
encountered in the previous categories. In the Office Psalms, Canticles,
Introits, and Great Responsories the music for the verse is prescribed by
a standard formula, while that of the antiphon or respond is essentially
free. The Short Responsories, however, have fixed melodies for the respond
as well as the verse, the text being the main element of variety. Three
main melodies are provided and assigned to different seasons, one being
used "during the year," the other during Advent, and the third during
Paschal Time [2291]. The Paschal melody is also used for high feasts, for
instance, Nativity [407, 411], Holy Name [446, 450, 451] Epiphany [458,
462, 463], and Corpus Christi [942, 955].

In addition to the three standard melodies, each of which is used for a
considerable number of texts, there are a few special ones which seem to
be limited to a single text. Two examples of this kind are prescribed for
Sunday at Terce; namely, Inclina cor meum for "During the Year" [237]
and Erue a framea for Passion Sunday and Palm Sunday [239]. The medi-
eval books of chant contain numerous other melodies for the Short Re-
sponsories, often more elaborate than those in present-day use, and oc-
casionally approaching the ornate design and extension of the Great
Responsories. Little is known about the medieval repertory of the Short
Responsories, except for a brief, but very informative study contained in
Wagner's Formenlehre [pp. 2172].

l At the other Hours the Responsory is replaced by a hymn. See the table on p. 23.

CHAPTER TWO

The Free Compositions: General Aspects

[N THE foregoing chapter we have studied the liturgical recitative,
that is, fixed melodies consisting essentially of a monotone recita-
tion with opening and closing formulae, each designed to serve for a great
number of texts. Turning now to the free compositions, we shall deal with
chants having a distinctive and individual melodic line, and each com-
posed for one special text. The latter statement could be challenged by
pointing to the fact that some of these chants, particularly among the
Alleluias and Hymns (later also the Sequences), occur with different texts,
sometimes as many as ten or more. This, however, is not part of the
original intention but rather the result of a subsequent emergency, arising
from the introduction of new feasts for Saints in the eleventh century and
later. For these the older melodies were used, and provided with a new
text suitable to the occasion. As was observed in a previous chapter, the
earliest indications of this method, known as adaptation, occur in the
Mass for the Feast of the Holy Trinity [see p. 69],

At the outset it should be noted that the designation "free" applied to
the chants of the Gregorian repertory should not be taken at its face value,
that is, in the sense it would have in the case of a composition by Bach or
Beethoven. Some of the chants have melodies which, in spite of their seem-
ingly free design, may be elaborate versions of a recitative. Such melodies,
then, would be "free" only at the level of variation -or decoration tech-
nique, not of their thematic substance. Another restriction of free inven-
tion exists in the use of standard phrases (migrating melismas), i.e., phrases
recurring in numerous chants of a certain group (as in the Tracts or
Graduals of a given mode), sometimes to such an extent that the entire
chant consists of a succession of such formulae. 1 Finally, it should be borne

1 This technique is commonly called centonization, from L. cento, patchwork. Anti-
phonarius cento is the term used by Johannes Diaconus (John the Deacon) in his Vita
S. Gregorii Magni of c. 870 to describe Gregory's activity in the field of music: "Then,
in the house of the Lord, like another wise Solomon, because of the compunction (com-
punctio) inspired by the sweetness of music, he compiled, in the interest of the singers,
the antiphonarius cento [i.e., collection called Antiphonat], which is of the greatest use-
fulness" (Patr. lat. 75, p. 90: Deinde in domo Domini).

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 247

in mind that in several liturgical categories each chant is a combination
of a free melody and a recitative, the former being the respond or the
antiphon, the latter, the verse. In the Introits and Great Responsories the
verses are recitatives and, therefore, have been studied in the previous
section of this book. Their antiphons or responds, on the other hand, are
essentially free compositions and thus find their place in the present chap-
ter. There is, of course, a certain awkwardness in this method of dividing
a chant into its two constituent parts and treating each separately. How-
ever, the advantages of this procedure outweigh its drawbacks, in spite of
the fact that in not a few instances the free and the recitative sections of a
chant are musically related to each other. Moreover, the opposite pro-
cedure also leads to some awkward consequences, for instance, in the case
of the Office Psalms where it would mean that the Antiphons should be
studied simultaneously with the psalm tones, obviously a highly imprac-
ticable proposition.

A different situation exists with the Graduals, Offertories, and Alleluias,
since here both the respond and the verse are freely composed melodies
(within the limitations outlined above). Musical correlations between the
two sections are quite frequently encountered in these chants, and actually
are a normal feature in the Alleluias. It is therefore necessary to study
these chants as a unified whole. The same remark applies to the Tracts
which are psalms in directum, without antiphon or respond, and, of
course, to the various types of non-psalmodic chant, such as the Hymns,
the Ordinaries of the Mass, the Sequences, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODIC DESIGN

The free chants of the Gregorian repertory cover a wide range of forma-
tions. At one end of the gamut we find Antiphons consisting of no more
than a dozen notes, one for each syllable of the text; while at the other
there are Tracts occupying more than two pages and including many
melismas, each of which has more notes than are found in one of the
shortest chants. Whether short or long, simple or elaborate, they all exhibit
a keen feeling for melody as a living organism or, to use another metaphor,
for the kinetic and dynamic qualities of the musical line. These qualities
are, of course, present in all great melodies, whether by the unknown
masters of the Roman chant or by outstanding composers of later cen-
turies, from Leoninus to the present day. The uniqueness of the Gregorian
work consists in the fact that here dynamic melody is created out of a
purely melodic substance, unassisted (or, should we say, unencumbered)
by two other factors essential in the shaping of later melodies, that is,
regular meter and harmonic implications.

*4 8 GREGORIAN CHANT

TOTAL RANGE

The over-all range in which the Gregorian melodies move is essentially
that of the combined eight modes, that is, from the low A of the second
mode to the high g> of the seventh. Examples of the low A occur particu-
larly in the Tracts of the second mode, most of which start with the for-
mula d-c-d-c-A . . . , and occasionally also touch upon the low pitch in the
further course of the melody as, for instance, in Qui habitat [533]. There
are a few chants, naturally all in the second mode, in which the melody
descends to the low G, a pitch first recognized in the Dialogus de musica
by Oddo of Cluny (d. 942), who designated it by the Greek letter T (gamma;
gamma-ut in the terminology of Guido of Arezzo). Following is a list
which, although not necessarily complete, probably includes most of the
chants in which the G occurs:

TRACTS:

Emitte Spiritum [1279] Votive Mass of the Holy Ghost

Gaude Maria [1266] Feasts of the Virgin Mary

Tu es vas [1346] Conversion of St. Paul

RESPONSORIES:

Collegerunt [579] Palm Sunday (Procession)

Repleti sunt [875] Whit Sunday

Emendemus [524] Ash Wednesday (Procession)

Obtulerunt [1360] Purification (Procession)
OFFERTORIES:

De profundis [p. 2; Ott, 127] 23rd Sunday after Pentecost

Protege [Jf. i; Ott, 169] Exaltation of the Holy Cross
ALLELUIAS:

Stabat Mater [1633^] Feast of the Seven Dolours

All these chants belong to later feasts or to ceremonies of a later date, such
as the Processions on Palm Sunday and Ash Wednesday. The only excep-
tion is the Responsory Repleti sunt of Whit Sunday, but in view of all
the other evidence it is probably admissible to interpret the single G of
this chant (on "dicentium") as a later variant, all the more since it occurs
in a formula which appears in other Responsories of the second mode
without this low tone. 1 It seems reasonable to conclude that the G was
added to the Gregorian gamut at a relatively late date, perhaps some time
during the ninth century, not too long before it was officially recognized
by Oddo.

There is one single chant (at least, no other is known to me) in which
the melody descends to the low F. This occurs in the second verse of the
Offertory Tollite portas, where the word "et" is sung to the clivis G-F [Ott,

i Cf. the standard phrase F t in Fig. 94, p. 333.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 249

p. 15]. This is one of the many traits indicative of the exceptional tonal
behavior of the Offertory verses, for which we shall encounter numerous
examples in our further studies.

Turning now to the upper limit of the gamut, there is no need to give
special attention to the high g', because this occurs very frequently in
melodies of the seventh mode. Of greater interest is the fact that not a few
chants go up to the a 7 :

GRADUALS:

Laetatus sum [560] Fourth Sunday of Lent

Dirigatur [1060] igth Sunday after Pentecost

Liberasti [1075] ^rd Sunday after Pentecost
ALLELUIAS:

Pascha nostrum [779] Easter Sunday

Domine exaudi [1049] i7th Sunday after Pentecost

De profundis [1076] 23rd Sunday after Pentecost
INTROITS:

Aqua sapientiae [789] Easter Tuesday

Exsultet [470] Holy Family

There is at least one chant whose ambitus extends one or even two de-
grees higher, namely, the Responsory Gaude Maria from the Feast of the
Annunciation [PM 146], the verse of which includes the following passage:

FIGURE 62
-3-. . .

e-ru-bescat Juda-us in-fe-lix

In the thirteenth-century Codex Worcester this passage reads: e' e 7 g'-a'-b'
a / a' a/.g/ g/ ? 2 b ut probably there are some manuscripts showing the version
which is reproduced in the Solesmes publication. It may be noticed that
this chant is not in the seventh mode but in the sixth, transposed a fifth
up, from f to c / .

PHRASE STRUCTURE

The basic design of a Gregorian melody is that of an arch whose apex
is reached and left in wavy lines formed mostly by ascending and descend-
ing seconds, but often also including larger intervals, particularly thirds.
The most elementary embodiment of this design exists in the psalmodic
recitative with its upward-leading intonation, its tenor recitation, and its
downward-leading termination. It represents the prototype of the Grego-

2 Pal. mus., XII, Plates, p. 271. Similarly in the Codex Lucca, Pal. mus. 9 IX, Plates, p.,

250 GREGORIAN CHANT

rian phrase, from the analytical and probably also from the historical point
of view.

Some of the shortest chants consist of only one arch, e.g., the Alleluia
Antiphon [304] shown in Fig. 63, while the Antiphon Angeli eorum [431]
may be cited as an example of a double arch. Among the more extended

FIGURE 63

l==i 3

Alle-lu-ia, alle-lu-ia, alle-lu-ia.

Tjc "-"; 7

Ange-li e-orum semper vident faci- em Patris.

chants there are many which consist of a succession of such arches, for in-
stance the Responsory Emendemus [524], the Introit Misereris omnium
[525], the Alleluia Dominus regnavit [405], or the Offertory Domine Deus

Side by side with such curves, however, there are others of a different
design, suggesting an inverted arch or a more or less straight line with
wave-like inflections. The prototype for the latter design could be found
in recitatives such as the first phrase of the Invitatory Tone 5 [see p. 244].
It occurs occasionally in free compositions, e.g., at the beginning of the
Communion Vox in Rama [430] from the feast of the Holy Innocents

FIGURE 64

Vox in Rama audf-ta est

(see Fig. 64). Other examples are the phrase "posuisti super manum tuam"
from the Introit Resurrexi [778], the beginning of the Offertory Oravi
[1050], or that of the Gradual Domine refugium [1067].*

The inverted arch is found at the beginning of several chants, e.g., the
Responsory O vos omnes [727]; the Antiphons Ecce Dominus veniet [324],

FIGURE 65

g B _ * "''

3 ' ,

i a -

Ecce Dominus veni-et, et omnes sancti e jus cum e-o :

3 Other examples, quoted from Wagner III, 86f are: Intr. Ecce advenit, Cibavit eos,
Repleatur os meum; Grad. Ecce sacerdos; All. Benedictus es; OfL Meditabor; Com. Beatus
servus, Confundantur superbi. See also Ferretti, pp. 43flE.

AFerretti (Esthetique, p. 46), following Gevaert (Melopee, p. 126), calls this form
"circulaire," i.e., circling around a center tone.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 251

Stephanus autem [413], and Hoc est praeceptum [mi]; the Communion
Domine Deus [544]; the Introit Exaudi [1002]; the Alleluia Loquebar
[1369]; or the Communion Cor meum [1474]. Other chants start with a
downward motion without continuing into a reversed arch; e.g., the An-
tiphons Ecce quam bonum [295] and O magnum pietatis bonum [1459],
or the Introit Deus in loco [1024]. Such downward motions occurring at the
beginning of chants have been explained by Wagner and Ferretti as a
deliberate means to emphasize an initial word of particular importance,
a "bedeutsames Anfangswort" or an "affirmation ou une pensde solennelle,
energique." 5 We find it difficult to accept this explanation, because of its
vagueness (what is an "important" word?) and because there are, of course,
hundreds of chants starting with an equally "important" word set to a
melodic line of an ascending motion.

We also would prefer to avoid the term "law" in connection with this
phenomenon of the Gregorian arch, as well as with others to be discussed
subsequently. 6 There is no question that we are concerned with a very im-
portant principle of Roman chant, but to call it a law would mean to
confer upon it the appearance of a universal validity which it actually
does not have. If we interpret this law to indicate that all Gregorian
phrases show the design of an arch, it is simply not correct. If we admit
variations such as the reversed arch, descending motion at the beginning
of a phrase, or wavy motion, then the law becomes commonplace because
such designs are common characteristics of practically all musical phrases.
Finally it should be borne in mind that definite statements regarding the
design of phrases in a chant are often difficult to make because it is not
always easy to say what constitutes a phrase in a given chant. It is obvious
that by combining and dividing melodic units in different ways various
kinds of basic design can be construed. As we shall see later, the indications
of phrases or periods given in the Solesmes books are based on the divisions
of the text [see pp. 267f|. However, there are cases in which the "law of the
arch" would suggest a different division. An example in point is the sec-
tion "et judica causam tuam" from the verse of the Gradual Respice me
Domine [1033!!], reproduced in Fig. 66. Here we find a sweeping ascending

FIGURE 66

3Q3B

et ju- di-ca cau- sam tu- am

5 Wagner III, 287; Ferretti, p. 45. Even more untenable is Wagner's statement (Ele-
mente des gregorianischen Gesanges, p. 159) that "the end of the period moves upward
only when the text closes with a question." Of the four examples he adduces (Com.
Dominus Jesus [657], at "Magister?"; Com. Quis dabit [G 129] at "Israel?"; Ant. Fili
quid fecisti [477] at "quaerebatis?"; Ant. Dixit paterfamilias [503] at "otiosi?") only one
or possibly two are convincing. Moreover, there are the numerous examples of the in-
verted arch, all dosing with an upward motion without involving a question in the text.
Wagner III, 286, fn.: "Konstructionsgesetz aller choralischen Melodik."

252 GREGORIAN CHANT

motion to the words "et judica," an inverted arch for "causam," and a
descending motion for "tuam." However, two perfect arches would result
if we. were to divide the melody in the middle of the melisma for "causam."
Whether such a purely musical interpretation of the melody is admissible,
it is difficult to say.

In the syllabic and neumatic chants the principle of the arch is generally
valid at least to the extent that the musical line approaches a major
division of the text in descending motion and continues in ascending
motion, forming the beginning of a new curve. Occasionally one encounters
an exception to this rule, for instance, in the Introit Intret oratio [541],
in which a melodic arch encompasses both the end of one textual division
and the beginning of the next, so that the apex of the bow coincides with
the dividing point:

FIGURE 67

a ' [ *'T ' r..t t -t^e-

in conspe- ctu tu- o : incli- na aurem tu- am

Considering the entreating character of the text, one cannot help feeling
that this departure from common practice is deliberate. It certainly causes
the melody to stand in an almost gestic relationship to the words. Somewhat
similar, although less impressive, are the following examples:

Introit In nomine [612]

. . . et infernorum: quia Dominus factus obediens . . .
Introit In virtute [1135]

. . . exsultabit vehementer: desiderium animae ejus . . .
Antiphon Dicebat Jesus [1097]

Qui ex Deo est, verba Dei audit: propterea vos non auditis . . .

MELODIC PROGRESSIONS 7

If we consider the Roman repertory from the point of view of progres-
sions from one note to the next, the basic role of stepwise motion is self-
evident. There is no chant in which the number of steps would not be, by
far, greater than that of all other progressions combined. The only excep-
tion, if it can be so considered, is the simple recitative with prevailing
unison repeat. Unison repeats of a special character occur in some of the
elaborate chants, where we find the same pitch repeated, up to eight times,
on one syllable; e.g., three unisons in the gradual Haec dies [778] on
"(Do)mi(nus)," five in the Offertory Perfice gressus [508] on "gres(sus),"

7 A short study of this important aspect (the only one known to me) is found in
Wagner's Elemente, pp. 129!

The Free Compositions; General Aspects 253

eight in the Offertory Anima nostra [430] on "(libera)ti," Actually, it
would be misleading to consider these formations under the aspect of
melodic progression. As explained previously [p. 107], they represent an
ornament, the vocal counterpart of the violin tremolo.

Among the disjunct progressions ascending and descending, major or
minor thirds occur very frequently. Numerous chants consist of nothing
but unisons, seconds, and thirds, for instance the just-mentioned Offertory
Anima nostra. Next in frequency is the ascending or descending fourth,
examples of which are found, for instance, in the Offertory Perfice gressus
and in the Communion Introibo ad altare from the same feast. The
fifth is decidedly more rare, particularly descending. Its ascending form,
however, occurs with surprising frequency as an opening interval, impart-
ing an impressive sweep to the beginning of a chant or one of its phrases.
Examples are the Introit Rorate caeli from the Fourth Sunday of Advent
[353], the intonation of the Invitatory Psalm of Nativity [368], an entire
group of Antiphons of the first mode (e.g., Fontes [884], Vado [825]), the
Communion Factus est [882] which also shows a descending fifth, the
Alleluia Te decet [1022], the Offertory Ascendit [849], the Kyrie IV [25],
etc. It is interesting to notice that in all these examples the fifth is either
d-a or g-d', and that fifths on other degrees are much more difficult to find.
For instance, one would expect to find examples of the fifth f-c' in the
numerous Graduals of the fifth mode. This motion is indeed found in
many of them, particularly at the beginning of the verse, but invariably
in the form of the triad, f-a-c', as in Anima nostra [1167] or in Beatus
vir [1136]. The fifth c-g occurs in the Gradual Dilexisti [1216], the only
Gradual in the eighth mode; the fifth a-e' in the Gloria and Sanctiis of
Mass I [i6ff].

Intervals larger than the fifth are exceedingly rare, and probably limited
to chants of a late date. 8 A descending sixth, e'-g, occurs in the jubilus of
the Alleluia Multifarie [441], and an ascending seventh in the final melisma
of y. 2 of the Offertory Domine Deus meus [Ott, 175]:

FIGURE 68

The octave occurs only as a dead interval in some very late chants which
have no connection with the Gregorian repertory, e.g., the fifteenth-cen-

8 Guide, in his Micrologus, cap. iv, recognizes six intervals (sex vocum consonantias):
tonum, semitonium, ditonum, semiditonum, diatessaron, and diapente, saying that "in no
chant is there any other way of connecting one tone with the next, whether ascending or
descending" (GS, II, 6a; ed. Smits van Waesberghe, p. 105). In several copies of the
Micrologus there are later insertions stating that the diapente cum semitonio and the
diapente cum tono (minor, major sixth) are also used, as well as the diapason (octave),
though rarely.

254 GREGORIAN CHANT

tury Credo IV [71, after "caelis"] or the seventeenth-century Credo III [70,
after "finis"], probably also in some late sequences. The complete absence
of real octave leaps is one of the numerous details setting the chant apart
from Palestrinian melody which has often been described as being based
upon the principles of Gregorian melody. 9

The difference between these two idioms becomes even more apparent
from a study of successive progressions, to which we now turn. Two succes-
sive thirds in the same direction (3 -f 3) are, needless to say, quite com-
mon, upward as well as downward, and probably equally frequent in the
major- and minor-triad form. Occasionally they outline a diminished fifth
as, for instance, the e-g-b|> in the Alleluia Surrexit Dominus [790], in the
melisma on "Surrexit"; the b^-g-e in ^. 3 of the Offertory Domine exaudi,
on "misereberis" [Ott 54]; and the f'-d'-b which is found in every Gradual
of mode 2 for instance, Haec dies [778] on "ea" since it occurs in two
standard phrases of the Gradual-type Justus ut palma, to which all the
Graduals of mode 2 belong [see the phrases As and Dio of Fig. 108, p.
360].

As to the various combinations of a third and a fourth, only one of
them can be said to belong to the language of Roman chant, that is the
one outlining a descending sixth-chord, 4 + 3 downward. Even this is far
from being frequent, being practically limited to a small number of
Graduals and Offertories. The most striking example is a standard phrase
used for the beginning of the verses of about eight Graduals in the fifth
mode, a phrase in which the formation d'-a-f occurs three times in rather
close succession. 10 A somewhat similar phrase including two statements of
d'-a-f opens the verse of five other Graduals of the same mode. 11 In addition,
the Gradual Sacerdotes [1187] (now used for the Common of a Confessor
Bishop, but originally for the old feasts of St. Simplicius and St. Xystus)
shows the progressions c'-g-e and b^-f-d. The presence, among the Grad-
uals just alluded to, of Viderunt omnes from the Nativity clearly shows
that the "descending sixth-chord," 12 rare though it is, belongs to the old
layer of the chant. As for the Offertories, the only example from the Liber
usualis which I can indicate is the bj^-f-d at the end of Erit vobis [803] from
Friday of Easter "Week. Not a few examples, however, are found in the
verses of the Offertories; e.g., f'-c'-a in Scapulis suis y. 3 [Ott 33]; d'-a'-f in
Domine in auxilium y. 2 [Ott 107]; c'-g-e in Lauda anima y. 2 [Ott 68],

Many formations that "witi be sought in vain hi Palestrina music" (K. Jeppesen,
The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance, 1946, p. 74), e.g., e'-c'-b-a or a-b-d'-c', are,
needless to say, ubiquitous in the chant.

K>E.g., Anima nostra [1167], on "Laqueus." Cf. the standard phrase A^ hi Fig. 104, p.
548.

11 E.g., Omnes de Saba [459], on "Surge." Cf. the standard phrase M.

12 This term and similar ones are used here only for the sake of convenience, without
implying any "harmonic" connotation. To interpret Gregorian chant in terms of har-
monic analysis is, to put it mildly, an inexcusable anachronism.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 255

Oravi Deum y. 2 [Ott 109], Afferentur y. 2 [Ott 156]; and several others.
They nearly always occur within an extended melisma, as in the above-
mentioned standard phrases of the Graduals. The relative frequency with
which the "descending sixth-chord" occurs in the Offertory verses is one of
the various traits which give them a character all their own. 13

As for the other combinations of a third and a fourth, they are so rare
that they are scarcely more than curiosities. For the descending 3 + 4 ("six-
four-chord") I can offer only three examples, none of them "pure/* that
is, the e'-c'-c'-c'-g which occurs twice in the Tract Commovisti [507],^ the
eV-c'-g in the final "alleluia"-melisma of the last verse of the Offertory
Confitebuntur caeli [Ott 140], and the eM-c'-g in the melisma on "gloria"
in the last verse of the Offertory Perfice gressus [Ott 91], As for the two
ascending combinations, 3 + 4 upward does not seem to exist; for 4 + 3
the following examples are all I have found: of-a in the melisma "Ad-
ducentur" in y. 2 of the Offertory Afferentur [Ott 164; originally Offer-
entur]; c-f-f-a in the melisma "meo" in y. 2 of the Offertory Veritas mea
[Ott 149]; and G-c-d-e at the beginning of y. i of the Offertory Protege
Domine [Ott 169] (this last example is added here only because "none bet-
ter could be had" as was said of Bach when he was appointed cantor of
St. Thomas).

The almost complete absence of such a relatively familiar progression
as the upward fourth-plus-third (or third-plus-fourth) is all the more note-
worthy because the combination 5 + 3 upward, outlining a seventh, is
not at all uncommon in Roman chant. It forms part of the beginning of
a fairly numerous group of Antiphons including, among others, Vos amid
[1111], Forties [884], and Vado [825]. 15 Other examples occur in the Al-
leluias Surrexit [790: d-a-a-a-c'], Justus germinabit [1192: d-a-c'], and Virgo
Dei [1684: d-a-c']; in the Offertory Justbrum animae [1172: d-a-c']; and in
the Graduals Liberasti [1075] and Benedictus Dominus [478], both of
which employ the same closing formula starting with g-d'-P. The descend-
ing 3 + 5 I have found only in the "jucunda"-melisma of y. 2 of the
Offertory Confitebor [Ott 46], and in the Gradual Qui sedes [335], where a
seventh, e'-c'-c'-f, is sung to the word "super."

No less interesting is another combination outlining an ascending
seventh, that is, 4 + 4. It occurs in a standard formula, opening with
d-g-c', which is used in a number of Tracts of the eighth mode; e.g.,
Commovisti [507], Qui confidunt [561], and Ego autem [G 566; see begin-
ning of p. 568]. Other examples occur in the Introit Ego clamavi [GR 130:
d-g-g-c'] and in the Offertory Benedictus es Dominus [514: d-g-g-c' on
"omnia"]. Once more, the final verses of the Offertories provide by far
the best hunting ground for these formations, as in Deus enim, y, 2 [Ott

13 See p. 375.

1* See Fig, 90, p. 323. Also in others, e.g., Tu gloria [1378]* on "Tota."

15 Gevaert's th&me 3, 4, 5.

256 GREGORIAN CHANT

18, "Domine"]; Tui sunt, y. 3 [Ott 20, "dextera"]; Portas caeli, y. s> [Ott
61, "loquar"]; Benedictus sit, y. s [Ott 82, "Cherubim"]; and Posuisti,
y. 2 [Ott 137, "gloria"]. It will be noticed that all the examples of two
ascending fourths involve the same pitches, d-g-c'. Again, the descending
variety of this formation is much rarer, only two examples having been
found, one in the Alleluia Scitote [1296], the other in the Offertory Posuisti,
y. 2 [Ott 138, "eius"], both on c'-g-d.

The important role which the interval of a seventh plays in the melodic
formations of the chant becomes even more apparent from a study of the
rather frequent cases in which it is outlined through several intermediate
pitches, as, for instance, d-f-a-c' or d-g-a-c'. Fig. 69 shows a number of
examples.

FIGURE 69
2 5 4 ? m 6 7 8 9 10

1. Offertory Jubilate Deo omnis [480, "terra"]; Offertory Justorum animae [1172, "et"];
Alleluia In conspectu [1276, "Angelorum"] 16

2. Alleluia Cognoverunt [817, "Cognoverunt"]; Offertory Deus enim ff. 2 [Ott 18, final
melisma]

3. Alleluia Christus resurgens [827, "mors"]

4. Graduals Viderunt omnes [409, "omnis"]; Tribulationes [547, "Domine' 1 ]; Anima
nostra [1167, "Laqueus"]

5. Gradual Laetatus sum [561, "abundantia"]

6. Alleluia Post dies octo [810, "alleluia" and jubilus]

7. Graduals Exsurge Domine non [553, "homo"]; Spera in Domino [i352 v , "ipse"]

8. Alleluia Angelas Domini [786, jubilus]; Tract Gaude Maria [1266, "Gaude" (G-)]

9. Introit Protector [1036, "millia"]; Offertory Jubilate [487, "animae**]; Graduals Ex-
surge Domine non [553, "homo"; likewise at the end of the melisma "facie"] and
Tenuisti [592, "corde"]

10. Gradual Deus vitam [G 128, "tuo" and final melisma]

There is little doubt that by means of a thorough search the number of
such examples could at least be doubled. If, however, this seems like a
rather insignificant yield, we have only to turn to the Offertory verses
which have already proved to be a store of interesting formations. Here
seventh-formations occur so frequently that they become a characteristic
trait of the musical style. We can indicate here only a small number of
examples (reference to Ott by page and system):

A-c-d-d-g |>o, 9]; f-gJb-c'-d'-e' [13, 8]; V -d'-c'-c'-a-g [33, 8]; (d^c-d-f-e-f-g-bb
[40, 2]; f'-d'-e'-c'-c'-b-g [47, *]; d-g-a-c' [80, 8]; f-g-a-c'-d'-e' [96, *]; c'-b-a-g-
f-e-d [i 16, *]; e-g-a-c'-c'-d' [133, 3].

Melodic formations encompassing an octave are noticeably less frequent
than those moving within the distance of a seventh. An example (unique,

is The Alleluia Venite [1726, "omnes**] has the formation f-a-c'-e', comprising a major
seventh.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 257

as far as I can see) of the succession of a fifth and a fourth occurs in the
last verse of the Offertory Constitutes, where we find a c-g-g-c' to the word
"Speciosus" [Ott 132]. Equally rare are examples of the octave with two
intermediate pitches, the d-a-c'-d' from the verse of the Offertory Viri
Galilei [Ott 173, "euntem"] being the only one that has been found. Octave
formations with three or more intervening notes occur in greater number
and variety, as Fig. 70 shows:

FIGURE 70

4 5 <5 7

_ A 8 9 10 11 12 13

4 .^"11 ;;r-ll jn***^** -J."^'''!!'"'^ '"; 8

J * ; * + ^ 9+.VJ^ 9 *-9

1. Gradual Christus factus est [655, "ilium"]

2. Communion Vnam petii [1005, "hanc"]

3. Communion Ecce virgo [356, "pariet"]

4. Offertory Angelus Domini [787, "descend! t"]; also Graduals Si ambulem [G 137,
"tua"] and Sapientia [G 398, "ejus"]

5. Offertory Afferentur y. i [Ott 164, "meum"]

6. Offertory Precatus est Moyses ^. 2 [Ott 100, "Accedite"]

7. Alleluia Multifarie [4&i,jubilus]

8. Alleluia Domine in virtute [1004, "vehementer"]

9. Alleluia Qui docti [1466, "quasi"]

10. Alleluia Beatus vir [1747, "Beatus"]

11. Alleluia Veni Domine [355, final melisma]

12. KyrieXIII[5i]

13. Kyrie II [19]

Although this random selection is insufficient to provide a basis for
definite conclusions, one can hardly go wrong in saying that octave forma-
tions are not only considerably less frequent than those encompassing a
seventh, but also that they belong to a later stage in the development of
the chant. Aside from the Offertory verses, which abound in unusual for-
mations of any kind, the most prolific source for octave formations are the
Alleluias which, on the whole, constitute one of the latest accretions to the
repertory of Roman chant. Of a yet later date are the majority of the Kyrie
melodies, and it is probably no mere coincidence that the two examples
cited from this category are the only ones emphasizing the fifth as the most
important intermediate pitch within the octave, so that the ear receives
the familiar impression of a 1-5-8 outline. Usually the octave formations
emphasize the fourth, the sixth, or some other degree between the lowest
and the highest note.

In order to round off our discussion of the melodic motion in Gregorian
chant, a few examples representing the utmost degree of boldness en-
countered in its tonal language are given in Fig. 71. These show arduous

258 GREGORIAN CHANT

rises and precipitate falls, utterly unlike the smoothed-out contours of a
Palestinian melody, and, as may be expected by now, they are found par-
ticularly in the Offertories (many more examples occur in their verses).
That from Jubilate is one of the most celebrated passages in the entire
repertory.

J1GURE71

jubi-la- te

fr-m;

descen- ^it

* NJ HlMi fo

nt (h g . *> mm*

flumi-na Baby- lo- nis

i. Offertory Jubilate [487] 2. Offertory Angelus Domini [787]
3. Offertory Super flumina [1065]

REPETITION OF MELODIC UNITS

While, on the whole, Gregorian melody is highly variable and unpre-
dictable, exhibiting a tendency toward constant change of design, it is not
entirely devoid of the opposite principle of melodic construction, that is,
repetition in one form or another. We are not dealing with repetition as
applied to entire melodies or sections, a procedure which, as has been
shown earlier [pp. iSiffj, is a basic element of formal structure in Grego-
rian chant. Rather are we concerned with small units occurring within a
melody which are repeated and thus made to stand out within the general
series of different units. Such repeats may occur in immediate succession
(a a), after a contrasting unit (a b a), or at separate places of a chant, either
at the same or at a different pitch. Immediate repetition takes on the
character of imitation (as we may call it without danger of confusion with
polyphonic imitation) if the pitch remains the same, of sequential progres-
sion if the pitch goes up or down by degrees. Repetition at separate places
often takes on the character of a musical rhyme, occasionally one involving
transposition, for instance, at the upper fifth. As for the extension of the
repeated unit, this may vary from a short motive of three or four notes to
longer groups and occasionally even to complete phrases.

We do not intend to enter into a detailed study of this aspect, but will
confine ourselves to a brief presentation of the most typical cases, illustrat-
ing each of these by a few examples, the number of which could easily be

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 559

augmented. 17 We do not include here the melismas of the Alleluias and
Offertory verses purposely, because in these melodic repetition is so fre-
quently encountered that it becomes a characteristic trait calling for sepa-
rate study [see pp, 3682, 386^.

FIGURE 72

Repetition of Melodic Units

i ' ' *

. *. . A f AM -

caelum et terram, et u- ni-versa ^ mnes gen . tcs

a a

no-men

y.Confi-te-an- tnr to- am

a b b

A g

est Do-

a a b b

k _ a _ i

01 .

a a a a

quoni- am veni- et mi-se-ri-cordi-ae

a a a

vit in no- bis: Gabri-e- lis

A. Simple Imitation: a a

i. Introit In voluntate [1066]; 2. OfiEertory Reges Tharsis [461]; 3. Gradual Bentdicite

B. Multiple Imitation: a a a, a a b b, etc

i. Gradual Misit Dominus [485]; 2. Gradual Respice Domine [1035]; 3. Gradual
Clamaverunt [1170]; 4, Tract Gaude Maria [1266; see formula D T of Fig. 93],

C. Sequence

i. Antiphon Montes et colles [332]; 2. Gradual Misit Dominus [485]; 3. Responsory
Verbum caro [390]; 4. Tract Gaude Maria [1266].

17 See Ferretti, Esthetique, pp. 4gff; Johner, New School, pp. 252ff; Wagner, Elemente,
pp. i 4 8ff.

26O GREGORIAN CHANT

It will be noticed that nearly all these examples come from chants of a
highly ornate character, such as Graduals, Tracts, Responsories, and Of-
fertories. While a repeat involving no more than two statements is usually
exact, the repeated motive is subtly modified if occurring for a third or
fourth time, as in the examples given under B and C. In example no. 3 of
group C the three sequential statements, although exact as to pitches,
undergo a most gratifying modification because of the shift of accent re-
sulting from the irregular neumatic groups.

A number of chants employ the same motive at separate places for the
close of different periods or sections, a phenomenon known as musical
rhyme. Following are some examples:

1. Com. Memento verbi [1065]: "dedisti" r= "mea"

2. Com. Scapulissuis [537]: "tibi Dominus" = "(v^m ejus"

3. Intr. Ego autem cum justitia [G 121]: "tuo" = "tua"

4. Off. Domine fac mecum [G 133]: "(miseri)cordiam tuam" = "(mheri)cordia

tua"

5. Intr. Requiem aeternam [1807]: "(do)na eis Domine" = "luceat eis"

6. Ant. Nativitas tua [1627]: "(annunti)avit universe mundo" = "(justi)tiae,

Christus Deus noster" = "nobis vitam sempiternam"

Occasionally the musical rhyme corresponds to, and is obviously
prompted by, a "textual rhyme/* as in examples 3 and 4. Usually, however,
it is a purely musical device of structural organization and unification.
Particularly interesting from this point of view are chants showing a musi-
cal rhyme in transposition, e.g. (the transposition is indicated by the pitch
of the final note):

7. Intr. Populus Sion [327]: "gentes" (g) = "suae" (d') = "vestri" (g)

8. Intr. Laudate pueri [G 550]: "Dominum" (d) = "Domini" (f) = "(lae)tan-

tem" (d)

9. Com. Beati mundo corde [1727]: "videbunt" (d) = "vocabuntur" (f) = "jus-

titiam" (f) = "caelorum" (d).

It is probably no mere coincidence that examples of musical rhyme oc-
cur almost exclusively in the less ornate and shorter types of chant, such
as Introits, Antiphons, and Communions, in which this device is obviously
much more noticeable and effective than it would be, for instance, in a
Gradual.

In addition to the repeat, either immediately or at separate places, of
short motives, there are instances showing the repeat of fairly extended
phrases or segments. The best-known examples occur in a number of Offer-
tories, where they are predicated upon a peculiarity to be considered later,
i.e., the repetition of words or sections of the text [see p. 364]. A somewhat
similar situation exists in the Gradual Hie est qui venit [1533] from the
Feast of the Most Precious Blood of Christ, in which the sections "Tres
sunt, qui testimonium dant in caelo" and "Tres sunt, qui testimonium

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 261

dant in terra" are sung to the same melody. That this Gradual does not
belong to the medieval repertory appears from its non-psalmodic text as
well as from its affiliation with a rather recent feast. In the Introit Resur-
rexi [778] from the Mass of Easter Sunday the repeat of an entire musical
phrase could be explained by the textual rhyme of "et adhuc tecum sum,
alleluia" and "alleluia, alleluia," but this explanation loses some of its
weight because of the fact that a different melody is used for "manum
tuam, alleluia," which occurs between the two other exclamations. In
order to illustrate these and a few other cases of repetition of entire

phrases, the texts (as complete as necessary) with indication (a ) of

those sections which are sung to the same melody are reproduced below.

i. Gradual Hie est qui venit, y [1533]:

Tres sunt, qui testimonium dant in caelo: Pater, Verbum, et Spiritus Sanctus:

et hi tres unum sunt. Et tres sunt, qui testimonium dant in terra: Spiritus,
Aqua, et Sanguis: et hi tres unum sunt*

2. Introit Resurrexi [778]:

Resurrexi, et adhuc tecum sum, alleluia: posuisti super me manum tuam,

alleluia: mirabilis facta est scientia tua, alleluia, alleluia.
3. Antiphon Innocentes [432]:

Innocentes pro Christo infantes occisi sunt, ab iniquo rege lactentes interfecti

sunt: ipsum sequuntur Agnum sine macula, et dicunt semper: Gloria tibi

Domine.
4. Antiphon Virgo gloriosa [1757]:

Virgo gloriosa semper Evangelium Christi gerebat in pectore suo, ct non diebus

neque noctibus, a c olio quits divinis et oratione cessebat.
5. Antiphon Cum pervenisset [1308]:

Cum pervenisset beatus Andreas ad locum ubi crux parata erat, exclamavit et

dixit: O bona crux, diu desiderata, et jam concupiscenti animo praeparata:

a a b

securus et gaudens venio ad te: ita et tu exsultans suscipias me, discipulum ejus
qui pependit in te.

In the preceding explanations we have dealt with what may be called
the "obvious" manifestations of the principle of repetition. Although as-

865} GREGORIAN CHANT

suredly not without importance and interest, these are, on the whole, ex-
ceptional. Only in certain special categories, such as the melismas of the
Alleluias and Offertories, or in the hymns and sequences, do they attain
the status of a characteristic trait. Much more significant and, in fact,
decidedly typical of numerous chants is a repetition technique of a more
subtle and evasive nature, a certain type of melodic design which may be
described by the term "reiterative style." It is this style which bestows
upon a large segment of Gregorian chant that special character which,
rightly or wrongly, has often been called "oriental." Whether oriental or
not, it is indeed far removed from the basic concepts of the Western mind,
as appears from the fact that our vocabulary has only more or less de-
rogatory terms to indicate it: pleonasm, prolixity, diffuseness, etc., all in-
dicative or suggestive of a lack of conciseness. It is not easy to describe this
style in definite terms or to illustrate it by specific examples, because it
involves subtle allusions rather than demonstrable data. No one, however,
can help noticing it in many chants of the responsorial type particularly,
with their numerous instances of redundancy, of insistence on minute
melodic turns or even single notes. Perhaps the most obvious examples
are the cadential formulae which occur in nearly all the chants except
those employing a simple syllabic style (Antiphons, hymns). To give one
example out of hundreds, a cadential motion descending from a to e may
appear in the following forms:

FIGURE 73
a b

^*. 8i . '

* fhlnv

W^S^^tSjv:

a. Introit Cognovi [1239] b. Alleluia Emitte Spiritum [879]
c. Gradual Speciosus forma [434]

Obviously, such formulae cannot be adequately described by any term
suggesting a "lack," the absence of a principle. They possess a decidedly
positive quality, a richness and fullness which makes the elementary form
appear meager and empty by comparison. At any rate, they are as in-
separable from Gregorian chant as are tautologies and circumlocutions
from ancient Greek, Jewish, or Hindu literature.

While traces of the reiterative style can be found on practically every
page of Gregorian chant, it is particularly characteristic of, and all-per-
vasive in, the Graduals. We shall have more to say about this in the special
section devoted to the study of these chants.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 263

CADENCES

If one were to describe the evolution of musical style in terms of one
single element, it is difficult to think of one more suitable for such a task
than the cadence. Not only is it present in all periods of Western music
history, but it fully participated in the major changes of style, adopting a
great variety of forms which may well serve as earmarks of the main
periods of musical development.

In Gregorian chant the cadences are purely melodic formations, lacking
the harmonic element that was to play a decisive role in their later de-
velopment. In spite of this restriction, the Gregorian cadences are far from
being uniform or of limited variability, as is usually the case in later strata
of monophonic music, for instance, in the sequences or in the songs of the
trouv&res. On the contrary, they are so diversified that a complete study
of their forms, considered per se as well as in relationship to such categories
as modes or types of chant, would easily require a fairly large book.

In a previous chapter [p. 142] we have considered the Gregorian cadences
briefly from the point of view of tonality, examining the closing degrees
of the inner cadences in relationship to that of the final cadence. This
aspect, which provides an insight into the tonal instability of numerous
Gregorian melodies, will again receive our attention in the study of the
Tracts, Graduals, and Responsories [pp. 324, 336]. The object of the
present study is the cadential formulae as such, that is, the different ways
in which the final note is approached and prepared. The first question
arising in this connection is that of the motion leading from the penulti-
mate to the final pitch, and it is this question which we propose to in-
vestigate, being well aware of the fact that the result will be no more than
an initial step.

It can easily be seen that, in the great majority of cases, the final pitch
is reached in a descending motion. Most often this is stepwise, the penulti-
mate note being one degree above the final, but examples in which these
two notes are at the distance of a third are not at all infrequent. Ascending
motion is much rarer and practically limited to the ascending second. A
general impression as to the relative frequency of these three types may be
gained from the fact that among the 131 chants occurring in the Temporale
between Advent and the end of Nativity [317 to 414] there are ninety
closing with a descending second, twenty-six with a descending third, and
fifteen with an ascending second. 18 The picture changes, however, to a

18 Throughout the subsequent study of cadential motion we have disregarded what
could be called a unison cadence, that is, the preparatory anticipation of the final pitch.
Thus cases like a-g-g or b-g-g are considered as mere variants of a-g or b-g. Only the final
cadences are considered.

Wagner, in his Elemente, p. 142, says that the main cadences of the chant are those
involving stepwise motion, descending or ascending. I cannot understand what caused
Wagner to make this statement. The main cadences are, beyond doubt, the descending
second and the descending third,

264 GREGORIAN CHANT

certain extent and receives more significant traits if the various types of
chant are considered separately. This appears from the following table in
which the same chants are listed as to types:

INTR. GRAB. ALL. OFF. COMM. RESP. ANT. HYMN

Desc. Second 7 3599 8 454

Desc. Third 2113 o o 0100

Asc Second 00011094

Naturally, this tabulation is not sufficiently comprehensive to give an
adequate picture of the over-all situation in the various categories of chant.
However, it accurately reflects exceptional tendencies in at least two of
them, i.e., in the Graduals and in the hymns. In the former it indicates a
strong emphasis on the descending third for the cadential motion, and this
indication is fully confirmed by a study of the entire repertory of Graduals,
although not to the same degree as in the above table. Following is a tabu-
lation of the cadences in all the Graduals found in the Liber usualis.
Since, depending upon the manner of performance (R V or R V R), either
the verse or the respond form the dosing section of the Gradual, both of
them have been included:

RESPOND VERSE

Desc. Second 75 63

Desc. Third 55 67

It appears that in the responds of the Graduals the descending third is
almost as frequent in the cadences as is the descending second, and that
both intervals are equally frequent in the verses. Ascending motion is com-
pletely absent in the cadences of the Graduals.

In the hymns, on the other hand, our table indicates a remarkably dif-
ferent situation, the descending third being not represented at all, and the
ascending second being as frequent as the descending. A survey made on a
larger scale 19 gives reason to assume that in the total repertory of the
hymns the former cadence is actually about twice as frequent as the latter,
and that the descending third is highly exceptional. An even more decided
preference for the ascending second exists in the field of the sequences,
where this cadential motion is so common as to assume the character of a
standard trait.

In connection with the cadence formed by an ascending second the
question arises as to how frequently it takes on the modern form of the
leading tone cadence, characterized by a semitonal progression. The an-
swer is, as may almost be expected, that this hardly exists in Gregorian

10 Based on the hymns of the Ordinary and Proper of the Time up to Palm Sunday,
as given in the Antiphonale monasticum, which has better versions for the hymns than
the other editions. The final Amen, which invariably closes with an ascending second,
has been disregarded.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 265

chant. Obviously, within the system of the church modes, a leading-tone
cadence is possible only on f, that is, in modes 5 and 6. Since, on the
other hand, the hymns constitute the most fertile field for cadences with
an ascending second, we are naturally led to the hymns of the fifth or sixth
mode for an answer to our question. Actually, hymns on f are so rare that
there is only one melody in the Liber usualis and only six in the more
comprehensive collections, the Antiphonale Romanum and the Antipho-
nale Monasticum. Only one of these has a leading-tone cadence, namely,
Aeterne Rector [A 867], sung at the Feast of the Holy Guardian Angels,
which was introduced by Pope Paul V in 1608. It evidently belongs to
what have been called Baroque or Rococo hymns. Outside the hymns, I
can indicate only three examples of the leading-tone cadence, the Com-
munion De fructu [1031], the Antiphon Virgo potens [1679], and the
Antiphon O quam gloriosum [A 903]. The only old chant in this group is
De fructu, but its present cadence is, without doubt, the result of the mani-
fold changes it underwent [see p. 168].

Since the Graduals belong to the old layer of chants, one is led to the
conclusion that the descending third is an archaic cadence, no less so than
the descending second which, from an over-all point of view, appears to
be the cadence of the Gregorian chant. The ascending second, on the other
hand, is definitely a late cadential formation, probably not in general use
earlier than the tenth or eleventh centuries. This statement could be
challenged by pointing to our table on p. 264 which shows a- relatively
high number of ascending seconds in the Antiphons, chants which, on the
whole, belong to the older repertory of Gregorian chant. Actually, the nine
examples given there represent only one single case, since they all dose
with the same melodic formula, e.g.:

a g f g gf d f f g g g

lac et mel, al- le- lu- ia [323]

]e- ru- sa- lem, al-le-lu-ia [324]

a Do- mi- no, al-le-lu-ia [339]

In this connection it is interesting to notice that in the Alleluias, many
of which are fairly recent chants, the ascending second is completely ab-
sent, while the descending third is about half as frequent as the descending
second. Obviously they were composed at a time when the descending third
had not yet been generally replaced by the ascending second.

In the Responsories the descending second is practically the only caden-
tial motion ever used, a statement which applies even more unequivocally
to the Tracts. Since these two types of chant, as well as the Graduals, make
extensive use of standard phrases, they provide a safe basis for the investi-
gation not only of their final cadences but also of numerous inner cadences.

20 The twelfth-century Stabat mater [1424]. The same melody in Virgo virginum [1424].

366 GREGORIAN CHANT

A glance at the various tables of standard phrases that are given in the
later course of this book [see pp. 319, gsSf] fully bears out the state-
ments just made.

It remains for us to comment briefly upon some cadential motions of
very rare occurrence, that is, the descending fourth, the ascending fourth,
and the ascending third. The first of these occurs in a few chants which
belong to the old, though perhaps not the oldest, layer of the repertory:
the Responsory Angelus Domini [774] from Easter Sunday; the Com-
munion Erubescant [605] from Monday in Holy Week; the Invitatory
Antiphon Christies natus [368] from the Nativity; the Offertory Gloria et
honore [i 137] from the Common of a Martyr not a Bishop (originally from
the Feast of St. John and others); and the Alleluia Dicite in gentibus [801]
from Friday in Easter Week. For the ascending fourth I can indicate only
three examples; the last verse of the Offertory Gloria et honore [Ott 135],
the Alleluia In multitudine [1513] from the Feast of St. Irenaeus, and the
Antiphon Puer Jesus [437] from the Sunday after Christmas. The last of
these is unquestionably old, but we have seen upon a former occasion that
its cadence is probably the result of a later modification [see p. 177]. The
same remark applies to the Antiphon Vobis datum est [510] from Sexa-
gesima Sunday, which closes with the same phrase as Puer Jesus, but with
the cadential motion c-f modified into c-d-f . This then could be considered
as an ascending-third cadence, for which only one other example can be
indicated, the Communion Jacob autem. 21 As for a more extended use of
this cadence, one will probably have to turn to sequences, e.g., the Ave
Maria [VP 46], in which a number of sections close with the formula d-f-f .
No examples of the fifth, whether descending or ascending, have been
found.

In conclusion it must be said once more that the preceding study, in
which we have limited ourselves, somewhat artificially, to the considera-
tion of the penultimate pitches, is no more than a beginning or an outline
of a complete investigation, which would have to include the examination
of the antepenultimate pitches and of full cadential formulae. Such a study
cannot be attempted here. It may be pointed out, however, that fixed
cadential formulae of considerable extension play a basic role in the forma-
tion of various chants, particularly the Graduals, Responsories, and Tracts.
We shall have occasion to examine these formulae in the special chapters
devoted to these chants.

MELODY AND TEXT

Intimate relationship between melody and text is a trait so fundamental
in Gregorian chant that it needs no substantiation. Relationship, how-
si L 1442. This is a late adaptation from the Communion Didt Andreas [G 392], origi-
nally for the Feast of St. Andrew, now for its Vigil.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 267

ever, is not the same as dependency or subjection. While it is true that in
certain types of chant, such as the recitation tones or the psalm tones, the
melody is nothing more than a means to achieve a clear and impressive
delivery of the text, it is equally undeniable that in many other cases the
music assumes a degree of autonomy not dissimilar to that which exists in
an aria by Bach or in a song by Schubert. In a Gradual, Alleluia, or Offer-
tory word and song join hands in the rendition of the liturgical prayer,
one contributing the thought, the other what Thomas Aquinas called the
"exsultatio mentis, de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem" the exulta-
tion of the mind, derived from things eternal, bursting forth in sound.
It is not without interest to notice that in the early centuries of Christian
worship music occasionally exercised this function completely independ-
ent of a text. St. Augustine (as well as other church fathers) repeatedly
expressed the idea that the highest rejoicing of the soul calls for music
without words: "If somebody is full of joyful exultation, ... he bursts out
in an exulting song without words;" or: "For whom is this jubilation
more proper than for the nameless God? . . . And since you cannot name
him and yet may not remain silent, what else can you do but break out
in jubilation so that your heart may rejoice without words, and that the
immensity of your joy may not know the bounds of syllables." 1 Such word-
less jubilations of great extension, including up to three hundred notes,
occur in Ambrosian chant. Although nominally attached to the syllable
of a word, they actually attain independent status as purely musical forma-
tions. No vocalizations of comparable length exist in the Gregorian reper-
tory, but there is only a difference of degree, not of essence, between the
endless Ambrosian melodiae and the fairly extended melismas so fre-
quently found in Gregorian chant, particularly in the Graduals and in
the verses of the Offertories. They are the most obvious indication of the
fact that the music of the chant stands in the relationship of a peer, not
of a servant, to the text. In our subsequent studies we shall find this state-
ment corroborated in many ways.

TEXTUAL AND MELODIC PHRASES

In a previous section [p. 249] the phrase structure of Gregorian chant
has been studied from the purely musical point of view. Here we are con-
cerned with the relationship between the structure of the music and that
of the text; that is, with the question whether the melodic phrases agree
with the syntactical divisions of the text, the latter as indicated by the
various signs of punctuation, the former, by the vertical strokes indicating
rests of shorter or longer duration. In order to approach this question
properly, it must first be understood that both the grammatical and the
musical signs of division are post-medieval additions. Even a source as

i Explanations of Ps. 99 and 32; Pair. lat. 37, p. 1272, and 36, p. 283.

268 GREGORIAN CHANT

relatively late as the Codex Worcester (igth century) contains no punctua-
tion sign (except for the final dot), nor any of the division strokes found
in the Solesmes editions. 2 No one will seriously question the propriety of
the punctuation signs, since they are intrinsically present in the syntactic
structure of the sentences. The musical phrase marks, however, present a
more serious problem, not only because (like, the bar lines in modern pub-
lications of medieval polyphony) they are editorial additions but because
(unlike these) they are inserted on the basis of the textual divisions. There-
fore, the complete agreement existing in the modern books between the
divisions of the text and the divisions of the melody results from definition
and thus has no evidential force.

This does not mean to question seriously the propriety of the division
marks of the Solesmes editions. The longer strokes, particularly the "half
bar" and the "full bar" [see Z,, p. xxv], are valid signs of musical syntax;
ony the "quarter bar," marking the end of "unimportant phrases," should
be disregarded in connection with the present investigation. The melodic
sections thus marked off usually turn out to be what may well be called
"phrases," by virtue either of their design or of their cadential points, or
both. In sum, there can be no doubt that agreement between the textual
and the melodic divisions is a basic principle of Gregorian chant. Examples
illustrating this fact are so frequent that specific references are not neces-
sary.

It is, however, not unimportant to point out that there exist exceptions
or deviations from this principle. In not a few cases one could argue about
the validity of the phrasing marks of the Solesmes editions. In our previous
study, in which we have considered the phrase structure from the purely
musical point of view, we have indicated a few examples in which the
musical principle of the "Gregorian arch" leads to a different division
from that suggested by the text. Since, however, this principle in itself
cannot be considered as infallible, it does not provide a solid basis for an
objective investigation of the relationship between the musical and textual
phrases. More reliable material for such a study is found in those fairly
numerous chants which employ one and the same melody or melodic
phrase with different texts.

Re-employment (or, as it is also called, adaptation) of complete melodies
is particularly frequent in the Alleluias. For instance, the melody of the
Alleluia Dies sanctificatus [409] from the Nativity recurs in each of the
following Alleluias: Video caelos [416] from the Feast of St. Stephen, Hie
est discipulus [422] from the Feast of St. John, Vidimus stellam [460] from
the Epiphany, Hie est sacerdos [1184] from the Common of a Confessor
Bishop, Sancti tui [1336] from the Feast of St. Fabian, Magnus sanctus

2 Grammatical punctuations rarely occur in Latin manuscripts before the fifteenth
century, even then with little consistency.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 269

[1346] from the Conversion of St. Paul, Invent David [1489] from the Feast
of St. Basil (originally St. Silvester), Tu puer [1501] from the Nativity
of St. John, and Tu es Petrus [1520] from the Feast of SS. Peter and Paul.
The assumption, plausible on liturgical grounds, that the original text
is that from the Nativity is strengthened by the fact that here melody
and text are in perfect coordination, both of them being clearly tripartite.
The following table shows how this as well as the other texts fit into the
three major divisions of the melody:

Dies sanctificatus il-
luxit nobis:

Video caelos apertos,
Hie est discipulus ille,

Vidimus stellam ejus

Hie est sacerdos,

Sancti tut, Domine,

Magnus sanctus Paulus,
vas electionis,

Invent David

Tu, puer, propheta

venite gentes, et ado-
rate Dominum:

et Jesum stantem

qui testimonium per-
hibet de his:

in Oriente,

benedicent te:

vere digne est glorir
ficandus,

seruum meum:

Altissimi vocaberis:

III

quia hodie descendit lux
magna super terram.

a dextris virtutis Dei.

et scimus quia verum
est testimonium ejus.

et venimus cum muneri-
bus adorare

Tu es Petrus, et super aedificabo
hanc petram

quem coronavit Domi-
nus.

gloriam regni tui dicent.

qui et meruit thronum
duodedmum possi-
dere.

oleo sancto meo unxi
eum.

praeibis ante Dominum
parare vias ejus.

Ecclesiam meam.

It appears that only two of these texts, Hie est discipulus and Magnus
sanctus, have the same syntactic structure as the original and, therefore,
show the same complete agreement between textual and musical phrases.
All the other texts are bipartite, and thus do not fall naturally into the
tripartite scheme of the melody. While in Video caelos and Sancti tui a
satisfactory adaptation has been achieved, this cannot be said of Vidimus
stellam and even less of Invent David, both of which are rather too short
for a melody consisting of three extended phrases. Here the procedure
adopted in Hie est sacerdos, that is, omission of the second phrase, would
have resulted in a more "correct" agreement between text and music.

2"7O GREGORIAN CHANT

Finally, in Tu puer and Tu es Petrus the melodic divisions actually do
violence to the textual structure, a fact all the more noteworthy since at
least in the latter case a more suitable division is possible:

I II III

Tu es Petrus, et super hanc petram aedificabo Ecclesiam meam.

Naturally, in problems of this type the chronological facts have to be
taken into consideration. If it can be shown that all the examples of poor
adaptation occur in chants of a relatively later date, the situation appears
in a different light from what it would be if they were found in old chants
as well, or even exclusively in these. Unequivocal chronological evidence
is provided by the earliest extant manuscripts, such as the eighth<entury
Gradual of Monza or the slightly later Gradual of Mont-Blandin. 3 Only
three Alleluias from our group do not occur in the Codex Monza, namely,
Hie est sacerdos, Magnus sanctus, and Tu puer. Our table shows that the
adaptation is excellent in the first and second of these chants, and rather
poor in the third. As for the remaining seven Alleluias, liturgical consid-
erations make it likely that the four occurring between Nativity and
Epiphany belong to the oldest layer. These are Dies sanctificatus (Nativity),
Video caelos (St. Stephen), Hie est discipulus (St. John), and Vidimus
stellam (Epiphany). 4 The adaptation is excellent in the first three of these,
somewhat less good in the fourth, whose text has a bipartite rather than a
tripartite structure. The other three, Sancti tui, Inveni David, and Tu es
Petrus, are possibly of a slightly later date, but still belong to what is often
called the "Golden Age" of Gregorian chant, since they are included in
the Codex Monza of c. 800. In at least one of these, Tu es Petrus, the
adaptation is extremely poor. In conclusion, it appears that the separation
of this group of Alleluias along the lines of "good" and "poor" adaptation
does not or, at least, not entirely conform with the division into "old"
and "late/'

Instead of studying other groups of Alleluias with identical melodies
(for instance, the ten or more Alleluias of the type Dominus dixit [see p.
381]), it seems more profitable to turn to different types of chant. The
most comprehensive material for adaptation exists in the twenty or more
Graduals of the second mode collectively referred to as the "Gradual-type
Justus ut palma" all of which employ essentially the same melody. A
musical analysis of this interesting group will be given later [see p. 357].
For the present purpose it will suffice to note that a tripartite division of
the respond, musically as well as textually, is clearly indicated in most

3 See Hesbert's Antiphonale missarum sextuplex.

4 These are among the relatively few Alleluias that are both invariable (assigned to
their feasts in all the sources) and proper (not assigned to any other feast). See pp. 378f.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 271

o these Graduals; e.g., in Haec dies [778] from Easter Sunday and in the
four Graduals from the Saturday in Ember Week of Advent, A summo
caelo [343], In sole posuit [344], Domine Deus [345], and Excita Domine
[347]. The majority of the other Graduals of this group have texts of a
similar structure underlaid in conformity with the musical phrases. There
are, however, at least four Graduals in which the principle of conformity
is violated; namely, Hodie scietis [360] from the Eve of the Nativity,
Tecum prindpium [393] from the Midnight Mass of the Nativity, Justus
ut palma [1201] from the Mass of a Confessor (originally from the Feast
of St. John the Evangelist), and Dispersit dedit [1608] from the Feast of
St. Joachim (originally from that of St. Lawrence). The following table
shows the texts of three of these Graduals (Tecum prindpium will be
considered later), together with that of In sole posuit which may serve
as a model of perfect adaptation: 5

I (Ai) II(A 2 ,orFi) III (A 3 )

In sole posuit I taberna- et ipse tamquam procedens de thalamo

culum suum: \ sponsus \ suo.

Hodie scietis \ quia veniet et salvabit nos: \ et gloriam ejus.

Dominus, \ mane I videbitis \

Justus ut palma florebit: \ multiplicabitur \ in domo Domini.

sicut cedrus Libani \

Dispersit, dedit pauperi- manet in saeculum saeculi.

bus: | justitia ejus I

The following distribution would have led to a considerably better
agreement between the musical and the textual units:

I II III

Hodie scietis quia veniet et salvabit nos: et mane videbitis
Dominus gloriam ejus.

Justus ut palma florebit: sicut cedrus Libani multiplicabitur in domo

Domini.

Dispersit, dedit pauperi- justitia ejus manet in saeculum
bus: saeculi.

In Tecum prindpium the tripartite scheme is enlarged to one consisting
of four phrases, as is also the case in Tollite portas [1269]. While in the
latter the syntactic divisions agree with those of the music:

5 In order to facilitate comparison with the musical analysis [p. 360] the symbols em-
ployed there for the various standard phrases (Aj, etc.) have been added. The shorter
and longer strokes inserted in the texts represent the half bars and full bars of the
Solesmes editions. It may be noticed that in Dispersit the full bar after "pauperibus"
results in a musical phrase (ending on g) that does not exist in the Graduals of mode i,
which employ only d, a, f, and c as their cadential points.

272 GREGORIAN CHANT

I II III IV

Tollite portas, prin- et elevamini por- et introibit Rex gloriae >

cipes vestras: tas eternales,

the text of the former is divided as follows:

Tecum principium in in splendoribus ante luciferum genui te,
die virtutis tuae: sanctorum,

ex utero

although the following distribution would have been possible:

Tecum principium in in splendoribus ex utero ante lucife-

die virtutis tuae; sanctorum, rum

genui te.

As for the verses of the Gradual-type Justus ut palma, they also consist
of a small number of well-defined musical units. The textual divisions are
nearly always in good agreement with these, except for one case of striking
disregard, that is, in the verse of Domine refugium [1067] from the Twenty-
first Sunday after Pentecost, which includes the following passage:

FIGURE 74
y"* * *

tes fi- e-rent, aut forma-re-tur ter-

Jt S

ra et orbis : a sae- cu-lo

Musically, the correct division would be, not after "orbis:" but after "terra"
(end of phrase Aio). The recitation on "et orbis:" forms the opening of
the next phrase (Fio).

What do these analytical facts mean in terms of chronology? Nearly all
the Graduals of our group, and all those considered above, appear in the
Codex Monza and therefore existed about 750 at the latest. All attempts
in the direction of finer chronological distinctions can be based only on
circumstantial evidence derived from liturgical considerations, and such
evidence is necessarily somewhat inconclusive. There can be no doubt,
however, that the Graduals for Easter Sunday (Haec dies), for the Eve of
the Nativity (Hodie scietis) and for the Midnight Mass of the Nativity
(Tecum principium) belong to the oldest layer of the entire repertory of
Graduals. It is therefore somewhat disconcerting to find both Hodie scietis
and Tecum principium among those which leave something to be desired

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 573

as to the coordination of textual and musical phrases. Naturally, this state-
ment could be challenged by questioning the validity of the musical
phrases as indicated above and in o.ther modern studies. Although they
are unmistakably indicated in all the Graduals of the group Justus ut
palma, an attempt could be made to modify their beginnings and ends so
that at least such truly venerable Graduals as those of the Nativity are no
longer suspect of "poor adaptation of the text," an epithet that has often
been conferred on chants of the "Silver Age 1 ' or of "decadent days." Un-
fortunately, no solution is possible that would lead to a satisfactory result
in all three Graduals, as appears from the following table in which the
disputable sections of their texts are shown as they occur in connection
with small portions of the melody: 6

1 * 3 4 5

Tecum: ...in splendoribus sanctorum, ex utero ante luciferum genui te.

Hodie: . . . et salvabit nos: et mane videbitis gloriam ejus.

Haec dies: Haec dies quam fecit Dominus: exsultemus et laetemur

in ea.

As can easily be seen, Tecum would require a phrase closing after 2, Hodie
a different one closing after i, and Haec dies yet another closing after 3.
Ample material for the study of our problem exists in the Tracts, in
which a limited number of standard phrases recur, not only in the various
Tracts of one and the same mode, but also in the different verses of one
and the same Tract [see p, 315]. As for the numerous texts connected with
any of these standard formulae, a detailed investigation would, no doubt,
confirm the general validity of the principle of conformity between the
musical and the textual units. As an illustration we reproduce the text of
the Tract Confitemini [547] divided according to the succession of the
standard phrases of the Tracts in the second mode: 7

Confitemini Domino \ quoniam bonus: | quoniam in saeculum \ misericor-
dia ejus. y. Quis loquetur \ potentias Domini: \ auditas faciet \ omnes laudes
ejusf y. Beati | qui custodiunt \ judicium \ et faciunt justitiam \ in omni
tempore. y. Memento \ nostri, Domine, \ in beneplacito populi tui: \ visita
nos | in salutari tuo. \

It appears that there is nearly always a satisfactory conformity between
the musical and the textual units or, at least, no contradiction between
them. The only exception occurs at the beginning of the last verse, where

8 The melody for Haec dies has a different beginning, but the same cadences at a.
and 3.

7 The division marks given here do not necessarily agree with those of the Solesraes
editions.

274 GREGORIAN CHANT

the text is divided Memento \ nostri, Domine, rather than Memento
nostri; \ Domine.

A similar case occurs in the Tract Deus Deus meus [592] for Palm Sun-
day, at the beginning of the second (actually the third) verse. The Liber
usualis divides the text as follows: Deus meus 1 clamabo per diem, \ nee
exaudies: \ in node, et non ad insipientiam mihi. Sensible though this
division is from the grammatical point of view, the musical units indicate
a different one, as follows: Deus meus clamabo \ per diem, nee exaudies: \
in nocte, et non \ ad insipientiam mihi.

All the examples considered so far belong to the old, if not to the oldest
layer of the Gregorian repertory. Although it is possible and even probable
that a thorough search would uncover additional cases of non-conformity
between textual and musical phrases, there can be no doubt that they
represent no more than rare exceptions to the general rule. The situation
changes somewhat if we turn to chants of a later period, of "decadent
days/' as they have been called. A case in point is the Responsory Ornatam
monilibus [LR 253] from the Night Office of Feasts for the Virgin Mary
(originally for the Feast of the Assumption). This chant contains a passage
which appears in the Liber responsorialis as follows:

FIGURE 75

I fr'hM II ft:

be- a- tissimam pne-di* ca-ve- runt. di-cen-tcs : Unguentum ef-fu*

The melody consists of two standard formulae of the Responsories of the
eighth mode, the first closing on d (D^, the second on f (F ) [see p. 338],
which are indicated in the figure. It appears that the musical units cut
right across the textual divisions, and that the Solesmes edition, in observ-
ing the latter, shows musical phrases which do not exist among the stand-
ard formulae of the Responsories.

Particularly interesting in this respect is the Mass for Trinity Sunday, a
feast locally introduced toward the end of the eighth century, and for
which Alcuin (753-804) wrote the liturgy. His texts were adapted to pre-
existent melodies [see p. 68] and it is interesting to note that, except for
the Alleluia, every item of this Mass shows an instance of poor adaptation,
that is, of disagreement between textual and musical phrases. This is shown
in the subsequent table. The upper line of each item gives the original
text and, by implication, the correct musical phrases (marked a. and b.),
while the lower line shows the new text arranged as it appears with the
same musical phrases:

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 275

1. Introit Benedicta sit [909]; from Invocabit [532]:
a. b.
Invocabit me et ego exaudiam eum: eripiam . . .
Benedicta sit sancta Trinitas atque in- divisa . . .

2. Gradual Benedictus es [910]; from Constitues [1519]:

a. b.

. . . super omnem terram: memores erunt . . .
. . . qui intueris abyssos, et sedes . . .

3. Offertory Benedicta sit [911]; from Constitues [1520]:

a, b.

. . . memores erunt nominis tui, in omni progenie . . .
. . . Dei Filius, Sanctus quoque Spiritus: quia . . .

4. Communion Benedicimus [912]; from Fed judicium [1224]:

a. b.

... ad omnia mandata tua dirigebar, omnem mam . . .
. . . confitebimur ei: quia fecit nobiscum . . .

Another late-medieval feast is that of Corpus Christi (twelfth century).
Its Mass received two new texts, the Offertory Sacerdotes and the Com-
munion Quotienscumque, both of which were set to earlier melodies, the
former to Confirma hoc, the latter to Factus est [see p. 68]:

5. Offertory Sacerdotes [949]; from Confirma hoc [882]:

a. b.

. . . quod operatus es in nobis: a templo tuo . . .
incensum et panes off erunt Deo: et ideo . . .

6. Communion Quotienscumque [950]; horn Factus est [882]:

a. b.

. . . ubi erant sedentes, alleluia: et repleti sunt omnes ...
. . . donee veniat: itaque quicumque manducaverit panem . . .

The consistency with which the original phrases are disregarded in the
new settings of Trinity and Corpus Christi is generally considered as an
indication of approaching decadence, of the change from the "Golden" to
the "Silver" age of the chant. We have seen, however, that such practice
also occurs in undeniably old layers of the repertory, although only as an
exception from the rule.

THE TEXTUAL ACCENT

Few aspects of Gregorian chant have been so often investigated and
discussed as the problem of the accent, that is, the question as to how and
to what extent the accent of the Latin text is reflected in the musical
line. Several medieval writers speak about this question or allude to it in

276 GREGORIAN CHANT

more or less clear terms. As early as the sixteenth century the Gregorian
melodies were scrutinized from this point of view and found wanting a
discovery which more than any other consideration led to the abandoning
of the traditional melodies and to the adoption of the "purified" versions
of the Editio Medicea. After the restoration of the medieval tradition the
question was taken up again, naturally from an entirely different point of
view. Objective investigation took the place of high-handed criticism, and
efforts were directed toward discovering the principles that govern the
relationship between the textual accent and the music. Among the scholars
working in this field were Dom Pothier in his Les Melodies gregoriennes
d'apr&s la tradition (1881), Dom Mocquereau in several volumes of the
Paleographie musicale (1893-1901) and in Le Nombre musical gregorien
(1908), Gastou in his Cours theorique et pratique de plain-chant romain
gregorien (1904), Wagner in his Gregorianische Formenlehre (1921), and
Ferretti in his Esthetique gregorienne (1938).

Several of these authors, particularly Mocquereau, preface and support
their investigations by detailed explanations of the Latin accent as a
purely philological phenomenon and problem. Although very little of
this has a direct bearing on the question, a few remarks outlining the
situation may be in place, particularly since the terms involved are fre-
quently mentioned without always being correctly understood.

Each Latin word of more than one syllable has one, and only one accent,
which falls either on the penultimate or on the antepenultimate syllable,
that is, the first or the second before the last. This universal law distin-
guishes the Latin language from most of the others, in which the accent
may also fall on the last syllable (e.g., Greek arfp [man], English commdnd,
French choisi^ German Gesdtz), or on a syllable farther removed from the
last, as in reactionary, or on two syllables, as in representdtion.* Return-
ing to Latin, the choice between the two possibilities of placing the accent
depends upon the character of the penultimate syllable. If this is long, it
carries the accent; if short, the accent falls on the antepenultimate. For
instance, in audite the i is long, hence audite; while in Domino the i is
short, hence Liomino. There exist a number of rules which determine
whether a syllable, especially the penultimate, is long or short, but this is
not the place to explain them. Nor is it necessary to do this since in every
case of doubt (i.e., for every word having more than two syllables) the
accentuation is indicated in the modern books of chant. Suffice it to say
that a syllable is always long if its vowel is followed by two consonants,
e.g., erctu$ 3 secundum, benedictus, etc.

The previous remarks pertain to the position of the Latin accent. Some-

* The Solesmes scholars maintain that long Latin words have a secondary accent, e.g.,
representation cbntinentur. This is an arbitrary interpretation resulting from the ictus
principle (groups of no more than three notes).

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 277

what more involved and controversial are the questions concerning its
character. Generally speaking, an accent, i.e., a stress, an emphasis, can
be produced in three ways, which may conveniently be distinguished as
dynamic, sustaining, and tonic accent. The first of- these results from
greater loudness, the second from longer duration, and the third from
higher pitch:

FIGURE 76

Dd-mi-nus D6-mi-nus

Accent: dynamic sustaining

All these accents are believed to have played a role in the Latin language,
but in different degrees during the various periods of its development.
Usually four such periods are distinguished: an archaic (prior to the sec-
ond century B.C.), a classical (second century B.C. to the fourth century
of the Christian era), a post-classical (fifth and sixth centuries), and a late
period during which the Romance languages were formed (seventh and
eighth centuries). French Latinists and, as a consequence, some Gregorian
scholars, 9 say that in the classical period (nothing definite is known about
the archaic period) the accent was essentially of the sustaining kind (usually
called accent by quantity, or metric), but also tonic; that during the post-
classical period (the period in which Gregorian chant was formed) a com-
plete transformation took place with the result that the accent became
predominantly tonic and dynamic, but lost the quantity so that now all
syllables are short; and that in the late period the accent became pro-
nouncedly dynamic but also, under certain circumstances, long, a char-
acter which was preserved in some of the Romance languages. The ma-
jority of Latin scholars (German, English, American) prefer to think that
the accent of the classical period also had the quality of a stress (dynamic
accent) and that the only change that took place was the loss of quantity.

Although we are mainly interested in post-classical Latinity, a few re-
marks about the classical accent as applied to poetry are in place, because
a number of hymns of the Gregorian repertory are modelled after the
principles of classical poetry. We have previously alluded to the distinction
between long and short syllables that played an important role in this
period, resulting in a manner of speech in which certain syllables were
held almost twice as long as others. In the poetry of the classical era (Virgil,
Ovid, Horace) this principle was so rigidly applied that it frequently led
to a shift of the position of the accent. An instructive example is the fol-
lowing line from Horace, shown (a) with the normal accentuation (quality,

SMocquereau, N r ombre, II, mff; Ferretti, Esthetique, pp. 6ff.

S^S GREGORIAN CHANT

indicated by '), (b) with the poetic accentuation (quantity, scansion, indi-
cated by -):

(a) Partiiriunt monies et ndscitur ridiculus miis IQ

(b) Pdrturiunt monies et ndscitur ridiculus mus

The striking difference results, among others, from the fact that the "rule
of prolongation by two subsequent consonants" was also observed when
these two consonants appeared in separate words, so that et becomes long
(by position, as it is called) because there follows an'w, and -lus of ridiculus
becomes long because it is followed by an m.

The influence of this principle of versification is still evident in some
of the Christian hymns, e.g., in:

Deiis creator dmnitim (normally Deus)

or in:

Gldria laus et hondr, tibi sit Rex Christe Redemptor
Cui puerile deciis prdmpsit hosdnna piiim
(normally h6nor, decus, pium).

Such examples o artificial accentuation are, however, exceptional in
late Latinity and, as far as the Gregorian repertory is concerned, are prac-
tically confined to hymns. 11 In the prose texts the position of the accent is
invariably governed by the previously explained rule of the three final
syllables. It is probably correct to say that in this period the syllables were
all pronounced equally long (or equally short) and that the accent was
tonic and dynamic.

Transferred from their literary connotations to the field of music, tonic
accent means that an accented syllable is distinguished by higher pitch;
sustaining accent, that it has longer duration, which may result either from
the prolongation of a single pitch (doubled or tripled values) or from the
use of longer groups of notes (melisma). 12 Both these possibilities of "musi-
cal accentuation" have played a role in the study of Gregorian chant. In
fact, they have been the issues of numerous controversies, conducted with
arguments derived from Latin prosody, medieval treatises, or Oriental

10 The mountains labor, and bring forth a ridiculous mouse.

11 In the Solesmes editions the poetic accentuation (scansion) is disregarded. For poetic
texts outside the hymns, see p. 97. For the versification of the hymns, see pp. ^fL

12 Modern writers often employ a somewhat confusing terminology by speaking of the
"quantity of the tonic accent" (Ferretti, p. 24: "quantitd de 1'accent tonique;" Wagner 11,
497: "der tonische Akzent . . . nicht als eine Lange empfunden"). Here the term "tonic"
refers only to the text, and could just as well be omitted or replaced by "textual."

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 279

church music, as well as from the musical sources themselves. 18 No end
would be served by going into the details of all these disputes. Suffice it to
say that, according to the basic tenet of the Solesmes school, the word
accent of medieval Church Latin is high and short and that these qualities
are reflected in the music. Therefore it is maintained that Gregorian chant,
on the whole, displays a positive attitude toward the tonic accent, a nega-
tive attitude toward the sustaining accent. A somewhat different and less
rigid view is evident in Ferretti's Esthetique gregorienne. Here the tonic
accent receives the status of a fundamental law of Gregorian chant while,
on the other hand, the melodies are said to be indifferent as to the sustain-
ing accent. 14 It seems to us that even these statements, though more con-
siderate than those found in earlier studies, fail to give a correct impres-
sion of the actual state of affairs. They tend to exaggerate the importance
of one method at the expense of the other. We would prefer to say that
both the tonic and the sustaining accent are formative principles of the
chant, the former more fully than the latter, neither of them, however,
attaining the status of a "law." The subsequent explanations are given
in support of this view.

THE SUSTAINING (MELISMATIC) ACCENT

As was stated above, the sustaining accent may, a priori, take on two
different forms, either that of a prolonged note or that of a group of notes.
In Gregorian chant, the former interpretation is predicated upon the
mensuralist theory of rhythm according to which the melodies include
numerous notes of double or even triple the duration of the basic value
(i.e., quarter- or dotted-quarter-notes, if the basic value is represented by
an eighth-note), these notes being indicated either by the neumes them-
selves (Wagner's theory) or by special symbols such as the episema or the
Romanus letters. Since, to the present day, this is the most controversial
problem of Gregorian chant, it is plainly impossible to consider the sus-
taining accent from this point of view. Consequently, we are concerned
only with its alternative manifestation, in which it presents itself under
the form of a group of notes, that is, a shorter or longer melisma. In view
of this limitation it seems advisable to use the term melismatic accent

18 A. Dechevrens, Les vraies melodies grdgoriennes (1902); A. Fleury, Ueber Choral-
rhythmus (1907); J. C. Jeannin, Etudes sur le rythme gregorien (1926); also the writings
of Wagner, Gastou, Mocquereau, Ferretti, Gajard, and others. The sustaining accent has
been repeatedly considered in connection with the problem of Gregorian rhythm. Prac-
tically no attention has been paid to the possibility of a dynamic accent, except by P. Au-
bry who, in Le Rythme tonique (1905), p. 55, speaks of "Faccent d'intensit qui donne a
la syllabe accentue, ni plus d'acuit6 ni plus de dur&, mais plus de force."

i* See EsthJtique, pp. i4ff and 333^.

S8o GREGORIAN CHANT

rather than sustaining accent, because the latter suggests primarily that
aspect with which we are not concerned.

The views held by scholars regarding the importance and proper role
of the melismatic accent vary considerably, and a certain fluctuation is
noticeable even within the work of one outstanding Gregorianist, Dom
Mocquereau. In his first study of the problem of the accent, contained in
vol. Ill of the PaUographie musicale and devoted primarily to the tonic
accent, he touches briefly upon the melismatic accent by calling attention
to an "erreur moderne," that is, of "d&rharger les syllabes non accentues
des notes, pour les amasser sur la syllabe marqude de 1'accent tonique et
trs improprement dite syllabe longue" (the modern error of relieving
the non-accented syllables of notes and piling them up on the accented
syllable, which very improperly is called long; Pal. mus., Ill, 29). The
"modern error" refers to the Ratisbon (Latin-French for Regensburg)
edition of F. X. Haberl (1871-81) which presented the chants in the utterly
corrupt version of the Editio Medicea of 1614. As we shall see later [p. 288],
one of the main principles of this edition was the strict observance of the
melismatic accent, with the result that here indeed the notes were gathered
on the accented syllables. Mocquereau justly takes a strong stand against
this illicit procedure, pointing out that frequently the final syllable, which
in Latin is invariably weak, is provided with long melismas. Nevertheless,
on p. 30 of the same volume he says that "toutes les syllabes des mots latins
sont susceptibles de dilatation musicale, mais la syllabe plus propre, apr&s
la derni&re, recevoir cette extension, est encore celle qui porte 1'accent"
(all the syllables of the Latin words are susceptible to musical expansion,
but the one most proper to receive this extension is, aside from die final,
the one that carries the accent). This statement (rather typical of Mocque-
reau in its fairly complete reversal of another made before) seems to indi-
cate a positive attitude toward the melismatic accent, since melismas are
said to fall most properly on the accented syllables. The same attitude is
evinced in a chapter of vol. IV of the PaUographie musicale, entitled: Les
P6nultibmes br&ves non accentu&es chargees de notes (pp. 6gjBE), in which he
shows that in words with a weak penultimate syllable (Dominus, hddie,
congregdtio) this syllable is nearly always treated as short, with only one
or a few notes (see, e.g., the words "Dominus" and "justitiam" in the
Gradual Viderunt omnes). We are not concerned here with the question
whether this thesis is tenable (by dividing the whole field into three cate-
gories: Preeminence du texte, Transaction entre le texte et la mdlodie, and
Prominence de la musique, Dom Mocquereau somehow succeeds in prov-
ing it, without proving anything). Suffice it to say that in his final state-
ments he recognizes the validity of the melismatic accent by emphasizing
its absence on certain weak syllables:

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 281

"Aussi les maitres ne se permettaient-ils pas d'adapter, sauf des exceptions
extr&nement rares, k un long melisma d'accent une p^nultieme brve non
accentue" (Thus the masters did not permit themselves, aside from very
rare exceptions, to adapt a short, unaccented penultimate syllable to a
long accent melisma; p. 103), and "Le repertoire gr^gorien contient quel-
ques m&ismes assez longs, une vingtaine peut-tre, sur des pdnultifanes
non accentu^es; mais ces faits rares n'infirment en rien les regies . . ," (The
Gregorian repertory contains some rather long melismas, perhaps about
twenty, on non-accented penultimates, but these rare occurrences in no
way invalidate the rules . . * ; p. 108).

In contrast to these statements which, on the whole, are favorable to
the principle of the melismatic accent, we find a completely reversed atti-
tude in vol. VII of the Paleographie, in which Mocquereau proposes an
entirely different thesis, that is, that Gregorian chant shows the tendency
to treat the accented syllable as short, the non-accented final syllable as
long. Thus, an example like the following:

1316 151 7

Sci-o cti-i or cdn- ti- nen- tur [1344; 1066]

(the figures indicate the numbers of notes per syllable) would represent
the normal or, at least, the ideal treatment in Gregorian chant, in opposi-
tion to the modern treatment in which the greater number of notes would
be given to the accented syllable. Numerous examples are given in order
to demonstrate "la brivet de Taccent et aussi la dur6e de la derni&re
syllabe" (the shortness of the accent and also the length of the last syllable;
PaL mus., VII, 225). Naturally, Mocquereau is not unaware of the fact that
there exist many examples that do not conform with this principle, but
these he considers as legitimate exceptions.

Considered aesthetically, Mocquereau's thesis is, no doubt, very attrac-
tive. The method of making the accented syllable short, the weak syllable
long, results in a fine balance between the force of stress and the force of
duration, a balance that is perhaps superior to the modern treatment in
which one force adds its weight to the other. However, in spite of the
numerous examples which Mocquereau adduces, his thesis cannot be main-
tained, because of the equally large, if not even larger number of examples
showing the opposite treatment or indicating an attitude of indifference.
Gastou in his Les Origines du chant Romain (p. 177, fn.) pointed out
that the axiom proposed by Mocquereau is just as wrong as the opposite
axiom which had been suggested by others, and that actually the Gregorian
musicians followed the procedure that seemed best to them, sometimes
the one, sometimes the other. The same view is held by Ferretti who em-
phasizes the "indifference k la quantit" of the Gregorian accent (Esthe-

GREGORIAN CHANT

tique, p. 24) and, at the end of the book, devotes an entire chapter to the
refutation of differing views proffered by Dom Jeannin and others (pp.

It appears that practically every possible theory regarding the melis-
matic accent has been championed by one scholar or another, some claim-
ing it to be a positive force (melismas preferably on accented syllables),
others emphasizing the negative or balancing role of the melismas (pre-
ferably on non-accented syllables), and yet others maintaining that there
is complete indifference in this matter. Naturally, it is very easy to support
each o these views by a great number of examples. Considering the fact
that the texts of the Gregorian chants contain perhaps between 40,000 and
50,000 words with an accent, it is not surprising that a hundred or more
examples can easily be adduced to support any one of these theories a
remark which also applies to other theories to be considered later. Such
examples, impressive though they often look if gathered together on a
couple of pages, 15 prove nothing, since it is just as easy to present an equally
impressive list of examples supporting the opposite view. Much though
we personally dislike statistical surveys, they are, in cases like these, the
only method through which such questions can be decided and an objec-
tive picture can be obtained.

The natural basis for such a survey are the five standard chants of the
Mass, the Antiphons being unsuitable because of their essentially syllabic
character which practically excludes larger groups of notes, whether on
accented or on unaccented syllables. In fact, even in the Mass chants it
seems advisable to disregard the smallest groups of two or three notes
because of their omnipresence and because of the almost negligible effect
they produce. The difference between:

821 281

Do- mi- ne and D6- mi- ne

(the figures stand for number of notes per syllable) is so slight that to insist
on it would be rather too pedantic. 16 The following study, therefore, is
based on the examination of groups of four or more notes (per syllable),
the question being what relationship there is between these groups and
the textual accents in the chants of tie above-named categories. As is cus-
tomary and necessary in all studies dealing with the Latin accent, mono-
syllabic words such as et y cum, te, are excluded, because they have no
accent in the proper sense of the term, and the presence of only one group
(or one single note) precludes that comparison with neighboring groups

15 See, e.g v Nombre, II, 215^; Esthttique, p.

16 It can, however, be definitely stated that the inclusion of these groups would in no
way change the final result.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 283

which, of course, is basic in problems involving questions as to "larger or
smaller" and "higher or lower." In any case, monosyllabic words are too
rare in Latin to change the outcome one way or another. There remains
the large number of words with two or more syllables, and these, consid-
ered from the present point of view, will fall into the following categories:

1. Positive: The accented syllable has four or more notes, and each
unaccented syllable has fewer notes than the accented syllable. Ex-
amples:

41. 2 46 3. 5 3 5394

D6- mi- ne; ex- ati- di; siim- mo; e- ru- &&- cit.

2. Negative: An unaccented syllable has four or more notes, and the
accented syllable has fewer notes than the unaccented syllable. Ex-
amples:

34. 2 615. 6 9 3762

Do- mi- ne; ex- an- di; sum- mo; e- ru- bds- cit.

3. Indifferent: The accented syllable has four or more notes, but an
unaccented syllable has the same number of notes. Examples:

6 2. 6 8 4 f 4^ 6 6 5153

D6- mi- ne; ex- ati- di; sum- mo; e- ru- bds- cit.

In the practical application of this system we have considered only those
words as positive or negative in which the numerical preponderance on
the accented or unaccented syllable is sufficiently large to constitute an
obvious and indisputable case. While a four-note group has more weight
than one or two notes, it would be foolish to insist that a group of twelve
notes has more weight than one of eleven or ten. Such cases (which are
not frequent) have been considered as indifferent rather than positive or
negative.

Another point that needs to be discussed here briefly concerns the final
melismas which almost regularly occur over the last syllable of Graduals,
Alleluias, and Tracts, occasionally also of Offertories. Since words with an
accent on the last syllable do not exist in the Latin language, these final
melismas invariably fall on a weak syllable. To include such cases among
the "negative" count would obviously be unfair since we are here in the
presence of a general principle deriving its authority from a different
realm of thought* This statement applies to the final melismas not only of
the complete chant but also of its basic sections, such as the responds of a
Gradual (immediately before the verse) or the different verses of a Tract.
In the latter chants the principle of the final melisma is even more fully
present, since each verse falls into smaller units most of which dose with

284 GREGORIAN CHANT

a melisma (see pp. 3158:). Therefore, it seems best to exclude the Tracts
from the study of the melismatic accent. It is also advisable to disregard
Hebrew words such as Joseph, Jacob, Cherubim, Jerusalem, since their
accentuation is ambiguous. This is particularly true of the word alleluia,
whose accent may fall on its second or third syllable. Although the Solesmes
books always give the word as alleluia, the melodies often suggest alleluia
as the intended pronunciation, as, for example, in the Alleluias Repleti
[1545], Potestas [1711], Posuisti [1148], Veni Sancte Spiritus [880], Amavit
[1191], Exivi [831], etc. 17 At any rate, no end is served if this controversial
point is permitted to enter into the discussion of the melismatic accent.

Turning to an examination of the Mass chants with these premises in
mind, we should like to start with a concrete example in order to demon-
strate the application of the principles outlined above. The first Mass
chant of the liturgical year, the Introit Ad te levavi [318] gives the fol-
lowing result:

42 142 11421141,34 ft

Positive: me- us; con- ft- do; in-i-mi-ci; u-ni-ver-si; ex-pc-tant

2481 17 1431

Negative: e- ru- bes- cam; ne- que; con- fun- den- tur

182 3

Indifferent: ir- ri- de- ant

Final score: 5 positive; 3 negative; i indifferent.

Proceeding now to investigations on a larger scale, the following table
shows the result of a count based on twelve successive Mass chants, begin-
ning with those of Christmas Eve:

Introits
Hodie scietis
Dominus dixit
Lux fulgebit
Puer natus
Etenim sederunt
Ex ore

Dum medium
Gaudeamus
In nomine
Ecce advenit
Exsultet gaudio
In excelso

POS. NEG. IND. Alleluias
220 Crastina die

Dominus dixit
Dominus regnavit
Dies sanctificatus
Video caelos
Hie est

Laudate pueri
Ego sum
Multifarie
Laudem Domini
Exaltabo te
Vidimus stellam

53 2* 4

POS.

NEG.

IND.

43 24 4

IT See the table in Perretti, p. 344.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects

885

Graduals
Hodie scietis
Tecum principium
Benedictus
Viderunt
Sederunt
Exiit sermo
Anima nostra
Speciosus
Salvos fac
Omnes de Saba
Unam petit
Benedictus

Communions
Revelabitur
In splendoribus
Exsulta filia
Viderunt omnes
Video caelos
Exiit sermo
Vox in Rama
Tolle puerum
Ego sum
Omnes gentes
Vidimus stellam
Descendit Jesus

3
8

7
3
3
3
8
6
7
5
3

4
6

4
4
4
6

3
5

1
O
O

2
O

Offertories
Tollite portas
Laetentur
Deus enim
Tui sunt
Elegerunt
Anima nostra
Posuisti
Confitebor
Reges Tharsis
Tulerunt
Jubilate
Jubilate

58 57 17

go 28 14

3
i

2
3

7
o

1
1
O
1
1

1
2

3
o

1
O

o
o
o

1
o

30 16 6

Although the basis of this tabulation is too small to give definite results,
it nevertheless clearly reveals certain tendencies. It appears that in the
Introits, Alleluias, Offertories, and Communions the number of melis-
matically accented words is far greater than that of the opposite category,
and that it always exceeds even the number of the negative and indifferent
cases combined. In the Graduals, however, we find an essentially different
state of affairs, the positive and negative cases being equally numerous,
and the indifferent cases taking a considerably larger share of the total
than in the other chants. These tendencies are fully confirmed by investi-
gations carried out on a larger scale, as appears from the following table,
based on the Mass chants from Advent to the end of Paschal Time (Whit
Sunday): 18

18 We claim no absolute correctness for these figures (or for those presented in similar
tabulations). Slightly different figures will probably be obtained by whoever may wish
to check them. These will not, however, affect the result and the correctness of our con-
clusions.

5>86 GREGORIAN CHANT

POS. NEG. INB.

Introits 146 75 20

Graduate 158 165 53

Alleluias no 59 8

Offertories 240 108 47

Communions 91 57 9

Is there a deeper reason for the strikingly similar behavior of the In-
troits, Alleluias, Offertories, and Communions, and, on the other hand, for
the no less strikingly different situation encountered in the Graduals? Per-
haps it is to be found in the fact that the Gradual is the only truly and
originally responsorial type of chant in our group. The Alleluia verses are
of a later date, and this may account for their greater attentiveness to
melismatic accentuation. The Offertories were originally Antiphons, and
although they acquired a style similar to that of the Responsories, it would
appear that this change did not destroy the tendency toward melismatic
accent which seems to have been a characteristic trait of the antiphonal
chants; whereas in the responsorial types purely musical considerations,
inevitably leading to a greater negligence of textual requirements, were
permitted to prevail.

This view is fully confirmed by a study of the only other type of truly
responsorial chants, the Responsories of Matins, as appears from the fol-
lowing tabulation of the eight Responsories of Nativity: 19

POS. NEG. IND.
Responsories

Ho die . . . caelorum 861

Hodie ...de caelo 412

Quern vidistis 4 5 x

O magnum 3 3 6

Beata Dei 432

Sancta et immaculata i 3 3

Beata viscera 384

Verbum co.ro 5 3 i

3* 3 so

We may sum up the preceding investigations by saying that Mocque-
reau's thesis of the "brfevete* de 1'accent" as a governing principle of chant
is entirely without foundation, and that the more recent theory of "indif-
ference/' proposed by Gastou^ and Ferretti, is correct for the respon-
sorial chants (probably also the Tracts), while the other chants, considered
as a whole, show a decided preference for the melismatic accent.

l* The figures refer to the responds, not to the verses, most of which are standard
tones and, moreover, subject to the principle of cursive terminations in which the accent
is disregarded.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 287

We cannot leave this subject without emphasizing once more that the
statistical method employed is not of our own choosing, but has been
forced upon us as the only means of correcting misleading statements made
by others. However, our tabulation of the Mass chants from Nativity to
Epiphany [pp. sS^f] will be useful for a more important purpose too, that
is, to form an impression about individual chants or characteristic groups
of chants. Most of these include melismatically accented words side by
side with others in which the melisma falls on unaccented syllables, usually
the former in a greater number than the latter, except in the Graduals and
Responsories where they appear with equal frequency. Chants showing a
near-perfect score of melismatic accents occur primarily (in fact, almost
exclusively) among the Offertories and Alleluias. Our list contains three
particularly impressive examples of the first group, that is, the Offertories
Tollite portas [362], Posuisti [438], and Confitebor tibi [448; originally for
Passion Sunday, 573], to which we may add Domine exaudi [620], Angelus
Domini [787], In die solemnitatis [798], and others. 20 As for the Alleluias,
those contained in our list do not give a correct impression of the general
picture. Actually, there are a great number of Alleluias in which nearly
every accent is adorned with a melisma, often of considerable extension;
e.g., Ostende nobis [320], Laetatus sum [329], Video caelos [416], Angelus
Domini [786], Ego sum pastor [818], Exivi [831], Deus qui sedes [1000],
Domine refugium [1034], Quoniam deus [1042], Cantate Domino [1045],
Qui timent [1072], Justi epulentur [1168], Adorabo [1*51], Benedicat
vobis [1290], Diffusa est gratia [1323], Qui ad justitiam [1467], Candor est
[1586], and many others. It is a well-known fact that the Alleluias, even
those of the Temporakj belong to a later stratum of Gregorian chant than
the Graduals, Responsories, Introits, and Communions. All the evidence
gathered in the preceding pages seems to combine into an* evolutionary
picture starting with a phase of complete indifference toward the melis-
matic accent (Graduals, Responsories, Tracts), proceeding to one of prefer-
ence (Introits, Communions), and leading to one of unmistakable em-
phasis (Offertories, Alleluias).

The negative or indifferent attitude toward the melismatic accent ap-
parent in many chants of the Gregorian repertory was critically noticed
probably as early as c. 900. In Chapter 19 of his Musica Disciplina Aurelia-
nus of Rom repeatedly makes remarks which, although not too clear,
seem to indicate that he was not satisfied with the manner in which the
chants were sung by "ignari cantores" (unexperienced singers), who did
not pay sufficient attention to the length or shortness of the syllables. Thus
he says that in a dactylic word like sanguine the middle syllable should be
"correpta" (short), which probably mean$ that it should have only one

20 Several of these Offertories dose with the word "Alleluia," which in every case has
a melisma on the second syllable, not the third.

288 GREGORIAN CHANT

note. 21 The details of his explanations are not always clear. However, a
remark like the following can hardly be misunderstood: "It is particularly
in this tone [Aurelianus speaks about the authentic tetrardus, i.e., the
seventh mode], oh wise singer, that so many, not being careful and adopt-
ing improper usage, lengthen what is short, and shorten what is long." 22

Indications of a critical attitude toward the treatment of long and short
syllables have been found in a Franciscan Gradual of the late fourteenth
century. 23 Certain it is that in the sixteenth century this aspect of the
Gregorian tradition became the center of attention and the point of de-
parture for far-reaching reforms. Blasius Rossetti, author of a Libellus de
rudimentibus musicae, published in 1529,2* deals at length with this
problem, saying that very frequently a syllable that should be short is
made long, which ill agrees with the rules of grammar, and that many
abuses of this type could or should be eliminated. He adds, however, that
this should not be done in the Responsories, Graduals, and Introits, be-
cause in these the grammar is the servant-maid of the music: hie gramma-
tica ancilla est musicae. As an example he quotes the Introit Gaudeamus
omnes [437], in which "the syllable mi on Domino is textually short, but
seems to become long because of the ligature [neume, a-g-a-b^-a-by above
it." Rossetti makes a distinction between the simple chants, such as Anti-
phons, Hymns, and Sequences (often referred to in the sixteenth century
under the common designation of accentus) and the ornate chants, In-
troits, Graduals, etc. (concentus), insisting that in the former category the
syllables should be correctly treated according to their length and short-
ness, but at the same time recognizing in the latter group the superiority of
purely musical considerations.

This conservative and sensible attitude did not prevail. To the musi-
cians of a later generation, imbued with the humanistic tradition of classi-
cal Latinity, the appalling disregard of quantity, of the length and brevity
of syllables, appeared as plain "barbarism." They regarded the Gregorian
treatment as a violation of "nature," a heritage of the dark middle ages
which could not be tolerated in an enlightened era. The reform editions
of Gregorian chant, starting with Guidetti's Directorium chori of 1582
and culminating with the Editio Medicaea of 1614, clearly show evidence
of this line of thought. For curiosity's sake we show in Fig. 77 an excerpt
(Gradual Haec dies) from the Graduate . . . cum cantu Pauli V. Pont.
Max. jussu reformato of 1896, which is essentially a reprint of the Editio
Medicaea.

21 Rather than two; cL Wagner 111, j>68.

22 GS f I, 58b/5ga: Est hoc in tono, o prudens cantor, quod plerique non devitantes
[erroremf] usu improbo consectantes cbrreptiones producunt, et corripiunt productiones.

23 Cf. Wagner II, 4822, especially 496.

2 * Cf. R. P. Molitor, Die nach-tridentinische Choraheform (1901), I, isziff.

Graduate.

Modus 10.
La-uL

The Free Compositions; General Aspects
FIGURE 77

289

di - es, quam fe - cit Do -

mi-mis: exsul-te - -

e - a.

In not a few cases the reformed version, although generally tending to-
ward a drastic reduction of the Gregorian melismas, has an even longer
group of notes on an accented syllable than the medieval sources, but al-
ways at the expense of the "unnatural" melismas on the weak syllables.

It is interesting to note that even such a profound Gregorianist as Wag-
ner felt ill at ease in the presence of the "misplaced" melismas. He says
that this procedure (of emphasizing a secondary, rather than the main
syllable) "seems to be in contradiction to the congruence of word and
tone, which constitutes the supreme law of all vocal music," and that "the
modern musician cannot help criticizing the agglomerations of tones on
a short syllable following an accented one" [Formenlehre, p. 291]. Later
[p. 293] he expresses the view that this method is understandable in con-
nection with the "early medieval rhythmic system with its various com-
binations of long and short values," but "lost all its justification when the
groups of tones were performed in even values." It is difficult to see how
this change of rhythm (assuming that it took place) could affect the pic-
ture. There is no other way of dealing with it than to admit frankly that
the "supreme law of vocal music" had no validity, certainly no universal
validity, in Gregorian chant; in other words, that here, as in so many
cases, the medieval mind simply did not function as we would like. Ex-
amples of downright mis-accentuation are not rare even in fifteenth-cen-
tury polyphonic music, a striking example being the passages "ange-
loriim" (correctly angeldrum) and "salv6 radix sanctd" (instead of salve
radix sdncta) in one of Dufay's settings of Ave regina celorum?* In cases
like this one cannot help feeling that the seemingly "bad" accentuation is
actually a "good" one, dictated by the intention to counteract rather than
over-emphasize. Whether the "barbaric" melismas in Gregorian chant re-
sult from such an intention or from plain indifference, it is impossible to
say.

THE TONIC ACCENT

We shall now turn to a consideration of the second method of musical
accentuation, the so-called tonic accent, that is, emphasis by means of
25 See W. Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music, p. 118.

<jgO GREGORIAN CHANT

higher pitch. 26 This accent has received even greater attention on the part
of Gregorianists than the melismatic accent undoubtedly with justifica-
tion because it is of considerably more fundamental importance. Nearly
the entire third volume of the Paldographie musicale (published in 1892)
is devoted to a study of the tonic accent, and practically every book dealing
with Gregorian chant contains a shorter or longer exposition of its nature
and function. Thus, Wagner formulates a "very important law of com-
position: in the syllabic and semi-syllabic chants the melodic line care-
fully follows the arses and theses (strong and weak syllables) of the text,
and particularly the accented syllable of an important word is made to
stand out by a higher tone, a melodic peak" [Wagner III, p. 289]. More
recently, Ferretti devoted a large segment of his book to a study of this
problem, giving it the form of a strict and universal law, applicable to
ornate as well as simple chants, though subject to certain exceptions. 27

In view of such definite and authoritative statements it is hardly neces-
sary to say that we are indeed in the presence of a very basic principle,
verifications of which can be found on any page of the Liber usualis. We
could even let the matter rest here, were it not for the fact that both
Wagner and, especially, Ferretti have formulated this principle in such
a way as to create an impression which is not in agreement with the
actual state of affairs. Particularly the use of the term "law" (Wagner:
Kompositionsgesetz; Ferretti: la lot de I'accent) is misleading, because
there are simply too many cases that do not agree with the "law," even if
we admit exceptions resulting from the superior force of other laws, such
as have been formulated by Ferretti.

First of all we will have to define the exact meaning of tonic accent. This
is not as easy as it seems to be at first glance. No doubt it involves a higher
pitch on the accented syllable, but higher than what? Higher than the
pitch of the preceding syllable, of the subsequent syllable, or of both?
What if the preceding or the subsequent syllable shows the same pitch as
the accented syllable? And which criterion shall we use if some or all of the
syllables to be considered carry a group of notes, so that the accented
syllable is sung to different pitches, some lower and some higher than
those in the neighboring groups? This last question is so involved that we
had better exclude it from our investigations or, rather, postpone it for
later consideration [see pp. 2g6fJ. This means restricting the present investi-
gation to syllabic chants, especially the Antiphons. Naturally there is no
reason to exclude examples involving short groups of notes (neumatic

26 The term "tonic accent" is employed exclusively with reference to the music, not as
a term of prosody (e.g., "I'accent tonique latin").

WEsthttique, pp. 14-38. Partly translated in Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, pp.
i66ff. Mocquereau deals with the tonic accent (acuiti de I'accent) in Nombre, II,

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 291

style), provided that they present a clear-cut situation. Thus, if we con-

' / r /

sider a-f as an example of tonic accent, examples such as ag-f, a-gf , or gag-fe

obviously fall under the same category.

Ferretti's explanations as to what constitutes a tonic accent are not en-
tirely clear and unambiguous. His initial statement is that "the accented
syllable of each word is nearly always relatively higher than the weak sylla-
ble that follows, and often even higher than the preceding one," 28 to
which he adds a footnote saying that "strictly speaking, it is not necessary
that the accented syllable should be higher than the preceding one." Later,
however, referring to a great number of examples given previously, he
remarks that in the great majority of the cases "the Latin accent is brought
out in an absolute manner, in the sense that the accented syllable is nearly
always higher than the syllable or syllables which precede or those which
follow" (p. 17.) Finally, he indicates three types of motion in which the
Latin accent has "only a relative, not an absolute value": (i) if the pre-
ceding note is in unison and the subsequent note lower; (2) if the preceding
note is lower and the subsequent in unison; (3) if the preceding note is
higher and the subsequent note lower (pp. i8f).

On the basis of these statements it is not easy to form a clear idea as
to what constitutes a tonic accent, and in which case this is "absolute" or
"relative." If the musical pitch of an accented syllable is considered in
relation to the pitches of both the preceding and the subsequent syllables,
it appears that nine types of motion are possible, which can be diagrammed
as follows:

FIGURE 78

* 3 ' 4 ' ** 7

As far as I can make out, Ferretti's explanations would mean that a tonic
accent exists:

according to p. 15: in cases 3, 6, 9 "I

according to p. 17: in cases 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 J
according to p. 18: in cases 3, 4, 9 relative

Naturally no valid investigation or profitable discussion can proceed from
such uncertain premises.

Actually, the Latin word which is the very basis of all these investiga-
tions provides an entirely accurate and, at the same time, the only valid
definition of the tonic accent. Since, without exception, all Latin words

2* Esthltique, p. 15. Reese, in his translation (p. 166) says "higher than the one that
precedes it." Probably this is only due to an oversight, since otherwise he follows Ferretti
closely.

202 GREGORIAN CHANT

(of more than one syllable) have the accent on a syllable followed by one
or two weak syllables, a tonic accent (in the musical sense of the word)
exists only if the accented syllable is higher in pitch than the subsequent
weak syllables or, at least, than the first of these. In other words, only cases
3, 6, and 9 of the above diagram constitute a tonic accent. Cases 4 and 5,
in which the accented syllable is higher than the preceding one, in no
way agree with, or reflect the Latin accent. To include them under the
rubric of tonic accent is no more than wishful thinking. This would be
different, for instance, in the English language, in which many words end
on the accented syllable. For a word like "below" a melodic motion rising
up to the accented syllable would constitute a tonic accent. In Latin, where
this kind of accentuation does not exist, melodic motion descending from
the pitch of the accented syllable is the only condition under which a tonic
accent can be said to exist. Briefly, tonic accent is predicated upon what
follows, not on what precedes.

Before we turn to an examination of the tonic accent as just defined,
we must mention what Ferretti calls the "exceptions la loi de Faccent"
(p. 25), that is, formative principles of a higher order which prevent the
tonic accent from functioning. Ferretti's explanations can be summed up
as follows: 29

1. Certain types of chant are to be disregarded, namely: (a) the psalm
tones (also introit tones and, of course, the simple, recitation tones) be-
cause they are based on the principle of monotone recitation; (b) chants of
a later date, such as hymns, sequences, tropes, because they were written
at a time when the rules of Latin prosody were carelessly treated; (c) late
adaptations of new texts which were underlaid without regard to the origi-
nal principles.

2. Cadences are subject to special laws which often overrule the applica-
tion of the tonic accent. This is particularly the case in cadences closing

/ /

with one or two notes of the same pitch, e.g., e-d-d or f-d-d-d (e.g., "cor

m-um" [690], or "dicit D6-mi-nus" [494]). 80

3. Another exception results from the "phrase accent" (accent phrase-
ologique), that is, an accent formed by the melodic peak of a phrase and
coinciding with an important word. If, as is often the case, this peak is

29 See the summary in Reese, p. 167, where, however, cases nos. 2 and 4 of our sum-
mary are omitted.

so A much more important source of exceptions are the cursive terminations of the
tones for the Introits and Responsories [see pp. 231, 238], in which the five last syllables
are underlaid without regard to the position of the accent. It is one of the many indica-
tions of Mocquereau's unscholarly methods that he presents even these cursive termina-
tions in such a manner as to make them appear (at least, for the credulous reader) as
evidence in favor of his theories. See Nombre, H, 193, where the termination of the fourth
responsorial tone is given with eight texts, all (except one) of the same textual structure,
A- A

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 293

reached in a straight ascending motion, the tonic accent cannot be ob-
served in the corresponding words. An example, cited by Ferretti, is the
phrase "et c61-les flii-unt" from the Antiphon In ilia die [323], sung to the
melody f-g-a-c'-g, i.e^, without tonic accent on "c6K" Another example is
the phrase "et mdg-no R<-gi" from the Antiphon Stella ista [464]. 31

4. Another exceptional case is presented by the "d^doublement de poda-
tus d'accent." This occurs in Antiphons of a given melodic type, a podatus
placed on one syllable being split into two separate notes in order to
accommodate two syllables in a different text. An example is found in
the Antiphons Videntes stellam Magi [481] and Dixit Ddminus [252], in

de a d e d

which Md-gi is transformed into D6-mi-nus, with the result that the tonic
accent of the former disappears in the latter.

5. Defective accentuation may be caused by erroneous versions of a
later date in which there is a tendency to replace certain pitches by higher
ones, e.g., the e by f, and the b by c'. As an example Ferretti cites the In-
troit Domine ne longe [590], saying that the original version was not

be* c' be' b

defensi-o-nem but defensi-o-nem^ in conformity with the principle of the
tonic accent.

If we examine these exceptions objectively, those given under nos. i
and 2 can readily be accepted as legitimate principles of a higher order*
No. 5 is somewhat suspect, because it involves a surmise which cannot al-
ways be proved. However, examples of this type are relatively rare.

It is more difficult to accept the cases given under nos. 3 and 4 as legiti-
mate exceptions. Ferretti's "phrase accent," being predicated upon two
such rather uncertain factors as "phrase" and "important word," is one
of those modern concepts that are very difficult to grasp with any degree
of certitude. Nor is it easy to see why the cases falling under this category
should be admitted as legitimate exceptions of the principle of the tonic
accent. The "loi sup6rieure" involved here is entirely of Ferretti's making.
In the same way, any case where the tonic accent is disregarded could be
explained as the result of some superior law, if only the "superior law of
the composer's freedom to choose what he considers best." The fact that
accented syllables do occur in a straight ascending motion simply show
that here, as in many other instances, the tonic accent is disregarded, not
because of the presence of a higher law, but simply because it does not
represent a law of such universal validity as some writers would have us
believe.

The same remark applies to the exception no. 4. The very ease and fre-

81 It will be noticed that, from Ferretti's point of view, these cases actually need not
be listed as exceptions, since they all represent the motion type no. 5 of our diagram on
p. 291, which Ferretti regards as a tonic accent, even an "absolute" one. They do not,
however, fall under our definition of the tonic accent.

294 GREGORIAN CHANT

quency with which a tonic-accent formula is transformed into one without
tonic accent only shows one of two things: either that "poor adaptations
of a new text" occur even in the old repertory of Gregorian chant, or that,
once more, the principle of the tonic accent was not considered as vitally
important. After all, the composer of Dixit Dominus was under no com-
pulsion to "split the podatus" He could easily have inserted an extra note

de a d

for the additional syllable, e.g., Do-mi-nus, as is done a thousand times
in Gregorian chant. If he preferred to split the podatus, we can only
conclude that the law of the tonic accent was to him of no supreme im-
portance. Finally, Ferretti's argument is predicated on the assumption
that Videntes stellam is the model, Dixit Dominies the adaptation, an
assumption for which, of course, there is neither proof nor basis. If a de-
cision of priority can be made at all, it would certainly be in favor of
Dixit Dominus, because of its psalmodic text derived from the Psalm which
it enframes.

On the basis of these explanations, we shall now turn to an examination
of the Gregorian repertory in an attempt to determine the extent to which
the tonic accent influences the formation of the melodic line. 32 Because
of the difficulties of definition that arise in the case of melismatic chants
[see p. 290], the Antiphons represent the natural basis for such an investi-
gation. The following study is based on the Proper of the Time from
Advent to the end of the Nativity [317-414], undoubtedly one of the earliest
portions of the Gregorian repertory. This includes fifty-eight Antiphons
(the Great Antiphons for the week before Christmas [34off] have been
omitted because they are all adapted to the same melody) with close to
five hundred instances of accented words (i.e., words of more than one
syllable), certainly a sufficiently comprehensive material for a valid in-
vestigation. Only two or three of these Antiphons can be said to be perfect
examples for the use of the tonic accent, for instance the following:

FIGURE 79

& I

-* > fr ,.l.

Omnes si-ti- n-tes, venf-te ad dquas : qua^ri-te Ddmi-num,

dum invenf-ri p6test, alle- lu- ia.

or the Antiphon Gloria in excelsis [402], the latter with the exception of
the "alleluia," one of the several Hebrew words whose accentuation (al-

32 it is hardly necessary to say once more than nothing is proved by merely quoting
numerous examples selected ad hoc, as is done, e.g., in N r ombre, II, 1972.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 295

leltiia or alleluia?) is doubtful. The great majority contain one or two
words for which the tonic accent is not present in the melody, and in some
of them the negative cases actually outnumber the positive ones. Particu-
larly striking in this respect are the Antiphons Quern vidistis [395] from
Lauds of the Nativity, and Crastina die [363] from Sext of Christmas Eve,
the second of which is shown in Fig. 80 (plus, minus, and zero signs indi-
cate positive, negative, and indifferent cases):

FIGURE 80

+ o _ ~ o

i fl * i a pb p

CrAstina df-e de-lbi-tur in-fqui-tas t&rae : et re-
4- o

ts:

gnabit super nos Salvdtor mtindi.

In order to clarify the over-all picture, there follows a tabulation based
on the entire group of Antiphons from Advent to the end of the Nativity.
The legitimate exceptions mentioned previously have been disregarded,
and the remaining cases are grouped under three rubrics: (a) positive, i.e.,
accented syllable higher than the following; (b) negative, i.e., accented
syllable lower than the following; and (c) indifferent, i.e., accented syllable
on the same pitch as the following:

POSITIVE NEGATIVE INDIFFERENT

Number: 359 114 84

Percentage: 57 25 18

These figures throw a clear light upon the question of the importance
of the tonic accent as a formative principle of Gregorian chant. The ex-
tent of its validity depends, in no small degree, upon the evaluation of
the "indifferent" group. If, as Ferretti does in a tabulation of a similar
kind, 38 these cases are reckoned on the side of the positive ones, the result
is favorable to the extent of three-fourths of the total. If not, the balance
is reduced to slightly over one half, and this seems to be the correct attitude
in our question. After all, the point at issue is to demonstrate the impor-
tance of the tonic accent, not the unimportance of the "non-tonic accent"
(sit venia verbo)?* In a way, the indifferent cases indicate an "indiffer-

33 Esthttique, p. 36. This tabulation is based on the same premises as ours (Anti-
phons from Advent to Christmas; tonic accent a parte post), but is limited to proparoxy-
tones (words having the accent on the antepenult).

34 To put it differently: it is correct to say (as Ferretti does) that only the negative
cases constitute a real exception of the law; but it is incorrect to say (or imply, as Fer-
retti does also) that all the others represent a proof of it.

2Q6 GREGORIAN CHANT

ence," a disregard of the tonic accent even more clearly than the negative
cases, because in nearly all of them it would have been very easy to bring
about a positive result by raising or lowering a single pitch by no more
than one degree, e.g.:

RRR gag g g f

In ilia die [323]: stilldbunt change to stilldbunt or stilldbunt

g g gf d a g gf d g f gf d

Ne timeas [326]: ji-li-um change to fi-li-urn or fi-h-um

The purpose of this study is not to assign to the tonic accent a statisti-
cal figure, but to present a picture of its role in Gregorian chant. That
this role is important, nobody will deny; but it is equally undeniable that
this role does not amount to a law, however hedged in by exceptions. True
enough, we have not admitted all the exceptions which Ferretti considers
legitimate and admissible. It may be noticed, however, that it is not diffi-
cult to find, even in our limited group of Antiphons, a considerable num-
ber of negative examples that are not covered by any of the exceptions
admitted by Ferretti:

FIGURE 81

"" ; . : a T"

; . ; r-

. ..

n6men D6mi-ni et advntum D6mini. ct
. i t

fpse renovd-bit

Jerusa-lem

f__
- . - :

B u

* p ' E -

plaudent minibus : qu6ni- am veni- et D6-minus

collauddntes

t""~

est gri-ti- a

. .. .

- , "

- l-fs a B r-

" " " "

in t^rris quis appdra-it? Nd-tum vf-dlmus, et ch6ros de *^" lamo s ^- a

See, in this order, L pp. 317, 339, 324, 332, 396, 373, 395, 372.

If, finally, we try to subject the more elaborate chants, such as Introits,
Graduals, Alleluias, Offertories, Responsories, to a similar study, a serious
obstacle arises because of the difficulty of obtaining a clear definition as
to when a tonic accent is present in the case of groups of notes. If, for in-
stance, in the following example (Fig. 82; from the Gradual Clamaverunt):

FIGURE 82

libera- vit

the peak notes of the groups are considered, we have a negative case. If, on
the other hand, the initial notes of the groups, or (to suggest another ap-

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 297

proach) the motion leading from one group to the next is taken into
account, it is a positive example. Ferretti does not offer any explanations
on this point, but merely reproduces the Offertory Jubilate Deo [486] as
an impressive example of the tonic accent in the "style fleuri," which, in
a way, it is. 35 In fact, the difficulty of finding a clear and unequivocal
definition of the tonic accent in florid chants makes a systematic study
comparable to the one we have given for the Antiphons all but impos-
sible. Since unmistakable and often very impressive examples of tonic
accent can be found on nearly every page, we shall limit ourselves to a
selected list of negative cases, only in order to make clear that the "law"
has its limitations in the neumatic and melismatic chants as well as in
Antiphons (reference to L by pages and staves):

328,5: decoris; 330,4: misericordiam; 345,5: occursus; 351,2: deducts;
356,2: vocabitur; 375,1: caelorum; 375,2: dignatus; 375,5: apparuit;
377,4: vidistis; 377,5: apparuit; 384,1: virginitas; 384,2: efferam; 384,4:
mulieribus; 384,5: fructus; 384,5: ventris. 89

I may add, however, that from the study of numerous chants of the florid
type I have gained the impression that clearly negative cases are, on the
whole, less frequent here than in the Antiphons. This result (if confirmed
by a detailed investigation) would contradict the opinion of Wagner who,
it will be remembered, singled out the syllabic and semi-syllabic chants
for their attention to the tonic accent.

THE CURSUS

The cursus is an oratorical principle of Latin antiquity designed to
confer upon prose a certain feeling of the harmonious relationships that
govern poetry. This was done by giving careful attention to the end of
sentences, which had to comply with certain rules of rhythm, rules that
are fully explained by Cicero (De oratore, 107 B.C.) and Quintilian (In-
stitutiones oratoricae, A.D. 42). Since Latin poetry was based on the prin-
ciple of quantity (or meter), that is, of long and short syllables [see p. 277],
this also forms the basis of the cursus of Latin antiquity or, as it is called,

85 Reproduced (from Ferretti, pp. i6f.) in Reese, p. 166. 1 am not certain whether the
asterisks that appear over each accented syllable are also meant to convey the impression
that each of these syllables has a tonic accent. Even from a very liberal point of view it
is difficult to find a tonic accent on "tim&is" and on "D6minus."

38 The reader's attention is called to the tables in Ferretti, pp. 3401, showing numerous
settings of the words Deus, Ddminus, Miserere, and others, examples intended to prove
the indifference of the chant in regard to the melismatic accent. Actually, they also
demonstrate (against Ferretti's intention) the indifference in regard to the tonic accent.
For instance, the group Ddminus includes 16 positive, 17 negative, and 19 indifferent
examples of tonic accent. See also among the examples pp. $42ff: oblivisci, contintntur,
sititntes, sapitntiae, etc.

GREGORIAN CHANT

298

the metrical cursus. Various combinations of long and short syllables were
considered as proper, the following in particular:

gloriam congregentur
membra ffrmantur

-T w T "" " _

ira victoriae 37

1. cursus velox (quick)

2. cursus planus (even)

3. cursus tardus (slow)

When, about A.D. 400, the classical principle of quantity was replaced
by that of accentuation, a corresponding modification of the cursus took
place, which changed from the metrical to the rhythmical cursus.** The
corresponding forms are:

1. cursus velox

2. cursus planus

3. cursus tardus

f * . I . . / .
gloriam congregentur

/ . i . /
membra firmantur
/ . | . / . .
ira victoriae

In an extended study, comprising the major part of vol. IV of the
PaUographie musicals, Mocquereau has tried to show that the rhythmical
cursus, particularly the form of the cursus planus, plays an important role
in the formation of the cadential formulae of Gregorian chant in such a
way that the accented members of the group are sung to a higher pitch,
that is, receive a tonic accent. As he is wont to do, he adduces a wealth
of material in support of this theory, material which, however, is often
irrelevant and even, if properly evaluated, in contradiction with his theory.
Actually, he proves nothing but the fact that, among the thousands of
cases there are many hundreds that conform to the principle. As an illus-
tration of his argumentation, we cite here three examples of what he calls
cadence planaP*

FIGURE 83

a. First Psalm Tone,

Termination f

b. Second Introit Tone,

Termination

c. Fifth Responsorial Tone,

Termination

6 3 432 1

...

ca-

lum

tdr-

ram.

...

le-

vi-

-frffc-

-4-

Jt |

-f-

r^ + B

-f^

in*

87 it may be noticed that syllables such as -am, con-, firm-, etc., are long by position,
the vowel being followed by two or more consonants.

38 According to the investigations of the monks of Solesmes, evidence of the rhythmi-
cal cursus exists in the Papal Bulls from c. 450 to 600, while the Leonine and Gelasian
Sacramentaries show the use of the metrical cursus.
U, 190, 191, 194.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 299

To this we remark the following:

a. Considered from the purely musical point of view, this could be
called a cadence plana because its peak tones fall on the fifth and on the
second syllable from the end, in conformity with the position of the two
accents in the cursus planus. It would provide a strong argument in favor
of the cursus theory if it were used only, or mainly, in connection with
texts closing with a cursus planus, e.g., pedum tudrum, (inimt)c6rum
tudrum, terra multorum, (Spi)ritui sdncto, all of which occur in Ps. 109
[i28]. 40 However, the same termination formula is also used for the other
verses of the same psalm (as well as many other psalms), all of which close
with a different "cursus/' e.g. dextris meis, genui te, suae reges, exaltdbit
cdput, not to mention the ubiquitous (saecu)l6rum. Amen which, because
of the Hebrew word, presents an ambivalent case. In all these verses, the
accentual structure of the text is in disagreement with the tonic-accent
scheme of the musical formula, and agreement is reached only by modify-
ing this scheme, placing the accent on the fourth rather than on the fifth
note from the end, or inserting a note between the penultimate and the
final member (for dactylic endings, as in nomen Domini). In short, it seems
to us that this cadential formula can only with reservation be considered
as evidence for the cursus theory.

b. This formula shows a design similar to the previous one, that is,
with higher pitches on the fifth and the second syllable from the end.
However, it could also, and, in fact, more properly, be considered as one
emphasizing the fifth and the third syllable, because it is the third rather
than the second member that shows a melodic peak. Apparently, the for-
mula can be interpreted in two ways, only one of which would make it a
cadence plana. Do the texts, with which this formula appears, give a clue
as to its meaning? Of course not, since, like all the introit terminations,
this is a fixed formula which always receives the five last syllables of the
text, regardless of their accentual structure. Thus, we have correct tonic
accents with mam levdvi as well as with lege Ddmini [1220], but only
the former is a cursus planus. Moreover, the first tonic accent completely
disappears in connection with texts such as universa terra [428].

c. The remarks just made apply a fortiori to the last example, the termi-
nation of the fifth responsorial tone which, like the terminations of the
introit tones, is a fixed formula in which the textual accents may fall on
the members 5 and 2, 5 and 3, 4 and 2, or 6 and 3. Only in the first case
do we have a cursus planus.

One of the main weaknesses of Mocquereau's demonstration is that he
bases it primarily on formulae designed to be used with many texts (auto-
mela, to borrow a term from Byzantine nomenclature), formulae which,

40 Strictly speaking, (Spi)rttui sdncto is not a correct example, since in the true cursus
planus a new word should begin after the trochee, as in pddum tudrum.

300 GREGORIAN CHANT

whether of the tonic or of the cursive type, are subject to modifications of
their accentual structure. A different approach to die cursus problem was
made by H. Bewerunge and, on a much larger scale, by Ferretti. 41 Both
of these studies proceed from the metrical cursus of Latin antiquity which
is based upon the distinction between long and short syllables. Conse-
quently, the Gregorian melodies are investigated from the point of view
of the melismatic accent, as indicated by longer or shorter groups of notes.
Bewerunge's material consists of the concluding formulae of Introits (not
the introit tones), Communions, and Offertories from the First Sunday of
Advent to the Saturday after Passion Sunday. These are all essentially dif-
ferent melodies, each with its own text (idiomela), and therefore provide
a much more reliable basis of investigation than Mocquereau's tone termi-
nations. However, instead of limiting himself to the few formulae given
by Cicero and Quintilian, Bewerunge proceeds from the long list of
metrical-cwrmy formations (twenty-four) which the Solesmes monks have
found in the Leonine and Gelasian Sacramentaries. Such variety includes
practically all the combinations that are arithmetically possible and is
therefore confusing rather than clarifying. Nevertheless, the most frequent
combination is the cursus planus,-^\ ~, and this also takes the first
place among the "instances resembling forms of metrical cursus" which

218

Bewerunge has found in the melodies. He gives only one example lu-ce-at

6 2

e-is from the Introit of the Requiem Mass [1807], which, he admits, is not
too satisfactory, because only the music suggests, by the number of notes
in each of the five members, the scheme long-short long-long-short, while
the text has the scheme long-short-short long-short. Moreover, the reserva-
tion implied in the word "resembling" makes for additional difficulty. A
cursory check of the chants mentioned by Bewerunge brought to light only
a few clear examples, nowhere close to the number of 112 which he indi-
cates. A few meet the textual requirement, without, however, meeting the
musical requirement, while others meet the latter but not the former.

As for Ferrettfs extended study, it is very difficult (at least, for me) to
grasp its implications and to summarize its conclusions. He formulates its
basic thesis as follows: "The literary cursus that has influenced the formu-
lae of the solemn psalmody and the recitatives as well as the cadences of
the Antiphons and all the other Gregorian chants is the metrical^ not the
tonic [i.e., rhythmic]" [pp. gf). His aim seems to be not to demonstrate a
relationship between the music and the text but to analyze the musical
formulae themselves in terms of metrical feet in such a way that a single
note stands for short, a dims or podatus for long, a three-note neume

41 H. Bewerunge, "The Metrical Cursus in the Antiphon Melodies" (Zeitschrift der
Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, XIII, [1910-11], 227); Ferretti, // cursu metrico e il
ritmo delle melodie gregoriane (1913).

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 301

(scandicus) for long-plus-short, a four-note neume for long-plus-long, etc.
Thus, the Antiphon Rex pacificus [364] shows the following patterns: 42

magnificatus 'est

w > 5- w

(vul)tum desiderat
urTiversa terra.

In the final chapter of his book [pp. 2&2ff\ Ferretti transcribed some melo-
dies in a manner similar to (though not based on the same premises as)
that of some mensuralists (Jeannin), namely in metrical divisions, %, %,
%, etc. This, of course, brought him into conflict with the School of
Solesmes. According to Gajard, he later renounced his theories: ". . . Pau-
teur, mieux avise, reconnut son erreur et se rallia completement So-
lesmes." 43

EXPRESSION, MOOD, WORD-PAINTING

Is Gregorian chant "expressive"? Yes and no. The answer depends on
what is meant by "expressive." If this term is understood as the opposite
of "dry," "pedantic," "intellectual," or what others words may be used
to suggest "absence of artistic inspiration," the answer is, of course, in the
positive. No one will deny that the chants are the product of artistic in-
spiration, although it is equally undeniable that whatever spiritual, emo-
tional, or even intellectual forces involved in the process of musical creation
in the eighth and ninth centuries were not the same as they were in the
eighteenth and nineteenth. While Bach, and even more, Beethoven or
Schumann bestow upon their compositions expressive values of a markedly
personal and individual character, values that often have their origin in
the composer's own experience and are as variable as these experiences,
the unknown creators of the Gregorian melodies produced works carrying
the stamp of supra-personal feelings, of spiritual values predicated upon a
hieratic order which exists by its own or, rather, divine authority, and
which neither needs nor admits justification in terms of personal experi-
ence.

Usually, however, the term "expressive" has a different meaning, par-
ticularly as applied to vocal music. It refers, not to an intrinsic quality of
the music as such, but to its capacity of "expressing something," namely,
the general mood of the text or the specific feelings associated with certain
words of the text. The question is whether this capacity, so amply demon-
strated in the songs of Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms, is also evident
in Gregorian chant. My answer is an almost unqualified "no." Deliberate

42 p. 202. The metrical signs refer to the music, not to the text. The dotted single
notes (at the end) are considered as long.
, XXIX, 26.

$O2 GREGORIAN CHANT

expression of the text, of its general mood or of single words, is, it seems
to me, as contrary to the basic premises of the chant as is expression of per-
sonal feelings, if these two categories can be at all clearly separated. With
this view, however, I find myself decidedly in the minority. Several of the
outstanding Gregorianists as well as many of their "minor brethren" have
attributed to certain chants specific expressive values derived from the
text or related to the occasion. Thus, Gevaert finds that in the Antiphon
Ecce ancilla Domini: fiat mihi secundum verbum tuum (Behold the hand-
maid of the Lord: be it unto me according to thy word; Luke 1:38) "the
melodic line, sweetly bowing until the end of the chant, renders with a
charming naivety the profound reverence of the Virgin before the mes-
senger of God." 44 To Frere, the Responsory Angelus Domini apparuit
Joseph . . . (The angel of the Lord appeared unto Joseph . . . ; Matthew
1:20) "represents the quiet appearance of the angel to Abraham on Mt.
Moriah." 45 Grold sees in the first two melismas of the Tract Commovisti,
Domine, terram, et conturbasti earn (Thou hast made the earth to tremble;
thou hast broken it; Ps. 60:2) "the tendency to express in music the action
of the Eternal shaking the earth." 46 Johner feels that in the Communion
Vox in Rama audita est, ploratus et ululatus: Rachel plorans filios suos
noluit consolari, quia non sunt (In Rama was there a voice heard, lamenta-
tion, and weeping, and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children,
and would not be comforted, because they are not; Matthew 2:18) "the
inception on the fifth of the mode, the emphasis on the dominant and the
pressus over ploratus are expressions of gripping sorrow; they almost
sound like a shrill outcry," while at the end "through this harmony [close
on d'-b-g] the grief is tempered." 47 Ferretti feels that in the Antiphon
Montes Gelboe "the melodic line of Quomodo, with its descent from the
dominant to the tonic, is an excellent rendition of David's stupor upon
hearing the horrible news" [of Saul's and Jonathan's death; II Samuel
1:21-23], and that in the Communion Video caelos from the Feast of St.
Stephen "la retomb^e mlodique sur Dei traduit, pour ainsi dire, la vision
extatique du Premier Martyr chrtien, et son tranquille abandon k Dieu." 48
Nobody will question the right, if not the duty, of Catholic writers to
interpret the chants in such a way as to bring them close to the minds and
hearts of the faithful. Descriptive explanations designed to achieve this
goal have, no doubt, a legitimate place in books of a popularizing nature
where, in fact, they are found in great number. If, however, they occur in

e, p. 155: "La ligne m&odique . . ."
*& Antiphonale Sarisburiense, Dissertation, p. 59.
**Histoire de la musique des origines a la fin du xivc siecle (1936), p. 213: "Ces deux

*T The Chants of the Vatican Gradual (1940), p. 69.
48 Esth&iquej pp. 99, 97.

The Free Compositions: General Aspects 303

scholarly writings such as the above-quoted works (possibly with the ex-
ception o Johner's), they adopt the connotation, not of a modern exegesis,
but of a historical statement, the implication being that they reflect the
thinking of the men who wrote the melodies or, at least, the mentality of
the period in which they were written. Assuming that this is what Gevaert,
G<rold, Frere, and Ferretti wanted to say, I can only register my opposi-
tion against attempts to explain Gregorian chant as the result of mental
processes so obviously indicative of nineteenth-century emotionalism, so
obviously derived from an acquaintance with the art of Wagner and
Brahms. Nor is it difficult to disprove the validity of such explanations by
pointing to the basic role which the methods of adaptation and centoniza-
tion play in so many categories of the chant, the Tracts, Antiphons,
Graduals, Responsories, Alleluias, etc. all of which show numerous ex-
amples of the same melody or the same melodic unit being used for a
great number of texts of the most diverse contents. Moreover, the reader
checking the above-mentioned examples will be probably very much dis-
appointed in his expectations to find in them a suggestion, to say nothing
of an unmistakable expression, of "reverence," "quiet appearance," "earth-
shaking," "shrill outcry," "tempered grief," or "stupor."

Hardly more convincing are the examples of direct word painting that
have been found in the chant. Perhaps the best-known of these occurs in
the Communion Passer invenit [556] where, to the words et turtur (and
the turtle-dove) "the cooing of the turtle-dove is imitated through the use
of liquescent neumes." 49 Actually the liquescent neumes are the result, not
primarily of the imagery of the words, but of their spelling, there being
always two consonants after each vowel. Naturally, this purely external
fact somewhat lessens the validity of this passage as an example of word
painting. Another well-known example exists in the Alleluia Angelus
Domini [786] from Easter Monday, where the "turning of the stone"
(revolvit lapiderri) is pictured by a revolving figure. The validity of this
case is lessened by the fact that the revolving figure is not indicated in the
neumatic notation of St. Gall 359 (pp. 14.1-161); obviously it is an innova-
tion of the tenth or eleventh century.

The most likely candidates for word-painting are words suggesting
"high" or "low," and it is not too difficult to find cases where the music
shows a corresponding design. One of the most convincing examples exists
in the Introit Rorate caeli [553], in which the melody reaches its highest
position to the words caeli desuper, its lowest to the word terra. Another
instance of correspondence occurs in the Alleluia Angelus Domini [786],
which has a descending figure on descendit. Whether these conformities
are intentional or the mere result of chance, it is difficult to say. Words
suggesting "high" or "low" are so frequent in Gregorian chant that they

49 Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, p. 169.

304 GREGORIAN CHANT

are bound to appear occasionally with musical figures of a corresponding
character. Certainly it is not difficult to find examples where they occur
in connection with figures of the opposite character, for instance, the word
terrae in the Communion Viderunt omnes [410] from the Nativity, or
terra in the Offertory Jubilate Deo [480].

We should like to close this chapter with a particularly neat demonstra-
tion of the pitfalls besetting the realm of expression and word-painting
in Gregorian chant. Among the Antiphons of the seventh mode there is a
well-defined group characterized by an intial motive g-b-c'-d'-e'-d'. Among
the circa 50 Antiphons of this group (Gevaert's Th&me 19) there is one
in which the standard motive is modified to extend up to the high g',
g-b-c'-d'-e'-g'-d', and this is the Antiphon Ascendo ad Patrem [845] from
Lauds of the Feast of the Ascension. Certainly this would seem to be as
clear an example of deliberate word painting as one might hope to find.
Unfortunately, exactly the same extended motive occurs in the Antiphon
Descendi in hortum assigned in the medieval manuscripts (e.g., Codex
Lucca, p. 458) to the Feast of the Assumption. We leave it for the reader
to draw his own conclusions.

CHAPTER THREE

The Free Compositions According to Types

'N THE present chapter we are concerned with a study somewhat
similar in design and purpose to that of the works of a composer
such as Palestrina, Bach, or Beethoven. Naturally, the very quantity of
material available in Gregorian chant excludes the possibility of consider-
ing each piece individually, as would be possible or even mandatory in
the case of the just-mentioned composers. Nor would such a consideration
be of any value, because it would proceed on a wrong premise, namely,
that each work of art has individual significance, a premise that did not
attain unquestioned validity until Beethoven. The sonatas of Mozart, and
even more so the cantatas of Bach, the motets of Palestrina, Josquin, or
Machaut, are primarily representatives of a type and reveal their signifi-
cance only if considered as such. The further we retrogress in the history
of music, the more does artistic production take on the quasi-anonymous
character of group-creation, until finally the individuality both of the work
and of its creator becomes absorbed into the full anonymity of musical
types. Nowhere in music is this state of affairs so clearly indicated as in
Gregorian chant, where each single composition belongs to a liturgical
class from which it receives the general characteristics of musical form and
style that set it wholly apart from an item belonging to a different class.
In an earlier part of this book we have seen that even within the fairly
limited province of the Gregorian recitative there exist a number of dif-
ferent types prayer tones, psalm tones, introit tones, etc. that show
well-defined distinctive traits. Such traits, common to a group, but differ-
ing from one group to another, appear even more clearly in the field of
free compositions.

THE INTROITS

By way of general characterization, the Introits can be described as
chants of moderate length and of a moderately ornate style. In both these

305

306 GREGORIAN CHANT

respects they are remarkably uniform, considerably more so, for instance,
than the Offertories or Communions. It will take some searching to find
an Introit less than three lines long (such as Justus es Domine [1047] with
only slightly over two lines), and practically none occupies more than four
staves (we consider, of course, only the Introit proper, not the psalm verse).
As for their style, which we have just described as moderately ornate, the
Introits represent, no doubt, the most consistent use, in the entire repertory,
of the neumatic or group style. In any given Introit, the great majority of
syllables carry a group of notes numbering from two to five. Groups of
more than five notes occur only exceptionally, mostly in the final cadence;
and a group of eleven notes, such as occurs in the cadence of Dum clamarem
[1020] probably represents the maximum of melismatic ornateness to be
found in the Introits. 1

Interspersed between these groups are single notes, perhaps in an aver-
age ratio of one to two (e.g., 21 single notes against 32 groups in Ad te
levavi [318], and 15 single notes against 30 in Populus Sion [327]). Occa-
sionally, such single notes occur in succession over three, four, or five
syllables, but practically always on the same pitch, thus introducing a
snatch of psalmodic recitative into the melodic motion of the neumes.
Single notes forming a melodic line are so rare in the Introits (in contrast
to the Antiphons, for example) that a reader familiar with their style
definitely feels surprised when he happens upon passages like the follow-
ing ones:

FIGURE 84

b
fc

qui-a Dominus factus f. ter f ac j. ens e . j s>

a* In nomine Domini [612] b. -Dens dum egrederis [892]

The simplest neumes, that is, those with two or three notes, are of course
by far the most frequent. Relatively rare is the climacus with its three
notes in descending motion, and even more so climacus neumes with four
notes. On the other hand, many Introits, probably the majority of them,
contain a few examples of short strophici, usually in the form of the
tristropha with its triple repercussion. Thus, Ad te levavi [318] has four
strophici, one with four notes (on "neque"); Vent et ostende [343] has three
bistrophae; Dominus dixit [392] has five, three of them of the variety

l The entire cadence is borrowed from the Responsories; see p. 310.

The Free Compositions According to Types 307

involving an ascending third: d-f-f(-f); Puer natus [408] has four tristro-
phae, and Resurrexi [778] as many as ten.

The combination of all these elements bestows upon the melodic design
of the Introits a general character of gentle and moderate motion, undulat-
ing rather than striving, and often held stationary by recitative passages
and repercussive groups. Boldly ascending or descending formations, such
as are frequently encountered in the Graduals, Alleluias, or Offertories,
are practically absent. Formations such as eM'-c'-a (Audivit Dominus [G
91], on the second "Dominus") and d-gg-c'-a-g (Ego clamavi [G 130], on
"clamavi"), which in a Gradual or Offertory would hardly be worth notic-
ing, impress one as almost a foreign element in the Introits.

Not a few Introits are striking for the stationary character of their en-
tire melodic line, for their continuous insistence on a given pitch by means
of single notes, strophici, and neumes emphasizing this pitch. Such Introits
give the overall impression of a slightly ornamented recitative. Particu-
larly interesting in this respect are a number of Introits of the second
mode, namely, Vent et ostende [343], Dominus dixit [392], Ecce advenit
[459], Sitientes [565], Dominies illuminatio [998], Dominus fortitudo
[1006], and Venite adoremus [1052]. All these are essentially a recitation
on f (Venite is transposed to the upper fifth), with d as a final, and occa-
sionally touch upon c as a sub-final and g as a flex. Thus their melodic
line, reduced to its essentials, is strikingly similar to that of the introit
tone of the same mode, as used in the subsequent psalm verse and Dox-
ology.

Additional examples of melodic similarity between Introits and introit
tones occur also in other modes:

Mode 3, recitation on c': Intret oratio [541]; Deus dum egrederis [892];

Tibi dixit [G 117]; In nomine Domini [612] (= In nomine Jesu [446]);

Omnia quae fecisti [1063]; the last three mainly in their first half.
Mode 5, recitation on c 7 : Circumdederunt [497]; Domine refugium [G

101]; Loquebar [1215, originally for the Feast of St. Prisca; see also

1309, 1618].
Mode 8, recitation on c 7 : Miserere mihi [1044]; Laetabitur Justus [1138,

originally from the Feasts of St. Vincent and St. Agapitus]; Ad te

levavi [318]; Lux fulgebit [403]; etc.

Recitation-like Introits also occur in other modes, but with the recita-
tion taking place on a pitch other than that of the tenor of the tone. For
instance, there are several Introits of mode 4 which show an unmistakable
emphasis, not on the tenor of the fourth tone (a), but on f or, less fre-
quently, on g. One of the most striking examples is the Introit Resurrexi
[778] from Easter Sunday:

308

GREGORIAN CHANT
FIGURE 85

1 . i

_ -^* -__ m IL.

A d 3 A ^IM

A A P"

jW ! A ^i

Resur-rexi, et adhuc tecum sum, al- Ie- lu-
e ,

ia :

po-su- i-sti su-

I p^ A. ^ M a t

per me ma- num tu- am, al- le- lu- ia : mi-ra- bi-lis fa- eta est

sd- en- ti- a tu- a, alle- lu-ia, al- le- lu- ia.

Other examples are Reminiscere [545], Judica Domine [603], Misericordia
[816], /n voluntate [1066], and Sicut oculi [G 99], the last with a con-
tinuous emphasis on g, which very likely was the original tenor note of
the fourth tone.

A very interesting state of affairs exists in mode 6. The normal tenor of
the various tones (psalm, canticle, etc.) in this mode is a. None of the In-
troits of the sixth mode shows an unmistakable emphasis on this pitch.
The sixth tone for the Introits, however, is exceptional in its having two
tenors, a in the first half and f in the second (see p. 233), and there are, in
fact, a considerable number of Introits that clearly suggest a recitation on
f; for instance, Quasimodo [809], Cantate Domino [826], Dicit Dominus:
Ego [1074], In medio ecclesiae [1190; originally for the Nativity of St.
John], and Exsultate [G 368; this is transposed a fifth upward, so that cf
becomes the tonic). Others, like Hodie scietis [359], Omnes gentes [1009],
Os justi [1200; originally for the Feasts of St. Matthew, St. Felix, and
others], and Sacerdo tes Dei [1132; St. Xystus, St. Gregory, and others], show
the emphasis on the tonic less consistently, but still with sufficient clarity.

As to the Introits of mode 7, there are several that are suggestive of
recitation, but in a rather flexible and irregular manner. Two of them,
Puer natus [4o8] 2 and In virtute [1135], show a rather consistent emphasis
on c r , that is, the tone below the normal tenor, d 7 . Viri Galilei [846],
Respice [1032], and Ne derelinquas [G 118] would seem to indicate the
presence of two tenors, d' and c', a phenomenon reminiscent of the tonus
peregrinus and of the authentic responsorial tones (see p. 235), all of which
employ the fifth as well as the fourth degree of the scale. Finally, there are
some Introits in which the pitch P appears in a prominent position; for
example, Aqua sapientiae [789; cf. the passage "potavit . . . flectetur,
alleluia"], Deus in adjutorium [1027; V and c 7 ], and Ne timeas [G 521; f,
d', <|.

Turning finally to the Introits of mode i, we find a strikingly different

2 Mentioned by Hucbald in his De harmonica institutione among the examples of
aequales voces (i.e., unison); GS, I, 1040.

The Free Compositions According to Types 309

picture because of the almost complete absence of the "recitation type."
The only indisputable example is Justus ut palma [1204; originally for
St. Stephen and St. John the Baptist] with its continuous emphasis on f.
However, Gaudete [334] and Exsurge [504] could perhaps also be included
in this group. Both of them include passages suggesting a melodic stress
on f and on a.

The rather considerable number of Introits having a melody suggestive
of a recitative raises several interesting questions. Is it permissible to con-
sider them as a well-defined and special group not only analytically, but
also historically? If so, can we assume that originally they actually were
simple recitatives, similar to that of the Introit verses, which in the course
of time became considerably more florid, without losing their pristine char-
acter? If so, can we derive any conclusions regarding the primitive stage
of psalmody from the fact that, in some modes, they seem to employ a tenor
different from that of the standard system? Finally, can we assume that
they represent an earlier type than the Introits having a freely moving
melody? It would be a rash undertaking indeed to answer these questions
one way or another. That there existed a close relationship between the
Introit and the psalm verse is sufficiently attested by the fact that, in the
great majority of cases, they draw upon the same Psalm for their texts.
Nearly all of the Introits listed above belong to this category, but not all
of them. The text of Sitientes is from Isaiah 55, of Lux fulgebit from Isaiah
9, of Omnia quae from Daniel 3, of In voluntate from Esther 13, and a few
even draw upon the New Testament, e.g., In nomine (Philippians 2),
Quasimodo (I Peter 2), and Viri Galilei (Acts 1:11).

Although, on the whole, the musical line of the Introits tends toward
moderation, some of them are famous for the impressive design of the
opening motion, suggestive of a bold gesture at the very beginning of the
Mass. Perhaps the most brilliant example is the Introit Rorate caeli [353]
from the Fourth Sunday of Advent (originally Wednesday in Ember Week
of Advent), with its characteristic upward sweep comprising the fifth, d-a,
as well as the two neighboring tones, c' and b-flat, a motion which im-
pressively underlines the imperative "Rorate," although it is entirely out
of place from the point of view of word-painting. 3 Several other Introits
of the first mode, e.g., Gaudeamus [437, 1368, 1571), Factus est Dominus
[961], Suscepimus [1361], Justus es Domine [1047], Da pacem [1056], and
Inclina Domine [1040], employ the same initial formula, which is also
found in other chants of the first mode, for instance, in a well-characterized
group of Office Antiphons, in which the b-flat is often raised to b-natural
or to c'. 4 Other examples of an impressively designed initial motion occur

3 Rorare means "to drop dew."

4 Gevaert's themes 3, 4, 5. See p. 153. The motive d-a-b-a or d-a-c'-a has often been
considered as a typical motive of the first mode. It does, however, occur in the fourth
mode, as the intonation of the Invitatory tone 4.g [568].

glO GREGORIAN CHANT

in some Introits of mode 3, e.g., Dispersit [1607], Cognovi Domine [1239],
and Confessio [1593].

While many of the Introits give the impression of having individual,
freely composed melodies, musical relationships within the field as well
as between this and other repertories are not entirely missing. An example
in point is the just-mentioned opening formula of the first mode which,
as we have seen, recurs in several Introits as well as in numerous Anti-
phons. Even more striking is the musical relationship between the Introits
and a group of chants of an entirely different nature, that is, the Respon-
sories of Matins. In not a few cases the cadential formulae of Introits are
identical with those of Responsories of the same mode. There can be
scarcely any doubt that this is a borrowing of the Introits from the Re-
sponsories, not vice versa. Not only are the Responsories probably an
older type of chant but they also employ the cadential formulae under
consideration in a much more prominent position, that is, as standard
formulae that recur in a great number of Responsories, while in the In-
troits they appear only here and there. Finally, their melodic design, some-
what in the character of two or three turns on successively lower degrees,
is as typical of the Responsories as it is out of line with the general style
of the Introits. The following table, Fig. 86, gives a number of examples.

FIGURE 86
Introits Responsories

l u . | a non possi- mus

P" - J'fL^nn^ix f jhiM*jV*i>iii

alle- lir- ia. alle- lu* ia

'""'"hi jh. | i^fr.jt. fri

al-le- lu- ia Al- tissi- ml

**-

B. , . , , T T i>MiMi -ji

^nsr * *~-f flt+ns

us Domi- ne a P* P*- it

tit

humi-Ii-ta- tern me- am j n u- num

Introits Cibavit [887] Repleatur [897] Misericordia [816] Ecce Deus [1016]

Domine [590]

Responsories Emendemus [534] Cum complerentur [873] Subvenite [1765]
Hodie [375] Astiterunt [732]

The Free Compositions According to Types 311

The individual character of the introit melodies appears also from the
fact that the technique of "migrating phrases" (i.e., of phrases transferred
from one chant to another), which plays a basic role in the Graduals,
Tracts, Responsories, and other chants, is practically absent in the Introits.
The only example I can indicate is from the Introits Quasimodo [809] of
Low Sunday and Cantate Domino [856] from the Fourth Sunday after
Easter, which have the same melody for "alleluia: rationabilis, sine dolo"
and "alleluia: quia mirabilia fecit Dominus."

THE COMMUNIONS

The chants sung during the closing ceremony of the Mass are essentially
similar to those that accompany its beginning. There is, however, a marked
difference of degree between the Introits and the Communions, the latter
tending even more toward .moderateness, not to say modesty, of design
and style. Perhaps it is also permissible to say that the Communions, con-
sidered as a group, ate somewhat less uniform, less conforming to a stand-
ard type, than is the case with the Introits. In this respect they are similar
to the Offertories,. which also show considerable variation of character.

In respect of length, the Communions vary not inconsiderably, certainly
more than the Introits. Probably the shortest is Inclina aurem [1012] with
just a little over one line, the longest, Potum meum [620] with over five
lines. Also very short are Tu es Petrus [ii22 6 ] and Lux aeterna [18 is], 1
in contrast to Domine quinque [1311] and Adversum me [611], both of
them longer than any Introit.

Most of the Communions show a simple, neumatic style similar to that
of the Introits, perhaps with an even greater preference for the shortest
neumes with two or three notes. In several of them, however, syllabic style
prevails to such an extent as to produce a marked similarity with the
Office Antiphons. A Communion such as Lux aeterna [1815], Vos estis
[1468], Quod dico [1173], Oportet [G 122], Lutum fecit [G 146], or Videns
Dominus [G 148] is practically indistinguishable from an Antiphon for
Vespers. On the other hand, fairly extended melismas are occasionally en-
countered, e.g., in Communicantes [1436], Ab occultis [G 142], Dominus

FIGURE 87

a * ^

et quod in aure audf-tis, praedi-ca-te super te- eta.

^ _

8 *

.js P

> f * *M .frtSi ^ n. "\ iESc

pro sae- cu- li vi- ta.

a. Communion Quod dico b. Communion Pants quern
1 Disregarding its verse. Originally, all the Communions had one or more verses.

312 GREGORIAN CHANT

virtutum [G 157], and particularly Panis quern [1043]. A comparison of'
Quod dico and Panis quern clearly indicates the variation of style en-
countered in the Communions, which ranges from that of the Office
Antiphons to that of the Graduals (see Fig. 87).

The "responsorial" cadences which we observed in the Introits are also
found, in slightly varied forms, in some of the Communions, e.g.:

Mode 3: Cum esset [G 624]

Modes: Intellige [549]; Non vos relinquam [899]; Adversum me [611];

Tu mandasti [1062]; Justus Dominus [G 120]
Mode 6: Honora [1026]; Diffusa est [1572]
Mode 7: Unam petit [1005]; Domine quinque [1311]
Mode 8: Mense septimo [1055].

The most remarkable aspect of the Communions is their tonal behavior.
No other type of chant includes such a large percentage of melodies show-
ing tonal instability and, as a result, ambiguity of modal assignment. The
reader is referred to the chapter on the church modes, in which the various
aspects of Gregorian tonality are explained with particular reference to
the Communions. 2

THE TRACTS

The Tracts belong mainly to the Masses of the pre-Easter period, from
Septuagesima to Holy Saturday, and of the four Ember Saturdays [see the
Table of Exceptional Masses, p. 30], In the former they hold the position
normally occupied by the Alleluia, i.e., a chant following the Gradual,
between the Epistle and the Gospel:

Epistle Gradual Tract Gospel

In the older type of Mass, which had three readings, the Tract was sepa-
rated from the Gradual by the second reading. Thus, the Mass of Wednes-

2 A very interesting but rather puzzling remark concerning the Communions is found
in a treatise, De musica, by Oddo (or Berno?). After extolling Pope Gregory's achieve-
ments in various categories of chant Responsories, Antiphons, Introits, Alleluias, Tracts,
Graduals the author continues: "In the Offertories and their verses, and especially
(maximeque) in the Communions did he [Gregory] show what he could accomplish in
this art. For in these there are the most varied kinds of ascent, descent, repeat (duplicatio),
delight for the cognoscenti, difficulty for the beginners, and an admirable organization
[I read here dispositio for depositio] that differs widely from other chants; they are not
so much made according to the rules of music (secundum musicam), but rather evince
the authority and validity (auctoritatem et argumenta) of music" (CS, I, ayGa). While these
remarks are very apt for the Offertories and their verses, they hardly make sense in
connection with the Communions. Could we assume that there existed hi the tenth
century a repertory of highly elaborate Communions which has been completely lost
except, perhaps, for traces surviving, e.g., in Pants quenti

The Free Compositions According to Types 313

day in Holy Week [613] probably is an example of the early state of
affairs:

Lectio Isaiae Gradual Lectio Isaiae Tract Passio Domini

The group of medieval Tracts is relatively small. The oldest sources
(Sextuplex; also St. Gall 35^) have Tracts for the following Masses:

1. The Sundays from Septuagesima to Palm Sunday, except for the Sec-
ond Sunday of Quadragesima, which is of a later date:

Septuagesima: De profundis; Sexagesimal Commovisti; Quinqu-
agesima: Jubilate; Quadragesima I: Qui habitat; Quadragesima
III: Ad te levavi; Quadragesima IV: Qui confidunt; Passion Sun-
day: Saepe expugnaverunt; Palm Sunday: Deus Deus meus

2. Wednesday in Ember Week of Lent: De necessitatibus

3. Saturday in Ember Week of Advent: Qui regis

4. Saturday in Ember Week of Lent and of September: Laudate Do-
minum

5. Wednesday in Holy Week: Domine exaudi

6. Good Friday: Domine audivi; Eripe me

7. Holy Saturday: Cantemus; Vinea; Attende; Sicut cervus; Laudate
Dominum (see no. 4)

8. St. Gregory (today Common of a Martyr-Bishop, Mass II): Beatus vir
qui timet

9. St. Valentine (today Common of a Martyr-Bishop, Mass I): Desi-
derium

10. St. Prisca (today Common of Two Martyrs): Qui seminant

This small group of tenth-century Tracts was enlarged in subsequent
centuries by the following additions: 1

Domine non secundum: for Ash Wednesday and all Mondays, Wednes-
days, and Fridays thereafter until Monday in Holy Week
Effuderunt: Holy Innocents
Nunc dimittis: Purification
Absolve Domine: Mass for the Dead
Confitemini: Second Sunday of Lent (Quadr. II)
Audi filia: Common of a Virgin not a Martyr
Gaude Maria: Feasts of the B.V.M.
Ave Maria: St. Gabriel (originally for Annunciation?)
Tu es Petrus: St. Peter's Chair
Tu es vas: Conversion of St. Paul

iSee W. H. Frere, The Sarum Gradual . . . (1895), p. Ixxxii. The eleventh-century
Gradual of St. Yrieix (Pal. mus., xiii) has all these additions except Absolve, Audi filla,
and Gaude Maria. It also has eight Tracts not adopted in the modern books.

314 GREGORIAN CHANT

Thus we arrive at a group of thirty-one Tracts that can be considered
as authentic. The number of Tracts found in the modern books is, how-
ever, considerably larger, there being forty-seven in the Liber usualis and
eighty-seven in the Graduate Romanum. They are all for feasts of Saints
which may fall in the period of Lent (e.g., Spera in Domino for St. John
Bosco, on January 31) or for Votive Masses if celebrated during this period
(e.g., Benedicite Dominum for the Votive Mass of the Holy Angels). In
the absence of a critical and musicological edition of Gregorian chant it
is impossible (at least, for this writer) to say which of these Tracts are
taken from medieval sources and which are modern compositions that
originated at Solesmes. At any rate, the medieval repertory is large enough
to provide a solid basis for our investigations.

Aside from the rather unimportant case of the tonus in directum [see
p. 179], the Tracts are the only surviving examples of direct psalmody, that
is, of a Psalm sung without the addition of an Antiphon or Respond. Each
Tract consists of a number of verses, from two to fourteen, taken from
one and the same Psalm. Exceptions occur only in the group of later
medieval additions, where we find non-psalmodic texts, e.g., Ave Maria,
Gaude Maria, Tu es Petrus, as well as a textual compilation, Domine,
non secundum? It should be noticed that in the liturgical books the in-
dication of the verses, by the sign y, is somewhat misleading, since this
sign does not appear at the very beginning of the Tract, thus giving the
impression that die opening portion might be something in the nature of
a respond, followed by a number of verses. Actually, the initial section of
the text is also a verse, often the first verse of the Psalm. The number of
verses, therefore, is always one more than is suggested by the signs y. The
longest Tract is Deus Deus meus with fourteen verses, the shortest, Laudate
Dominum with only two, which, however, constitute the entire Psalm (Ps.
ii6).

The musical style of the Tracts is considerably more ornate than that
of the Introits. Every Tract includes a number of fairly extended melismas,
and occasionally one comes upon melismas which are among the longest
to be found in the entire repertory of chants, as, for instance, in Com-
movisti [507] at the close of the first and of the last verse. Fairly extended
passages in monotone recitation occur in several Tracts, particularly in
Attende caelum [751]. Between these extremes of syllabic recitation and
long melismas the melodies move in a richly neumatic style, frequently
employing groups of four, five, or six notes for one syllable.

One o the various unique aspects of the Tracts is that they are confined
to two modes, the second and the eighth, a restriction for which there exists

2^. i from Ps. 102:10; $\ 2 from Ps. 78:8; ^. 3 is non-scriptural.
8 The Tract Nuncdimittis has the entire text of the Canticle.

The Free Compositions According to Types 315

no parallel in the Gregorian repertory. In fact, there is some reason to
assume that originally there existed only one mode for Tracts, the eighth. 4
Certain it is that the Tracts of the eighth mode prevail among the old
group of twenty-one Tracts, fifteen of which are in the eighth mode. In
the later additions, on the other hand, the second mode takes first place,
with seven out of ten: -

OU> ADDITIONS TOTAL

Mode 8: 15 3 18

Mode 2: 6 7 13

21 10 31

Considered from the point of view of tonal material, the Tracts are even
much more restricted than is suggested by the limitation to two modes,
because of the extensive use of standard phrases which not only recur
within the various verses of one and the same Tract, but are also trans-
ferred from one Tract to others, so that, in each mode, the entire group is
closely bound together by the use of identical thematic material. The
Tracts are not the only type of chant in which standard phrases (or, as
they are also called, migrating formulae) occur. Nowhere, however, is this
technique carried out so systematically as in the Tracts, each of which
consists almost completely of a succession of standard phrases.

THE TRACTS OF THE EIGHTH MODE

To this group belong most of the old Tracts and, in particular, all the
five Tracts of Holy Saturday. These constitute a core of special interest
and importance, which will serve as the basis of the analytical study of the
melodies. Most of the Tracts of mode 8 have three verses, and several have
four. Laudate Dominum is the shortest with only two verses, while Attende
and Ad te levavi are the most extended, with five. Each verse falls into a
small number of well-defined musical phrases, normally three, but occa-
sionally two or four. Common to all these phrases is the cadential point,
which is either the tonic, g, or the subtonic, f. The only exception is a
phrase closing on c' which occurs twice in Commovisti. The normal ar-
rangement of cadential points, to be observed particularly in the central
group of the Tracts from Holy Saturday, is g f g, that is, the verse begins
with a phrase ending on g, continues with one ending on f, and closes with
a third ending on g. Verses with four phrases usually close with two phrases
on g, so that the arrangement of cadences becomes g f g g. Other schemes,
such as f g g or g g g also occur.

These fairly fixed schemes of cadential notes represent the framework
* Sec p. 184 for the theory that the Tracts of mode 2 originally were Graduate.

316 GREGORIAN CHANT

for a melodic structure which consists of a limited number of standard
phrases. The principle involved is particularly apparent in the central
group of Holy Saturday, a group which includes five Tracts with sixteen
verses and fifty-one phrases. Actually, there are only eight different phrases
which, recurring in various combinations, provide the material for the
complete melodies. Six of these standard phrases close on g, and two on f .
The g-group includes one phrase for the beginning of the first verse, one
for the close of the last verse, one that is normally employed for the be-
ginning of verses other than the first, and one that usually appears at the
end of the verses, including the last in which it precedes the final phrase.
The following scheme shows, by means of asterisks, how the sixteen verses
are "composed" out of this basic material. The phrases are marked G or F
(with inferior letters or numbers; a for the initial phrase, n for the final),
depending upon whether they dose on g or on f :

TRACTS OF HOLY SATURDAY

Cantemus [745]
Vinea [748]

y. i *

3
Attends caelum [751] y. i *

3
4

5
Sicut cervus [753] y. i *

Laudate [76o] 5 y. i *

G 2

G n

* *

(Fi, Gs restated)

It appears that this group of Tracts is a perfect example of centoniza*
tion, a unified aggregate of eight elements variously selected and com-
bined.

An analytical study similar to the one given above has been made by
Ferretti, in his Esthitique grigorienne (pp. 1358:). Ferretti gives several

examples showing how the standard phrases are modified according to the

5 In Laudate some of the phrases are modified. See p. 322.

The Free Compositions According to Types 317

exigencies of the text, either by the interpolation of recitation passages or,
occasionally, by splitting a neume into two shorter neumes:

FIGURE 88

et exal- ta- bo e- urn.

et aedi-fi- ca- vit turrim in medi-o e- jus.

ma- net Do- mi-nus

a. Phrase G ft in Cantemus, -ft. 2 and Vinea, fl 2.

b. Beginning of Phrase G n in Laudate, -f. 2 and Cantemus, fr 3.

Ferretti also states certain principles governing the succession and func-
tion of the standard phrases, but the reader must be warned that most of
his statements are incorrect. Thus, on p. 136 he says (we translate and
replace his symbols, A, B, C, by the corresponding symbols of our system,
that is, Fi, Gi, Ga):

These two initial formulae of the verses [Fi and Gi] serve also as mediants, but
in such a way that the formula FI is never omitted. Thus, if a verse begins with
the formula GI, this must be immediately followed by FI, except in the case of
the final verse.

Actually there is no verse in any of the Tracts under consideration (nor
in any of those to be studied later) in which Gi serves as a mediant, that
is, as an inner formula. More than any other formula (except for G a and
G n ) it has an invariable position, at the beginning of verses other than
the first.

Later on (pp. itfS) Ferretti says:

a) The mediant formula FI can never be missing, as we have said

b) The mediant formula GI is employed if the text is long. In this case the
formulae follow in this order: FI GI G2.

c) If the text has four divisions, the composers tend to let the formula F
alternate with the final formula [G2], as follows: FI Ga FI Ga-

d) The closing formula of the entire piece [GJ ... is usually preceded by
the mediant formula GI, if the text has only two divisions, or by the final
formula G2, if there are more than two divisions.

318 GREGORIAN CHANT

To these statements we offer the following remarks which should be
regarded as constructive contributions given in order to obtain a correct
picture:

a. The formula Fi (or F2) is missing in the final verses of Cantemus
and Attende; also repeatedly in Jubilate, Ad te levavi, etc.; see the tabu-
lation on p. 319.

b. The sequence Fi Gi 62 never occurs. We have already remarked
that Gi, far from being a "fonnule mediane," is always found at the
beginning of a verse. There are, however, several instances of the se-
quence Gi Fi G2 (Cantemus, y. 2; Vinea, y. 2; Attende, y. 2 and 4).

c. The alternating sequence, Fi Gs Fi 62, occurs only once in all the
Tracts of the eighth mode, that is, in y. i of Cantemus, which actually
has five divisions, G a Fi 62 Fi 62. The verses with four divisions show
the structure G F G G. >

d. The sequence Gi G n occurs only once, in Gantemus, y. 3.

As in so many other cases, Ferretti has become a victim of his tendency
to formulate exact rules and laws. Usually the picture is more complex
than he presents it, and often too complex to be expressed at all in the
form of concise statements. However, it is not too difficult to formulate a
few general principles outlining the function and position of the standard
phrases in the above group of Tracts, such as the following:

1. The basic structure of each verse is one consisting of three elements:
an "intonation" formula closing on g, a "mediation" formula dosing on f,
and a "termination" formula dosing on g. Normally, these formulae are
Gi, Fi, and 62.

2. Intonation: Gi is invariably replaced by G a in the first verse. Occa-
sionally it is omitted.

3. Mediation: Fi is occasionally replaced by F2. In two verses it is
omitted.

4. Termination: Some verses have a "doubled" termination consisting
of two G-formulae, e.g., 62 Gs. The last verse always doses with G n .

We shall now proceed from the central group provided by the Tracts of
Holy Saturday to the other Tracts of the eighth mode. The general picture
presented by them is rather similar, though richer and more varied in
detail. A few of the additional Tracts employ the same material that make
up the central group, but in most of them the original phrases are varied
or new elements are added to them. Following is a schematic representa-
tion of the eighteen medieval Tracts of the eighth mode:

N o*o* - -

o--oV oo

tfftfft*-^ rigd'O ++ -~- rt .^
^ptT+ O *>*>OO e r l (s^bo bo610

*. o" O^ o* O" 1 2 fiT O O** O^ U* O* O t O* ; t-mO*

O
iff

o +>

. o" o" o* o" o o" o o d o o" o" o o o o* o

iiiijmm;*nii

319

GREGORIAN CHANT

Fig. 89 shows the standard phrases used in the first seven Tracts of this
tabulation. Underlining indicates portions that are variable.

FIGURE 89

' B 1 ^*

Wpc

Ui G Ift

Si _

*- - - rm Kfl fcj-flr * lMiV*

. J"l

_i^^ "^ ni

1 T 1

- ^~ !

f-i

J _ _ ^ '" " -_.' - "

p^J fl

fh fhi__ III ^ W ^B-B. Ill T

-J....

l>[ **r*r* w ii% I T '^MiltB.

Tracts VIE: Standard Phrases

In order to illustrate this method of representation, there is shown below
the text of the Tract Cantemus [745] with the symbols for the various
phrases.

G a F! G 2

Cantemus Domino: gloriose enim honorificatus est: equum et ascensorem*

F 2 G 2

projecit in mare: adjutor et protector factus est mihi in salutem.

G! F! G 2

y. Hie Deus meus, et honorabo eum: Deus patris mei, et exaltabo eum.

G 2 G n

y. Dominus conterens bella: Dominus nomen est illi.

Similarly for Laudate [760]:

The passage honorificatus . . . ascensorem in ^. i is another example of disagreement
between the textual and the musical phrase (see pp. 2731), with the result that the
Solesmes full bar (after est) appears right hi the middle of the standard phrase G a . Natu-
rally, these bars are disregarded in our Tabulation on t>. io.

The Free Compositions According to Types 321

G a F 2 G 2 G 3 '

Laudate Dominum omnes gentes et collaudate eum omnes populi.

10 4-gi F! G 4

,y Quoniam conftrmata est super nos misericordia ejus: et veritas

G n
Domini manet in aeternum.

Following are some observations about the "medieval" group of Tracts,
with occasional remarks about the "late" Tracts included in the Liber
usualis and Graduate romanum:

1. In addition to the basic opening formula, G a , there are four others
employed for the beginning, G b , G c , G d , G e . The formula Gt> of Commo-
visti does not recur in any other medieval Tract, but is used in some of the
late (probably modern) Tracts, namely, in Exsurge Domine [G [101]] and
Magnificat anima mea [G 50**]. There are only two Tracts, both late, that
do not begin with one of the five formulae G a to G e . These are Filii homi-
num [L Supplement, Feast of the Eudiaristic Heart of Jesus, p. 7] and
Ego diligentes [G 61**], both of which start, highly irregularly, with an
F-phrase.

2. Without exception, all Tracts close with one and the same formula,
G n which, moreover, occurs only in this position (in contrast to the Tracts
of mode 2, in which the final phrase is occasionally used also for the close of
inner verses). Sometimes the formula is slightly modified, e.g., in Com-
movisti (variant at the beginning) and in Laudate (shorter version near
the end).

3. The group of medieval Tracts has nine recurring G-phrases (G t to
G 9 ) other than those for the opening and the close. A few more could be
added if the analysis is extended to include also the late Tracts. For ex-
example, the "free" opening phrase, ...g, of y. 2 of Qui seminant recurs
in y. 2 of Notus in Judaea, probably a Solesmes composition for the Mass
to Beg for Peace [1286].

4. The four F-phrases are related to each other by having an identical
conclusion. They are of special interest because they, or their concluding
sections, frequently appear at the end of extended free passages, as indi-
cated in our tabulation by symbols such as 14+ F 2 , 14+^, 10 + f 4 , etc.
Sometimes these passages are in the character of a monotone recitation,
as in y. 3 of Qui regis where, however, an exuberant melisma somewhat
incongruously interrupts the recitation on c'. More frequently, they move
up and down freely in a moderately neumatic style, as in y. i of the same
Tract. Most of these free passages occur at the beginning of a verse, where
they take care of a considerable portion of the text.

322 GREGORIAN CHANT

5. The medieval Tracts include only one C-phrase, which occurs in
Commovisti at the beginning o y. 2 and 3. It has, however, been in-
corporated in some of the modern Tracts, e.g., in Notus in Judaea, y. 3
[1286, on "potentias"; Mass to Beg for Peace], Ecce sic, y. 3 [1290, on "Et
videas"; Nuptial Mass], and Tu gloria, y. 2 [1378, on "Tota"; Apparition
of Our Blessed Lady at Lourdes].

6. Most of the "inner" G-phrases (Gj, etc.) have fairly well-defined
functions. G! appears only at the beginning of verses, except for y. 2 of
Qui regis, which is treated as if it consisted of two verses, "Qui sedes super
Cherubim, appare coram Ephraim" and "Benjamin et Manasse," each set
to G! G 3 . G 2 is used mainly for the close of a verse, but is sometimes fol-
lowed by G 3 (or by G n in the last verse). G 3 is always a terminal formula.
An F-phrase is included in most of the verses, but not in all of them (see
Beatus vir qui, Jubilate, Ad te levavi). The other G-phrases occur only a
few times, which makes it difficult to say whether they were considered as
initial, mediant, or terminal formulae. It may be noticed that, e.g., G 4 ap-
pears in Laudate, y. 2, as a penultimate, and in Jubilate, y. 3, as an initial
phrase.

7. Some formulae, notably G 15 G 2 , and Fj, are often used to accommo-
date extra syllables in monotone recitation. The pitches are c' for G! and
F!, g for G 2 . A good example is Attende caelum, which includes seven such
passages.

8. Our schematic representation provides a good insight into the the-
matic relationship between the Tracts which, in fact, have been arranged
according to this point of view. Naturally, the tabulation starts with the
nucleus of the five tracts of Holy Saturday, which appear in their liturgical
order. It is perhaps not merely incidental that the first three of these are
the ones most clearly unified, since they employ only the formulae G a , G l9
GS, Ga, F!, and F 2 . The fourth Tract, Sicut cervus, introduces a new for-
mula, Gg, and the fifth, Laudate, not only employs a variant of this
formula, G 8 ' and a new phrase, G 4 , but also starts out, in y. 2, with a free
section, terminating in gj. Closely related to this central group are the
Tracts Absolve from the Mass for the Dead and Beatus vir qui timet from
the feast of St. Gregory (now for the Common of a Martyr), both of which
employ only the material of the Holy Saturday Tracts. A "modern" Tract
belonging to the same class is Laudate Dominum omnes angeli, from the
Feast of St. Raphael, Archangel [G 636]. The next two Tracts of our list,
Qui regis and De profundis, include two new F-phrases, F 8 and f 4 as well
as extended free passages. Decidedly new material appears in Commovisti,
singular among the medieval Tracts in its use of G b and C^ and perhaps
the progenitor of three new G-phrases, G 5 , G 6 , and G 7 . The phrase C^
shown in Fig. 90, includes a triadic progression, e'-c'-g, which, as has been
previously noted [see p. 255], is extremely rare in Gregorian chant. Only

The Free Compositions According to Types 3*3

FIGURE 90

two additional formulae appear in the remaining Tracts, G 8 in Ad te
levavi and G 9 in Saepe expugnaverunt.

THE TRACTS OF THE SECOND MODE

The old nucleus of Tracts of the second mode is very small. It consists
of the following pieces:

Qui habitat [533] for First Sunday of Lent
Deus Deus meus [592] for Palm Sunday
. Domine exaudi [614] for Wednesday in Holy Week
Domine audivi [695] for Good Friday
Eripe me [697] for Good Friday
De necessitatibus [G 102] for Wednesday of Ember Week in Lent

In a way, this small number is compensated for by the exceptional ex-
tension of three of these Tracts: Deus Deus meus with fourteen verses, Qui
habitat with thirteen, and Eripe me with eleven. These are by far the
longest chants in the Gregorian repertory, each covering three pages of
the Liber usualis. Deus Deus meus alone includes almost as many verses
as all the five eighth-mode Tracts of Holy Saturday together, so that this
single Tract could well serve as a point of departure for an analytical
study. Except for De necessitatibus which, with three verses, is the shortest,
all the Tracts of the old repertory are closely related structurally as well
as thematically and, with a total of sixty verses, provide a broad basis for
investigation. In addition, we shall consider seven Tracts found in later
medieval sources, namely, Domine non secundum, Confitemini, Audi filta,
Gaude Maria, Ave Maria, Tu es Petrus, and Tu es vas.

The emerging picture is very similar to the one presented by the Tracts
of mode 8. In a way it is even more impressive, because of the great number
of elements involved, c. eighty verses with almost three hundred phrases,
which can be reduced to only twenty different standard formulae. It is
also structurally clearer, since the great majority of verses, c. sixty out of
eighty, show an identical organization consisting of four phrases which
terminate respectively on d, c, f, and d. In order to promote clarity and
facilitate reference we shall designate these segments of a verse by terms
borrowed from the psalm tones, namely, intonation (d), flex (c), mediation
(f), and termination (d), reserving the term "opening" for the intonation
of the first verse, and "closing" for the termination of the last. About a half
dozen of the verses lack the mediation, and a similar number lack the
flex, while a few show other deviations from the basic scheme.

324 GREGORIAN CHANT

In his Gregorianische Formenlehre (p. 353), P. Wagner characterized
the Tracts as "psalmodie-ahnliche Variationen." Although to a certain ex-
tent this designation is applicable to all the Tracts, it is particularly suit-
able for those of the second mode, which indeed show an interesting re-
lationship to psalmody as well as to variation technique. The consistency
with which the cadential scheme, d-c-f-d, is employed is so obvious that
one is tempted to reconstruct a psalmodic formula which could be con-
sidered as the skeleton melody for all the verses:

FIGURE 91

Int. Flex Med. Term.

It is hardly necessary to say that this reconstruction is entirely hypothetical,
and is given here only for the purpose of demonstration, without implying
that it represents the "original form" of the tract melodies. Considered
analytically, however, there can be no doubt that nearly all of the eighty
verses found in the Tracts of the second mode are highly complex varia-
tions of a psalmodic theme such as the one just indicated. The method of
variation would consist in replacing each of the "recitation pitches" of the
theme by one or another of a group of standard phrases, all closing on
the corresponding cadential note. It is not without interest to correlate
this "Gregorian" variation technique to that employed, in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, in connection with certain themes of a some-
what similar character. We are referring to the descending tetrachord
which occurs in the Romaneses the passamezzo antico, the Spanish Guar-
dame las vacas, and numerous passacaglias of the seventeenth century.
Particularly suitable for the comparison are some of the sixteenth-century
passamezzos, in which each tone of the tetrachord serves as the basis of
four, six, or even eight measures, thus being extended into a passage com-
parable in length to those of the Tracts. 7 The difference in treatment is
that in these variations the "thematic tone" appears at the beginning of
the passages, while in the Tracts it appears at the end:

FIGURE 92
Passamezzo Tract

7 For instance, the Pass'e mezzo by Giovanni Picchi, reproduced in HAM, no. 154!).

The Free Compositions According to Types 325

Considering the fact that in the sixteenth-century variations as well as
in the Tracts the theme is continuously repeated a number of times, one
might push the analogy even one step further and designate a Tract, some-
what speciously, as a kind of ostinato. An especially good example would
be Eripe me, in which the theme is restated eleven times without any
change of its substance. 8

The transition from the "theme" to the "variations" involves the in-
troduction, at their proper places, of a limited number of standard formu-
lae, most of which recur in different verses of the same or of some other
Tracts. The repertory of recurring standard phrases consists of:

two for the opening (D a , D b )

ten for the intonation (D t to D 10 )

three for the flex (C x , C 2 , occasionally C 3 )

one for the mediant (F l9 also in a variant F^)

five for the termination (D n to D 15 )

one for the close (D n ).

A tabulation of the Tracts of the second mode is shown on pp. 32 6f.

In order to facilitate the identification of the standard phrases, part of
the text of Deus Deus metis follows, with the symbols added:

D a 8 +CL 3 +D

y. i. Deus, Deus meus, respice in me: quare me derelexisti?

D! Q f x D 12

y. 2. Longe a salute mea verba delictorum meorum.

C x F t D ls

y. 5. In te speraverunt patres nostri: speraverunt, et liberasti eos.

D 3 C 2 F!

y. 7. Ego autem sum vermis, et non homo: opprobrium hominum

D "

et abjectio plebis.

D y 3 +C 2 3 -fd 2 F! D 13

y. 11. Libera me de ore leonis: et a cor-nibus unicornuorum humilitatem
meam.

... d ... f D n '

y. 14. Populo qui nascetur, quern fecit Dominus.

Fig. 93 shows some of the standard phrases, mainly those that have a
variable beginning (indicated by underlining) or occur in a shortened form
(indicated by small letters).

8 Concerning the date of this Tract, see p. 511.

3*6

GREGORIAN CHANT

(read horizontally to facing page)

TRACTS n: TABULATION

y. He, a) y.sc?, 12)

Int. FL Med*. Term. Int. EL Med. Term.

Dms Deus metis

D a 8+Ci
D* 5-fci
Dr 3-j-Ca

FI Di4

3+daFi Dia

D 8 G 3
D 8 Ci

fi D ia

Qid habitat

Db 9+ci
D 3 ci 13+ci
Da Ci

...d
...d
Fi 3+d 18

D 8 Ci
D 9 da G 3
DID da 5+ci

9+fi D ia
Fx D 18

Eripeme

D a 4+Ci

Dflda 8+ci
D 8 Gi

FI Du
Fi' Dn

D! Ci

Fx 4+d 18

Doming audivi

Db Ci 3+ ex

Fi' Dis

DiDfi... 12+ci

Fx' DXS

Doming exaudi

Db 3+Cx

F!' D!

Di 6+ci

Fl 4 +Cl *.

Confitgmini

Da 3+Cx

F! d 18

D! Cx

Fi Dxs

Doming non

Db 6+cx

17 T7 A LJ

FiITi 4-rdi4

Dg da GI

Fx Dxs

Audi filia

Da 7+cx

Fi Dn

Cx 4-fcx

Fi Da

Gctude M.arict

. . .d 5+ci

Fi Dn

DI ...C

Dxi

Tu gs Pgtrus

D. 4+ci

Fj Dn

Di Cx

Ft Dxi

Tucsvas

...d 3+ci

Fj 7-f-dia

4+da Ca

fx... 3+dxa

Ace Maria
De necgssitatibus

D a 2+d
D 8 D 5 G 8

>-J-c* 54-cs Due

D 8 4+cx

d* . . A 5^J-r

Fi 4+di4
r* IF^TI.

The Free Compositions According to Types

3*7

TRACTS H: TABULATION

7- 3 (8, 13) 7 * (9, 14) 7- 5 (10, 15)

Int. EL Med. Term. Int. FL Med. Term. Int. EL Med. Term.

D 2 7+ci
D 6 C 2
D 8 Gi

Fi ...d

FI Di4

Fi' Dia

D 3 5+ci
D 6 5+ci
...d

...d

Fl Dl4
...fDn

FI DIB
Fi 17+di

DaDs 7+ci
D 6 4+ci
D* Ci3+Ci

Fi' D n

Da 5+ci
DioDg 5 -f-Ci

...d

4+di3

D 5 4+ci

Fl Dl4

Fi 4+Da

Da 4+ci
D 8 Ci

Fl Dl3

Fi Du

DioD 6+ci

Fi Dn

D 3 Ds Ga

Dg Gi

Fi DM
FI DH

3+D 4+ci

Ft D n

D 7 6+ci

V V

^10 6+ci

Fi' Dn

FI . .d

4+djDjCg

Fl Dn'

Di D fi 6+ci

Fi Dn'

Dflda Ca

i, *,

D 7 dj Gi

Fi' D n

9+da Ci

Fi' D n

Da Gi

FI Dn

D 8 Ci

F!' Dn

D 7 da Ga

Fi' 6+Dn

...fDn

D 3 Ci

FI Dn

Dr C,

Fi' Dn

...c

Fi 3+d 3

D 7 dj

Fi' Dn

D 9 da Ca

FI Dn

D, 5+C,

FI D

D 7 da Cs

FI DM

...d Cs |Fi' Dn

. "

388 GREGORIAN CHANT

FIGURE 93
D, Dj

M 3

P, l*t

*.' -*""

Tracts II: Standard Phrases
TUEMARKS:

i. The normal scheme for the verse, found in the great majority of
cases, is a division into four phrases, with fixed formulae for the first and
third, and fixed formulae or endings for the second and fourth. In a num-
ber of cases one of the four elements, particularly the intonation, includes
two phrases in succession, e.g., D 3 D 5 in Qui habitat, y. 3; or a phrase
followed by the conclusion of another, e.g., D 9 d 2 in y. 7 of the same
tract, y. 11 of Qui habitat is one of several verses with a doubled flex
(s-f CL 13 + Cj), while y. i of Domine non is a unique example of a
doubled mediant, F x F x .

s. In Qui habitat, y. 7, and in Domine exaudi, y. 2, the basic cadential
scheme is amplified by the insertion, between mediant and termination,
of a flex, 4+c x . More frequent are reductions, such as omission of the
mediant (Deus Deus meus, y. 4; Qui habitat, y. i, 3, 4, 9; Gaude Maria,

The Free Compositions According to Types 329

y. 2), of the intonation (Audi filia, y. 2; Tu es vas, y. 3; Deus Deus meus,
y. 5, 10), of the flex (Deus Deus meus, y. 14), or even of intonation and
flex (Domine exaudi, y. 3; Gaude Maria, y. 4).

3. In the field of the d-formulae there is a strict separation between
those for the intonation (Di to D 10 ) and those for the termination (D n to
D 15 ). Notice, however, two cases in which an intonation formula is em-
ployed as a termination: Qui habitat, y. 10, and Tu es vas, y. 3.

5. The formula for the mediant, F x , exists in a slightly more elaborate
variant, F x ' (characterized by a rise up to b-flat), which is often used in
the last or in the penultimate verse. Domine exaudi also has it for y. i,
Domine audivi for y. i and 2.

6. As in the Tracts of mode 8, there is only one closing formula, D n .
The two Tracts just mentioned, Domine exaudi and Domine audivi, em-
ploy this formula also for the two verses preceding the last. This is the
only instance in which the Tracts of mode 2 are less consistent than those
of mode 8.

7. Three complete C-phrases can be distinguished, two of which, GX
and C 2 , have the same ending. This ending, designated as c^ occurs fre-
quently in connection with free passages (8+c x , etc.). The standard phrase
G! begins with an interesting passage, essentially a recitation on d with
inflections up to f, which often occurs as a repetitive distropha or tri-
stropha. A clear example is found in y. 3 of Domine non. g Occasionally
recitation passages on d occur within the F r formula, e.g., in Confitemini
y. i ("quoniam in") and y. 3 ("faciunt"); in Domine non y. i ("neque
secundum iniquitates") and y. 2 ("anticipent nos misericordia"); etc. A
very unusual recitative occurs in Qui habitat y. 2, where six consecutive
syllables, "-gium meum, Deus," are each sung to a podatus d-e. 10

8. Conspicuously different from the other Tracts is De necessitatibus,
which, for this reason, we have placed at the end of our table, although
it belongs to the old group. Its first and second verses consist of at least
six phrases with a highly irregular sequence of cadential notes. Each of
its verses includes at least one phrase that does not recur in any other
Tract. Equally abnormal is the frequent use of the C 8 -formula, which
occurs five times in De necessitatibus, while it appears only seven times
in all the other Tracts together.

After these detailed and lengthy explanations of the two groups of

9 Ferretti, p. 141, interprets these strophici as indications of a "teneur cachee et sous-
entendue" on f. While recitation on d is not infrequent in the Tracts of mode 2 (see
Confitemini, $. i, 3, 4; Qui habitat, $. 13; Eripe, fi. 9, 11), there is only one clear example
of a recitation on f, that is, in Domine non, near the end of ^. 2, quia pauperes facti
sumus.

10 A recitative consisting of reiterated torculi is found quite frequently in the Old-
Roman chant. Cf. p, 491, JFig. 170.

3$O GREGORIAN CHANT

Tracts, one in the eighth, the other in the second mode, a few concluding
remarks may be in place, mainly regarding the question of similarities and
dissimilarities in their structural aspect and technique of composition.
Essentially they employ the same method of "composing" all the verses
from a limited repertory of standard formulae. The relative amount of
standard material is about the same, as appears from our two tables of
Standard Phrases, which show nineteen formulae for the sixty verses of
Tracts VIII and twenty-two for the eighty verses of Tracts II.

As to differences of treatment, the most striking is the much greater
regularity of structure displayed by Tracts in mode 2, in which quadri-
partite verses with cadences on d, c, f, and d occur so frequently as to
constitute a norm. Nothing comparable exists in the Tracts in mode 8.
Here the closest approximation to a "normal structure" would be a tri-
partite verse with cadences on g, f, and g, but a glance at our tabulation
shows that this occurs only in a relatively small number of verses, even
if we admit cases with a doubled cadence, such as g f g g. 11

THE GREAT RESPONSORIES

, The Great Responsories (responsoria prolixa) belong to Matins, where
they have a function similar to that of the Gradual and Alleluia (or
Tract) in the Mass, that is, as musical postludes to the lessons. In the
Roman rite the liturgy of Matins requires nine Responsories, three for
each Nocturn. While for the weekdays a common fund of ordinary chants
is drawn upon, the Sundays and feasts have proper chants, varying from
one occasion to another. As a result a large repertory of Responsories has
accrued, which has been still further expanded by local usages. Even
larger is the number of Responsories prescribed for the monastic rite of
the Benedictines, because here each Nocturn has four Responsories. An
idea of the total repertory can be formed on the basis of early Antiphonals.
The eleventh-century Codex Hartker includes over 600 Responsories, the
twelfth-century Codex Lucca over 700, and the thirteenth-century Codex
Worcester a monastic Antiphonal close to one thousand. Thus, from
the point of view of quantity, the Responsories are second only to the
Antiphons.

A considerable portion of this repertory is available in modern publica-
tions. The Liber usualis includes eight services of Matins: Maundy Thurs-

11 Once more I find it impossible to agree with Ferretti, who says that the Tracts of
mode 2 are "very rich in formulae, and do not have the simplicity" of the Tracts of
mode a (p. 139). Ferretti considers only the central group of the latter type, the five
Tracts from Holy Saturday, passing over the others with a brief remark about "formules
de rechange" (exchange formulae; p. 138). Naturally, it is unfair to draw a comparison
between a group of five Tracts with a total of sixteen verses, and a group of more than
twenty tracts with a total of eighty verses.

The Free Compositions According to Types 331

day, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, and the Office of the Dead, each with
nine Responsories; the Nativity and Corpus Christi, each with eight Re-
sponsories, the ninth being replaced by the Te Deum; 1 and Easter Sunday
and Penetecost, both of which have only one Nocturn, with two Respon-
sories and the Te Deum. The Liber responsorialis (LR) includes the service
of Matins for the Nativity, Epiphany, Easter Sunday, Ascension, Pentecost,
Corpus Christi; for seven Commons of Saints; and for eleven special Feasts
of Saints. Each of these services has twelve Responsories, in addition to
which there are given c. 40 Responsories for the Sundays of the year. Yet
other Responsories are contained in the Processionale monasticum (PM),
published for use in French Benedictine monasteries, where it is customary
to sing Responsories during the procession from the place of assembly to
the church. Finally, the Variae preces (VP) contain c. 25 Responsories
not found in the publications just mentioned. Altogether, these books con-
tain close to 500 Responsories, certainly a sufficiently large number to serve
as a basis for investigation and, in fact, one much larger than can be
considered in our study. A very complete and detailed investigation of the
Responsories found in the Antiphonale Sarisburiense and other early
sources has been made by W. H. Frere. 2

Each Responsory consists of two different sections, the respond and the
verse, after which the respond is repeated either complete or, more fre-
quently, from some point within its course. The verses are normally sung
to one of eight standard tones, i.e., the responsorial tones which have been
studied previously. 3 The following study deals only with the music for
the responds and, to a certain extent, with that of verses having individual
melodies.

There exist Responsories and, consequently, responds in each of the
eight modes. Those of the protus and tetrardus modes are the most fre-
quent, and those of the tritus are relatively few in number, as appears
from the table on p. 137. Within each mode there exist standard phrases
which recur in a number of different melodies, similar to what has been
observed in the Tracts. However, the centonization method, which plays
such a basic role in the Tracts, is considerably less prominent in the re-
sponds. Certainly, there is no parallel in the responds to the completely
unified picture presented by nearly all the Tracts of the second mode. In
the Responsories each modal group includes a number of melodies show-
ing fairly close thematic relationship, but in addition to these there are
many others that differ more or less radically from the main type. Even
in those that can be grouped together on the basis of common material,

1 See p. 22, fn. 5.

2 Antiphonale Sarisburiense, Dissertation, pp. 5-61.

3 See pp.

33*

GREGORIAN CHANT

this is often considerably modified and intermingled with free elements.
The two most fully unified groups of Responsories are those of the second
and eighth modes, that is, the same modes to which all the Tracts belong.
We can only speculate whether there is a historical relationship between
these two phenomena.

THE RESPONSORIES OF MODE 2

This mode has an easily recognizable main melody. P. Wagner gives
the Responsory Dominator Domine as its representative, saying that "more
than two-thirds of the Responsories of mode 2 follow this type, whose vari-
ants are not numerous and are easily recognized as such." 4 W. H. Frere
opens his detailed investigation with Domine Deus (which is musically
identical with Dominator Domine) and indicates forty specific melodies
in the Sarum Antiphonal, the Lucca Ms, and the Codex Hartker, which
belong to this type, 5 For our purpose it will suffice to consider the examples
that are easily accessible in the previously mentioned publications. Re-
sponsories associated with recent feasts, such as S. Joseph, Sponsus B.
Mariae V. [LR 301], have been excluded.

RESPONSORIES II, MAIN TYPE: TABULATION 6

PM 113 Dominator Domine

Domine Deus 7

PM 174 Levita Laurentius

L 1360 Obtulerunt

LR 143 Constitues

LR 201 Amavit eum

L 639 Judas Mercator

L 590 Ingrediente

LR 425 Domine mi

LR 322 Domine non aspicias

LR 395 Emitte agnum

VP 262 Tua est potentia

LR 422 Si bona

LR 71 In columbae specie

LR 321 Inito consilio

L 524 Emendemus

C 1 D 1

CiD!

C 2 *

C 2

D 2 C 2 *

d-j C 2 *

D 2 C 2

D 2 C 2 *

da C 2

d, C 2

...d C 2 *
D 2 * ...d

...a 5+d*

4+dj

6 + d 3

G 1 |C 2 ...c|D 1
G! 5 + di

* Wagner 7/7,336.
5<4?if. Sarisb., I, 6.

e The symbols have the same meaning as in the tabulation of the Tracts. For the mean-
ing of *, see below under (4).
t. Sarisb. > I, 6.

The Free Compositions According to Types 333

FIGURE 94

iya . w . frggc: < rf ^ '-*

5E5-

1*3

qsr f . HA flvac

1C,

i i nv P

ipc

Responsories II: Standard Phrases

REMARKS:

1. The melodies show a tripartite structure, normally \vith two well-
defined phrases in each of the three devisions. Levita Laurentius, Obtu-
lerunt, and Constitues are the best representatives of this full form, which
also prevails among the other Responsories, regardless of the mode.

2. Of the three divisions, the first is rigidly fixed. This is, of course, the
result of our selection which includes only those Responsories that begin
with G! Dj. Frere lists about twenty-five additional Responsories with the
same beginning (O D 1 in his symbols). Ten of the Responsories of our
tabulation also have an identical melody for the second division, and
sixteen others of this type are indicated by Frere (O D 1 d 1 C). Variability
in this division ranges from the omission of one of the two standard phrases
(Emitte agnum, Tua est potentia) to a completely new melody, as in
Emendemus. The third division shows the greatest amount of variability.
The "normal" form, G x d lf is found in only four Responsories of our
tabulation. In others the first phrase is omitted or replaced by a standard
F r phrase. Particularly irregular are the closing sections of Domine non
aspicias and Inito consilio, as well as of many examples given by Frere.

3. In the material that has been available for this study, monotone
recitation occurs only rarely. The main place for it is at the beginning
of the formula F x , which, in its complete form, includes a recitation on
d as in Judas Mercator and Inito consilio as well as in some Responsories
of mode 2 that do not belong to the main type, e.g., Repleti sunt [875:
"dabat eloqui"] or Via recto [LR 332: "cujus esset via quam cernerent,
inqui-"]. The latter Responsory also shows a passage, "ab ejus cella in
caelum usque," in which the recitation takes place on f, that is, on the

354 GREGORIAN CHANT

normal tenor of the second mode; but examples like this are rather ex-
ceptional. In this connection it should be noted that the responsorial
tone used for the verses of the Responsories employs two tenors, f for the
first half and d for the second half. 8 Although the melodies for the re-
sponds rarely show exact recitation on f, they frequently emphasize this
pitch, thus making some of the melodies appear as free elaborations of a
psalmodic formula with recitation alternating between f and d. A good
example is Ingrediente [590].

4. An even clearer indication of a relationship between respond and
verse exists in the fact that the formula C 2 of the former is identical with
the termination of the latter. 9 This identity is of special interest because
of its structural significance in the performance of the entire Responsory.
This performance calls for the repeat, after the verse, of the concluding
section of the respond, normally its third division, as is indicated in our
schematic representation by the asterisk. It will be seen that in nearly all
the Responsories, invariably in all those having the normal structure, this
repeat starts after C 2 . If we distinguish the two sections of the respond as
R x and R 2 and designate the formula p 2 by the letter e (ending), the over-
all form becomes:

R V R'

Thus, the connection between R t and R 2 (indicated by the arrow) is made
by the same cadential formula as that between V and R 7 . It appears that
in all these cases the melody for the respond is written with a view to its
being repeated, not in full, but only partly. This seemingly minor detail
has considerable historical significance. 10

If, on the basis of the schematic representations, the general structure
of the Responsories is compared with that of the Tracts, e.g., those of
mode 8, the extended use, in either category, of standard phrases seems
to indicate a common principle of composition. Both can be, and usually
are, regarded as examples of centonization. Actually, however, the two
cases are quite different, as appears from the fact that in the Tracts the
standard phrases occur in a great variety of combinations, while in the Re-
sponsories they occur mostly in an invariable sequence, C t D! D 2 C 2 . . .
thus forming an extended melody which recurs at the beginning of each
of the Responsories, each time with a different text. Only in the third
division are standard phrases employed in various combinations. There-
fore the entire group must be regarded as an example primarily of adapta-

* See p. 235.

9 See any of the tables of the responsorial tones mentioned on p. 234.

10 See p. 513.

The Free Compositions According to Types 335

tion, with centonization being employed only for the closing section of the
melodies.

In view of this state of affairs, the question may be raised whether there
is any point in considering the four initial formulae of our tabulation as
individual entities rather than as mere subdivisions of one and the same
melody. In order to answer this question we must consider not only the
special group which served as a point of departure but the entire repertory
of Responsories of mode 2. This includes a number of examples in which
one or another of the standard phrases occurs singly, in variable positions
and in connection with other phrases. Some of the latter may also be termed
"standard" because of their recurrence in different melodies. In fact, in
his detailed analysis, Frere indicates, in addition to the main group (II a ),
several other groups of Responsories having some material in common
(II b , II C , II d ), but none of these are nearly as well defined as the main
group. For our purposes it will suffice to indicate some Responsories in
which one or another of the standard phrases recurs. Short and long strokes,
representing the half-bar and the full bar, have been added in order to
facilitate orientation. 11

... I ... I ...

I D

l ... r ... i 6+d 3
i s + di I ... | D x

.d s i...

x | 9-f-fx

L 733 Sepulto Domino

LR 138 Fuerunt sine

L 673 Velum templi

LR 72 Reges Tharsis

L 384 Sancta et immaculata

L 875 Repleti sunt

LR 113 Loquebantur

LR 354 Innuebant

L 1791 Hei mihi

L 1791 Memento mihi

LR 105 Fonts nubem

LR 195 Eccevere

PM 249 Benedicta

PM 117 Homo Dei

This tabulation shows that standard phrases do occur in many Respon-
sories of the second mode, but that their role is rather limited, most of the
phrases being free. Actually, the number of free phrases is somewhat less
than is suggested by the symbols of the table. For instance, Velum templi
and Reges Tharsis employ the same c-formula for the beginning, and

11 Most of the D-phrases dose with the same cadential formula, e-f-e-d-e e-d. This
also occurs frequently at the end of sections which in this tabulation are represented by
the symbol . . ., that is, as free sections. Thus, all the free sections of Sepulto Domino close
with this standard cadence. This and other details of a similar nature have not been
included in the tabulations, in order to avoid their becoming even more complex as they
already are.

... I C 2 i ...

I I C 2 I ... I ...
C 2 | G! |D
... 1 ... (transposed to a).

336 GREGORIAN CHANT

another recurs at the beginning of Repleti sunt, Loquebantur, and Innue-
bant. Both could well be added to the store of standard phrases, and fuller
investigations would yield several others, mainly d-formulae, that recur
more or less frequently. We can dispense with the consideration of these
details, not only because they are fully explored in Frere's study, but also
because they do not add any new features to the picture.

It is, however, important to realize that all the afore-mentioned Respon-
sories as well as many others, although frequently employing free material,
nevertheless exhibit certain general traits that make them appear as mem-
bers of one and the same family. What binds them together is, first of all,
the cadential structure which, in spite of numerous variations and devia-
tions, reveals a general principle; that is, emphasis on the tonic and sub-
tonic, with occasional cadences on the third above, or on the fifth below
the final, both of which occur, if at all, only toward the end of the melody.
Hand in hand with this goes a certain "family resemblance" of nearly all
the phrases, whether standard or free, that close on the same note. Com-
mon to them is a relatively narrow range, in which they move almost
exclusively in the smallest intervals, seconds and thirds. It would be en-
tirely possible to reduce all of them to two skeleton melodies, one closing
on c, die other, on d:

FIGURE 95
C-phrase D-phrase

W. H. Frere expresses this idea of family relationship by using the term
"typical" for all the Responsories showing the same basic design. The
validity of such a designation appears even more clearly if, in conclusion,
we turn our attention to what he calls "original" Responsories, that is, a
small group of melodies that show essentially different traits. The most
striking example is Collegerunt pontifices [579], which is sung during the
Blessing of the Palms on Palm Sunday. The ample melisma on "College-
runt," with its repeated scale formation rising through a full octave, from
G to g; the ascending and descending leaps of a fifth on "Quid facimus";
the descent from a to A on "veniant," with its quasi-sequential pattern:
these are traits never encountered in any of the typical Responsories of
the second mode. Equally exceptional is the verse, which is not sung to the
responsorial tone but to a free melody that incorporates, on "Ab," the
melisma on "veniant" from the respond.

Another "original" Responsory of mode s> is Stirps Jesse [PM 186] from
Nativitas BM.V., the melody of which recurs almost note for note in the

The Free Compositions According to Types

337

late adaptation, Comedetis [927], for Corpus Christi. Its most striking
feature is the long melisma on "almus" ("vescendum" in Comedetis), simi-
lar in its outline and sequential design to the "veniant" melisma of
Collegerunt. The verse employs the responsorial tone only for the first
half, closing with a free, melismatic termination.

It will suffice to indicate one more example, that is, Circumdederunt
[PM 52] from Passion Sunday. Like Collegerunt, it has a free melody for
both respond and verse, with some material common to both:

Respond

Verse

FIGURE 96

b-.

-PC.

si- ne cau- sa fla- gel- lis ce-d-de-rant me.

t ^ jt > ^Mfcfr l 3 gN a -y

Qyo- ni- ana

tri-bu-la- ti- o proxima

THE RESPONSORIES OF MODE 8

This mode includes more Responsories than any other, almost twice as
many as mode 2. In spite of this, it does not have a central group of strik-
ing preponderance such as is found in the second mode. Instead, there are
several "main melodies," each of which recurs, with modifications mainly
in the final division, in a number of Responsories.

RESPONSORIES VIE: TABULATION

GROUP I

PMi53
PM 213
LR 114
LR 76
PM30
L# 90
L 732
L 938
L 1841
GROUP n

Hie est Michael
OranteS. Clemente
Disciplinam
Magiveniunt
Stephanus servus
Tulerunt Dominum
Astiterunt
Misit me
Ecce sacerdos

L' r 2

9 + giG 4 F 2

6+g 5

L 390 Verbum caro

LR 384 In conspectu

LR $>jz Ostendit mihi F x 7 + g 3 G 2

# 253 Ornatam monilibus F x 4-f-gs

G 8
G 8

8+f!

T+Si

5 +d 1 lF 1 |...|6+g 5

t Si

3+gs
4+gj

338

GREGORIAN CHANT

GROUP

Hie est dies FJ A G 2 F 2 D 1 F x G x

159

Domine praevenist i F t Aj G 2 F 2 2+g 5

199

Iste est qui ante F x A x G 2 F 2 Dj 7 + G 3

3H 1

Sexto die F x A t G 2 F 2 D x gjL

183

MmtHcrodw F x A x G 2 F 2 6+Gi

390

Fidf angelum F x A x G 2 F 2 Dj | F x I . . . 1 12 + c x 1 9+gj

Venit lumen F x A! G 2 3 + f 2 D x g t

238

Orantibus in loco F x Aj G 2 2 + f 2 DI gi

Benedic Domine F x A G 2 D x 3+gi

257

Beatammedicent F x 3+a x G 4 F 2 4+gi

GROUP

376

Hodie nobis C G 3 . . . I 6 + gs

580

In monte Oliveti C x G 8 6+g 5 i ... | G 4 1 F 2 | 6 g

AQH

Tristis fit C- G . . . 1 ... 1 Ci I A. 4- f i Go

ogu

640

t/ntw ^ discipulis C x G s 3 + f 2 f 2 | C^ I 2 + gi

675

Vinea mea C G 8 G 4 3 + i% ' - 4 + gi

145

Isti sunt qui Cj 6 + f x 1 2 + g3 | . . . | 5 + gg

401

Caecus sedebat C x 3+gx G 8 G 4 | F 2 J 8+g 5

FIGURE 97

5 '" '; Mt n^ * IL-I,

G 3

|g 3 G 4 gA

ft-

1*1*;

S 98 M *.

8 ^S?ti f ti ^.. 8 fc Bf| 4 j^ ,rfN8 ^

|f, p * U 2

n fl ^M^ --

^^^^^ -HI (k s M% a >vi-

t>>

|d t ' Ci c i

S ^ w * PL

J V^ ?'. "

-1

-%-

^ ^ _A"U '" ^~^ Pi

*-:

-J

Vi pi ^ 4 a r * r 1 *" a" 1

Responsories VIII: Standard Phrases

REMARKS:

i. Group I is remarkably similar in its cadential outline to the main
type of the Responsories of mode 2, both employing subtonic and tonic

The Free Compositions According to Types 339

in the first division, tonic and subtonic in the second, and in the last a
somewhat variable cadence point followed by the tonic.

FIGURE 98

Mode 3 Mode 8

2. Group II differs from group I in the use of G 3 at the end of the first
division. Its cadential structure is essentially the same.

3. Group III, the largest and most stable of all, is characterized by the
phrase A x , which replaces the Gj. of group I. Actually, both these formulae
are identical except for their final notes. If this difference is disregarded,
as it may well be, the entire group III would combine with group I, re-
sulting in a large central theme. In fact, Frere considers both groups as
identical, employing the same symbols (O a + G 5 ) for the beginning of
Magi veniunt (p. 54) and of Hie est Michael (p. 52). 12 Wagner points out
that the use of one variant or the other has a certain structural significance,
being conditioned by the beginning of the subsequent phrase, G 2 or G 4 .
Both of these occur either with or without the "intonation" f-a. If this is
present, the preceding phrase ends on a (Ax), if not, on g

FIGURE 99

G a GI Gj

i.mi*. ,^..*i . *IL* t;

All our examples follow this rule, except for Disciplinam (group I), in
which a short formula separates the two standard phrases in question.

4. Group IV is represented almost exclusively by Responsories from the
highest feasts, the Nativity, Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, and Good
Friday. It may well be of more ancient origin than the others. Only its
first division is fixed, the continuation lacking a definite cadential pattern
and frequently employing free material. Yet another detail that sets this
group apart from the others is the complete absence of phrases closing
ond.

5. The various g-phrases have well-defined functions in the over-all
structure. GI, G 3 , and g 5 occur only at the end of a division, G 2 and G 4
only at the beginning. Similarly, F t is essentially an opening phrase, F 2 a
closing phrase. In not a few cases, however, F t recurs as a mediant formula
in the third division, e.g., in Tulerunt, In conspectu, and Ornatam moni-
libus.

12 See also the musical illustration, Ant. Sarisb., p. 53, where, in the second column,
the formula G B appears twice closing on g, twice on a.

340 GREGORIAN CHANT

The general picture presented by these Responsories is very interesting
and instructive, because it illustrates the interpenetration of two basic
principles of Gregorian composition, adaptation and centonization. With-
in each group, the various Responsories are related to each other by adap-
tation, particularly in their first and second divisions. Centonization pre-
vails in the concluding sections of the Responsories, and also relates the
various groups to each other.

As in the Responsories of mode 2, many more examples of centonization
occur in the large number of melodies that differ more or less radically
from the types indicated above. Many of these melodies can also be com-
bined in groups, on the basis of common opening phrases. It will suffice to
indicate one such group characterized by a new opening phrase, G 6 : 18

FIGURE 1OO

LR 217 Specie tua G e I . . . I g+g

LR 222 Fallax gratia G e 1 4+g 5 I i

LR 295 Cumque perfusis G 6 I i3+f 2 1 7+g 2

LR 316 Descendit Jesus G 6 . . . | 3 + g x

LR 413 Quid me qweritis G 6 1 6+gi 1 1 7 + f 2 1 3+<*i 1 gi

PM 20 Ecce dies G 6 1 . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | 9+g 5 | 5+g 6

PM 269 Ecclesiae sponsum G 6 1 5 + g 5 1 . . . | 7 -f g 5

VP 259 Iste est de sublimibus G 6 l...|...|...l...

The absence of a fixed cadential scheme, and the extended use of free
material or of standard cadences rather than complete standard phrases,
are quite typical for all the peripheral groups. Finally, it may be noticed
that there are practically no Responsories in mode 8 that could be termed
original. The closest approximation to such a melody is that of Videntes
Joseph a longe [LR 408], with its exceptionally high-pitched melisma
(c' to P) on "longe" and the ascending-seventh formation (d-e-f-g-a-c') on
"somnia."

THE OTHER RESPONSORIES

As to the Responsories of the other modes, we shall limit ourselves to
some general remarks. To treat them in the same detailed manner as those
of modes 2 and 8 would demand a considerable amount of space without
adding new traits to the general picture. In each mode there can be found
a main melody which is used, with some modifications, for a number of

13 See Wagner III, 343, for additional Responsories of this group.

The Free Compositions According to Types 341

different texts. These form a central group governed chiefly by the method
of adaptation. The basic melody consists of a number of phrases, and some
of these recur in other Responsories where they are combined with other
phrases, in a process of centonization. One or the other of these derivative
melodies may again be used for different texts, or some of their constituent
elements may recur in yet other Responsories. On the basis of identical
material, mainly in the opening phrase, the repertory can be divided into
a number of groups. Hardly any of these, however, is as well defined and
as fully represented as are the groups of modes 2 and 8. Considered as a
whole, all the Responsories that can be classified under one or another
of these groups form a family of "typical" Responsories which are related
to each other through some fixed method of composition, such as adapta-
tion, centonization, or free modification of basic formulae.

Interesting though these processes of "musical synthesis" are, they should
not be permitted to obscure the quantitative share, much less the artistic
significance of original creation in the Responsories. It is perhaps no mere
coincidence that this element is rather inadequately represented in the
two modes that have been discussed. Both the second and the eighth mode
seem to have been so strongly under the influence of formulism that free
invention could hardly gain a foothold in them. It found an abode mainly
in the authentic sister-modes, particularly in the first mode, which is by
far the most prolific source for Responsories with individual melodies.

Among the free Responsories of the first mode is the Libera me from the
Burial Service [1767], one of the most celebrated chants of the Gregorian
repertory. It employs free melodies, impressive in their somber solemnity,
for the respond as well as for each of its three verses, which are conspicuous
for their syllabic style, similar to that normally found in the Antiphons.
Of much die same character is the Libera me . . . de viis from Matins of
the Office of the Dead [1798], which, however, employs for the verse the
standard responsorial tone, though with a special termination. While both
these Responsories move essentially within the limited range common to
the authentic and plagal protus, much more strikingly free and unin-
hibited melodies are found in other Responsories of the first mode, for
instance, Filiae Jerusalem [LR 169], Ecce apparebit [LR 393], O beata
Trinitas [PM 91], and Duo Seraphim [PM 107], The former two move
above the authentic ambitus up to P, while the latter descend below it
down to A, so that they could almost equally well be assigned to the
plagal mode. Next to the first mode, the seventh is the main source for
original melodies, such as Aspiciens a longe [PM 18], Signum magnum
[PM i2o], 14 or Crux fidelis [PM 152], or O beate Johannes [VP 2 10]. Among
the Responsories included hi the Liber usualis those of Corpus Christi are

14 For the late Feast of the Immaculate Conception, but in all probability with the new
text adapted to a medieval melody.

342 GREGORIAN CHANT

noteworthy for their free melodies, particularly Immolabit haedum [926],
Coenantibus Hits [932], Accepit Jesus [932], and Ego sum pants [gss]. 15
We have previously pointed out that nearly all of these Responsories em-
ploy free melodies also for their verses [p. 340],

A particularly interesting trait of many Responsories is an extended
melisma that occurs near the end of the respond, much longer and more
exuberant than the "standard" or normal melismas, and therefore con-
stituting a strikingly extraneous element within the over-all course of the
melody. Two examples found in the Liber usualis occur among the Re-
sponsories from Corpus Christi, in Comedetis [927] on "vescendum" and
in Coenantibus [931] on "corpus." Others are:

Mode i: Unus panis [LR 129]: "participamus"
Terribilis est [LR 235]: "Vere"
Intempestae noctis [LR 328]: "Omnem"
Hodie Maria [LR 379]: "regnat"
Civitas Jerusalem [PM 24]: "feret"
Sint lumbi [PM 228]: "a nuptiis"

Mode 3: Quis Deus [LR 342]: "mirabilia"

Mode 4: Ego pro te [LR 365]: "fratres"

Judaea et Jerusalem [PM 25]: "erit"

Mode 6: Homo quidam [LR 419]: "omnia"

Mode 7: Moram faciente [LR 297]: "volabo" 16

Not a few of these melismas or, as they are called, responsorial neumata,

FIGURE 101

O- mnem

, visa p 'nv| ^B"r* '^w* i A . a 1

Iff 1 *fr I frj

i. Intempestate noctis [LR 328] 2. Moram faciente [LR 297]

15 The melodies for the Responsories of Corpus Christi were all borrowed, as were
those for the chants of the Mass [see p. 68], For example, Immolabit is from Te sanctum
[PM 109; St Michael], Comedetis from Stirps Jesse [PM 186; Annunciation], Respexit
Elias from Videte miraculum [PM 251; Purification]. They were selected according to
successive modes [see p. 140].

16 According to Wagner 111, 345, these melismas occur only sparingly in the tenth-
century Codex Hartker, but much more frequently in the eleventh-century Codex Lucca
where, however, they are restricted to the first and the eighth modes. They were used
primarily for the last Responsory of the second and third Nocturn of feasts of Saints,

The Free Compositions According to Types 343

show a repeat structure, a a b, which we shall encounter again in numerous
melismas of the Offertories and Alleluias. 17

The most famous of the responsorial neumata is the neuma triplex
which, so Amalarius tells us, was sung, "contrary to the custom of other
Responsories," in the "novissimo responsorio." In media ecclesiae for the
Feast of St. John the Evangelist, and was introduced by the moderni
cantores into the Responsory Descendit de caelis from the Nativity. 18
While it largely disappeared in the former, it was preserved in the latter,
where it occurs on the penultimate word, "fabricae," in the form of three
melismas, one for each of the three repeats of the respond (Descendit de
caelis has the form R V R' D R' R; see PM 27). The first of these is com-
parable in extension and ornateness to the longest melismas found in the
previously mentioned Responsories. The second is of about the same
character, but the third is a vocalization of truly staggering dimensions,
such as one expects to find in Ambrosian chant. Fig. 102 shows these three
neumata, together with the corresponding passage in the initial respond.

FIGURE 102

bri- ea mun-di,

V "Ml * > * *

bri-oe mun-di.

bri-cae mun-di.

I A^^jfi i /"'.'" i ."fi>yn I "iv M U . i >aiV[v

fa-

, "A ' r iv 8 N A .

bri- cat mun-di.

Only the first of these three neumata survived in the Responsory In
medio ecclesiae (in Paschal Time; PM 227), where it appears at the end of
the Respond, to the word "Alleluia."

, 386fiE.

i8 Liber de ordine antiphonarii, cap. xviii (ed. Hanssens, HI, 54-5 6 >* Patr - ^* 1O 5>
pp. 1273-5). F - Handschin points out that "the words 'in novissimo responsorio' ... do
not mean that it was a recent Responsory but that it was the last in the cycle of Respon-
sories belonging to the Nocturns of St. John" (New Oxf. Hist, of Mus., II, 142).

344 GREGORIAN CHANT

These responsorial neumata play an interesting role in the problem of
the tropes. We shall return to them in the chapter dealing with this aspect
of the chant [see p. 441],

THE GRADUALS

The Graduals are sung at Mass after the first lesson. Like the Respon-
sories they consist of two sections, the choral respond and the solo verse,
with the respond repeated, always in full, after the verse. Differing from
the verses of the Responsories, those of the Graduals are sung, not to
standard tones, but to individual melodies which, however, are closely
interrelated by an extended use of standard phrases, as will be shown
later.

Stylistically the Graduals are the most fully melismatic chants of the
Gregorian repertory. Every Gradual contains a number of extended me-
lismas, with from ten to thirty and more notes* These occur not only at
the beginning or the end but often also in the middle of a phrase, some-
times emphasizing an important word, but mostly as a purely musical
adornment, a sudden outburst of unrestrained vocality. Not infrequently
the verses are even more melismatic than the responds, obviously because
they were entrusted to the soloist. An extreme case is the Gradual Clama-
verunt [1170] from the Common of Two Martyrs (originally for the Feast
of SS. Cosma and Damian), the verse of which contains some of the longest
melismas found in the Graduals and, for that matter, in the entire reper-
tory of chants one with fifty-six and one with sixty-six notes.

A tendency to set the verse off from the respond is noticeable in the
difference of range or, at least, of tessitura that often exists between the
two sections, the verse being slightly higher than the respond [see p. 150],
On the whole, however, the responds and the verses are rather similar in
style, certainly much more so than in the Responsories in which there is
a pronounced difference between the "free" melodies of the responds and
the standard tones used for the verses. Moreover, there are not a few
Graduals which employ the same material both in the respond and in the
verse, particularly for their closing sections [see p. 355].

More than any other type of chant, the Graduals make use of the "re-
iterative style," which has been described previously [see p. 262]. This
manifests itself most clearly in the frequent use of repercussive neumes,
such as the bistropha and tristropha, which are often combined into
tremolos of five, six, or seven notes, or the pressus, mostly on c'-c'-c'-a, which
may be immediately repeated three or four times. 1 The most striking ex-
ample is the following passage from the Gradual Misit Dominus [485]:

i See^the formula F n of Fig. 104, p. 349.

The Free Compositions According to Types 345

FIGURE 103

y.Confi-te-an- tur

Nearly every Gradual includes melismas of this kind, or other formations
indicative of the reiterative style. Thus, Universi [520] shows repercussive
melismas on "expectant," "Domine," and "mihi"; Ex Sion [328] on "Con-
gregate" (notice also the repeated use of motives such as e'-d'-c', d'-e'-d'-c'
and b-c'-b-a, b-c'-a-g); Qui sedes [335] is remarkable for its several ex-
amples of freely sequential formations, e.g., on "regis" (essentially e'-c'
d'-b c'-a b-g a-f g) and on "Joseph" (d'-b f'-d' f'-d' e'-c' d'-b d'-b c'-a a-f g);
etc. Many of the standard phrases to be discussed later show a reiterative
design, and since these phrases recur in numerous Graduals of the same
mode, the entire repertory becomes permeated by such formations.

The most interesting aspect of the Graduals as a group is their use
of standard phrases. These play an important role particularly in the
verse sections, where centonization occasionally approximates the extent
to which it occurs in the Tracts. However, this technique is also evident
in the responds. The study of this aspect involves, of course, a separate
investigation of the various modes. We have seen that the Graduals are
almost entirely limited to the four authentic modes, with those of the fifth
mode outnumbering all the others together. 2 If only because of their
quantity, the Graduals of mode 5 afford by far the best insight into the
various problems of structure and style that arise. They are therefore
placed at the beginning of our study.

THE GRADUALS OF MODE 5

The Liber usualis contains about fifty Graduals of the fifth mode, the
Graduate romanum c. sixty. Like the Tracts, a number of these are recent
compositions or adaptations made at Solesmes; e.g., Confiteor tibi [1668]
for the Feast of St. Teresa of the Child Jesus, Flores apparuerunt [1376] for
the Feast of the Apparition of Our Blessed Lady at Lourdes, or Nova bella
[Supplement] for the Feast of St. Joan of Arc. The medieval repertory, as
represented by the manuscripts from the tenth to the twelfth centuries,
includes about 45 Graduals in the fifth mode; these form the basis of the
subsequent analysis. 3 Following is a schematic tabulation, arranged ac-
cording to the initial formulae of the verses.

2 See p. 137. As for the seemingly large number of Graduals in mode 2, see the remark
on p. 138.

3 See also the studies in Wagner III, 3835, and in Ferretti, pp. ii7ff, the latter limited
to the verses.

:f>

rt H H H H rH H*H

oooooooe

HiHi-lHHHHH

<r* <r< <! C8 ei Ji ^

s + + +

_ i"i or i H

atttttt co co eo cc

, H H r 1 HHrtHrt

g
>

s i

*-.-._. ^H* o - . . _

uo : &

111!

II i|

lisll

O ftq m (C kj

3Q
S 8

O -S
PQ ^

Q
e

33
"S i

O O cq

S 2:

s s

Q O fei

Q^ 2

%A M M? ^ 1 !l iftat^OJ O>w t*
iAoroOQj^^QOor S Q ^ ^ S to 00 H rf<
xrswHffiefOThO . Oift^O * ooiOOQD
O-^MC>HHOH WrtHCiH P<PHHHM

or
or

*f>

346

p?-

* J5

|^a":l

5"s"a^

<.*.* :

U J? 2

- < d 1

a~ +

5 : s;

52 S

* -.

O> ^ OJ O>
. CO OO )) O
g 00 H T^ Tt<

Q O ^ ^ k)

llll-i

^ 1 1 ^

^^^ 4^ 4;o

. B -

1*1 5^ * X

ft! K ^ S K) ftj

OQtO PH <K>

of) TO M -H OO
O -< O

O vi oo

Xf> *} iH

347

348 GREGORIAN CHANT

EXPLANATIONS:

1. Standard phrases of the responds are indicated by inferior letters (F a , etc.) or by
inferior figures i to 7, the former for initial phrases, the latter for the others.
Standard phrases occurring mainly in the verses have inferior numbers beginning
with 10 (A 10 , etc.).

2. The standard phrase A^ of group II is preceded by different intonations, i^ i a , i s .

3. The standard phrases A u and A M also occur hi a slightly shortened form closing
on c> (C w , C M ).

4. The opening phrase of group VIII is an extended melisma (M) which occurs with
two different endings, CM or ai 7 .

FIGURE 104

Graduals V: Standard Phrases
RESPONDS

Fa If* ?>

F C

The Free Compositions According to Types 349

VERSES (continued)

lli %%ii C fcM MM ki u

3 < r" " 151 - - fh HI r^ii 4 '

Pio

C, 3

35O GREGORIAN CHANT

REMARKS:

A. The Verses

1. The standard phrases are rather strictly divided into initial, final,
and intermediate formulae. To the first category belong A 10 , A n , A 12 , A 13 ,
Ai 4 (C 14 ), C 10 , C n , and M. Exceptionally, A 10 appears as an intermediate
phrase in Tribulationes (group VII), Nearly all the verses close with either
F 10 or F u . Notable exceptions are Viderunt (VIII) and Propter veritatem
(I), which close on F 13 ; Ex Sion (final group) with a singular ending; and
Ego dixi (I), which closes on a.

2. The phrases of the verses employ only three cadential notes, f, a, and
c'. There is only one clearly recognizable case of a different cadential note,
that is, in the penultimate phrase of Priusquam, which closes on d.

3. The sections which, in our analysis, are marked as "free" (. . ,) oc-
casionally include short recurrent motives such as c'd'c' cf aba [Venite
filii on "(illuminami)ni" and Tollite hostias on "(conden)sa"] or fgagf g gf
[Domine Dominus on "tua" and Discerne causam on "(deduxe)runt"] that
belong to the common language of our Graduals. These and several others
of an even more "commonplace" nature are indicated in Ferretti's analysis
(Esthetique, p. 117; formulae 34a, g4g, etc.) which, it seems to us, goes a
bit too far in breaking down musical entities into small particles.

B. The Responds

4. The analysis shows that the responds, although much freer than the
verses, nevertheless make considerable use of standard phrases or of their
endings, particularly at the beginning and at the end. It should be noticed
that most of the formulae of the responds are somewhat variable, as is indi-
cated by underlining in the table of standard phrases. Among the very
few responds that are entirely idiomelic is Viderunt omnes from Nativity,
which, for liturgical reasons, one is inclined to regard as one of the earliest.

5. A number of Graduals employ the two main verse endings, Fio (fio)
and F n (f u ) also for the close of the respond. In most, though not all, of
these the formula of the respond is the same as that of the verse, resulting
in a musical rhyme between the two sections, as in Justus cum ceciderit
(fio* FIO) or i n Prope est (/ n , / n ). Actually, the number of Graduals with a
short rhyme is even greater than appears from the tabulation, since the
respond formula f 4 is very similar to the verse formula f 10 and could well
be considered as a variant thereof.

THE GRADUALS OF MODE 1

The medieval repertory of Graduals includes fifteen of the first mode.
The modern books contain in addition about ten adaptations e.g., Omnes
gentes [G 78**] from Sciant gentes or Dulcis et rectus [971] from Con-
cupivit, T$ and Ecce quam, Y not considered in the following study.

The Free Compositions According to Types

L13
Ll8?

L05

1071

L230

L726

1048

L021

1191

$2O

137

GRADUALS i: TABULATION

RESPOND

Invent David
Gloriosus Dens
Sacerdotes
Miserere met
Salvum fac servum
Ecce quam
Concupivit
Timete
Beata gens
Custodi me
Os justi
Universi
Sciant gentes
Si ambulem
Adjutor meus

free

Ail.

free

i5+di2

free

17+qi-

|...i5+d 4

VERSE

A 10 iFi i l4+Di3l G io D ic
AIO' 6+D 13 13+^is I G IO D IO
AIO I ^13 1 G 10 D 10
Loi-.-lD^is+giodi

Ml 1

J 12

10^10

D,o

IM-fe

A fy.H n

(continued)

352 GREGORIAN CHANT

!. .V'(l"M ft i j^fr=jq?

Graduate I: Standard Phrases

REMARKS:

1. The general picture is about the same as for the Graduals of mode
5: rather extended use of standard phrases in the verses, and in the re-
sponds occasional employment primarily of short standard terminations.

2. Several formulae are common to both respond and verse; namely, c x
(Miserere Tp; Beata gens Iff, y; Os jtisti IJT, y; Sciant gentes 1^; Si ambu-
lem IJf), AX (Sacerdotes Ip; Ecce quam ^T; Concupivit ^T; Beata gens y;
Si ambulem y), d 4 (Os justi ty; Si ambulem ^, y; Adjutor meus 1^, y),
and, on a smaller scale, D x (Miserere ^, y; Custodi ^) and D 12 (Timete
Tty, y). In the verse of Beata gens the formulae A t and F 10 are combined
into a single phrase (for "Verbo Domini") in such a way as to constitute
another example of non-conformity between text and music: A x is sung to
"Verbo Domi-," while F 10 becomes the melisma over the syllable "-ni."

3. Some of the Graduals have responds that, more or less clearly, belong
to the second mode. They are included here because their verses clearly
belong to the first mode regarding their range as well as their standard
phrases. Moreover, they differ essentially from the typical Graduals of the
second mode which form a closely unified group. Thus the question as to
the "correct" mode of Universi may be decided in favor of mode i. 4

THE GRADUALS OF MODES 3 AND 4

The Graduals of mode 3 belong mostly to the pre-Easter period, from
Septuagesima Sunday (Adjutor) to Tuesday in Holy Week (Ego autem).
Outside this period fall Speciosus for the First Sunday after Christmas,
Benedicite for the Dedication of the Church, and Juravit for St. Clement,
St. Felix, and St. Gregory. The last of these is found in all the early sources
(e.g., in the Sextuplex Mss) and was given in the earlier Solesmes editions
for the feast of St. Gregory (e.g., Liber usualis, edition of 1938, p. 1399), but
has recently been replaced by the Gradual Exaltent eum, which is prob-
ably a modern composition.

4 See p. 150. In the same category are Gloriosus Deus (assigned in L to mode i, but
considered in Wagner III, 379, under mode 2) and Adjutor meus (see pp. 138, 167).

^ i-* QJ

^^Z ~

~- + - cf

y j ^j 1 ^j V '

- S +

"T oj ^

+ J

o
r c? J

Q Q Q Q ^

"si

iin

O xr>

J>- . co

< ss

*g S, If 38 33

35S

354

GREGORIAN CHANT
FIGURE 1O6

frH.NJLi.-

"IV 3

Graduals III, IV: Standard Phrases

i. The Graduals of mode 3 are, on the whole, considerably longer than
is normally the case. Some of their standard phrases are among the most

The Free Compositions According to Types 355

extended and most highly melismatic to be found in the entire repertory
of centonized chants. They are also noteworthy for their almost excessively
reiterative design, such as in E l9 E 10 , D v D 10 , and G 10 .

2. In distinction from the other Graduals (excepting the special group
Justus ut palma), their responds make as full use of standard phrases as do
the verses.

3. Yet another unique trait is the high degree of unification between
the responds and the verses. Not only is the main closing formula, E a , com-
mon to both, but also other formulae occur in either section, e.g., G x (IJT.
Eripe, Benedicite, Juravit; y. Benedicite, Exaltabo), E 3 (IJT. Exsurge . . .
et, Ego autem, TibiDomine; y. Tu es Deux), and g 2 (IJT. Adjutor; y. Tibi
Domine).

4. The first eight Graduals of our list form a main group of the third
mode, unified by common material and with cadences on the tonic (e),
subtonic (d), and mediant (g), occasionally also on the dominant (b).

5. A separate group is formed by the next three Graduals, Exsurge . . .
et from Monday in Holy Week, Ego autem from the Tuesday, and Tenuisti
manum from Palm Sunday. They are the only ones to employ cadences on
c, two degrees below the final. Considering this as well as their ambitus,
they could all be classified as mode 4 Exsurge for its respond, the two
others for both respond and verse. Actually, Tenuisti is the only one as-
signed to mode 4, but Wagner considers Ego autem also as being in the
fourth mode, 6 no doubt with justification. Aside from these, the fourth
mode is represented among the medieval Graduals by only one other mel-
ody, Domine praevenisti from the Common of Abbots (originally from the
Eve of St. John the Evangelist). This is a unique case of a Gradual em-
ploying a different tonality in the respond and in the verse. While the
former is in mode 4, the latter shows all the characteristics of mode i and,
in fact, closes with the standard phrase D 12 of this group. The melody of
Tenuisti, the longest of all the Graduals, reappears (with some omissions)
in Memor fui [1580] and Mihi autem [G 481], both modern compositions;
that of Domine praevenisti in Benedicta et venerabilis [1264] and Dolorosa
et lacrimosa [1633^, the former (for Feasts of the Virgin Mary) possibly
late-medieval, the latter (for the Feast of Seven Dolours) a modern com-
position.

6. The last two Graduals of our list employ one and the same melody,
which has nothing in common with those of the other Graduals. The
melody is remarkable for the amount of its material common to respond
and verse, e.g., in Speciosus: IJT. "(homi)num: diffusa est gratia in labiis
tuis" = y. "(Re)gi: lingua mea calamus soibae yelociter scribentis." No-
tice also in the verse: "verbum bonum" = "mea Regi."

6 Wagner 111, 38*.

356 GREGORIAN CHANT

THE GRADUALS OF MODES 7 AND 8

GRADUALS VII: TABULATION

r -335
L 47 8
L 5 6o

^98*
L 1028
L 1060
L 1075
L 1170

RESPOND

Qui sedes * . . | . . .

Benedictus Dominus . . . 1 n 4

VERSE

D 10 +6I...iG 10

5 +B 10 |...I...i.

'133

Laetatus sum
Oculi omnium
Jacta cogitatum
Benedicam
Dirigatur oratio
Liberasti nos
Clamaverunt
Audi filia
Salvum fac
Miserere mihi

...d^...

7+B 1 | 3 +b 1 [ 3 +F 1 |...l 3 +G 1

free

FIGURE 107

-gu

III+GV

^l 101 vij

" 1:1. .. ;iT.i> t ini\ ^"i.^^ 8 ; >M 'Hr'sg

^*mm****mu** ^iii"n Ti iiT i .jL ~{J i F ..^^^^laiia^^ijjj^

iitas

1*.

1 T7

ID,

Graduals VU: Standard Phrases

The Free Compositions According to Types 357

This group of Graduals is similar to that of mode 3 in various respects:
in their length, their highly florid style, the almost equal amount of cen-
tonization in respond as well as verse, and the unification of both sections
by the use of common formulae (F x , d a , G 2 , g a , and b^. The B 10 -phrase,
in Benedictus Dominus and Clamaverunt, includes what probably is the
longest melisma in the present-day repertory of chant, equalled and sur-
passed only by some melismas in the verses of the Offertories or the neuma
triplex of the Responsory Descendit de caelis [see p. 343]. The free sections
of the Graduals also contain many extended melismas of individual design.
A specially remarkable one is that at the beginning of the verse of Clama-
verunt ("Dominus"), because it shows a repeat structure (a a b b) which,
although frequent in the melismas of Offertories and Alleluias, is quite
unusual in a Gradual. Benedicam is noteworthy because its respond does
not close on the final of the mode. Thus it forms a counterpart to Ego
dixi [p. 346] and Domine praevenisti [p. 355], in both of which the verse
fails to close on the tonic. Repeat of the respond is as clearly required in
these as it is out of place in Benedicam.

The eighth mode is represented by only two melodies, Dilexisti justitiam
[1216; originally for St. Lucia], and Deus vitam meam [G 128] for Mon-
day after Third Sunday of Quadragesima, which recurs, virtually un-
changed, in Deus exaudi orationem [G 156] for Monday after Passion
Sunday. The former melody is as remarkable for its initial phrase, which
shows the outline c-g-c-e-g-c'-g. Very likely, such a triadic design is indica-
tive of a relatively late date.

THE GRADUAL-TYPE JustUS Ut

It remains for us to consider a group of Graduals which, for various
reasons, stand apart from all the others, representing an isolated class gov-
erned by its own rules. This group consists of nineteen medieval Graduals
all of which belong, or originally belonged, to very ancient feasts, mostly
from the Proper of the Time. Listed in the order of the liturgical year,
these are:

PROPER OF THE TIME

1. Tollite portas: Wednesday in Ember Week of Advent [G 9]; now used for

Masses of the B. V. M. on Saturdays [1269]

2. Ostende nobis: Friday in Ember Week of Advent [G 11]

3. A summo caelo: Saturday in Ember Week of Advent [343]

4. In sole posuit: Saturday in Ember Week of Advent [344]

5. Domine Deus virtutum: Saturday in Ember Week of Advent [345]

6. Excita Domine: Saturday in Ember Week of Advent [347]

7. Hodie scietis: Christmas Eve [360]

8. Tecum principium: The Nativity, Midnight Mass [393]

9. Angelis suis: First Sunday of Lent [533]

358 GREGORIAN CHANT

10. Ab occultis: Tuesday after the Third Sunday of Lent [G 130]

11. Ne avertas: Wednesday in Holy Week [613]

12. Haec dies: Easter Sunday [778] and, with different verses, during Easter

Week [786, 790, 793, 797, 801]*

13. Domine refugium: Twenty-first Sunday after Pentecost [1067]

PROPER OF SAINTS

14. Justus ut palma: S. John the Evangelist, now for Common of a Confessor

not a Bishop [1201]

15. In omnem terram: Apostles Peter and Paul, now for St. Barnabas [1486]

16. Exsultabunt: St. Primus and Felicianus, now for the Vigils of All Saints [G

646]

17. Dispersit: Vigil of St. Lawrence, now for St. Joachim [1608]

18. Nimis honorati: Apostles Simon and Jude, now for St. Thomas [13*6]

19. Requiem aeternam: Mass for the Dead

The melodies for these Graduals form the most closely unified group in
the entire repertory of chant. They all appear in what is generally regarded
as a transposition, with a as a final for both the respond and the verse.
The transposition is usually considered as being at the interval of the fifth,
the "original" final being d. Thus they are assigned to the second mode.
However, some of the earliest writers, Aurelianus and the author of the
Alia musica, assign them to the fourth mode, on e? in which case the trans-
position would be at the interval of a fourth. The authenticity of the b-flat
at the very beginning of Haec dies has been questioned and is indeed
doubtful, this being the only b-flat in the entire Gradual. If it is disre-
garded, the version on d would appear with an e-natural, while that on e
would call for an f-sharp. However, it is possible, perhaps even probable,
that the melody was originally on a, and that no transposition is involved.

The group under consideration is usually called the Gradual-type Justus
ut palma, with reference to one of its representatives. The designation
"gradual-type" is very appropriate, because all the melodies employ cen-
tonization and adaptation to such an extent that they lose all individuality
and become nothing but different manifestations of a basic type. There is,
however, no compelling reason to name the group after the Gradual Justus
ut palma which belongs to the Proper of Saints (St. John). Musically,
nearly every one of its representatives has an equally good claim to be the
model, and from the liturgical point of view a selection from the Proper
of the Time would certainly be preferable. Actually, no single Gradual
contains all the material that occurs in the group. A musically correct
designation would be "gradual type A summo caelo Excita Domine

7 See the remarks on p. 183.

8 Aurelianus mentions Exsultabunt sancti, A summo caelo, Tollite portas and Haec
dies in his chapter on the Plagis Deuteri (GS, 1, 47*). The gradale responsorium Haec dies
is mentioned in the chapter De Quarto Tono of the Alia Musica (GS, I,

The Free Compositions According to Types 359

Haec dies," because all the melodies of the entire group can be almost
completely derived from the standard phrases provided by these three
Graduals. Since, however, the name Gradual-type Justus ut palma has been
universally accepted, we do not insist on replacing it by another name
which, although more proper and correct, is, at the same time, a good
deal more cumbersome. 9

As for rigidity of centonization technique, there is only one parallel
in the entire Gregorian repertory, that is, the Tracts of Holy Saturday.
Like these, the Graduals of the type Justus ut palma consist exclusively
of a number of standard phrases, so that their structure could be indicated
by the same mechanical system of designation used for the Tracts:

RESPOND VERSE

A summo caelo
Tecum principium
Haec dies,

y. Confitemini
Justus ut palma

* *

* * * *

* *
* t

* * #

* * * *
* * *

* * *

A tabulation of the entire group in a more readable form follows on p.
360:1

REMARKS:

1. Each of the standard phrases recurs almost identically, aside from
the adjustments required by the varying number of syllables and the vary-
ing positions of the accents. Variants of a more essential nature are indi-
cated by the symbols A x ' (In omnem terram, Ne avertas, Tecum princi-
pium), AX" (Exsultabunt sanctf), F/ (Ostende nobis), and A 10 ' (Ne avertas).
AJ' results from A x by an enlargement of the middle section, while Aj" is
a shortened version of A/.

2. In Hodie scietis, Tollite portas, and Tecum principium the a-phrase
A 2 is changed into a c-phrase by the addition of closing formula, Ci, which,
in Haec dies, serves as the termination for a unique a-phrase, A*.

3. The Gradual Haec dies differs from the others not only in its individ-
ual opening phrase, but also in the phrase A n employed for some of its
verses, a phrase which, however, has the same ending as the normal phrase
A 10 . The verse intonation D u is also employed in Tollite portas.

Two entire volumes of the Pattographie, II and III, are devoted to a study of "Le
repons-graduel Justus ut palma" Ferretti, Esthttique, pp. 164^, gives a number of illus-
trations showing the adaptation of different texts for" the various standard phrases. A
large table, "Analyse melodique par Tommies des Repons Graduels (i part.) du lie
mode" is given in G. Sufiql, Introduction a la paltographie musicale grdgorienne, Planche
F (appendix).

10 Modern adaptations are, e.g., Deriventur [1562], Uxor twli
[G 48**], and Qui ambulat [G 30**].

GREGORIAN CHANT

GRADUAL-TYPE JustW Ut palma: TABULATION

RESPOND

TORSE

i- ^343

A summo caelo A a A 5

A 3

D io A IO F 10 A 12

2. L 344

7n soZe A! A 2

A 3

^10 A 10 F 10 A u

3- L 345

Domine Deus A x A 2

10 ^^10 13

4. L 1608

Dispersit Aj A 2

A 3

^10 Ajo ^10 A-U

5. L 1486

In omnem terram A^ 7 A 2

DIO AIO F 10 A u

6. L 347

Excita Domine A x Fj

^10 AIO ^10 ^1 AJJ

7- ^533

Angelis suis AJ Fj

T) A A
10 ^^10 1$

8. L 1201

/t# to uJ ^aJrna A! Fj

10 10 10 12

9. 1067

Domine refugium A l f l

DA FA
^10 A 10 r !0 A 12

10. L 1326

Nimis honorati Aj F a

A 3

10 10 AJJ

11. L 1808

Requiem aeternam Aj Fj

10 10 10 12

12. G 130

-4& occultis A 1 Fj

DA 17 A
10 A 10 r !0 A 12

13. L 613

ATe avertas A/ F 3

A 3

D 10 AJQ' C 10 AJJ

14. G 646

Exsultabunt sancti A^ F 3

L A 3

^10 A 10 F 10 A u

15. G 11

Ostende nobis ... F 3

/A,

DIO AIO F 10 A u

16. L 360

Hodie scietis Aj A 2 +c x

A 3

DIO AIO ^*io ^i ^

17. L 1269

Tollite portas A x A2+CJF]

L A 3

D n A 10 F 10 Ay

18. L 393

Tecum principium A 1 'A 2 +c 1 F ]

L A,

DIO A 10 C 10 F! A M

19. L 778

Haec die^ y. Confitemini A 4 + q F 3

L AS

11 11 1 12

20. L 786

Haec dt'w, y. Dtcaf Tiwnc same

11 ^^11 1 12

21. L 790

Haec die^ y. Dicant nunc same

D n A IO F 10 Ay

a*. L 793

Haec dt, y. Dextera same

DIO AIO FIO Ay

23- 797

Haec dte^ y. Lapidem same

DII!--- 13 + aioqolAy

24. L 801

Haec dfe^ y . B enedictus same

DA 17 A
10 ^lO J 10 A 12

FIGURE 108

6 -

J% J^'A

i^isni 1 " ^ ^M i\

1* * .,..-

, iv'i jj a t

. .11 Ml fl]l t< '-^V-tSc W -

*% ,

% J f "t*^'%

AVii ii 4 irift

B'b i

Ik IVl Ih *l-

re^

Ait

-M- A "

i 1 "Ili IL . : >4 < t . S

*'/*', / tf> * iMinnnti K-T^I

i i ^i

(conh'nueo*)

The Free Compositions According to Types

361

L* *1i t \. 1. 4 8v

D " ,,. ....

* P^** Sl^ 1 t P B % ^ IV"

ft* F*

P| * lU

I SPmlVifl.

' ' I 1 *l f *.fc II II||. * * % 1 M

I 4 m ii ii^i

c, C w

' S

Gradual-type /twfw uf palma: Standard Phrases

4. On the whole, the standard material for the responds is different from
that of the verses. An exception is the mediant phrase F lf which is used, in
the same position, in the verses of Excita, Hodie scietis, Tecum principium,
and in Haec dies yy. Confitemini and Dicat nunc.

5. The Graduals of this group frequently employ a complete standard
melody rather than standard phrases variously combined. Disregarding
variants, the nineteen responds and twenty-four verses can be grouped as
follows:

RESPOND:

F A 8

9 examples (nos. 6 to 14)

6 (nos. i to 5, 16)

2 (nos. 17, 18)
i (no. 19)

i (no. 15)

13 examples (nos. i, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, is, 14, 15, 17,
22, 24)

3 (nos. 6, 16, 18)
3 (nos. 3, 7, 10)

* ( nos - X 9* *)

i (no. 13)

i (no. 21)

i ( no - 2 3)

6. Attention may be called to our previous discussion of the relationship
between musical and textual phrases in the Graduals of our group. It was
shown that in four Graduals, Hodie scietis, Tecum principium, Dispersit,

A! A 2 A 8

A i

A 2 ]

FI A a

A 4H

- Cl ]

FI A 8

. . . F! A 3

VERSE:

DIG

A 10

*10 A 12

A 10

CM FI

A^2

A 10

A,,

D u

A n

FI A 12

D w

A 10

C^Q A^2

DII

A 10

FIO A 12

a io c io

A 12

362 GREGORIAN CHANT

and Justus ut palma, the textual phrases are underlaid with a certain dis-
regard of the musical phrases. 11

7. Considering liturgical, musical, and textual evidence, one may come
to the conclusion that our gradual-type originated in the Mass of Saturday
in Ember Week of Advent. All the four Graduals of this Mass belong to
our group (nos. i, %, 3, and 6), and thus form a liturgico-musical nucleus
comparable to that of the five Tracts of Holy Saturday. The first and
fourth of these Graduals, A summo caelo and Excita Domine, contain near-
ly all the material of the entire group. Naturally, from the liturgical point
of view the Easter Gradual Haec dies has an equally valid claim to be con-
sidered as the mother chant. However, its specific formulae (D n , A u ,
were not used elsewhere in the group.

At the end of his study devoted to the Graduals, 12 Peter Wagner makes
some general observations which, like so many other of his ideas, deserve
to be incorporated in this book. He first raises the question as to whether
the mere conglomeration of melodic units, as revealed by his "anatomical"
method, can possibly result in a satisfactory work of art: "It is possible to
gather gems which, considered individually, delight us by their cut, bril-
liance, and rareness; if, however, they are to form a precious piece of
jewelry, they must receive a splendid mounting, an ingenious connection,
and a tasteful arrangement. Are the old melismas combined in this man-
ner?" Wagner's answer is, of course, in the positive, and no one will hesi-
tate to concur with him to the fullest extent. These melodies, fascinating
in their analytical detail, are equally admirable for their synthetic quality,
for their cohesion and union. In fact, the perception of their structural
properties greatly enhances their significance as unified works of art, no
less so than in the case of a sonata by Beethoven. True enough, there is
the difference that in Beethoven the analytical details occur within one
individual work, whereas in Gregorian chant they appear only upon com-
parison of a sufficient number of different pieces. To state this is only to
emphasize once more, and demonstrate with special clarity, that a Grego-
rian melody is not an individual creation but a representative of a type.

Wagner then raises the question as to the origin of the centonization
technique of the Graduals, a technique so diametrically opposed to the
prevailing concept of musical composition. "Only one answer is possible:
the technique of migrating melismas functioning as punctuations is a herit-
age from the psalmody of the Synagogue." Certainly there is a striking
similarity between the Gregorian centonization technique and the Jewish
method of singing a text to a number of short ornamenting figures indi-

11 See p. 271. The fact that Justus ut palma is in this group is another reason against
considering it as the prototype.

12 Wagner 111, 395.

The Free Compositions According to Types 363

cated stenographically by signs, the ta'amim Wagner observes that it
would be entirely possible to sing a Gradual (or, for that matter, a Tract)
with the mere help of figures or some other signs that would indicate to
the singer which formulae to select from a memorized repertory. His con-
tention that we are in the presence of a "heritage from the Synagogue" is
perhaps a little too strongly worded to be accepted without reservation.
After all, the earliest preserved manuscripts showing the Jewish ta'amim
date from the ninth century. 14 On the other hand, there is scarcely any
doubt that the practice as such is much older, possibly synagogaL Wherever
encountered, it is obviously rooted in, or, at least, strongly influenced by
a practical consideration, that is, to facilitate the task of the singer by
reducing the melodies to a limited fund of formulae that can be memorized
and applied according to the requirements of the texts.

THE OFFERTORIES

From the liturgical point of view, the Offertories belong in the same
class as the Introits and Communions, i.e., chants accompanying an action,
as opposed to the purely contemplative lesson chants, the Graduals, Al-
leluias, Tracts, and Responsories. The earliest mention of a chant accom-
panying the offering of gifts is found in St. Augustine who speaks about
"the custom, just started at Carthage, of singing hymns from the Book of
Psalms, either before the offering or during the distribution of what has
been offered/' This remark leaves hardly any doubt that at this early time
the "Offertory" (if we may use this term in connection with such an
ancient practice) was a complete Psalm, possibly with an Antiphon. It is
certain that at some later time the Offertory adopted an entirely different
character from that of the Introits and Communions. It acquired a rich
melismatic style similar to that of the Graduals, Responsories, and Al-
leluias, and was entrusted to a soloist, thus becoming a responsorial chant.
Until the twelfth century it retained a number of verses, usually two or
three, with the antiphon (or respond) repeated after each verse. 1

The change from an antiphonal to a responsorial type is not the only
trait that gives the Offertories a unique position in the Gregorian reper-
tory. In our previous discussions we have repeatedly pointed out other
exceptional traits of the Offertories, especially of their verses. It may not
be amiss to restate them here briefly, as a preliminary to a fuller study of
their stylistic characteristics:

13 See the example in HAM, I, 8.

l* See A. Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in its Historical Development, p. 68.

1 See the chapter on Methods and Forms of Psalmody, p. 179. In this discussion, deal-
ing with problems of form, the Offertories were considered as antiphonal chants. In the
present chapter, where the emphasis is on style, we prefer to designate the Offertory
antiphon as a respond not that this makes any difference. The verses are found in, and
quoted after C. Ott's Offertoriale. Cf. L. David, "Les versets d'Offertoire" (jRCG, XXXIX).

364 GREGORIAN CHANT

i. Extraordinarily large range of the combined respond and verse, in

one case (Tollite portas) two octaves [p. 151],
st. The unique case of the low F in Tollite portas, y. 2, on "et" [p.

3- The unique case of a leap of a seventh in Domine Dens meus, y. 2

OP- 253]- 2

4. The unique (?) example of a fifth-plus-fourth progression (eg gc 7 ) in

Constitues eos, y. 2 [p. 257].

5. The only examples of an ascending fourth-plus-third progression [p.

255]-

6. The unique case of an e-flat in In virtute, y. 2 [p. 165, fn. 29].

7. The relatively frequent occurrence, in the final verses, of fourth-plus-
fourth progressions, which are very rare in other chants [pp. 255!:].

8. The exceptionally great frequency of other progressions outlining a
seventh [p. 256] and of unusually bold formations in general [p. 258].

Perhaps the most striking peculiarity of the Offertories is the fact that
in not a few of them single words, groups of words, or entire phrases of
the text are repeated, once or several times. Outside the Offertories there
exists only one example of this procedure, that is, in the Gradual Ecce
quam bonum [1071], the verse of which reads: Sicut unguentum in capite,
quod descendit in barbam, barbam Aaron (like the ointment on the head,
that ran down upon the beard, the beard of Aaron). Since, however, this
is the original text of Scripture (Ps. 132), it cannot be considered on the
same level with the repeats in the Offertories (italics indicate that the
melody also is repeated):

i* Benedictus es . . . in labiis [514; Ott 28]

Ifr. Benedictus es Domine, doce me justificationes tuas: benedictus es
Domine, doce me justificationes tuas: in labiis meis pronuntiavi
omnia judicia oris tui.

2. Jubilate Deo omnis [480; Ott 23]

ty. Jubilate Deo omnis terra: jubilate Deo omnis terra, servite Domino
. . . quia Dominus ipse est Deus.

3. Jubilate Deo unwersa [486; Ott 69]

Iff. Jubilate Deo unwersa terra: jubilate Deo unwersa terra: psalmum
dicite nomini ejus: . . . quanta fecit Dominus animae meae, alleluia.

y. i Reddam tibi vota mea, reddam tibi vota mea, quae distinxerunt
labia mea.

y. 2 Locutum est os meum in tribulatione mea: locutum est os meum
in tribulatione mea: holocausta medullata offeram tibi.

2 This Offertory does not occur in the oldest Mss (e,g,, in the Sextuplex) nor in the
modern editions. Ott reproduces it from an unspecified source with the remark: "Olim
paenultima et ultima Dominica post Pentecosten."

The Free Compositions According to Types 365

4. Precatus est [1030; Ott 97]

$T. Precatus est Moyses in conspectu Domini Dei sui, et dixit. Precatus
est Moyses in conspectu Domini Dei sui, et dixit: Quare, Domine,
irasceris in populo tuo? . . . quam dixit facere populo suo.

y. 2 Dixit Moyses et Aaron, dixit Moyses et Aaron ad omnem synagogam
. . . et exaudivit murmurationem vestram in tempore.

5. Domine exaudi [620; Ott 53]

y. i Ne avertas faciem tuam, ne avertas faciem tuam a me.

6. Exsultabunt sancti [1169; Ott 143]

y. i Cantate Domino canticum novum, cantate Domino canticum novum:
laus eius in ecclesia . . . exsultent in Rege suo.

7. Afferentur (originally: Offerentur) regi [1219; Ott 155].

y. i Eructavit cor meum verbum bonum, eructavit cor meum verbum

bonum: dico ego . . . velociter scribentis.
y. 2 Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis, diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis: prop-

terea benedixit te Deus in aeternum.

8. De profundis [1076; Ott 126]

IJr. De profundis clamavi ad te, Domine: Domine exaudi orationem
meam: de profundis clamavi ad te, Domine.

9. Domine in auxilium [1046; Ott 106]

$r. Domine, in auxilium meum respice: confundantur et revereantur qui
quaerunt animam meam, ut auferant earn: Domine, in auxilium
meum respice.

10. Vir erat [1069; Ott 122]

y. i Utinam appenderentur peccata mea: utinam appenderentur peccata

mea, quibus iram merui, quibus iram merui, et calamitas et calamitas

et calamitas, quam patior, et gravior appareret.
y. 2 Quae est enim, quae est enim, quae est enim fortitude mea, ut susti-

neam? Ant quis finis meus, ut patienter agam? Aut finis meus, ut

patienter agamf
y. 3 Numquid fortitude lapidum est fortitudo mea? Aut caro mea aenea

est? Aut caro mea aenea est.
y. 4 Quoniam, quoniam, quoniam non revertetur oculus meus, ut videat

bona, ut videat bona, ut videat bona, ut videat bona, ut videat bona,

ut videat bona, ut videat bona.

REMARKS:

i. Group A comprises the cases representing what may be considered
the normal procedure, that is, the immediate repeat of the initial portion
of the text. Counting responds and verses separately, our list includes eleven
examples of this method. In six of these the repeated portion of the text
is sung to the same melody, resulting in the musical form a a b which

366 GREGORIAN CHANT

was destined to play such a prominent role in the later development of
music: in the hymns [see p. 426], in the music of the troubadours and
trouvres, 3 in the polyphonic music of the fourteenth century (ballades
of Machaut), in the music of the minnesingers and mastersingers (bar-
form), in the Lutheran chorales, and in the sonata-form of the Viennese
classics. In most cases the second statement is considerably expanded by
the insertion of long melismas, either at the end (e.g., Benedictus, Jubilate
Deo universa, y. 2) or at the beginning (both Jubilate on "Jubilate").

2. In group B the initial portion of the text is repeated at the end, in
both cases with the same melody, thus resulting in the form aba.

3. Entirely unique are the repeats in Vir erat. Whatever the ultimate
cause of the textual repeats in the Offertories and their verses may have
been possibly nothing more than the necessity of prolonging the chant
in conformity with the duration of the service it is apparent that the aim
was usually pursued in a well-ordered and aesthetically comprehensible
manner, by repeating the initial portion of the text (and often also its
music) either immediately or at the end. No such organizing principle is
at work in Vir erat, except for its third verse which, textually as well as
musically, has the form a b b, a form no less admissible and comprehensible
than a a b or a b a. The same form occurs in y. 2, but this also shows, at
its beginning, a triple statement of the exclamation Quae est enim. Even
more numerous are the repeats in y. i, in which three successive fragments
of the text, Utinam appenderentur peccata mea, quibus tram merui, and
et calamitas, appear in double or triple statements. The ultimate of this
method if it can thus be called is reached in y. 4 [Fig. 109], which starts

FIGURE 109

HHfl-_

8 3 iv f^_ 3 pi ..Ifr ] r. 3 "fr B, .A n. A m^, ., . , iK=

Quo-ni- am, quo-ni- am, quo-ni- am non re- ver- te- tar o- . cu- lus me-

j fr.. . f

otvj- de- at bo- na, ut rf-de- at Do-in, ut vWe- at bo-na, utvl-de-at

IH....I, .IM" Mm I ' '^Mtt

bo* na, ut vi-de- at bo-na, ut vl*de- at bo-na, ut vl-de* at

t=3t;

bo- na.

From Offertory Vir erat, fr 4.

8 See W. Apel, "Rondeaux, Virelais, and Ballades in French ijth-Century Song"
(Journal of the American Musicolo&cal Association, VII [1954], 121).

The Free Compositions According to Types 367

with a threefold Quoniam, and closes with seven statements of ut videat
bona* No doubt the reason for this highly reiterative treatment is found
in the text, which deals with the illness and grief of Job. The numerous
repeats are a graphic description of a man tormented by pain and anguish,
and crying out again and again to "see the good things" of his earlier days. 5
The dramatic character of the text is paralleled and even surpassed by the
music which transforms these outcries into a most stirring crescendo of ex-
pressiveness. Certainly, we are here in the presence of a composition which,
for its subjective and dramatic character, is without parallel in the Gre-
gorian repertory.

The Offertory responds vary considerably in length, being similar in
this respect to the Communions. One of the shortest and simplest is Laeten-
tur caeli [394] from the Midnight Mass of the Nativity, with hardly more
than two lines. The other extreme is represented by Precatus est Moyses
[1030] from the Twielfth Sunday after Pentecost, which occupies over ten
lines of music. In medieval practice, when the respond was followed by
two or more verses and repeated after each of them, chants of exorbitant
dimensions, hardly second to the longest Tracts, resulted. Not a few of the
full Offertories, as reproduced in Ott's publication, occupy close to three
pages, and would cover four pages if the repeats were written out in full.

The style of the Offertories is neumatic-melismatic; in fact, more con-
sistently so than that of the Graduals or Alleluias, because of the almost
complete absence of short syllabic passages such as are usually found in
these. According to Wagner, no Offertory contains a syllabic passage of
more than five syllables, and the entire repertory includes only eight cases
of syllabic passages of four or five syllables. 6 In most of the Offertories
moderate groups of from two to ten notes are spread rather evenly over
the entire text. Many of them, however, include a few extended melismas,
occasionally in the respond, but more frequently in the verses. One of the
most celebrated Offertory melismas is found in Jubilate Deo universa
[487], upon the repeat of the initial word [see Fig. 71, p. 258]. Quickly

4 Certain Mss have ^. 4 in an even longer form, with nine statements of ut videat
bonum; cf. the version, from a twelfth-century Gradual of Reims, in Gevaert's Mtlopee",
p. 429 and in Ott, p. 195. Yet other versions are given in Wagner III, 431; Ferretti's
Esihetique, p. 202; and Gastoue^s Origines, p. 155 (final melisma, with f '-sharp). The
above figure is from Ott, pp. 124!

5 Amalarius, commenting upon the fact that the repeats occur only hi the verses, aptly
remarks that the Offertory itself contains the words of the historian, while the verses
contain those of the sick and complaining Job, adding that a sick man, whose breath is
weak, is wont to repeat "verba imperfecta" (Liber officialis [De officio], iii, 39; ed.
Hanssens, II, 373; Pair. lat. 105, p. 1157).

6 Wagner 111, 418, fn. 2. Monotone recitations of some extension occur only in later
adaptations, e.g., Exsultabunt sancti, ^., on "Laetetur Israel in eo, qui fecit . . ." [Ott 144;
from Afferentur, fl. i, "lingua mea," Ott 155].

368 GREGORIAN CHANT

descending through an octave, and slowly rising from the low c to the
high P, it is universally admired as one of the most impressive embodi-
ments of what has been called the classical-Roman style in Gregorian chant.
It is interesting to notice, however, that the verses of Jubilate include two
melismas which are not only much longer than that of the respond, but
also of an entirely different character, static-reiterative rather than kinetic,
and strikingly similar to the melismas of the Graduals [see pp. 344f].
One of them, a profuse elaboration of the triad ta-c', is shown in Fig. no.

FIGURE 110

* flii 8, JLJ^ln.8^ JLJ 1 a>> 3'"1i 3i B< lti k > 't, ^t~

--p- t SB "p^ t frfl - t --- - t -- '% "tSh*

V4V

fe* ram
From Offertory Jubilate, fl. 2

Extended melismas, say of thirty or more notes, are not too frequent
in the Offertory responds. In addition to that of Jubilate there are perhaps
ten others, for instance in Jubilate Deo omnis [480], Super ftumina [1065],
Justorum animae [i 172], De profundis [1076], and Erit vobis [802]. In the
verses, on the other hand, they occur almost regularly, particularly near
the end of the last verse, and often they are of much the same length as that
from the last verse of Jubilate, on "offeram." Some show a similar, vaguely
reiterative design, for instance the final melisma of Deus enim [Ott 18],
which could be described as a profuse elaboration of the fourth-chord,
d-g-c':

FIGURE 111

di- e-

"*" "*" mm.

From Offertory Deus enim, 'f. 2

Many of them, however, have a different physiognomy, that is, of a
clearly defined repeat structure. Particularly frequent is the form a a b,
which may be illustrated by two examples: 7

7 See also: Super flumina, y. on "Sion" [1065; Ott 120]; Tollite portas, "jjr. 2. "eum"
[Ott 15]; Benedictus es, ^. 3. on "cor meum" [Ott 30]; Domine exaudi, ^. i on "me"
[Ott 54]; Angelus Domini, ^. 2 on "stetit" [Ott 58]; Precatus est, ^. 2 on "tempore" [Ott

The Free Compositions According to Types 369

FIGURE 112

y.E-ri-pe

depre-ca-ti- o- nem me- am

a. Custodi me, *ft. i [Ott 52] b. Domine in auxilium, $. 2 [Ott 107]

Other melismas show multiple repeats of one type or another, e.g.: 8

FIGURE 113
a

fl * '*+" **fl J^ >"B' iV* * V- 3 t

De -

^ "Jn fl j4 ^l^^s *^*\ M* Kf ** Kl "" ;. A"

r ** V " ^" . * * * aa fl /** *"*

fi- nem.

A...rMafl> 'V"" S P h MtfL

a. Sperent in te f -ft. 2 [Ott 87] b. Benedicam Dominum, -f. 2 [Ott 89]
c. Expectans expectavi, fl. z [Ott 106]

Melismas with such clear-cut repeat structures are totally absent in the
Responsories, Tracts, or Graduals, They occur, however, with even greater
frequency and clearer formal definition in the Alleluias. There can be
hardly any doubt that such formations are the product of a relatively late

100]; Sanctificavit, ^. 2 on "terra" [Ott 117]; Posuisti, -fl. 2 on "gloria" [Ott 137];
Laetaminif -f. i on "Beati" [Ott 140]; Justorum animae, ^. i on "coram" [Ott 145];
Justus ut palma, -ft. 3 on "florebit" [Ott 151]; Domine Deus f jr. i on "Dominus" [Ott 160];
Stetit angelus, 'f. i on "conspectu" [Ott 171]; Erue Domine, ^. i on "Deus" [Ott 178];
Tu es Petrus f ^f. i on "Beatus es," "tibi," and "qui est" [Ott i87f|; Felix namque, "ft. i on
"venerabilis" [Ott 189].

8 See also Ott: p. 46, line 4/5: a b a c a'; p. 88, 3/4: a a a b b; p. 94, 5/6: a a b c c d;
p. 121, 8/9: a b a; p. 136, 6/7: a a b b c; p. 148, 5/6: a b b; p. 169* a a.

370 GREGORIAN CHANT

period, and that they appeared first and tentatively in the Offertory verses,
whence they were adopted for the Alleluias.

We finally turn to a consideration of the Offertories and their verses as
musical entities. Essentially, each of the constituent parts of a complete
Offertory is a free melody. The technique of transferable standard phrases,
which plays such a conspicuous role in the Tracts, Responsories, and
Graduals, is practically non-existent in the Offertories. Whatever relation-
ship there exists between one Offertory and another (excepting, of course,
the cases of complete adaptation; see p. 69) is limited to the occasional
recurrence of some shorter or longer melisma, for example:

FIGURE 114

am tu- am ncm me* am

.,a v /---f

gen- ti-bus en- do

a. Miserere mihi j. "(misericordi)am tuam" [Ott 35] = Exaudi Deus jp. "(deprecatio)nem
tuam" [Ott 36]

b. Eripe me ty. "(insur)gentibus" [Ott 46] = Exaudi Deus -ft. 2 "(retribu)endo" [Qtt 37]

There exist, on the other hand, not a few cases of musical relation-
ship and references within a given Offertory, particularly between its re-
spond and its verses, in fact, a sufficient number to make this a rather
typical trait of these chants. They serve to a certain extent to integrate the
different portions of an Offertory into a unified whole. Thus, in turning
from the Tracts or the Graduals to the Offertories, we seem to witness a
shift of allegiance, the emphasis on group characteristics giving way to
concern with individual organisms.

The most interesting of these unifying devices is the employment of
the same cadence for the verses and for the first half of the respond (R/).
This is a principle of structural organization, by means of which the sec-
ond half of the respond (R")> which is repeated after each verse, is intro-
duced and announced by the same formula each time it is sung:

This method has been mentioned earlier in our discussion of the forms
of responsorial and antiphonal psalmody [see p. 194]. It occurs in the fol-
lowing Offertories [indication by numbers refers to Ott's publication; the
length of the identical ending is indicated either by number of notes or,

The Free Compositions According to Types yji

if they are of considerable extension, by quotation of the portions of the
text with which they appear]: 9

Deus tu convertens (no. 2): six notes

Confortammi (no. 4): "-et judicium" = 'lingua mutorum" = "Emmanuel" [see

Fig. 35> P- 194]

Laetentur (no. 8): here the common ending consists of the entire R':
"Laetentur . . . terra" = "cantate . . . terra" = "de die . . . ems"

Tui sunt caeli (no. 10, three verses): six notes

Eripe me Domine (no. 30): the common ending of R', TP If and y 2 comprises five
or six notes; however, ^ and y s have a longer ending in common: " (ser)vo
tuo Domine" = "spiritus meus" 10

Jubilate Deo universa (no. 42): nine notes

Viri Galilei (no. 102): "in caelum" = "dixerunt"

Ascendit Deus (no. 45): nine notes (modified)

De profundis (no. 73): the common ending, comprising eleven notes, occurs in
the respond at the end of the melisma on "meam," but there is no asterisk after
"meam," nor is there an indication for the repeat of the respond (or its second
half) after either of the two verses. Nevertheless, the occurrence of the verse
ending in the middle of the respond leaves no doubt that the second part of
the respond, "de profundis . . . Domine," is to be used as a refrain [see Fig. 36].
Since this portion of the text (and melody) occurs also at the beginning of the
respond [see p. 365], the entire Offertory shows strict rondo form:

r a r b

Iff: De . . . Domine: Domine . . . meam: de . . . Domine. y. i: Fiant . . .

r c , r

tui. I?': de . . . Domine. y. 2: Si . . . sustinebit? IJr': de . . . Domine.

In a number of Offertories only some of the verses employ the internal
ending of the respond (before the asterisk):

Domine vivifica (no. 16), y. i: eight or nine notes

Domine fac mecum (no. 21), y. 2: "propter . . ." = "ego . . ."

Eripe me . . . Deus (no. 557), y. i: the common ending begins ten notes before

" (insurgen)tibus in me" and " (for)tes in me"
Benedictus es . . . non tradas (no. 28), y. 2: six notes
Intonuit (no. 35), y. i: "vocem suam" = "meus"
Si ambulavero (no. 69), y. s: eleven notes
Super flumina (no. 70), y. i: the ten-note ending occurs in the middle of the

respond, at "flevimus" (no asterisk). See p. 195.

9 In the respond the common ending appears, of course, immediately before the
asterisk. It will be recalled that a similar practice occurs in the Responsories [see p. 334]*

10 This Offertory, as shown in L 605, has the unusual feature in that its respond closes
on b, a fifth above the final. In its full form, with two verses, this ending is employed
before -f. i and before ^. 2, while for the concluding repeat, after ^. a, a seconda volta
ending is indicated which correctly doses on the final, e.

372 GREGORIAN CHANT

Desiderium (no. 90), y. i: "ei, Domine" = "ei, Domine" (notice the identity of

both text and music)

Domine Deus meus (no. 103), y. 2: seven notes
Repleti sumus (no. 104), y. i: eight notes

In all these Offertories the verses borrow their endings from the internal
cadence of the respond, a phenomenon resulting from (or indicative of)
the refrain structure. In a number of Offertories it is the final cadence of
the respond that recurs in some or all of the verses, resulting in a "musical
rhyme" similar to that found in some of the Graduals, e.g., those of the
fifth mode [see p. 350]. Thus, in Protege Domine (no. 100) the cadence of
the respond recurs in *$". i and 2:

d-c-d-e-f e-d

IJT.: Protege . . . alle- luia

y. i: Te sancta ... in te

y. 2: Qui pro mundi . . . $e-curu$,

while y. 3 has a different ending. Other examples are:

Terra tremuit (no. 33): the respond and the three verses each close with an "al-
leluia" sung to the same melody in IJr. and y. 3, to a modified melody in y. i
and y. 2.

Immittet angelus (no. 61): same ending for 1JT. and y. i, 2, 3.

MM autem (no. 74): both $r. and y. i dose with the words "principatus eorum"
sung to the same melody.

Confitebuntur caeli (no. 80), y. i, 2: the respond doses with "alleluia, alleluia."
The second "alleluia" recurs at the dose of y. i, and both "alleluia, alleluia"
at the dose of y. 2. For another melodic repeat, between respond and y. i, see

P; 574-
Anima nostra (no. 85): the respond and y. i both close with the words "et nos

liberati sumus" sung to the same melody, but transposed to the upper fifth in

the verse.
Justus ut palma (no. 88): the entire second half of the respond, "Sicut cedrus,

quae in Libano est, multiplicabitur," recurs with the same text and with the

same melody (aside from an enlarged melisma) at the end of y. 3. y. i and

2 have a common ending of eleven notes.
O pie Deus (no. 107): Both respond and verse have the same ending of seven

notes.

Finally, there are a considerable number of Offertories in which two or
more of the verses have a common ending which, however, does not occur
in the respond. Considered per se, this phenomenon is not unusual; in fact,
it occurs in nearly all the chants employing several verses in the ordinary
Psalms, in the Introits (verse and Doxology), and in the Tracts. The differ-
ence is that in all these chants the various verses are sung to the same

The Free Compositions According to Types 373

melody (psalm tone, introit tone, etc.), a method which necessarily and
automatically implies the use of the same closing formula (termination,
etc.). In the Offertories, however, each verse is sung to a free and individual
melody. The cases in which these different melodies have a common end-
ing are therefore noteworthy as additional evidence of the use of unifying
devices in the Offertories. Since the common ending does not occur in the
respond, it cannot be explained as resulting from the refrain structure.
It is a purely musical phenomenon, a "musical rhyme," such as also occurs
in many later strata, e.g., in the sequences, the estampie, etc. A good ex-
ample is the Offertory Perfice gressus (no. 54):

g g-b-a-b-a-a-a

y. i: Exaudi, . , . orationem me- am
2: Custodi ... ab im-pi-o

3: Ego autem . . . gloria tu- a

Following is a list of the Offertories showing musical rhyme:

(a) of all the verses:

Exsulta (no. 5); Jubilate . . . omnis (no. 12); Portas caeli (no. 36); Bene-
dicite gentes (no. 43); Confitebor (no. 44); Emitte spiritum (no. 46);
Confirma hoc (no. 47); Benedictussit (no. 48); Sperent (no. 51); Illumina
(no. 52); Benedicam Dominum (no. 53); Perfice gressus (no. 54); Sancti-
ficavit Moyses (no. 68); Mirabilis Deus (no. 82); Afferentur (no. 96);
Confessio et pulchritudo (no. 98);

(b) of some of the verses:

Reges Tharsis (no. 11; y. ss and 3); Bonum est confiteri (no, 14; y. 2
and 3); Improperium (no. 29; y. i and 2); Custodi me (no. 31; y. 2 and
3); Constitues eos (no. 76; y. 2 and 3).

The length of the common ending varies from as few as five notes, as in
Sperent, to the extreme case presented by Emitte Spiritum in which the
common ending extends, with some variants, over die entire second half
of each of the three verses.

While the tendency toward motival unification expresses itself most
clearly in the closing formulae of the responds, the verses, or both, it also
manifests itself in other details:

Confitebor tibi, Domine (no. 26): three short passages, "corde meo," " (ver)bum
tuum, Domine," and "in lege Domini," the first two in the respond, the third
in y. i, employ the same melodic formula.

Eripe me . . . Domine (no. 30) has the same short melisma on "tuam" and "s tu,"
both in the respond [see L 605].

374 GREGORIAN CHANT

Custodi me (no. 31): the respond employs the same melody for the penultimate
and the final phrase, "Et ab hominibus iniquis" and "eripe me, Domine," re-
sulting in the form abb. Moreover, y. a and 3 have not only a common ending
[see above], but also the same melody for their initial phrases, "Qui cogita-
verunt" and "Dixi Domino."

Domine exaudi (no. 3?): two subsequent phrases in the middle of the respond,
"orationem mean" and "et clamor meus," employ the same melody, so that the
form becomes abbe [620].

Benedictus qui venit (no. 39) has the same musical phrase for the two subsequent
words "Domini" and "Deus" [806]. y. i shows the form a b b c, the extended
melisma of "exsultemus" being immediately restated on "et laetemur."

Lauda anima (no. 41): The same melodic formula occurs at two separate places
of y. 2, " (extermi)nabit" and " (Si)on."

Jubilate Deo universe, (no. 42): the melody of the beginning of the respond,
"Jubilate Deo universa terra," recurs, with minor variants, at the beginning of
y. 2, "Locutum est os meum in tribulatione mea." In addition, both the re-
spond and the second verse repeat the initial phrase of their texts, with nearly
the same melody [see above, p. 364].

Ascendit Deus (no. 45): a short motif, d-a-b-a, occurs seven times: ]Jr. "in,"
"Do (minus"; y. i. "Om(nes)," "in"; y. 2, "Rex," "su(per)"; y. 3, "sub."

Confirma hoc (no. 47): a short motif, d-g-a-c'-a-g-f, occurs repeatedly (with vari-
ants) in y. 2, "Domi (no)," and hi y. 3, "cantate," "psal (lite)," and "ascendit."

Domine in auxilium (no. 63): y. i employs the same melisma on " (re)trorsum"
and " (eru)bescant."

Si ambulavero (no. 69): a short motif, g-a-b-c'-d'-c'-b-a, recurs five times in y. 2,
as a part of the melismas on "tuum," " (confi)te (bor)," "Do (mine)," "tu (a),"
and " (veri)ta (te)."

Confitebuntur caeli (no. 80): the melody for "in ecclesia sanctorum" in the re-
spond recurs in y. i with a similar text, "in consilio sanctorum." In addition,
this Offertory has common endings for the closing "alleluia" of the respond
and both verses [see above, p. 372].

In virtute tua (no. 89): the second half of the melisma on "ei" (close of the re-
spond) recurs in four melismas of y. i, on "pe (tiit)," "ei," " (di)e (rum)," and
"sae(culi)."

Domine Deus meus (no. 103): The respond and y. i begin with the same text,
"Domine, Deus meus," and the two melodies accompanying this text have the
same beginning as well as the same dosing formula. A short motif, g-a-c'-c'-
a-g-g-f* forms not only the common ending of y and y. 2 [see above, p. 372],
but recurs, altogether, nine times in the course of the entire chant. Notice also
the identity (or near identity) of the three melismas on "meus," "me fac," and
" (persequentibus) me" in the respond. Here, as in numerous other cases, it is
obviously the recurrence of the same word which suggested the employment
of the same melodic phrase.

Repleti sumus (no. 104): Most of the melodic material of y. 2 is derived from
that of y. i. Aside from the four opening notes, which reiterate the opening

The Free Compositions According to Types 375

of y. i, the entire beginning of y. 2, "Priusquam fierent montes," is sung to
the melody of the section "refugium factus est nobis" of ^. i, and " (sae)culo et
in saeculum" of y. 2 has the same melody as " (generati)one et progeni (e)" of

y. i.

Misit rex (no. 105): This Offertory, which is probably of a more recent date (it
is not contained in the Sextuple* Mss.), is remarkable for its repeated use
of a "dominant-seventh" motif, g-d'-f'-d' (twice in the respond) or g-b-d'-f'-d'
(twice in the verse). Notice also the four recurrences of the motif d'-f'-e'-f-
g/.f/-e'<|/ in the two verse melismas on "aliud" and "caput."

These lengthy explanations, although perhaps tiring in all their details,
were necessary in order to establish clearly the peculiar character of the
Offertories and their verses. Unique and exceptionally bold melodic pro-
gressions, repetition of entire portions of the text, profuse melismas of the
reiterative type as well as melismas showing a clear-cut repeat structure,
unifying devices such as common endings or recurrent phrases and motifs:
all these traits combine to put these chants in a class entirely their own.
Nor is the interest of the Offertories limited to the field of analytical in-
vestigation. They are equally remarkable and extraordinary if regarded
from the aesthetic point of view, from which they appear indeed as out-
standing embodiments of medieval art. We are, of course, speaking of the
Offertories in their complete form, with their verses which, in fact, reveal
the specific character of these chants much more clearly than the responds.
It is a great pity that these verses are so little known. In the preface of his
publication, Ott aptly extols them for their magnificent flow, the harmony
of their parts, the elegance of their lines, the originality of their formulae,
the ever-varying forms of their melismas, adding that "nobody will deny
their being superior to the verses of the Graduals." Certainly they represent
a dramatic climax in the development of the chant which stands in marked
contrast to the quiet greatness of the earlier melodies, a contrast not dis-
similar to that between Beethoven and Bach.

THE ALLELUIAS

The Alleluia is the third chant of the Proper of the Mass, and is sung
immediately after the Gradual. It is omitted during the pre-Easter period
beginning with Septuagesima Sunday but, as if in recompense for the
omission, doubled during Paschal Time more correctly, from Saturday
in Easter Week to Friday after Pentecost (Ember Friday), when two Alle-
luias are sung instead of the normal Gradual-plus-Alleluia. The Saturday
after Pentecost (Ember Saturday) has five Alleluias, instead of the normal

376 GREGORIAN CHANT

sequence of four Graduals and Hymn (Benedictus es Domine) for the
Saturdays of Ember Weeks [see p. 29].

Taken over directly from the Jewish rites (alleluia = hallelu Jah, praise
ye Jehova), the Alleluia was widely used as an expression of joyful praise of
the Lord, not only in the liturgy but also at many occasions of daily life.
St. Jerome gives a vivid description of this practice, saying that "wherever
you turn, the ploughman with the plough-handle in his hand sings the
Alleluia, the perspiring reaper relieves himself with a Psalm, and the vine-
yardist, cutting the vine with a curved knife, sings something from David/' 1
He also tells us that the Alleluia was sung at festive meals, and that a
young girl, barely able to speak, sang it to the joy of her grandfather.
Sidonius Apollinaris (born c. 430) speaks in a poem of the Alleluia being
sung by the boatmen and resounding from the banks of the river (Loire);
while Bede tells us that in a battle of 448 the priests of the Britons intoned
three times the Alleluia, to which the soldiers responded as with a single
voice, thus discomfiting the army of the Saxons and Picts.

As for the liturgical Alleluia, this occurs not only in its specific con-
notation as a Mass chant but also, and possibly much earlier, as an addition
to other chants. St. Jerome strongly recommended to Pope Damasus that
he add the Alleluia to all the Psalms of Matins, and St. Benedict prescribed
it for all the Psalms and Responsories during Paschal Time, as well as for
the last six Psalms of Matins and the Canticles of Sundays outside of Lent. 2
The later and present-day practice is to add it at the end of every chant
sung during Paschal Time.

At present, we are concerned only with the Alleluia of the Mass. It is
usually stated that this was introduced in Rome by Pope Damasus, on the
advice of St. Jerome and for Easter Sunday only. Recent investigations,
however, have revealed an entirely different picture. 3 It seems that before

1 See for this and subsequent quotations: I. Gliboti6, "De cantu 'Alleluia* in patribus
saeculo VII anterioribus" (Ephemerides liturgicae, L [1936], 99); J. Froger, "I/Alleluia
dans 1'usage remain" (ibid., LXII [1948], 6); and the article "Alleluja" (Stablein) in MGG.

2 See, for St. Jerome, Pair. lat. 130, p. 659: Alleluia semper cum omnibus psalmis affi-
gatur . . .; for St. Benedict, Pair. lat. 66, pp. 45 iff, or The Holy Rule of . . . Saint Bene-
dict (St. Meinrad's Abbey, 1937), p. 32.

3 See the articles by Glibotid and Froger (n. i). The change results from a correction
in a famous letter by Gregory including the words Nam ut alleluia hie diceretur (The
custom to sing the Alleluia here, i.e., in Rome), which actually should read Nam ut alle-
luia hie non diceretur (The custom not to sing the Alleluia here). The whole passage is
as follows: "Somebody came to me from Sicily and told me that some of his friends . . .
grumbled about my dispositions, saying: although he wants to suppress the Church of
Constantinople, he nevertheless follows all its customs. When I asked him: which
customs do we follow? he said: that the Alleluia should be sung at Masses outside of
Paschal Time. ... I answered him: In none of these matters have we followed another
Church. Tradition has it that our custom not to sing the Alleluia was adopted, through

The Free Compositions According to Types 377

Damasus the Alleluia was used in Rome as widely as in the Churches of
the Orient, although we cannot be certain whether or to what extent it was
used as a chant of the Mass. Exactly what happened under Damasus is not
entirely clear. If we are to believe the famous passage in one of Gregory's
letters (in its correct form; see fn. 3), we must conclude that Damasus
actually abolished it. Strange though this conclusion may be, it is con-
firmed in a way by the statement of the Greek church historian Sozomenos,
according to which the Alleluia was sung in Rome, about 450, only once
during the year, on the first day of Easter [see List of Data, no. 37]. There
can hardly be any doubt that this single Alleluia was the Alleluia of the
Easter Mass. In the ensuing 150 years the use of the Alleluia was extended
over the entire Easter period, a process that was completed by the time
of Gregory, as appears from his above-mentioned letter written in 598 to
the Bishop Johannes of Syracuse in answer to a complaint about several
innovations he had introduced, among them the "singing of the Alleluia
at Masses outside of Paschal Time." From this letter we learn two facts:
first, that before Gregory the Mass Alleluia was sung only during the
period from Easter to Pentecost; second, that he extended its use beyond
this period. The latter is usually interpreted to mean that he ordered the
use of the Alleluia for the entire year, excepting, of course, the pre-Easter
period [see List of Data, no. 47]. Actually, there is reason to assume that
he introduced it only for the first season of the year, from the first Sunday
of Advent to the last Sunday after Epiphany [see pp. 38of].

It is usually said that during the pre-Easter period and on other occa-
sions of penitence or mourning, "the Alleluia is replaced by the Tract." 4
Although this is a convenient way of describing the present-day state of
affairs, it is not correct in the historical sense for the simple reason that an
Alleluia never existed on those days. Perhaps a case could be made for
the reverse statement, namely, that the Tracts were replaced by the Alle-
luia on all days except those of a penitential character. If we recall the
early form of tie Mass with three readings and two Psalms between them
[see pp. s4f], it is certainly a plausible assumption that the first Psalm was

St. Jerome, from the Church of Jerusalem at the time of Pope Damasus of blessed
memory . . ." (Patr. lat. 77, p. 956; the complete letter is reproduced in Gastoue',
Origines, p. 283).

After the completion of my manuscript an article appeared, by E. Wellesz, "Gregory
the Great's Letter on the Alleluia" (Annales musicologiques, II [1954], 7), in which the
older reading without the word non is defended with an array of evidence no less impres-
sive than that brough forward by Glibotic" and Froger in support of the version with the
word non. I am not in a position to take sides on this issue.

4 Wagner I, 86: "On days of mourning ... the Alleluia is replaced by the Tract."
Ferretti, Esthetique, pp. i$$t: ". . . le Trait . . . remplace le chant de I' Alleluia. . . ."

378 GREGORIAN CHANT

a psalmus responsorius, that is, a Gradual, the second a psalmus direc-
taneus, that is, a Tract. Indeed, more than any other Mass chant the Tract
has a valid claim to be considered as a Psalm. 5

The Alleluia, on the other hand, is not a psalmodic chant in the proper
sense of the word, in spite of the fact that in its final form it consists of the
word Alleluia followed by a verse usually taken from a Psalm. Although
this structure is similar to that of the Gradual, Responsory, Introit, etc.,
in which the respond (or antiphon) is followed by a verse, it probably
resulted from a process of addition, rather than reduction from a com-
plete Psalm as was the case in the truly psalmodic chants. None of the
early writers make any allusion to a Psalm in connection with the Alle-
luia, but describe it as being nothing but the word Alleluia itself, sung
in a more or less melismatic manner. St. Augustine (c. 400) compares it to
the celeusma, the far-sounding cry of the Roman sailors, and Cassiodorus
(c. 550) describes it in some detail but without any reference to a full text,
saying only that it is "an ornament for the tongue of the singers" and that,
"like an inexhaustible treasure, it is renewed in ever-varying melodies. 6

It is not known at what time the verses were added to the Alleluia. Since
the earliest sources for the Mass formularies show the Alleluia invariably
connected with a verse (e.g., the Codex Monza of the eighth century), it
appears that this step must have been taken some time between c. 550 and
c. 750. Wagner surmises that this was done by Gregory, but there is no
proof for this assumption. In fact it seems rather unlikely, because of the
considerable variability that exists in the assignment of the verses to the
various feasts of the liturgical year. If, in addition to extending the use
of the Alleluia over the entire year, Gregory had also provided individual
verses, the combined result of the two steps would have been similar to
that in the other Mass chants, that is, a definite and invariable assignment
of a given verse to a given feast would exist. Actually, this is far from being
the case. In no other class of chant is there so much variability and lack
of conformity as in the Alleluias. We cannot possibly enter into a detailed
description of this extremely complex picture, nor would this serve any
useful purpose from our point of view. 7 It will suffice to describe briefly
the state of affairs as it exists in the earliest sources, the six manuscripts of
Hesbert's Sextuple* publication. In the Temporale, the following feasts
are the only ones having an invariable Alleluia verse:

5 As has been mentioned previously [p. 184], there is good reason to assume that at
least some of the Tracts originally were Graduals.

St. Augustine: "Our celeusma, that we sing, is the miraculous Alleluia" (Pair. lat.
4p t p. 680). Cassiodorus, see Patr. lat. 70, p. 742.

7 The Alleluia is the only chant of the Mass Proper for which new texts and melodies
were written as late as the fifteenth century. See the article "Alleluja" hi MGG.

SEXT.

FEAST

Dom. I. Adv.

Dom. II. Adv.

Dom. III. Adv.

ybls

Dom. IV. Adv.

Nat., Nocte

Nat., Mane

Nat, Die

Dom. I. p. Nat.

Epiphania

Dom. I. p. Ep.

Dom. II. p. Ep.

Dom. III. p. Ep,

Sabb. Sancto

Dom. Paschae

Fer. II. p. P.

Sabb. p. P.

Letaniae

102

Ascensa

105

Vig. Pent.

106

Pentecosten

The Free Compositions According to Types

VERSE

Ostende nobis

Laetatus sum

Excita Domine

Veni Domine*

Dominus dixit

Dominus regnavit decore(m)

Dies sanctificatus

Dominus regnavit decore(m)

Vidimus stellam

Jubilate Deo

Laudate Deum

Dominus regnavit exultet*

Confitemini Domino

Pascha nostrum

Dominus regnavit decore(m)

Laudate pueri^

Confitemini Domino

Ascendit Deus; Dominus in Sina

Confitemini Domino

Emitte Spiritum; Veni Sancte Spiritus

379

320
329
336
354
394
405
409
435
460
479
486
490
759
779

805
841
848
860

This list covers the complete Temporale from Advent up to Easter (nos.
i to 80), disregarding, of course, the pre-Easter period in which there is no
Alleluia. After Easter, however, the picture changes, only five Masses exist-
ing with an invariable Alleluia; i.e., for Saturday in Easter Week, Litany
Days, Ascension, Vigil of Pentecost, and Pentecost. For Monday in Easter
Week the Sextuplex Mss are still in agreement among themselves (no. 81),
but in the earliest musical sources, such as St. Gall 355? and 55^, the original
Dominus regnavit decorem, adopted from the Nativity, is replaced by
Surrexit Dominus vere, which eventually gave way to Angelus Domini
descendit. For the subsequent days of Easter Week even the Gradual* of
the Sextuplex are in disagreement. A typical example is the Wednesday in
Easter Week (Sextuplex no. 83):

8 Only in Compi&gne and Senlis. In Monza, Mont-Blandin, and Corbie this Sunday,
which is a later addition, is not represented. Codex Rheinau has a Mass for it, but omits
the Alleluia, as it does in a number of other Masses.

* Mont-Blandin has Alleluia: Beatus vir.

10 The other Alleluia of this day, ^. Haec dies, is clearly indicated only in Corbie.
The other Mss prescribe the Gradual Haec dies. Monza has the rather puzzling indication;
Resp. Grad. All Hec dies.

380 GREGORIAN CHANT

Codex Monza: All. Quoniam Deus magnus

Codex Rheinau: All. Redemptionem misit

Codex Mont-Blandin: All. quale volueris (whichever you wish)

Codex Compiegne: All. Dominus regnavit

Codex Corbie: All. Jubilate Deo

Codex Senlis: All. Jubilate Deo

Liber usualis: All. Surrexit Dominus.

Similarly for the Second Sunday after Easter (Sextuplex no. 88):

Codex Monza: Alleluias II

Codex Rheinau: AIL Confitemini Domino et invocate; All. Confitemini

Domino quoniam

Codex Mont-Blandin: All. II quale volueris

Codex Compifcgne: All. Surrexit Altissimus; All. Dominus regnavit decor e

Codex Corbie: nothing indicated

Codex Senlis: All. Qui posuit; All. Quoniam Deus magnus

Liber usualis: All. Cognoverunt discipuli; All. Ego sum.

For the Sundays after Pentecost, the early sources (including most o
the musical manuscripts of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries)
usually omit the Alleluia from the Masses, and give a separate list under
such titles as Alleluiae de circulo anni or Alleluiae per singulas Dominicas.
From this list the singer would be free to choose an "alleluia quale vo-
lueris," whichever Alleluia he preferred, for that day.

The Sanctorale shows an even more striking lack of fixity. Properly
speaking, there are only two feasts of Saints which have an unquestionably
invariable Alleluia, namely, St. Stephen (Video caelos; Sext. 12) and St.
John (Hie est discipulus; Sext. 14). In addition there are a few feasts
which may be regarded as having an invariable Alleluia, although some
of the Sextuplex Mss (usually Rheinau or Mont-Blandin) fail to indicate
an Alleluia. These are: St. Silvester (Invent David, today for St. Basil;
Sext. 16); St. Prisca (Diffusa est, today for St. Lucy; Sext. 23); St. Fabian
(Sancti tui; Sext. 24); St. Vincent (Beatus vir qui timet, today for the
Common of a Confessor not a Bishop; Sext. 27); and Dedication (Adorabo;
Sext. loo). 11

It will be noticed that, except for the Dedication, all these feasts fall
within the Advent-Epiphany season, the same period which also shows
invariable Alleluias for the Temporale. Obviously the Alleluias of this
period had an authoritative character absent in the other periods, even
in Paschal Time, which was the earliest period to acquire an Alleluia.
Perhaps we have here an indication of Gregory's activity. The striking

11 For a table showing the variation of the Alleluias in the Sanctorale, see Sextuplex,
p. cxi.

The Free Compositions According to Types 381

contrast between the fixity of the Alleluias in the Advent-Epiphany seasons
and their variability during the others could be explained by assuming
that he extended the use of the Alleluia or, possibly, of an Alleluia with
a specific verse only to the first part of the liturgical year. As for the
variability in Paschal Time, a plausible explanation would be that, in
deference to the older tradition, he did not introduce any changes in this
period. This would mean that in Paschal Time the Alleluia continued to
be sung as a pure melisma and did not acquire a verse until a later time.
Naturally, all these considerations refer only to the textual aspect of the
Alleluias. We shall see, however, that musical considerations lead to similar
conclusions [see pp. 39 if].

About half a dozen Alleluias occur in the older sources more or less
regularly with two verses. This is particularly true of the Easter Alleluia,
which nearly always has the verses Pascha nostrum and Epulemur in
azymis. 12 Other Alleluias with two verses are:

Alleluia y. Laetatus sum; y. Stantes erant (Second Sunday of Advent)
Alleluia y. Angelus Domini; y. Respondens autem (Easter Monday)
Alleluia y. Venite exsultemus; y. Preoccupemus (Sundays after Pente-
cost)
Alleluia y. Tu es Petrus; y. Beatus es Simon (Peter and Paul).

A concomitant of the extraordinary variability of liturgical assignment
in the Alleluias is the extensive use of adaptation, that is, of the same
melody for different texts. True enough, examples of this method are not
missing in other categories, for example, in the Tracts, the Graduals, the
Offertories. What distinguishes the Alleluias is not only that adaptations
are much more numerous but especially that they occur within the earliest
segment of the liturgical year, while in the other chants they are found
only for feasts of a later date. 13 The largest group of adaptations is the
one that includes the Alleluia Dominus dixit from the Midnight Mass of
the Nativity:

A. Temporale

Ostende nobis [320] First Sunday of Advent

Dominus dixit [394] The Nativity, Midnight Mass

Dominus regnavit, exsultet, [490] Third Sunday after Epiphany
Haec dies [805] Saturday in Holy Week

Dominus in Sina [848] Ascension

Confiteantur [G 411] First Sunday after Pentecost

(now St. Peter's Chair, Votive Mass)

12 See the facsimiles following p. ias. The (non-musical) Gradual of Comptegne adds
a third verse, Non in fcrmento.

13 Trinity is the earliest; see p. 69.

382 GREGORIAN CHANT

B. Old Sanctorale

Specie tua [1218] St. Agnes and others; now Mass for a Vir-

gin Martyr

Diffusa est gratia [1323] St. Lucy

Nimis honorati [1720] SS. Simon and Jude

C. Modern Feasts

Dominus salvavit [G 464] St. John Damascene

Mittat vobis [1289] Nuptial Mass

Hardly less popular -was the melody of the Alleluia Dies sanctificatus
from the Third Mass of the Nativity:

A. Temporale

Dies sanctificatus [409] The Nativity, Mass of the Day

Vidimus stellam [460] Epiphany

B. Old Sanctorale

Video caelos [416] St Stephen

Hie est discipulus [422] St John, Apostle

Inveni David [1489] St. Silvester (now St. Basil)

Sancti tui [1336] SS. Fabian and Sebastian

Tu es Petrus [1520] SS. Peter and Paul

G. Late-Medieval Sanctorale

Tu puer [1501] St. John the Baptist

Magnus sanctus [1346] Conversion of St. Paul

Hie est sacerdos [1184] Mass of a Confessor Bishop

Yet another example of multiple adaptation is the following:

Excita Domine [336] Third Sunday of Advent

Ascendit Deus [848] Ascension

Emitte Spiritum [879] Pentecost

Laudate Deum [486] Second Sunday after Epiphany

Qui posuit fines [1286] Mass to Beg for Peace; originally Vigil of

Ascension etc.

Benedicite Domino [1664] Mass for. the Guardian Angels; originally?

In most cases the adaptation of the original melody to a new verse is
rather strict, the difference being mainly in the omission or addition of
notes caused by the varying number of syllables. Occasionally variations
of the textual structure necessitated the omission of complete passages, an
example in point being Hie est sacerdos [1184], which is a considerably
shortened adaptation of Dies sanctificatus [409]. There are also some Alle-
luias which combine a borrowed Alleluia with a new melody for the verse,
c.g.:

The Free Compositions According to Types 383

Virgo Dei genitrix [1684] and Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro [790]
Redemptionem [822] and Dies sanctificatus [409]

Ostende mihi [1377] and In te Domine [1008]

A long, though not complete list of contrafacta is given in Wagner's
vol. Ill, pp. 4ooff. It shows that more than seventy of the Alleluias in pres-
ent-day use, that is, about one-third of the total number, are adaptations.
Many more cases can undoubtedly be found in the late-medieval sources,
which contain numerous Alleluias that had only local or temporary signifi-
cance and were not adopted by the modern collections.

If adaptation plays a prominent role in the Alleluias, centonization is
conspicuously absent. Like the Offertories, perhaps even more so, the Alle-
luia melodies are individual compositions rather than representatives of a
type. Here the change of emphasis adumbrated in the Offertories from
the group to the individual, from bondage to liberty, is fully completed.
This is not to say that common traits indicative of a unified style are en-
tirely absent, but these enter into the picture to about the same degree as
they do in the sonatas of Beethoven. What binds the Alleluias together are
mainly aspects of form and structural detail, the same aspects that also
provide the common ground for the works of the nineteenth-century
master.

As to its form, the Alleluia consists essentially of two sections: the first
formed by the word Alleluia (A) and a subsequent melisma called jubilus
(j); the second, by the verse (V). Except for a few special occasions, e.g.,
on Holy Saturday, the Alleluia is repeated after the verse, so that a ternary
form results:

A+j V A+j"

Although the verses, with their full texts, present a strong contrast to
the Alleluia sections, both sections are unified to a degree not encountered
in any other chant of the respond-plus-verse (or antiphon-plus-verse) type
by the use of common material. With the exception of perhaps no more
than ten melodies, 15 all the verses close with a restatement of the jubilus,
so that the normal form of an Alleluia is:

A+j V+j A+j

Actually the musical relationships between the verse and the Alleluia
are considerably more diversified and extensive than this general scheme
suggests. In the great majority of the cases it is not only the jubilus, but
the complete Alleluia section (A+j), that recurs at the end of the verse.

1* For more details concerning the actual performance, see p. 197.

15 in all the subsequent explanations duplications arising from adaptation are dis-
regarded, so that "ten Alleluias" means "ten different melodies/* which may occur with
any number of different texts.

384 GREGORIAN CHANT

Moreover, there are a certain number of Alleluias in which the Alleluia
(sometimes the Alleluia with the jubilus) is quoted not only at the end but
also at the beginning o the verse. Finally, in a few cases the borrowing
goes so far that the entire verse consists almost entirely of material taken
from the Alleluia. In the following tabulation the various "repeat types"
are schematically indicated by an equation showing the relationship be-
tween the verse and the Alleluia. The total number of examples (dif-
ferent melodies) for each type is also given and, for the purpose of fuller
illustration, the individual examples found in the Alleluias of mode 7. 16

1. V = ...A+j:
Total number c. 60.

Mode 7: Domine exaudi [1049]; ^ n die resurrectionis [809]; Levita
Laurentius [1595]; Post dies octo [810]

2. V = ... j:

Total number c. 25.

Mode 7: Adorabo [1251]; Domine refugium [1034]; Magnus Dominus
[1014]; Pascha nostrum [779]; Te decet [1022]

3. V = A...A+j:
Total number c. 15.

Mode 7: Deus qui [1000]; Exsultate Deo [1026]; Jubilate Deo [1294];
Multifarie [441]; Quinque prudentes [1339]

4. V = A...j:
Total number c. 6.

Mode 7: Confitebuntur [1147]; De profundis [1076],

The subsequent repeat structures occur only rarely. Therefore each of
them is illustrated by all the examples that occur in any mode.

5. =

Christus resurgens [827]; Dispersit [1480]; Loquebantur [888]; Lo-
quebar [1369]; Exivi a patre [831]; Haec est vera [1508]

6. V = ... A+j A + j:

-Ego sum [818]; Angelus Domini [786]

7. V = A+j A + j:

Surrexit Dominus vere [794]; O quam pulchra [1223]; Spiritus ejus

Remarks concerning the various types:

i. This form, characterized by the restatement of the entire first sec-
tion at the end of the verse, is by far the most frequent of all. It is
relatively rare in the Alleluias of mode 7, but occurs very frequently
in those of the first mode.

16 See Wagner III, 413!. Also the study in F. Gennrich, Formenlehre des mittelalter-
lichen Liedes (1932), pp. io7ff: "Die versus alleluiatici."

The Free Compositions According to Types 385

2. In some of the examples of this form, in which only the jubilus is re-
peated at the end of the verse, the melisma is slightly shortened; e.g.,
in Adorabo and Pascha nostrum; whereas in Te decet the verse closes
with an expanded melisma. In some cases the melodic motion im-
mediately preceding is similar to, and evidently borrowed from, the
Alleluia without, however, amounting to a full restatement of it. Ex-
amples in point are Surrexit Christus [831], Sapientia hujus [1428],
and Timebunt gentes [1057], all in the first mode. These could also
be included under no. i.

3. In this group, as well as in the subsequent ones, the verse opens as
well as closes with the Alleluia melody or a section thereof. The
quotation at the beginning of the verse is often subject to modifica-
tion, while that at the end is usually more exact.

4. In these Alleluias the verse is inserted between the Alleluia and the
jubilus, a procedure strikingly similar to the motets entes ("grafted"
motets) of the thirteenth century. The verse of the Alleluia Quoniam
Deus [1042] starts with the Alleluia melody without, however, em-
ploying it at the end (V = A . . .). As far as I know, there is no other
example of this kind.

5,-y. All these Alleluias have verses in which the entire Alleluia section
(A+ j) recurs twice, either at the beginning and at the end (no. 5); or
twice in succession at the end (no. 6); or, finally, in such a way that
the entire verse melody consists of nothing but two statements of the
Alleluia section (no. y). 17

To sum up: in more than ninety per cent (c. 115 out of 125) of the
Alleluias the verse contains material borrowed from the Alleluia section.
Nowhere in the entire repertory of chant is there a parallel to such a de-
gree of thematic unification between the verse and the enframing section,
whether antiphon or respond. The closest approximation to the repeat
structure of the Alleluias exists in the Offertories. However, the Alleluias
go much farther in this direction, not only numerically, but also in the
establishment of a number of well-defined repeat structures.

There are hardly more than ten Alleluias in which the verse has no
musical relationship to the Alleluia section. Small though this group is, it
is of no little importance because it includes the Alleluias of all three
Masses for the Nativity (Dominus dixit [394], Dominus regnavit [405], and
Dies sanctificatus [409]). Four others belong to a later layer of the Tempo-
rale; namely, Veni Domine [354] from the Fourth Sunday of Advent;
Venite exsultemus [1038] from the Fourteenth Sunday after Pentecost;

17 in group 5 the initial A and/or j is usually modified by amplification, contraction,
or variation. In the Alleluias Haec est vera and Exivi the sections marked . . . contain
additional quotations from A or j. Particularly the latter is noteworthy for its extended
use of motives. In Magnus Dominus [1014] the jubilus occurs twice in the verse, in Haec
est virgo [1222], three tunes.

385 GREGORIAN CHANT

and Quoniam Deus [1042] from the Fifteenth; and Beatus vir [1205] from
the Third Sunday after Epiphany (now used for the Mass of a Confessor
not a Bishop [1205]). Finally there are a few of doubtful authenticity,
such as Ostende mihi [1377] from the Feast of the Apparition of Our Lady
at Lourdes, Qui ad justitiam [1466] from the Feast for S. Robert Bellar-
mine, and Quasi rosa [1669] from the Feast of S. Teresa of the Infant
Jesus.

The presence, in this group, of such unquestionably old Alleluias as
those for Christmas brings up the problem of chronology. One is tempted
to speculate that these melodies represent an early tradition in which the
Alleluias were composed in a style not too dissimilar from that of other
chants, such as Responsories or Graduals, and that the various repeat
types are the result of later tendencies in the direction of clear organiza-
tion, contemporary or perhaps even posterior to those which produced
similar results in the Offertories. It will be better to postpone the discus-
sion of this question until we have studied other important aspects of the
Alleluias, that is, the form of their melismas and the general characteristics
of their style.

The repetitive 18 character of the Alleluias is evident not only in their
over-all forms but also in their melismas, the jubilus as well as the inner
melismas that appear in many Alleluias somewhere near the middle of the
verse. For the sake of greater clarity it is advisable to treat these two
categories separately, although both of them show the same character-
istics. 19

By far the most frequent form found in the jubili is a a b, that is, the
same "bar-form" which also occurs in many melismas of the Offertory
verses (pp. $68f). Occasionally the repeat of the initial formula is slightly
modified, either at the beginning (a 'a b) or at the end (a a' b). In some
cases the repeat structure starts shortly before the jubilus, with the last
two or three syllables of the preceding Alleluia. These cases are indicated
below by a remark such as "-luia + j." Following is a typical example and
a fairly complete list (from L).

FIGURE 115

From Alleluia Tu es sacerdos

is Notice the difference between the meaning of "repetitive" and "reiterative" [see
p. 262].

19 Much of the subsequent material has been taken from the detailed study in
Wagner 111, 4086.

The Free Compositions According to Types 387

a a b: Non vos relinquam [856]; Timebunt gentes [1056]; Amavit eum
[1191]; Sancti . . . florebunt [1150]; Tu essacerdos [1183]; Defecit
caro [1479; "-luia + j tf ]; Haec est vera [1508]; Corpora sanctorum

a'ab: In die resurrectionis [809]; Surrexit Christus et [831]; In exitu

[1068]; Jubilate Deo [1294]
a a' b: Veni Domine [354]; Post partum [1265]; Justi epulentur [i 168]

Less frequent is the simple repeat form a a. It occurs mostly with a vari-
ant for the repeat, a a'. Sometimes the variant consists of the addition of
four or five notes, and such cases could also be considered as examples of
the a a b form, with a very short b. An example in point is Dulce lignum
[1456] which, in fact, is given by Wagner as an example of the bar-form
type:

a a': Laudate pueri [428]; Dicite in gentibus [801]; Spiritus est [901];
Beatus vir qui suffert [1202]; Quinque prudentes [1339; "-leluia +
j"]; Dulce lignum [1456]

Of particular interest are a few examples having the form a a b b c, be-
cause this shows a certain similarity to the form of the sequence, and may
possibly have something to do with its development:

aabbc: Oportebat [822]; Magnus Dominus [1014; a a b b 7 ?]; Beatus
vir . . . Martinus [1747; "Alleluia -I- j"]

FIGURE 116

iff 11 !
f

From Alleluia Oportebat

Finally, there are some jubili showing yet other repeat forms, e.g.:

Post dies octo [810; "-luia + j"]: a a a'

Exivi a Patre [831; "-leluia -f j," starting with d-e-f-g]: abac

De profundis [1076]: a a b c c'

Venite ad me [973]: a a' b c c'

Tota pulchra [1318]: abaca

Verumtamen existimo [1428]: aba'

Turning now to the inner melismas that occur in many verses, we find
the same or similar repeat forms, e.g.:

j88 GREGORIAN CHANT

aab: Pascha nostrum [779] on "(immo)la(tus)"; Christus resurgens
[827] on "mors"; In die resurrectionis [809] on "praece(dam)";
Juravit Dominus [1187] on "(s 6 ) 0111 ^ 11111 ordinem" (a a 7 ?); Con-
fitebuntur [1147] on "etenim" (a a'?); Adorabo [1251] on "et con-
fitebor"; Loquebar [1369] on "in conspectu regum"; Levita Lau-
rentius [1595] on "operatus"

S-IGURE 117

mors

From Alleluia Christus resurgens

a a: Eripe me [1018] on "et ab insurgen(tibus)"; 20 Concussum est
[1656] on "terra" (reduced from the "operatus" melisma of
Levita Laurentius)

a abb': Justus ut palma [1207] on "sicut cedrus"; Vos estis [1548] on
"sedeatis"

Other forms:

Vent Domine [354] on "facinora": a a 7 a' b b'
Venite ad me [973] on "qui laboratis": abba
Justus germinabit [1192] on "et florebit": abac

We reproduce here the melisma from Justus ut palma, one of the longest
to be found in the Alleluias.

FIGURE 118

sicut ce* drus

From Alleluia Justus ut palma

From the above explanations it appears that by far the most frequent
repeat form is a a b. Our list includes over twenty examples of it. It will
be remembered that this form occurs with equal frequency in the Offer-
tories [see pp. j68f|.

After having examined the numerous and varied realizations of the prin-
ciple of repetition, we shall turn to a general consideration of the style of
the Alleluias. Although more than any other chant the Alleluias have a

20 Here, as elsewhere, it may be more proper to consider the melisma as extending
over the final syllables f-tibus"), in which case it would adopt the form aab.

The Free Compositions According to Types 389

definite emotional association, that is, an expression of joy, their music
is not always as exuberant as such a character would seem to warrant. Not
a few of them are conspicuous because of their small range, a fact to which
we have called attention in our discussion of the chants with a limited
ambitus [see p. '146]. Thus, Dies sanctificatus [409], an Alleluia of the
second mode, moves within the range between the subtonium and the
upper fifth (d:c-a), except for the passage "venite" in which the A is
touched once. The same range is employed in Regnavit Dominus [855]
of the first mode, except for the single c' in the melisma on "Deus." Even
more limited is the range of Repleti fructu [1545] and Eripe me [1018],
both of which move essentially within the range of a fifth; from the sub-
tonium to the upper fourth (d:c-g), except for a single a in the former
and a single A in the latter. Equally limited are some Alleluias of the
eighth mode; e.g., Confitemini Domino [759] (g:f-d', except for a single
e at the very beginning; the subtonium f occurs only twice), Crastina die
[361] (g:g-d'), and Ego dilecto [1691] (g:g-c', except for a single d' on
"Alleluia" and a single d on "conversio").

In contrast to such cautiously moving melodies there are a number of
Alleluias which not only employ the full range of their modes but are con-
spicuous for the occurrence of fairly extended scale formations, usually in
descending motion. A number of examples are shown in Fig. ng. 21 Such

FIGURE 119

a. Levita Laurentius [1595] b. Assumpta est Maria [1603]

c. Quinque prudentes [1339] d. Beatus vir sanctus Martinus [1747]

e. Verumtamen [1428]

sweeping scalar patterns, consisting of one or more extended climacus
neumes (virga sub-tripunctis, sub-quadripunctis) are as characteristic of
the Alleluias as are the reiterative bistropha and tristropha of the Grad-
uals. They are, without doubt, indicative of a rather late period, and it
is no mere coincidence that they occur exclusively in Alleluias for the
Sanctorale. In fact, only one of the Alleluias of St. Gall 35^, Deus judex
[982] shows a somewhat similar pattern, which probably means that the
stylistic peculiarity under consideration represents an innovation not

21 See also Haec est virgo [1222]; Beatus quern [1479]; Stabat sancta Maria [1633*];
Sancte Michael [1655]; Vos estis [1548].

ggo GREGORIAN CHANT

earlier than the tenth century. In this connection it is interesting to notice
that in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries descending-scale formations
became even more extended, often embracing an octave or more. They
occur in late monophonic compositions, e.g., Perotinus' Beata viscera (c.
1200), as well as in the upper parts of twelfth-century organa, e.g., the
Viderunt Hemanuel from the School of St. Martial or a Benedicamus
Domino from the School of Notre Dame, and appear in thirteenth-century
theory under the name of conjuncturae or currentes. 22

As for the earlier Alleluias mainly those that are assigned to the old
Temporale and, in consequence, included in the Sextuple* Mss Wagner
has suggested a chronological distinction on the basis of their structural
features. 23 According to him, the earliest Alleluia melodies are those lack-
ing the repeat of the jubilus at the end of the verse, while those showing
this repeat or other traits indicative of a feeling for symmetry (melismas
of the a a b- type) are products of a later period. In support of this theory
he points out that the small group of Alleluias without restatement of the
jubilus includes all three Alleluias from the Nativity, Dominies dixit,
Dominus regnavit, and Dies sanctificatus, 2 * and that most of the Alleluias
of this type are in the second or in the eighth mode, that is, the same modes
that are exclusively used in the Tracts. There can hardly be any question
that Wagner's view is essentially correct. Systematic repeat of musical
phrases in one and the same chant is a method entirely unknown in the
old repertory, a fact all the more remarkable since transfer of musical
phrases from one chant to another is a basic principle of the older types
of chant, the Tracts, Responsories, and Graduals. Since the overwhelming
majority of Alleluias show repeat structures of one kind or another, we
are forced to conclude that these melodies are of a fairly late date, probably
not earlier than the eighth or ninth century a conclusion which, of course,
is in agreement with other evidence, such as the great variability of assign-
ment that sets the Alleluias apart from practically all other types of chant.
The only defect of this theory is that the Alleluia Pascha nostrum of Easter
Sunday, the earliest feast on which the Alleluia was sung, does not belong
to the early group, for it repeats the jubilus at the end of the verse, includes
an a a b melisma on "immolatus," and is in the seventh mode. The
conclusion is inevitable that its melody is not only far from being the
original one sung when the Easter Alleluia was introduced but also quite
different from the one that was used when, presumably under Gregory, it

22 See HAM, no. 17 (Beata viscera); Apel, Notation of Polyphonic Music pp. 311
(Viderunt), 247 (Benedicamus), 241 (conjuncturae). See also the late Sanctus melodies in
the thirteenth-century Codex Wolfenbttttel 77 (Wi); facsimile edition by J. H. Baxter,
An Old St. Andrews Music Book (1931)* pp. i(x)fL

23 Wagner III, 398.

24 See above, p. 385.

The Free Compositions According to Types 391

was provided with a verse. In other words, the Alleluia Pascha nostrum
presents almost incontestable proof refuting the long-cherished idea that
chronological data of liturgical or literary provenance are also valid for
the melodies.

The same reasoning also invalidates or, at least, weakens the theory,
advanced by Wagner and adopted by Stablein, 25 that the new style made
its appearance shortly after 600, in the Alleluia Adorabo [1251] from the
Feast of the Dedication of a Church (originally Dedicatio S. Mariae, intro-
duced by Pope Boniface IV in 608). This Alleluia may indeed be regarded
as representing the transition between the old and the new style, because
it lacks the repeat of the jubilus at the end of the verse ,but, on the other
hand, shows a beautifully designed a a b melisma on the words "et con-
fitebor." However, to maintain that the transition took place at about
600, simply because the feast was introduced at this time, is a conclusion
that involves a highly questionable surmise.

Be this as it may, there can be no doubt that the Alleluias include a
small number of melodies that show unmistakable indications of having
been composed at an earlier time than the rest. It seems to me that such
stylistic characteristics as small range and absence of repetitive melismas
provide a better basis for a chronological distinction than the structural
aspect involved in the repetition of the jubilus at the end of the verse.
This view is confirmed in a most significant manner by a consideration of
that small group of "invariable" Alleluias to which we have called atten-
tion at the beginning of this chapter, and which consists essentially of the
Alleluias assigned to the first season of the liturgical year, from Advent
to the last Sunday after Epiphany. The following table shows the charac-
teristic traits of the eleven different melodies used for the Alleluias shown
on p. 379 (Jubilus I refers to the close of the Alleluia, Jubilus II to that of
the verse):

Ostende nob is [320]
Laetatus sum [329]
Excita Domine [336]
Veni Domine [354]
Dominies regnavit [405]
Dies sanctificatus [409]
Jubilate Deo [479]
Confitemini [759]
Pascha nostrum [779]
Laudate pueri [805]
Veni Sancte Spiritus [880]

25 See Wagner 111, 401; MGG, I, 343,

RANGE

JUBILUS I

JUBILUS II

REPEAT

MELISMA

sixth

short

long, diff.

octave

long

same

sixth

moderate

same

eleventh

long

long, diff.

yes

sixth

short

short, diff.

sixth

short

short, diff.

octave

moderate

same ending

fifth

short

same

tenth

long

same ending

yes

seventh

moderate

pamt

seventh

long

same

yes

3Q2 GREGORIAN CHANT

Jt appears that there is no uniform practice as far as the treatment of
the two jubili is concerned. There is, however, a very remarkable uni-
formity in the two other traits: nearly all the melodies move in a small
range and have no repetitive melismas. The most striking exception is
Veni Domine, but actually this confirms the rule since it belongs to the
Fourth Sunday of Advent, which is a later addition to the Temporale. As
for Pascha nostrum from Easter Sunday, we have already commented upon
its relatively late style, and it is not surprising to find a similarly late style
in an Alleluia (Veni Sancte Spiritus) for Pentecost, a feast which is known
to have been modelled after Easter. Aside from these special cases, the
invariable Alleluias are noteworthy for their close adherence to a musical
style which bears the unmistakable earmarks of an earlier period than
that to which the majority of the Alleluia melodies belong. As we have
seen, there is good reason to assume that liturgically and textually the
Alleluias in question go back to the time of Gregory. We would not sub-
scribe to the conclusion that their melodies are equally old, but there can
be no doubt that they were composed at an earlier time than the others. I
would be inclined to assign them to the eighth century. Sometime later,
perhaps in the early ninth century, the old melody for Pascha nostrum
may have been replaced by (or remodelled into) one of a more exuberant
character, and this melody perhaps together with those of Veni Domine
and Adorabo became the point of departure for the numerous late Al-
leluias.

THE ANTIPHONS

The general meaning of the term "Antiphon" is that of a short text
sung at the Office Hours before and after a Psalm or a Canticle, originally
also between the verses, as a refrain. It represents an addition to the anti-
phonal (i.e., double-chorus) method of singing, from which it derived its
name. Properly speaking, the term includes also the Antiphons of the
Mass that is, the Introit, the Communion, and possibly the Offertory
but each of these constitutes a separate category and has been previously
considered, so that we are here concerned only with the Antiphons of the
Office.

The Office Antiphons differ strikingly from the chants considered in
the preceding chapters by their shortness and simplicity. Essentially, often
completely, syllabic and ranging in length from half a line to an average
of two or three lines, they form a stylistic group all their own. As if in
recompense for their moderate appearance, they far exceed any other
type of chant in their great number. The medieval books contain several
thousands of Antiphons, and even today there are more than 1300 in

The Free Compositions According to Types 393

general use. Reflecting the elementary principles of Gregorian art in a
thousand different ways, they form a microcosm which, with its multitude
of organisms, is almost unlimited in aspects and problems. It is entirely
out of the question to study them here with the same degree of "complete-
ness" that has at least been attempted in our investigation of the other
types of chant all the more so since, with one exception, 1 they have never
been made the subject of a comprehensive investigation.

Numerous Antiphons, perhaps the majority of them, consist of nothing
but single notes interspersed with two-note neumes, clivis and podatus.
This style characterizes not only the Antiphons for weekdays [280-316], but
also those for Sunday [224-271] and for many high feasts, e.g., for the
Nativity [364], Ascension [850], etc. It is only in the Antiphons for the
Canticles, the Magnificat of Vespers and the Benedictus of Lauds, that a
tendency toward a slightly more elaborate style, as well as to greater length
is noticeable. Here podatus and clivis groups appear more frequently,
interspersed with three- and four-note neumes, as, for instance, in Cum
ortus fuerit from the Nativity [367]. Occasionally one finds short melismas,
as in Tribus miraculis [466] from the Epiphany, Magnum haereditatis
[444] from the Feast of Circumcision, or Nativitas tua [1627] fr m ^ e
Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the latter two obviously of a later date. An
unusually long melisma occurs in the Benedictus-Antiphon Ardens est
from Lauds of the Thursday after Low Sunday [A 466] : 2

FIGURE 120

i T"7

i%q* $ i^rfV-

Domi-num me- urn : qunc-ro,

Another subspecies of a more elaborate character are the Invitatory
Antiphons (Invitatorid), used in connection with the Invitatory Psalm
Venite exultemus of Matins. An example is Christus natus [368], com-
posed throughout in groups of four, five and six notes. A considerable
number of Invitatoria are available in LR (see the Index, p. 461).

Next to the question of style the phrase structure of the Antiphons is
of interest. Although the difficulties and uncertainties inherent in the
term "Gregorian phrase" are no less here than elsewhere in the chant [see
p. 251], it is nevertheless possible to distinguish several types according to
the number of phrases contained in the text, ranging from a short type

1 Gevaert's La MSlope'e antique, to which we shall often refer.

2 The complete series of Benedictus Antiphons is found in A and AM. A limited
number is given in L 1080-1110 ("At Lauds").

3Q4 GREGORIAN CHANT

with a single phrase to a full type with four phrases. 3 Following are four
rather unequivocal examples for each type:

ONE PHRASE:

Inclinavit Dominus [280]; De profundis [591]; Caro mea [714]; Omnis

spiritus [1803]
TWO PHRASES:

Dixit Dominus [252]; Crastina die [363]; Laetentur caeli [387]; Si vere

fratres [509]

THREE PHRASES:

Tu es qui venturus [1083]; Magnificat [286]; Accipite Spiritum [877];
Simeon Justus [1366]

FOUR PHRASES:

Ego sum pastor [820]; Prudentes virgines [262]; Responsum accepit
[1366]; Ego sum resurrectio [1804].

In many cases the phrase structure as well as other details of style, e.g.,
cadential points or recitation passages, are more clearly discernible on the
basis of a comparative study, to which we now turn.

A very important step in the investigation of the copious material under
consideration was made by F. A. Gevaert, in his La Melopee antique dans
le chant de I'eglise latine (1895), the major part of which, from p. 83 to
p. 381, is devoted to a study of the Antiphons. 4 He showed that from the
musical point of view the several thousands of Antiphons can be reduced
to a small group of th&mes melodiques, standard melodies each of which
is employed, with some variations, in a great number of Antiphons. His
Catalogue thematique des antiennes de I'Office Romain (pp. 2252) consists
of 47 ihkmes, each of which includes a varying number of Antiphons, from
as few as five (th&me 32) to as many as seventy-five (th$me 29).

The "thematic" character of the Antiphons was well-known in the Mid-
dle Ages, It is clearly indicated in the Tonaries (Regino, Oddo and others),
which group the Antiphons not only as to modes but, within each mode,
in subdivisions. 5 Ostensibly, these subdivisions are made according to the

3 There are not a few Antiphons -with more than four phrases, but these do not
crystallize into a recognizable type of phrase structure. For more details concerning this
and other aspects see H. Hucke, "Musikalische Formen der Officiumsantiphonen" (KJ,
XXXVII, 7).

4 The title, reflecting the author's preoccupation with the Greek-influence idea, is
rather misleading. His attempts to identify the church modes with the Greek scales lead
to a rather arbitrary arrangement as well as to unwarranted "reconstructions" of some
melodies. Gevaert also made an attempt to establish a chronology of the Antiphons
on the basis of their texts, whether psalmodic (ire fyoque), scriptural but non-psalmodic
(ae Apoque), or non-scriptural (30 Jpoquey, see pp.

5 See pp. 2235.

The Free Compositions According to Types 395

terminations (differentiae) of the tones used for the Psalms, but because
of the intimate relationship between the termination and the beginning
of the Antiphon they also, and primarily, represent groups of Antiphons
that are melodically related, at least in their beginnings. In fact, Gevaert's
catalogue is based on the Tonary of Regino, and its groups sometimes
coincide with Regino's divisions; for instance, theme i is practically identi-
cal with the divisio secunda primi toni of Regino. 6 Usually, however,
Gevaert separates Regino's divisions into a number of themes which, more-
over, often cut across the medieval arrangement. This is particularly true
of the divisions containing a great number of Antiphons, such as the main
division of the first mode [CS, II, pp. 48, with c. 250 Antiphons]. Consider-
ably closer agreement exists between Gevaert's themes and the divisions
in the Tonarius of Oddo [CS, II, p. 117], who goes much further than
Regino in subdividing each mode into thematically unified groups. For
instance, in the second mode Regino lists all the Antiphons under one
group, since the second psalm tone has only one termination. Oddo, on
the other hand, although stating that the secundus tonus "is confined to
one differentia/' distinguishes a primus, secundus, tertius, and quartus
modus, 1 each characterized by a different Antiphon incipit. His three last
modi correspond respectively to Gevaert's themes 46, 45, and 9, while the
primus modus includes mainly Antiphons from themes 10 and n.

Gevaert's classification, while not entirely satisfactory, is no doubt valid
in its main outlines and useful as a basis of further investigations and im-
provements. 8 Without making any such ambitious attempts, we shall con-
fine ourselves to an examination of the Antiphons of the seventh mode,
mainly in order to obtain an insight into the "thematic structure" of the
various groups. This is the same mode that has been considered previously
from the point of view of its psalm-tone terminations as well as of the
Antiphon groups related to these terminations by a common incipit. 9 It
may be helpful to indicate here once more Gevaert's themes in the order
in which they appear in his catalogue, and with references to the Tonaries
of Regino and Oddo (M stands for Regino's main, initial group; I, II, etc
for his divisio prima, secunda, etc.)

6 CS, II, 14/15 and 16/17. Regino opens each mode with an unnamed main division,
so that his divisio prima, secunda, etc., are actually the second, third, etc., division.

7 CS, II, 1230 reads Tertius modus instead of Tertius tonus.

8 According to a remark by Handschin (Ada musicologica, XXIV, 25, n.) Gevaert's
analysis has been "reprise et pr&ise'" in a thesis by H. Hucke (University of Freiburg,
1952). Mr. Hucke informs me that the main contents of his dissertation, Untersuchungen
zum Begriffe 'Antiphon' und zur Melodik der Offiziumsantiphonen (typescript), are
given in an article "Die Entwicklung des christlichen Kultgesangs" (Romische Quartal-
schrift fur Christliche Alter tumshunde, XLVII [1953], 147), and in the article mentioned
in m. 3.

See Fig. 52, p. 224.

GREGORIAN CHANT
FIGURE 121

Gevaert Oddo Regino Incipit

igvar.

20
21

21 var.

23 var.io

25
26

IV
IV
VI
III
IV
II
II
I
II
IV
V
IV

MI * * *

M,I ty , _

d ^ ^

M j _ M "

fr ' =

IV - JJ * * *

TV V I A *

IV, \ , A A
*

MI . , . . =

^Li

TT A * W * M * ' *

11 :^ . .vwy.. - -

. J

9 ==

T A ,.

$=?=
n ^ '*

T HI -JT m

1 ' m g> *

m TT /*-

*" ^>" r =

MV 'TT

Following is a table showing a number of examples for each of the twelve
themes.

Theme 19: Magnificat Dominus [286]; Ecce apparebit [332]; Lapides torrentes
[414]; Videntes stellam [481]; In die tribulationis [642]; In pace foetus est [729];
Ascendo ad Patrem [845; see p. 304]

Theme 19 var.: Ecce apparebit [332]; Tune invocabis [530]; Viri Galilei [850];
Dum praeliaretur [1659]; Valerianus in cubiculo [1756]; Tune acceptabis [A 396]

10 Gevaert reproduces the Antiphons of thtme 2) var. with the incipit g-d' b d', instead
of b-d'-b-d' which they have in all (?) the manuscripts. He bases his reconstruction on
the fact that they are included in Regino's "division principale" which, apparently, he
assumes was characterized by the beginning g-d'. Actually, they all occur in the divisio
prima. Whether this or, for that matter, the main division invariably started with g, is
difficult to say.

The Free Compositions According to Types 397

Theme 20: Dixit Dominus Domino [252]; Alleluia [256]; Stella ista [464]; Cum
angelis [588]; Dives ille [1087]; Quid me queritis [1094]

Theme 21: Loquebantur variis [884]; Confortatus est [1115]; Domine ostende
[1450]; Benedicta filia [1606]

Theme 21 var.: Alleluia confitemini [228]; Dixit paterfamilias [503]; Accipite
Spiritum [877]; Exaudisti Domine [988]; In caelestibus regnis [1120]; Absterget
[1156]; Benedicta es tu [1381]

Theme 22: Sit nomen Domini [254]; Dixi iniquis [640]; Angelus Domini [467];
Angeli archangeli [1660]; Sancti omnes [A 53]; Fecit Deus [A 162]; Laetabitur [A
188]

Theme 23: Omnes sitientes [324]; Si vere fratres [509]; Et ecce terraemotus
[782]; etc. [see pp. 40of]

Theme 23 var.: Clamavi [281]; Exortum est [412]; Attendite [736]; Tulerunt
Dominum [800]; Misereor [1009]; Orante Sancta Lucia [1324]

Theme 24: Voce mea [307]; Liberavit Dominus [633]; Proprio Filio [689]; Caro
mea [714]; Me suscepit [1802]

Theme 25: Redemptionem [412]; Responsum accepit [1366]; Quomodo fiet
[1415]; Philippe qui videt [1451]; Quis es iste [1536]; Custodi me [1888]

Theme 26: Angelus ad pastores [397]; Facta est cum angelo [398]; Pastores
venerunt [468]; Hosanna filio [578]; Simile est [1109]; Et venerunt [1445]; Puer
qui natus [1505]. Also to this group belongs Urbs fortitudinis [332] which, how-
ever, because of its b-flat, presents a problem of modal ambiguity [see pp. i77f]

Theme 27: Suscepit Deus [313]; Veni Domine visitare [327]; Sapientia aedificavit
[989]; Puer Samuel [960]; Dirupisti Domine [1114]; Domum tuam [1246]; Te
gloriosus [1724].

As we have stated, Gevaert's classification is very similar to that of Oddo.
In fact, they are identical if we disregard the subdivisions which Gevaert
makes in Oddo's group II (th&me 2,2, 23, 24) and group IV (theme 19, 19
var., 21 var., 25, 27). These subdivisions reflect the different point of view
involved in the modern system. Oddo's main concern is, of course, with
the psalm-tone terminations, and his six groups are entirely sufficient for
this purpose [see Fig. 52, p. 224]. Gevaert's concern is with the Antiphons
as such, especially with their thematic relationship established by a com-
mon incipit. This approach calls not only for subdivisions in the most
numerous groups particularly group IV which, together with V, includes
all the Antiphons beginning on g, the final of the mode but also justifies
his view that an incipit such as b-d'-b-d'-e'-d' is only a prothetic variant
(th&me 2) var.) of d'-b-d'-e'-d' (theme 23), while in Oddo's catalogue they
belong to different groups, the former to I, the latter to II.

If we turn from Oddo's (or, for that matter, Gevaert's) classification to
the earlier one of Regino, a considerable amount of discrepancy appears.
Although both divide the Antiphons of the seventh mode into six groups,
only one of these is identical in the two Tonaries, that is, Regino's divisio

ggg GREGORIAN CHANT

secunda (II; actually his third division) and Oddo's divisio secunda. All the
others are distributed differently; for instance, Regino's main division (M)
includes Antiphons (or, at least, antiphon types) which in Oddo's Tonary
belong to groups IV and I. Since Regino's Tonary does not indicate the
melodies in a readable form, we can only speculate about the reasons for
the differing assignments. Very likely in his day a considerable number of
Antiphons had a different incipit, perhaps even a completely different
melody from the one they acquired in the time of Oddo. For instance, his
diviso tertia includes eight Antiphons of Gevaert's th&me 26, with the
characteristic ascending fifth, g-d', but also five Antiphons of th&me 25,
with the less striking beginning g-b-d' a type which Oddo includes in
his large group IV, together with themes such as g-b-c'-d', g-c'-b-c'-d', and
g-a-c'-d' (themes 19, 19 var., 21 var., 27). Possibly all the Antiphons of
Regino's divisio tertia originally had the beginning g-d', for example,
Responsum accepit [1366] and Custodi me [1888], both of which now begin
with g-b-d'. With Oddo's Tonary we are on much safer ground, although
it goes without saying that his versions also do not always agree with those
that became eventually accepted. For instance, a number of Antiphons
which in their present form belong to Gevaert's th&me 19 (g-b-c'-d 7 ) are
given in Oddo's Tonary with the beginning g-a-c'-d', which would put
them into Gevaert's th&me 27. Among these are Magnificatus est [364], De
caelo veniet [1082], and Cantate Domino [A 530]. The last two appear in
the Codex Lucca with the beginning a-b-c'-d', an incipit represented there
by about a dozen Antiphons, but which disappeared later. 11

The foregoing remarks will suffice to indicate the vicissitudes encoun-
tered in the field of the Antiphons and the many additional difficulties
arising from them. Not only are variants and modifications considerably
more frequent here than in other chants but, because of the shortness and
simplicity of the melodies, they are also much more decisive and conse-
quential.

We shall now turn to another question arising from the classification of
the Antiphons into theme groups, that is, to what extent the Antiphons
of a given group are related to each other. More specifically, the problem
is whether or not they have more thematic material in common than just
the standard incipit, possibly complete phrases or even complete melodies.
There is no simple and unequivocal answer to this question. Once more,
the Antiphons present a much more diversified picture than other chants,
for which questions of this kind (original melodies, centonization, standard
phrases, adaptation) can be answered with a certain degree of conclusive-
ness. Naturally, the enormous quantity of material involved excludes any

11 See Pal. mus., IX, 67! The major part of the text volume consists of a thematic
catalogue of the Antiphons (also the Great Responsories) a very useful tool of research.

The Free Compositions According to Types 399

attempt to consider the problem in all its ramifications. We can do no
more than present a few of its aspects.

By far the best-known case is that of Gevaert's theme 2,9, including
eighty and more Antiphons, nearly all of which employ a complete four-
phrase melody with only minor modifications. This group is exceptional,
not only because of the large number of adaptations, but also for the
melody itself, which stands outside the system of the church modes. It is
the same melody, which Regino cites as an example of the antiphonae
noihae, and which Berno employs in order to demonstrate the principle
of transposition. 12 It occurs with three different incipits, or rather, with
the incipit varying in length according to the requirements of the text.
Following are three examples, one for each incipit (minor differences in
the adjustment of the melody are disregarded):

FIGURE 122

1. A pud Do mi nura mH ' se - ri cor di -a * ' co - pi IT- ' sa

2. Lae -ten -tur cae - U ex sul -tec ter- ca an - te fa ci em Do mi -ni

3. Fac- cus sum r sH ' 'cut * ho- mo si ne ad-ju- to ri o

^1-

e urn re- demp-ti - o. [412]

ni - am ve- nic. [387]

-ter mor-tu- os li- her. [730]

In Regino's Tonary these three subspecies are distinguished as divisio se-
cunda, tertia, and quarta, in Oddo's Tonary as divisio secunda, prima, and
quarta, in Gevaert's catalogue as th&me 20, 29 variante a, and 2$ variante
&. 18 The first includes c. 50 Antiphons, the second, c. 25, and the third
chiefly the four or five Antiphons which Regino mentions among his
antiphonae nothae. In all of these Antiphons the full melody is em-
ployed with a remarkable degree of stability, 14 variants of some note being
confined to one or two examples, for instance, In odorem [1233] in which
the first phrase closes on a, or Iste puer [1496] which employs the same
first phrase as well as a different closing phrase. We would like to know
why this melody enjoyed such unique popularity, a popularity all the more
remarkable because of the highly irregular tonal character of the melody,
which caused the theorists so much trouble. Perhaps Wagner is right in
assuming that it was of non-liturgical origin. 15

12 See pp. 175, i62f.

18 See CS, II, 26ff; GS, II, i26ff; Gevaert, pp. 322ff.

14 See, e.g., Confundantur [677]; Plangent eum [735]; Exhortatus est [649]; Si quis
sitit [1098]; Oves meae [1099], etc A long list of Antiphons of this type is given in
Wagner HI, sisf.

i See Wagner 111, 310.

400 GREGORIAN CHANT

Brief mention may be made here of another standard melody, similar
to the one just considered in its irregular tonality, but represented only by
a small number of examples, namely, the Antiphons for which the special
psalm tone, tonus peregrinus, was devised [see pp. aisf]. In early treatises
and manuscripts the melody (Gevaert's theme 28) is variously assigned to
mode 7 or 4, occasionally even to i or 2, sufficient evidence of its tonal ir-
regularity. It is characterized by an initial formula c-d-f-fg-g and a closing
formula ga-g-g or ga-a-g. It occurs in its fullest form in Deus autem, and in
shortened versions in Martyres Domini and Nos qui vivimus:

FIGURE 123

1 II

1 *

" " II

De- us au-tem no-ster in ' "cae- ' lo om-ni -a quaecumque 'vo-lu-it, fe-ciV

Mar - ty - res Do- mi - ni, Do - mi-num be - ne - di - ci - te in ae ter-num?

Nos qui vi- vi -mus be ne di ci - mus Do- mi -no. 3

'[256] 2 I1154] *[AM 132]

The melody of Martyres Domini recurs identically in Angeli Domini [1660]
and Sancti Domini [AM 1122], that of Nos qui vivimus in an Antiphon In
templo Domini reproduced (from which source?) by Ferretti in his Esthe-
tique [p. 326], where the tonus peregrinus and its Antiphons are fully dis-
cussed.

Very obvious examples of complete adaptation are the so-called Great
Antiphons, which are used for the Magnificat during the week preceding
the Nativity [$4off]. They all begin with the exclamation "O" (hence the
name O-Antiphons) and are sung to the same melody of the second mode,
the first half of which consists of a lengthy recitation on d, but closes,
rather unexpectedly, with an ascending motion and a six-note melisma,
g-a-g a-ty-a.

After the examination of these special cases we shall return to the An-
tiphons of the seventh mode, in order to obtain a more balanced view of
the extent to which thematic unification prevails in the various groups.
The seventh group of our list [p. 397], Gevaert's thtme 23, includes circa
thirty Antiphons, seventeen of which employ an entire melody in a process
of multiple adaptation similar to the one just observed in the Antiphons
of the type Apud Dominum. We may call it the group Si vere fratres> after
its member that belongs to the Temporale, the Antiphon from None of
Sexagesima Sunday. Most of the other representatives belong to the Sancto-
rale, not a few of them originally to feasts of Virgins, St. Agatha, St. Agnes,
and the Virgin Mary. Among these is Gratias tibi ago from the Second
Vespers of the Feast of St. Agatha, an Antiphon somewhat exceptional
because of its fairly extended employment of recitation:

The Free Compositions According to Types 401

FIGURE 124

B c

Si ve re fra- tres di - vi tes es se cu - pi - tis

Gra -ti .as ti bi a go Do - mi ne, qui -a me -mot es me- i ct mi -si-su ad me
D

1 * Hi

ve ras di vi - ti as a- ma - te. [509]

A po sto him cu um cu -.ra - re vul - ne - ra me a. (1371)

The melody consists of four phrases, A, B, c, and D, closing respectively
on d', g, b, and g. In Si vere fratres it is shortened into a three-phrase
melody by fusing the two last phrases into a single one, and a similar fusion
occurs in Nos autem [1460], The complete four-phrase form is employed
in the following Antiphons (the final cadence, c'-b-g, may be modified into
b-a-g):

Ecce Sacerdos [1176] Gratias tibi [1371]

Non est inventus [i 176] Domine si adhuc [1749]

Veni sponsa [1214] Vidi supra montem [1760]

Salve Crux [1307] Non meis mentis [1760]

Annulo suo [1340] Si culmen [A 352]

Ingressa Agnes [1340] De sub cuius [A 928]
Quis es tu [1370]

In addition to this nucleus of strict contrafacta, Gevaert's th&me 23 in-
cludes about a dozen Antiphons which utilize only a part of the standard
melody or introduce variants of some sort. The main outlines are schemati-
cally indicated in the following table:

Mecum enim [1340] A B D

O magnum pietatis [1459] ABC X+D

Tu esPetrus [1515] A B c' D

Dirige Domine [1782] A B c" D

Tanto pondere [1325] A B E F 16

Stans Jesus [977] A B E F
Et ecce terraemotus [782]
Tu es qui [1083]

Omnes sitientes [324]

Omne quod [1776]

Mittite in dexteram [A 450]

Only the incipit (d'-b-d'-e^)

The interesting aspect of the "entire group is that it represents various
16 Note the cadence of a descending fourth; see p. 266.

405? GREGORIAN CHANT

degrees of thematic relationship, utilization of the complete melody, short-
ened and expanded versions, introduction of variants, employment of the
first half (A B) with a different continuation, and finally employment of
the incipit only. 17

On the whole, cases of multiple adaptation such as are represented by
the group Si vere fratres let alone the unique case of Gevaert's theme 29,
seem to be rare. In most of the groups the various melodies take their cue
from the fixed incipit, but continue more or less freely, not, of course, to
the complete exclusion of an occasional borrowing from a common fund.
Thus, the Antiphons of theme 23 var. [see Fig. 52, I] have, on the whole
nothing more in common than the incipit; but two of them, Orante sancta
Lucia [1324] and Argentum et aurum [1515] are identical in their com-
plete first phrase and show similarities in their further course. Similarly,
the numerous Antiphons of th&me 19, related by a common incipit, are
otherwise rather independent of each other, although a close examination
may reveal occasional references or reminiscences. It must be borne in
mind that the limited idiom and stylistic simplicity of the Antiphons are
not favorable to the occurrence of material comparable to the standard
phrases of the Tracts, Responsories, etc., but, on the other hand, are
naturally conducive to the emergence, here and there, of formulae show-
ing a more or less similar design. Whether these cases are the result of
premeditation or of inevitable coincidence, is often difficult to decide.

Ferretti has made an attempt to approach the problem of thematic uni-
fication in the Antiphons from a different point of view by considering
them as melodies-centons, as centonized chants. He says that "parmi les
chants de 1'Office, les plus centoniss sont les Antiennes," 18 a statement
which seems to be somewhat risky in view of the rather extended amount
of centonization encountered in the Responsories. In support of his view,
Ferretti gives a table of seventeen formulae for the Antiphons of the first
mode, as well as a list of thirty-two melodies composed from these formulae.
Though at first glance this analysis looks quite impressive, it is, upon closer
consideration, hardly substantial enough to serve as convincing evidence.
First, it should be noticed that the material is not taken from a special
incipit-group (th&me), but is selected from all the Antiphons of the first
mode, more than 330 in number. Of this number, Ferretti's list represents
less than one-tenth, although his remark about "un grand nombre" of
Antiphons consisting of these formulae leads us to expect that there are
more. Moreover, several of the melodies are examples, not of centonization,
but of complete adaptation, e.g.:

17 A great amount of material concerning this question is contained in W. H. Frere's
study of the Antiphons, in Antiphonale Sarisburiense, Dissertation, pp. 640%

18 EsthJtique, p. 112.

The Free Compositions According to Types 403

8. Subiit ergo [564] = 10. Mulieres sedentes [738]

5. Omnes qui habebant [1091] = 6. Qui non colligit [556] = 2. Quod uni

[A 373] 19

3. Tradetur enim [1087] = 4. De quinque panibus [559] = 9. Clarified
me [1101] = 13. Beati pacifici [1112] = 15. Qui ministrat [1125] = 16.
Euge serve bone [1195]

14. In patientia vestra [1112] = 22. Lex per Moysen [A 239] = 23. Deus a
Libano [A 243].

These cases of identity or near-identity of entire melodies reduce the num-
ber of centonized Antiphons to twenty-two, a number which, depending
upon the point of view, might be lessened yet further. For instance,
5. Omnes qui [1091] is only a shortened version of 19. Qui me misit [1085]
resulting from the omission of the third phrase, and the same relationship
exists between 24. Multiplicabitur [A 244] and n. Hoc genus [A 547] (sec-
ond phrase omitted). Nevertheless, these reservations do not invalidate
Ferretti's analysis. There still remain a number of Antiphons showing
true centonization, that is, various combinations of fixed phrases; e.g. (the
figures refer to Ferretti's table of formulae):

3. Tradetur enim [1087] i - 6 7 15

i. Tu autem [A 361] i lob 7 15

25. Qui verbum [504] i loa 8 14

28. Corpora sanctorum [1153] i loa 8 17

30. Quaerite primum [1040] 2 9 i2a 8 17

21. Levabit Dominus [A 230] 3 lib 7 15

11. Hoc genus [A 547] 3 na 13 14
17. Visionem [550] 4 lib i2a 14

12. Dixit Dominus paralytico [A 569] 4 nb 13 14
19. Qui me misit [1085] 5 lla 12a 1 5

It remains for us to consider briefly certain special Antiphons, of a
later date generally, which differ from the normal type in their liturgical
position as well as in their stylistic characteristics. Most of these are in-
dependent chants of considerable extension, and are not (or no longer)
connected with a Psalm. To this class belong the Antiphons sung during
the Procession of Palm Sunday, some of which (for instance, Cum appro-
pinquaret Dominus [584]) are second in length only to the Tracts. The
Procession for the Blessing of the Candles on the Feast of the Purification

10 In Ferretti's analysis Quod uni differs from the two other Antiphons by its closing
formula, 14 instead of 15. Actually, the difference between these (also 16) is so slight as
to be negligible. It is certainly no greater than the variants that often occur in some of
his other formulae.

404 GREGORIAN CHANT

includes an Antiphon, Adorna thalamum [1359], the text of which is the
translation of a Byzantine kontakion, Katakosmewn ton thalamon. Ob-
viously it was adopted from the Byzantine rites under the Greek Pope
Sergius I (687-701), who introduced this Procession ceremony into Rome,
The melody shows certain traits that have been interpreted as Byzantine,
namely, the successive repetition at the beginning (aa bb c dd . . .) and
the recurring use of a cadential formula. 20 Another interesting group of
"ceremonial Antiphons" are those sung during the Washing of the Feet
on Maundy Thursday [660]. The first of these, Mandatum novum, has
given the name to the entire rite (Mandatum, Anglicized Maundy) and
ultimately to the liturgical day. The present-day use prescribes nine Anti-
phons, but the medieval books contain many more; among them one, Venit
ad Petrum, has recently been recognized as the source for the Caput
Masses by Dufay, Ockeghem, and Obrecht. 21 Differing from the Antiphons
of Palm Sunday, which are entirely self-contained, those of Maundy Thurs-
day are connected with one or two verses, some of them taken from a Psalm
(Ps.). Another processional Antiphon, Exsurge Domine [835], sung at the
Procession of Rogation Days, is followed by a psalm verse and the Gloria
Patri, exactly like an Introit of the Mass. The same form occurs in the
Antiphons Asperges me [n] and Vidi aquam [12] sung at the Aspersion of
the Water.

Among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages are the
Antiphons in praise of the Virgin Mary, known as Marian Antiphons
(antiphonae BM.V., that is, Beatae Mariae Virginis). A great number of
such chants were composed during the eleventh, twelfth, and later cen-
turies, but only four of them have survived in present-day usage: Alma
redemptoris mater, Ave regina caelorum, Regina caeli laetare, and Salve
regina, the first and possibly the last composed by Hermannus Contractus
(1013-54), the other two dating from the twelfth or thirteenth century.
In spite of their considerable extension and elaborateness, they were origi-
nally used as real Antiphons, with a number of psalm verses and assigned
to specific Office Hours; for instance, Alma redemptoris was assigned to
Sext of the Feast of the Assumption. Beginning with the thirteenth cen-
tury, they lost their psalmodic connection and received a much more im-
portant liturgical position, which they have retained to the present day.
Each of them is assigned to one of the four seasons of the year and is sung,
during that season, at the end of Office Hours, particularly Lauds and
Compline. 22

20 See the article "Antiphon" (by Stablein) in MGG, I, 542.
21 M. F. Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (1950), pp. su7ff.
22 See L 273-276. The "Simple Tones" given subsequently probably date from the
seventeenth century or later.

The Free Compositions According to Types 405

THE CHANTS OF THE MASS ORDINARY

The general aspects of the Ordinarium missae have been explained in a
previous chapter dealing with the structure of the Mass. 1 We may briefly
recall that generally the chants of the Ordinary are relatively late accre-
tions to the Gregorian repertory, that they never acquired the authority
and fixity of the chants of the Proper, and that the formation of cyclic
Mass Ordinaries, each consisting of a Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, and Agnus
Dei, with the Credos listed separately, is largely a nineteenth-century pro-
cess of organization.

The development of the chants of the Ordinary of the Mass began, to
the best of our knowledge, in the tenth century; 2 it reached its full flores-
cence in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and continued through the
fifteenth. During this period a vast body of melodies accrued, of which
those reproduced in the modern books represent only a minute fraction.
In order to give an idea of the total repertory it may be stated that, accord-
ing to recent investigations, more than two hundred melodies exist for the
Kyrie, and about three hundred for the Agnus as well as for the Credo?
Only within the past few years have scholars begun to explore this vast
field. The subsequent study, which is based almost exclusively upon the
selection given in the Liber usualis, is therefore necessarily tentative and
incomplete.

THE KYRIE

The Kyrie consists of three acclamations, Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison,
and Kyrie eleison, each of which is sung three times, so that the entire
melody consists of nine distinct phrases. Invariably these are organized
into a distinct formal structure by the employment of certain principles
of repetition. The simplest form consists of only one phrase that is re-
peated for every acclamation except the last, which may have a varied or
even an entirely different melody. Another type has the same melody for
the six Kyrie eleison, but a different one for the three Christe eleison that
stand in the middle. Yet other Kyries employ three melodies, one for each
of the three main groups. Finally, there is a type in which each of the
three main groups shows a ternary form, the same melody being used for
the first and the third acclamation of the group, a different one for the
second. Nearly always the last phrase is varied, usually by the addition of

1 See pp. 25&

2 The earliest source is a St. Martial Troper (Paris, B. N. lat. 88j) written in the late
tenth century.

s For the Agnus and Credo see the articles in MGG; for the Kyrie, the publication
mentioned in fn. 5,

406 GREGORIAN CHANT

a final melisma. The following table shows the distribution of the present-
day Kyries according to these four structural types (ad lib. refers to the
Chants "ad libitum" [74ff]):

1. aaa aaa aab Requiem Mass [1807]

2. aaa bbb aaa' V, XI (= ad lib. X), XII, XVI, XVIII

3. aaa bbb ccc' I, II, IV, VII, VIII, XIII, XIV, XVIIa, XVIIb;* ad lib.

VII, VIII, IX, XI

4. aba cdc efe' III, VI, IX, X, XV; ad lib. I, II, III, IV, V, VI.

The recent publication of a special study based on the entire repertory
of more than two hundred Kyrie melodies 5 enables us to give a clearer
picture of the relative importance of these forms. The first, second, and
fourth turn out to be of almost equal frequency, each being represented
by about one-fifth of the total, while the third form is twice as frequent
than any of the others. No essentially new forms appear in the complete
repertory, but modifications or transitional forms of one kind or another
are occasionally encountered, for instance, aaa aaa bbb, aaa bcb ded, or
aba cdc aca; and two melodies introduce the structural principle of the
bar-form, aab ccd efg. 6

No less interesting is the stylistic aspect of the Kyrie melodies. A few
of them are written in an extremely simple style which is particularly suit-
able for congregational singing. Since originally the Kyrie was indeed
sung by the congregation, we are perhaps justified in assuming that these
melodies are chants of great antiquity. The most primitive of these em-
ploy a recitation melody of only two pitches (no. 84: g g g a g; no. 85:
g g g g a) which is repeated for all the acclamations except the last. While
both of these occur only in a few manuscripts, another of a slightly more
developed design (no. 7) was widely disseminated. It employs a short,
tetrachordal formula for all the acclamations except the last, which has a
rather strikingly different melody with an unexpected termination. Wag-
ner, who first called attention to this archaic Kyrie, proposed the theory
that this termination is designed as a transition to the oldest Gloria melody
(Gloria XV; see Fig. 127), which begins on the same tone on which the
Kyrie closes: 7

4 This Kyrie , g