I
Kansas city public library
report
INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS
BLOOMINGTON
J
nostrum, f.j;
*, - *
(I Corinthians 5:
Contents
Preface and Acknowledgment xi
Bibliography xiii
PART 1 THE LITURGY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
ONE Definition and Terminology 3
TWO The Structure of the Liturgy 6
The Liturgical Year 6 The Liturgical Day 13 The Liturgical Books 15
Ordinary and Proper 17 The Office Hours 19 The Mass 23 Exceptional
Masses 28
THREE Origin and Development to c. 600 33
The Pre-Christian Roots 34 Historical Data from the First to the Eighth
Centuries 38 From the First Century to c. 380 43 From Damasus to
Gregory 46
FOUR The Development after 600 51
The Sources 51 The Cycle of Feasts 56 The Mass Formularies 61 The
Music 74
PART 2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE CHANT
ONE The Texts 87
The Psalms 87 Psalm Verses 89 Non-psalmodic Texts 95
TWO The Notation 99
The Standard Notation 100 The Basic Neumes The Liquescent Neumes
The Repercussive Neumes The Early Neumes 108 The Development of
Neumatic Notation 118 The Notation of the Solesmes Books 123 The
Problem of Rhythm 126
THREE The Tonality 133
The Church Modes 133 Modal Classification and Distribution 137 Modal
Characteristics of the Melodies 140 The Regular Chants Limited Range
Excessive Range The B-flat Transposition Modal Ambiguity
vii
FOUR Methods and Forms of Psalmody 179
Direct Psalmody 179 Responsorial Psalmody 180 Antiphonal Psalmody
185 Questions of Performance 196
PART 3 STYLISTIC ANALYSIS
ONE The Liturgical Recitative 201
General Observations 201 The Tones for the Readings and Prayers 203
The Psalm Tones 208 Psalm Tones and Psalm Texts 214 Psalm Tones
and Antiphons 217 The Tones of the Canticles 226 The Tones for the
Introits 228 The Tones for the Great Responsories 234 The Tones of
the Invitatory Psalm 241 The Short Responsories 244
TWO The Free Compositions: General Aspects 246
Characteristics of Melodic Design 247 Total Range Phrase Structure
Melodic Progressions Repetition of Melodic Units Cadences Melody
and Text 266 Textual and Melodic Phrases The Textual Accent The
Sustaining (Melismatic) Accent The Tonic Accent The Cursus Expres-
sion, Moody Word-Painting
THREE The Free Compositions According to Types 305
The Introits 305 The Communions 311 The Tracts 312 The Tracts of
the Eighth Mode The Tracts of the Second Mode The Great Respon-
sories 330 The Responsories of Mode st The Responsories of Mode 8
The Other Responsories The Graduals 344 The Graduals of Mode 5
The Graduals of Mode x The Graduals of Modes 3 and 4 The Graduals
of Modes 7 and 8 The Gradual-Type Justus ut Palma The Offertories
363 The Alleluias 375 The Antiphons 392 The Chants of the Mass Or-
dinary 405 The Kyrie The Gloria The Credo The Sanctus The
Agnus Dei The Mass Ordinary as a Cycle The Hymns 421 The Tropes
429 The Textual Tropes The Textual-Musical Tropes The Musical
Tropes The Sequences 442
FOUR Ambrosian Chant by Roy Jesson 465
The Liturgical Year 467 The Liturgical Day 468 The Psalm Tones 470
The Office Chants 472 The Ordinary Chants of the Mass 475 The Proper
Chants of the Mass 476 Modality 480 Concluding Remarks 481
FIVE The Old-Roman Chant by Robert J. Snow 484
The Sources for the Mass Chants 485 The Introits 487 The Communions
489 The Offertories 490 The Graduals 492 The Tracts 494 The Al-
leluias 496 The Sources for the Office Chants 499 The Responsories 500
The Antiphons 502 The Problem of Chronology 503
CONCLUSION: Prolegomena to a History of Gregorian Style 507
Index 517
viii
Plates
following page
I St. Gall 552
II St. Gall 552
III Chartres 47
IV London, Brit. Mus. Egerton 85?
V Paris, Bibl. nat. lat. 776
VI Montpellier, BibL de Tficole Md. H.
VII Rome, Vatican Libr. lat. 5319
VIII Paris, Bibl. nat. lat.
Text Figures are listed under subject entries in Index.
IX
Preface and Acknowledgment
BY WAY OF GENERAL PREFACE it will suffice to say that I have tried
to put on the reader's table what the Apostle calls "the unleavened bread
of sincerity and truth," cleansed from, or at least clearly separated from,
the "sour dough" of conjecture and imagination. That the latter is an
important ingredient of our spiritual and scientific nourishment, nobody
will deny; but it is equally undeniable that it has often been added in
greater quantity than is wholesome. At any rate, the reader is entitled to
know what kind of food he is being given.
My first, and main acknowledgment is due Peter Wagner, the great
scholar who, in his Einfilhrung in die Gregorianischen Melodien, laid the
foundation for so many studies of Gregorian chant, including the one
presented here. Considering the fact that he called his three-volume pub-
lication an Einfuhrung, I feel rather apologetic about the title, Gregorian
Chant, chosen for this much smaller book. I wanted to avoid any such
designation as "Introduction to Gregorian Chant," which would have put
it on the same level with Wagner's standard work. Since I could not very
well call it an "Introduction to the Introduction," I had to resign myself
to giving it a name it hardly deserves.
In the second place, I wish to express my gratitude to Father Simeon
Daly, librarian of the Archabbey of St. Meinrad, Indiana, who not only
has very kindly welcomed me to his library but also, time and again, has
sent me much-needed books and even brought them personally to my home.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Robert J. Snow
who, because of his former association with St. Meinrad, was in a position
to give me valuable help in matters primarily of a liturgical character. He
has also been of great assistance in taking care of many of the hundreds
of details that go into the preparation of a book.
The librarian of the Benedictine Abbey of Solesmes has sent me photo-
graphs for the plates included in this book. I wish to express my sincere
thanks for his cooperation.
The publishing house of Desctee and Co., Printers to the Holy See and
the Sacred Congregation of Rites, have kindly given the permission to
Xll GREGORIANCHANT
take illustrations from their publications. For reasons which will become
apparent to the reader, I have not reproduced the rhythmic signs which
distinguish their books.
I am very glad to include in this book two chapters that are closely re-
lated to its main topic, and which put many of its aspects and problems
into a new perspective: the chapter on Ambrosian chant contributed by
Professor Roy H. Jesson, and that on Old-Roman chant written by Mr.
Robert J. Snow, both of whom have studied at Indiana University. I hope
that the results of their research will be as interesting to the readers as
they were to me.
No true admirer of Gregorian chant can help looking with dismay at
present trends toward providing organ accompaniments for the liturgical
melodies. This practice, although ostensibly meant to promote the chant,
is actually bound to destroy it. To what extent it has dulled the minds of
"those that should hear" became clear to me during a conversation with a
group of young seminarists, whom I met in a train several years ago. When
I mentioned my interest in Gregorian chant, one of them said, his face
radiant with delight, "Oh, Gregorian chant is so wonderful in our church;
we have an organist who makes it sound like Debussy." I know that it does
not always sound like that. In another church it may sound more like
Vaughan Williams, and elsewhere like parallel organum* Invariably it will
sound like "something" other than what it really is and what it should be.
Moreover, the very variety of possibilities inherent in this practice is bound
to weaken the catholicity of one of the most precious possessions of the
Catholic Church, I have no right to voice an opinion in matters pertaining
to the Church, but I am saddened to see a venerable tradition, which has
been restored to new life after centuries of neglect and indifference, sub-
jected once more to destructive practices.
WILLI APEL
Indiana University
January i$$8
Bibliography
ABBREVIATION
A
ACI
AM
AMM
AnaL hymn.
CS
G
GS
HAM
HDM
K]
L
LR
LVM
MD
MGG
Nombre
TITLE
Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae . . . , Tour-
nai, 1949 (Descle, No. 820).
Actes du Congrts International de Musique Sacrie,
Rome, 1950 (also Atti del Congresso . . .), Tournai, 1952.
Antiphonale monasticum pro diurnis horis . , . , Tournai,
1934 (Desctee, No. 818).
Antiphonale missarum juxta ritum Sanctae Ecclesiae
Mediolanensis, Rome, 1935.
Analecta hymnica medii aevi, ed. by G. M. Dreves and
Clemens Blume, 55 vols., Leipzig, 1886-1922.
Coussemaker, Charles Edmond Henri. Scriptorum de
musica medii aevi nova series, 4 vols., Paris, 1864-76.
Graduate Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae . . . , Tournai,
1945 (Desctee, No. 696).
Gerbert, Martin. Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica, 3 vols.,
St. Blasien, 1784. Facsimile edition, Milan, 1931.
Davison, A, T., and Willi Apel. Historical Anthology of
Music, vol. I, Cambridge, 1946.
Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cambridge,
Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch, Regensburg, 1885-1932;
Cologne, 1950- .
Liber usualis with Introduction and Rubrics in English,
Tournai, 1950 (Desctee, No. 801).
Liber responsorialis . . . juxta ritum monasticum, Solesmes,
1895-
Liber vesperalis juxta ritum Sanctae Ecclesiae Mediolan-
ensis, Rome, 1939.
Musica Disciplina, Rome, 1948*
Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, ed. by F. Blume,
Kassel, 1949-
Mocquereaii, Dom Andr^. Le Nombre musical grigorien,
vols., Tournai, 1908, 1927.
xiii
XIV GREGORIAN CHANT
Ott Ott, C. Offertoriale sive versus offertoriorum, Tournai,
1935-
PaLmus. PaUographie musicale, 17 vols., Solesmes, 1889-1925.
Migne, Jacques Paul. Patrologiae cursus completes.
Pair. gr. Series Graeca, 166 vols., Paris, 1857-66.
Pair. lat. Series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-55.
PM Processionale monasticum, Solesmes, 1893.
Ross. Greg. Rassegna gregoriana, Rome, 1902-14.
RCG Revue du chant grggorien, Grenoble, 1892-1939.
JR.G Revue gregorienne, Tournai, Rome, 1911-
Sextuplex Hesbert, Dom R.-J. Antiphonale missarum sextuple*,
Paris, 1935.
TG Tribune de St. Gervais, Paris, 1895-1929.
VP Variae preces ex liturgia . . . collectae, Solesmes, 1901.
Wagner, Peter, Einfuhrung in die gregorianischen Melo-
dien, 3 vols., Leipzig,
Wagner 1 I: Ursprung und Entwicklung der liturgiscken Gesangs-
formen f 1895; second edition, 1901; third edition, 1911.
Translation of the second edition, Origin and Develop-
ment of the Forms of the Liturgical Chant > London,
1907 (references are to the English edition),
Wagner II II: Neumenkunde, 1905; second edition, 1912 (refer*
ences are to the second edition).
Wagner III III: Gregorianische Formenlehre, 1921.
OTHER BOORS FREQUENTLY MENTIONED
Duchesne, L. M. O. Christian Worship, Its Origin and Evolution, London,
Ferretti, Paolo. Esthttique grtgoriennc, Tournai, 1938*
Gastou, Am&Ie'e. Cours thtorique et pratique de chant grtgorien, second
edition, Paris, 1917.
- . Les Origines du chant romain, Paris, 1907.
Gevaert, Francois Auguste. La Mttopde antique dans le chant de I'Jglise latine,
Paris, 1917.
Sufiol, Dom Gregory. Introduction a la pattographie musicale grjgorienne,
Tournai, 1935.
For additional bibliography see Gustave Reese, Music in the Middle Ages (New
York, 1940), pp. 431-45, and tie article "Choral" in MGG.
NOTE: Page references without letter indication, e.g. [234]* refer to the Liber
usualis (see above, ).
The Liturgy
audits
Development
CHAPTER ONE
Definition and Terminology
;HE SUBJECT of this book is the traditional music of the Roman
Catholic Church. Nowhere in music history is the term "tradi-
tional" more in place than in connection with this music which, rooted in
the pre-Christian service of the Jews, adopted distinctive characteristics
as early as the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era, was fully
developed in the seventh century, expanded during the ensuing four hun-
dred years, deteriorated in the sixteenth century, was restored in the late
nineteenth century, and is used at present in essentially the same form it
had about a thousand years ago.
While the first half of the two-thousand years' life of the chant was a
period of continuous growth and all-embracing vitality, its existence dur-
ing the second half was not without vicissitudes. From about 1000 on, poly-
phonic music, its own offspring, began to challenge the sovereignty of its
parent and, beginning with the fifteenth century, organ music became a
successful competitor. Even more detrimental were ideas, arising in the
sixteenth century, which led to a revision of the old melodies, a revision
actually amounting to a complete distortion of their essential qualities. In
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries what went under the name of
"Gregorian chant" was only a shadow of its former self, and in the nine-
teenth century the whole tradition was threatened with extinction. For-
tunately, rescue came from a group of scholars, mostly French, who devoted
themselves to a study of the medieval manuscripts and immediately realized
the supreme importance of their contents* One of the first in this group
was L. Lambillotte, whose ideas were adopted and brought to final suc-
cess by the monks of Solesmes. Owing to their endeavor an endeavor which
is no less a credit to musicology than the rediscovery of Bach, Palestrina,
Schiitz, or Monteverdi the old tradition was brought to new life and, in
1903, was officially adopted by the Roman Church through a decree of
Pope Pius X, a decree which may well be said to mark the beginning of
the third millennium of Gregorian chant.
What is the meaning of this term? Chant is the generic designation for
3
4 GREGORIAN CHANT
a body of traditional religious music, such as Hindu chant, Jewish chant,
Byzantine chant, Russian chant, etc. Different though these various reper-
tories are, they have one trait in common, that is, the purely melodic
character of the music or, in other words, the absence of harmony, counter-
point or any other kind of accompaniment, especially instrumental. The
performance is exclusively vocal, either by one singer or by several singing
in unison. In this respect chant is similar to folksong, from which, how-
ever, it differs in the rhythmic aspect, since it usually lacks the principle
of strict meter and measure commonly found in folksong.
The designation "Gregorian," generally used for the chant of the Roman
Church, refers to Pope Gregory I, who ruled from 590 to 604, and who is
generally believed to have played a decisive role in the final arrangement
of the chants, each of which he (or rather, those to whom he had entrusted
the task) assigned to a specific occasion of the liturgical year, according to
a broadly conceived plan. True enough, the appropriateness of the term
"Gregorian" can be (and has been) questioned. A first disadvantage of this
term is that, strictly speaking, it excludes the early development leading
up to the period of Gregory as well as the changes and additions that oc-
curred later. Thus, some of the best-known items of the chant, the Kyrie,
Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei of the Mass, are post-Gregorian.
Moreover, Gregory's role in the development of the chant, as outlined
above, is not certain beyond doubt and, in fact, has become highly ques-
tionable in the light of recent discoveries and investigations which make it
probable that the repertory, as we know it today, was actually formed after
Gregory. However, this does not necessarily mean that the "Gregorian
legend" is entirely without foundation. It is possible that Gregory at least
gave a decisive impetus and clear directions for a work that came to its
fulfilment some time after him. Thus, even from the point of view of our
present knowledge, the term "Gregorian chant" could be defended, and
may well be retained, provided its ramifications are understood.
Some scholars, however, prefer to use the term "Roman chant/* which
has the advantage of implying nothing but the incontestable fact of the
chant's intimate connection with the Church of Rome, thu$ distinguishing
it from other bodies of Christian chant: e.g,, Mozarabic, Milanese (Am-
brosian), or Byzantine. Actually, this term is also open to criticism insofar
as it cairies the connotation not only of "Roman usage" but also of "Ro-
man origin." Recent investigations have made it highly probable that the
latter connotation is not correct. The repertory in question developed
mainly in France and was not adopted in Rome until the thirteenth cen-
tury, superseding an earlier repertory which could more properly be called
"Roman" or even "Gregorian." 1
Yet another term, documented as early as the tenth century and uni-
1 For a fuller explanation of this question, see pp.
Definition and Terminology 5
versally employed in the later Middle Ages, is cantus planus? surviving
in the French plain-chant and in English plain song. German writers fre-
quently use the term Gregorianischer Choral.
Gregorian (or Roman) chant is one of several branches of Christian
chant that developed in the Western part of Europe, probably all out of
one and the same archetype characterized, first of all, by the use of the
Latin language. Originally, the official language of the Church, even in
Rome, was Greek, and it was not until the third or fourth century that
this was replaced by Latin in the Western part of the Christian world.
Very likely the just-mentioned archetype reverts to this period. Out of it
grew the four branches or, as they are often called, dialects of Western
chant: the Gregorian in Rome, the Ambrosian in Milan, the Gallican in
France, and the Mozarabic (or Visigothic) in Spain. Only scant remnants
of the Gallican chant have come down to us, and the Mozarabic repertory
is preserved only in early manuscripts, the musical notation of which can-
not be accurately read. 8 The Ambrosian as well as the Gregorian repertory,
on the other hand, are fully known to us, and both are in use to the present
day, the former in Milan, the latter in all the other churches of the Roman
Catholic denomination.
Recent scholarship has brought to light yet another dialect of Western
chant, the so-called Old-Roman or City-Roman, a discovery which has shed
new light on the early development of the chant and particularly on the
long-disputed question as to the part that Pope Gregory had in its forma-
tion. This most interesting question will be discussed in a later chapter
[seepp-74ffj.
2 The original meaning of cantus planus was to distinguish a "low chant" (planus,
i.e,, plane, lying flat) from^a cantus acutus t a "high chant." Thus, Oddo of Cluny (d. 942)
employs the term planus synonymously with gravis or humilis, to indicate chants of the
plagal modes: "sin autem planus fuerit cantus, plaga deuteri nominabitur" (GS, I, 59a).
Similarly Guido distinguishes graves et plant from acuti et alti (Micrologus, ch. XII).
s Certain French Mss of Gregorian chant, e.g., the Gradual of St. Yrieix (PaL mus.,
XIII) include a number of melodies that are foreign to the Roman repertory and have
therefore been claimed as Gallican. See A. Gastoue*, Le Chant gallican (1939; also in
RCG f XLI, XLII, XLIII). Of the Mozarabic repertory, only twenty-one pieces are pre-
served in a clearly readable notation. They are transcribed in C. Rojo and G. Prado, El
Canto Mozdrabe (1929), pp.
CHAPTER TWO
The Structure of the Liturgy
GOES without saying that a knowledge of the Roman liturgy,
. at least of its basic aspects, is an indispensable prerequisite for
any study of Gregorian chant, not only from the historical but also from
stylistic and aesthetic points of view. It may be possible to examine or
listen to a chant like the Gradual Haec dies and to admire its beauty
without even knowing what a Gradual is nor to which feast this particular
one belongs. A full understanding, however, of its form, its style, its musi-
cal values and significance cannot be gained without a knowledge of
its liturgical function, and its relationship to other chants. To consider
Gregorian chant as a "purely musical" discipline would involve the stu-
dent in the same difficulties which, for a long time and occasionally even
now, have beset philologists who considered the songs of the troubadours
and Minnesingers as a "purely literary" affair, completely disregarding
their intimate connection with music. It is therefore only natural that our
study should begin with an explanation of liturgical matters, insofar as
they have a bearing upon our main subject.
THE LITURGICAL YEAR
The calendar of the Roman Church includes a great number of feasts,
and these fall into two main categories: the Feasts of the Lord and the
Feasts of the Saints. We shall first consider the former category, known as
Proper of the Time (Proprium de Tempore, Temporal*)* "Time" mean-
ing the time of the Lord. It includes all the Sundays as well as the special
feasts commemorating the events of His life, His birth, death, resurrection,
etc.
The year of the Church starts, not with New Year, but with the First
Sunday of Advent; that is, with the first of the four Sundays preceding
Christmas (Nativity) which constitute a period in preparation for the
arrival (L. adventus) of Christ. All the liturgical books, Gradual, Anti-
phonal, Breviary, Liber iLsualis, etc., open with the chants or prayers for
The Structure of the Liturgy 7
the First Sunday of Advent. 1 Beginning with this day, the year can be
divided into four periods: the first centering around the Nativity, the sec-
ond leading up to Easter, the third leading up to Pentecost, and the fourth
comprising the rest of the year.
The Christmas period continues with the Second, Third, and Fourth
Sunday of Advent, the last being preceded by the Ember Week of Advent.
In this week three days Wednesday,. Friday, and Saturday are set apart
for fasting and prayer. Altogether there are four such Ember Weeks [L.
Quatuor Temporum], one in each of the four seasons of the calendar yean
Only the Saturdays of these weeks are represented in the Liber usualis, the
Wednesdays and Fridays being found in the Gradual and the Antiphonal 2
After the Fourth Sunday of Advent comes the Nativity of Our Lord (Christ-
mas) on December 25, which is followed, a week later, by the Circumcision
of Our Lord on January i and, on January 6, by the Epiphany, which com-
memorates the adoration of the Magi (Three Holy Kings). The Sundays
after Christmas are: Sunday within the Octave 8 of Christmas, Sunday be-
tween Circumcision and Epiphany, Sunday within the Octave of the
Epiphany, and Second (Third, etc.) Sunday after the Epiphany. In the
seventeenth century two feasts were introduced: that in honor of the Most
Holy Name of Jesus, and the feast of the Holy Family. The first of these
falls on the Sunday between the Circumcision and the Epiphany or, if no
Sunday occurs between these two feasts, on January 2. The second falls
on the Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany. The traditional for-
mulary for this Sunday is transferred to one of the following week days.
The second period starts with Septuagesima Sunday, that is, the ninth
Sunday before Easter. Since Easter is a variable feast, whose date depends
upon the moon, 4 the beginning of this period varies accordingly from as
early as January 18 to as late as February 21. As a consequence, the number
of Sundays after Epiphany varies from a minimum of one to a maximum of
six. Septuagesima Sunday is followed by Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, and
Quadragesima Sunday. 5 The Wednesday before Quadragesima Sunday is
1 The earliest liturgical books, Sacramentaries and Lectionaries, start with the Nativity.
2 Except for the Ember Wednesday and Ember Friday after Pentecost. See the table on
pp. iif.
3 Octave means either the eighth day after a feast or the entire week, with daily com-
memorations.
* Easter is the first Sunday after the full moon that falls on or next after the twenty-
first of March.
5 Quadragesima [Lat., the fortieth] is the name for the forty-day period of Lent that
starts with Ash Wednesday. Actually, this period consists of forty-six days (six weeks plus
four days), but is reduced to forty because the six Sundays are excepted from the rule of
fasting. Quadragesima Sunday is correctly named the First Sunday in Quadragesima,
Dominica prima Quadragesimae. Quinquagesima (fiftieth), Sexagesima (sixtieth), and
Septuagesima (seventieth) are designations formed in analogy to Quadragesima. These
Sundays were gradually added, between c, 450 and 600, to the original period of forty
8 GREGORIAN CHANT
Ash Wednesday, the beginning of Lent, the long period of fasting before
Easter. Quadragesima Sunday is therefore also called the First Sunday of
Lent, and is followed by the Second, Third, and Fourth Sunday of Lent.
The liturgical importance of the Lenten period is indicated by the fact
that not only the Sundays but each week day has its individual liturgy and
chants which, however, are found only in the complete books, the Gradual
and the AntiphonaL Between the First and Second Sunday falls the Ember
Week of Lent, represented in the Liber usualis by the Saturday only. After
the Fourth Sunday of Lent the next two Sundays are Passion Sunday and
Palm Sunday, the second of which opens the Holy Week leading to Easter.
This is indeed the most solemn week of the entire liturgical year; each day
is filled with a ritual of steadily increasing importance, elaboration, and
impressiveness, especially Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Sat-
urday. The liturgy for these three days alone fills almost 150 pages in the
Liber usualis. The crowning point is Easter Sunday, celebrating the Resur-
rection of Our Lord. Its miraculous event continues to be commemorated
in daily celebrations during the ensuing week, called Easter Week (Easter
Monday, Easter Tuesday, Wednesday in Easter Week, etc,).
The Saturday of this week marks the beginning of the third period,
called Paschal Time. The next day is Low Sunday, also called Quasimodo
Sunday, after the Introit Quasimodo which opens its Mass. This, being
the first Sunday after Easter, is followed by a Second, Third, Fourth, and
Fifth Sunday after Easter. The next Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
are the Litanies or Rogation Days [L. rogare, to ask, to beg], days of special
supplication which are followed, on Thursday, by the Ascension of Our
Lord. The next Sunday is called Sunday within the Octave of the Ascen-
sion and precedes Whit Sunday (Whitsun Day) or the Feast of Pentecost,
which commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles. Simi-
lar to (and in imitation of) Easter Week, each day of the following week
is celebrated in commemoration of Pentecost* The fact that this is also
an Ember Week explains the varying designations for the single days: Whit
Monday, Whit Tuesday, Ember Wednesday, Thursday in Whitsun Week,
Ember Friday, and Ember Saturday. This is the end of Paschal Time.
The next day is Trinity Sunday, which marks the beginning of the final
period of the year. The last major feast of the Temporal*, Corpus ChristJ,
falls on the Thursday thereafter, and is followed, on Friday of the next
week, by the Feast of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus. The Sundays of
this season are simply numbered as Sundays after Pentecost, Trinity Sun-
day being the first in the series. 6 Since the date of Pentecost varies with
days* See Duchesne, Christian Worship feth ed., 1931), p. *4*; J. Froger, "Les Origins* du
temps de la septuag&ime" (RG, XXVI, 17).
According to an eleventh-century Micrologtts de eccltsiasttcis observationibus [Fair-
lat. 151, p. 1019], the liturgy for the Feast of the Trinity was written by Alfoi&us, i*e>
The Structure of the Liturgy 9
that of Easter it occurs exactly seven weeks after Easter, as Is indicated
by its name which is the Greek word for "the fiftieth" (day) the num-
ber of these Sundays varies from a minimum of twenty-three to a maxi-
mum of twenty-eight, a fluctuation corresponding to that of the Sundays
after Epiphany: the fewer Sundays after Epiphany, the more there are after
Pentecost, and vice versa. In fact, the services for the additional Sundays
after Pentecost are taken from those provided for the last Sundays after
Epiphany [see L 1078]. The regular succession of Sundays in the final
period is interrupted only by the Ember Week of September.
The following table gives the feasts just described in the form of a sur-
vey with page references to the Liber usualis, and also with the correspond-
ing Latin names and page references to the Graduale. The latter is indis-
pensable for a full study of Gregorian chant because it includes a number
of Masses of great antiquity and importance that are not included in the
Liber, particularly those for the weekdays of Lent. On the other hand,
it has been deemed unnecessary to include the Antiphonale in our table,
since the additional chants found in this book mainly those for the Office
Hours of the weekdays of Lent are not of the same importance as are
the Masses. Moreover, the student familiar with the Graduate will have
no difficulty in finding the corresponding feasts in the Antiphonale. It
should be noted that the Latin names for the days of the week, start-
ing with Monday, are as follows: Feria II, Feria III, Feria IV, Feria V,
Feria VI, Sabbato, and Dominica. Feria properly means feast day, and
originally the term was indeed used for Sunday. Later it was employed
for the subsequent days as well, Sunday being called Feria I; Monday,
Feria II; Tuesday, Feria HI; etc. Finally, the name Feria I was replaced
by Dominica (Day of the Lord), while for Saturday the old name Sabbato
was retained. (For an explanation of the letters a, b, c, d, e, given with a
number of feasts, see pp. 58f.)
L G
First Sunday of Advent 317 Dominica I. Adventus i
Second Sunday of Advent 327 Dominica II. Adventus 4
Third Sunday of Advent 334 Dominica III. Adventus 6
Feria IV. Quatuor Temp. Adv. 9
Feria VI. Quatuor Temp. Adv. 1 1
Saturday in Ember Week Sabbato Quatuor Temp. Adv. 13
of Advent 343
Alcuin (735-804), and provided with music by Stephanus of Lie*ge, who has been tenta-
tively identified with Stephen, bishop of Lige from 903 to 920. The author, like many
others, opposed it as unnecessary since "all the Sundays abound with authentic Offices . . .
in honor of the Holy Trinity." Not until the twelfth century was it officially adopted in
the Roman liturgy, replacing the First Sunday of Pentecost, the Mass for which [G 310;
not included in ] is shifted to the next free weekday.
zo
GREGORIAN CHANT
b. Fourth Sunday of Advent
Christmas Eve
Nativity, Dec. 25
Sunday within the Octave
of Christmas
d. Circumcision, Jan. i
e. Sunday, Holy Name of Jesus
Epiphany, Jan. 6
e. Sunday, Feast of the Holy
Family
Sunday within the Octave
of the Epiphany
Second Sunday after the
Epiphany
Third Sunday after the
Epiphany
Fourth, Fifth, Sixth Sunday
after the Epiphany
Septuagesima Sunday
Sexagesima Sunday
Quinquagesima Sunday
Ash Wednesday
First Sunday of Lent
Saturday in Ember Week
of Lent
d Second Sunday of Lent
Third Sunday of Lent
353
358
364
433
440
445
455
467
477
4 8 4
488
49*
496
510
53
54*
545
55*
b. Dominica IV. Adventus 21
In Vigilia Nativitatis Domini 24
In Nativitate Domini 27
Dominica infra Octavam
Nat. Dom. 44
d. In Circumcisione Domini 49
e. In Festo Ss. Nom. Jesu 50
In Epiphania Domini 57
e. S. Familiae Jesu, Mariae,
Joseph 59
Dominica infra Octavam
Epiphaniae 64
Dominica II. post Epiphaniam 67
Dominica IIL post Epiphaniam 70
Dominica IV., V. et VI. post
Epiphaniam 73
Dominica in Septuagesima 73
Dominica in Sexagesima 77
Dominica in Quinquagesima 80
Feria IV. Cinerum 84
a. Feria V. postCineres 91
Feria VI. postCineres 91
d Sabbato postCineres 93
Dominica L in Quadragesima 93
Feria IL post Dom, L Quad. 99
Feria IIL p. Bom* L Quad. 101
Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Quad xo*
a. Feria V. p. Bom. L Quad. 104
Feria VI. Quat. Temp. Quad 104
Sabbato Quat Temp- Quad. xoS
d. Dominica IL in Quadragesima 1 1 x
Feria IL p. Bom. IL Quad. 1x5
Feria IIL p. Bom. IL Quad x x?
Feria IV. p. Bom. IL Quad. x x8
a. Feria V. p. Bom, IL Quad. x*o
Feria VI. p. Bom. IL Quad. x a x
Sabbato p. Bom. IL Quad* x**
Dominica IIL in Quadragesima x 23
Feria IL p. Bom. IIL Quad, xs?
Feria IIL p. Bom. IIL Quad 130
Feria IV. p. Bom, IIL Quad. 13*
a. Feria V. p. Bom. IIL Quad X34
Feria VL p. Bom. IIL Quad X34
Sabbato p. Bom. IIL Quad 136
The Structure of the Liturgy
Fourth Sunday of Lent
Saturday before Passion
Sunday
Passion Sunday
Palm Sunday
Monday in Holy Week
Tuesday in Holy Week
Wednesday in Holy Week
Maundy Thursday
Good Friday
Holy Saturday
Easter Sunday
Easter Monday
Easter Tuesday
Wednesday in Easter Week
Thursday in Easter Week
Friday in Easter Week
Saturday in Easter Week
Low Sunday
Second Sunday after Easter
Third Sunday after Easter
Fourth Sunday after Easter
Fifth Sunday after Easter
b. Rogation Days, Litanies
Ascension
Sunday within the Octave
of Ascension
Saturday, Whitsun Eve
Pentecost, Whit Sunday
Whit Monday
Whit Tuesday
Ember Wednesday
11
559 Dominica IV. in Quadragesima 138
FerialL p. Dom. IV. Quad. 141
Feria III. p. Dom. IV. Quad. 143
Feria IV. p. Dom. IV. Quad. 145
a. Feria V. p. Dom. IV. Quad 146
Feria VL p. Dom. IV. Quad. 148
Sabbato p. Dom. IV. Quad. 149
565
568
578
603
606
612
621
665
7i3
765
785
789
792
796
800
804
808
816
821
826
830
835
844
853
858
862
887
890
892
Dominica de Passione 151
FerialL p. Dom. Passionis 156
Feria III. p. Dom. Passionis 158
Feria IV, p. Dom. Passionis 159
a. Feria V. p. Dom. Passionis 162
Feria VI. p. Dom. Passionis 163
d. Sabbato p. Dom. Passionis 165
Dominica in Palmis 166
FerialL Maj. Hebdomadae 185
Feria III. Maj. Hebdomadae 187
Feria IV, Maj. Hebdomadae 190
Feria V. in Goena Domini 195
Feria VI. inParasceve 206
Sabbato Sancto 229
Dominica Resurrectionis 240
FerialL postPascha 244
Feria III. post Pascha 247
Feria IV. postPascha 250
Feria V. post Pascha 252
Feria VI. postPascha 255
Sabbato in Albis 258
Dominica in Albis 7 261
Dominica II. post Pascha 263
Dominica III. post Pascha 265
Dominica IV. postPascha 268
Dominica V. postPascha 270
b. InLitaniis 274
b. In Vigilia Ascensionis 284
In Ascensione Domini 285
Dominica infra Octavam
Ascensionis 287
Sabbato in Vigilia Pentecostes 290
Dominica Pentecostes 292
FerialL post Pentecosten 297
Feria III. post Pentecosten 298
Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Pent. 300
7 In Albis is short for in albis depositis, i.e., when the white [vestments worn by the
newly baptized] were laid off.
12 GREGORIAN CHANT
c. Thursday in Whitsun Week 896 c. Feria V. post Pentecosten 302
Ember Friday 897 Feria VI. Quat. Temp. Pent. 302
Ember Saturday 900 Sabbato Quat. Temp. Pent. 304
c Sunday, Blessed Trinity 907 c. In Festo Sanctiss. Trinitatis 308
Dominica I. post Pentecosten 310
d. Corpus Christi 917 d. In Festo Corporis Christi 313
Sunday within the Octave of Dominica infra Octavam
Corpus Christi 960 Corporis Christi 320
e. Sacred Heart of Jesus 965 e. Sacratissimi Cordis Jesu 324
Sunday within the Octave of Dominica infra Octavam Sacra-
the Sacred Heart 980 tissimi Cordis Jesu 327
Fourth Sunday after Pentecost 998 Dominica IV. post Pentecosten 330
etc. to: etc. to:
Seventeenth Sunday after Dominica XVII. post Pente-
Pentecost 1047 costen 365
Feria IV. Quat. Temp. Sept. 368
Feria VI. Quat, Temp- Sept 370
Saturday in Ember Week 8 of Sabbato Quat. Temp. Sept. 371
September 1052
Eighteenth to Twenty-third Dominica XVIIL-XXIIL post
Sunday after Pentecost 1056 Pentecosten 372
As for the Sanctorale, a few general remarks will be sufficient. The nu-
merous feasts for the Saints of the Roman Church are grouped under two
categories, Common of Saints [in 1-1302] and Proper of Saints [1303-176^].
The latter includes the feasts in honor of a specific Saint or, occasionally,
two specific Saints, e.g., St. Andrew, St. Lawrence, SS. Peter and Paul, etc
In the early medieval books the feasts of the Lord as well as those of the
Saints (then much fewer in number than now) were arranged together
according to their succession during the year, and it was not until the
thirteenth century that the groups were completely separated.* When
this was done, some of the feasts of Saints were left in their original place,
mainly those that occurred right after the Nativity, probably because their
association with the Nativity was too close to be destroyed. To the present
day the Proper of the Time includes five feasts of Saints: namely, St.
BThe Ember Week of September is fixed to follow after the Feast of the Exaltation
of the Holy Gross, on September 14* It may fall as early as after the Thirteenth Sunday
after Pentecost.
9 The normal arrangement in the early Mss is:
(a) Advent to Septuagesima: Temporal^ and Sanclorale mixed;
(b) Septuagesima to Fifth Sunday after Easter: Temporal^ only;
(c) SanctoraU from April 14 (Tiburtius and Valerius) to November 30 (St. Andrew
Apostle), also Ascension and Pentecost;
(d) Trinity Sunday to last Sunday after Pentecost: Temporal* only,
See the table of the liturgical year (from St. Call 339) in Wagner /, *8o; also In Hesbert's
Antiphonale Missarum Sextuplex, pp* 8-197.
The Structure of the Liturgy 13
Stephen on December 26 [414], St. John the Apostle on December 27 [421]*
Holy Innocents on December 28 [427], St. Thomas on December 29 [437],
and St. Silvester on December 31 [440].
The Common of Saints gives the chants, prayers, etc., that are used for
various Saints, these being grouped under categories such as Martyrs, Doc-
tors, Virgins, Virgin Martyrs, etc. For instance, St. Jerome (S. Hieronymus)
is a Doctor of the Church, and therefore the service for his feast is found
in the Common of Doctors [i 189], his name being inserted at the place
marked N., as in the Antiphon, the Prayer, and the Collect. 10
The two corresponding sections in the Graduate are the Proprium Sanc-
torum, starting on p. 390 after the Proprium de Tempore, and the Com-
mune Sanctorum, starting on p. [i]. In the Antiphonale the three main
sections are found on pp. sioff (Proprium de Tempore), tfSft (Proprium
Sanctorum), and [i]ff (Commune Sanctorum).
THE LITURGICAL DAY
On any of the days of the liturgical calendar the service of divine wor-
ship is organized according to a definite and nearly invariable plan, which
we shall now consider. It will be best to describe this service first in its
fullest form, as held on high feasts in great churches or monasteries, out-
lining later the reductions that take place on other occasions and in other
places.
Eight times during the day a service for the offering of prayer and wor-
ship is held. This is called the Divine Office (Officium divinum), Canonic
Hours (horae canonicae, from canon, i.e., rule, law), or Office Hours. These
are:
1. Matins (matutinum): before sunrise
2. Lauds (laudes): at sunrise
3. Prime (ad primam horam)
4. Terce (ad tertiam horam)
5. Sext (ad sextam horam)
6. None (ad nonam horam)
7. Vespers (ad vesperam): at sunset
8. Compline (completorium): before retiring
Prime, Terce, Sext, and None take their names from the old Roman
calendar, in which the hours of the day were numbered from six in the
morning (prima hora) to six in the afternoon (duodecima hora), so that
mid-day was sexta hora. Naturally, the time when these Offices are held
varies somewhat with the seasons of the year.
10 Collect, i.e., the prayer offered by the priest at Mass, so-called because it represents
the c611ected prayers of all present.
14 GREGORIAN CHANT
The hours from Prime to None are called Little or Lesser Hours, be-
cause of the greater simplicity of their services. Also the term Day Hours
(horae diurnae) is used, properly, to denote all the Hours other than
Matins, that is, from Lauds to Compline.
The Office Hours were not instituted together at a given date, but de-
veloped gradually during the first six centuries of the Christian era. The
earliest was the Night Office, called Vigils (vigiliae, wakening), which had
its origin in the custom of keeping watch the night before Easter, in ex-
pectation of the reappearance of Christ. Later this custom was observed
weekly, before each Sunday, though no longer as a continuous gathering
during the entire night. In the fourth century we find it divided into three
separate Prayer Hours: one at sunset, when the lamps were lighted, and
therefore called lucernarium (lux, light); one after midnight; and one at
sunrise, called laud.es matutinae (morning praise). Eventually these re-
ceived the names Vespers, Matins (subdivided into three Nocturns), and
Lauds. Terce, Sext, and None originally had the character of private
Prayer Hours, held in the family or in small groups. The Rule of St. Bene-
dict, dating from c. 530, is the earliest document containing the complete
course of all the eight Office Hours.
In addition to the Office Hours, the daily ritual includes the Mass, which
is of an entirely different character. The Office Hours are mainly occasions
for prayer, similar to and, no doubt, partly derived from the prayer hours
of the Jews. The Mass, on the other hand, is a service of distinctly Christian
character, although it also incorporates elements of an ancient Jewish
ritual. 1 It is essentially the commemoration of the Sacrifice of Christ on
the Cross, taking on the form of a mystic repetition of the Last Supper*
Like the Last Supper, the Mass took place originally in the evening, was
later shifted to the morning hours, and is now generally celebrated in the
forenoon, between Terce and Sext* Originally called Eucharistia (Eucha-
rist; Greek for "good grace"), it was later called M issa, a term derived from
the words of the closing benediction, "Ite, missa est" (Depart, this Is the
dismissal), and used as early as 400 (St. Ambrose).
As an example of a full service, that of Corpus ChristI may be examined.
It contains First Vespers [9*7], Compline [917], Matins [917], First Noc-
turn [93*], Second Nocturn [928], Third Nocturn [934], Lauds [939],
Prime [942], Terce [942], Mass [943] followed by the Procession [950], Sext
[955]' None [955]> and Second Vespers [956]* Only a few other feasts. Na-
tivity [364], Maundy Thursday [621], Good Friday [665], Holy Saturday
[713], Easter [765], and Pentecost [862] have retained a service of similar
completeness. All the others lack Matins, which, although one of the earliest
and, together with the Mass, the most elaborate of the services, is now gen-
erally celebrated without music
The Structure of the Liturgy 15
THE LITURGICAL BOOKS
The division of the liturgy into Office and Mass is of fundamental im-
portance in the structure of the chant, so much so that from the earliest
time to the present day these two categories were assigned to different
books. The chants for the Mass are contained in the Gradual (Graduale),
those for the Office in the Antiphonal (Antiphonale). There are also two
corresponding books containing the complete liturgical texts, of the musi-
cal items as well as of the prayers, lessons from Scriptures, psalms, etc.
These are the Missal (Missale) for the Mass, and the Breviary (Breviarium)
for the Office. This arrangement in four books has great advantages from
the practical point of view, but it makes it difficult to gain a clear insight
into the over-all structure of the liturgical day. For this reason the Liber
usualis (book for general use) was published in 1896 (revised editions 1903,
1934). This volume combines the main contents of the four books, giving
the various items in their proper order as they occur during the day and
the year. It also takes care of certain practical needs resulting from the fact
that present-day choirs and singers often do not have the thorough training
customary in earlier centuries. Thus the method of singing the Vesper
psalms is indicated more clearly and in greater detail than is the case in
the Antiphonal.
It should be noticed, however, that the chants in the Liber do not tally
in number with those of the Gradual and the Antiphonal. A brief glance
at the indexes shows that in the Liber a considerable number of chants
found in the other two books are omitted. Thus, the Gradual contains
thirteen Tracts beginning with the letter A, the Liber only eight; the
former fourteen Offertories beginning with the letter B, as against nine in
the latter. The difference results from the omission, in the Liber, of a con-
siderable number of services given in the Gradual and in the Antiphonal^
mainly those for the Feria days of Lent and of the four Ember Weeks [see
the table, pp. gff]. Particularly the Masses for these days are of great
interest and importance because they belong to the oldest layer of the
Gregorian repertory; they cannot be omitted in detailed studies such as
appear later on in this book. Less consequential is the omission, in the
Liber, of a number of Votive Masses, such as the Missa Votiva de Sancta
Cruce (G [104]) and the one contra paganos (against the heathen; G [131]),
and of most of the Masses pro aliquibus loots (for certain localities; G i**-
115**).!
The Antiphonal gives the chants for all the Day Hours of the week,
from Lauds of Sunday to Compline of Saturday (A 1-209), as well as for
i A Votive Mass is a Mass that may be celebrated on any day, usually upon the request
of an individual; as for instance, in honor of his Patron Saint,
l6 GREGORIAN CHANT
the Feasts of the Lord (A 210-576), of the Saints (A 578-931), and of the
Common of Saints (A [2]-[ig2]). In the Liber the ordinary weekdays are
represented only by the Psalms of Vespers and Compline [280-316], and
the service of Lauds is given only for some of the highest feasts, such as the
Nativity [395] and Good Friday [689].
On the other hand, the Liber includes some very important chants not
found in the Antiphonal, that is, those for Matins of certain of the highest
feasts [see p. 14] as well as those for the Office for the Dead [1779]. The
service of Matins differs considerably from that of all the other Office Hours
(Day Hours). It includes two types of chant not encountered elsewhere,
that is, the Invitatories and the Great Responsories. The latter in partic-
ular are of the greatest importance in a study of Gregorian chant. The
Liber includes a fair number of them, though not nearly enough to serve
as a basis for a detailed investigation. For this one must turn to the
medieval sources or, at least, to the Liber Responsorialis (LR; Solesmes,
1895), which contains the Night Service for a considerable number of
feasts, according to the monastic rites. Yet another book containing ad-
ditional chants of great interest is the Processionale Monasticum (PM;
Solesmes, 1893), edited for the use of the French Benedictines who have
preserved the medieval custom of solemn processions before the Masses for
the greater Feasts of the Lord and of the Saints* Here again, the Responso-
ries call for particular attention. Another special publication of great in-
terest is C. Ott's Offertoriale swe Versus Offertoriorum (1935), which
contains the Offertories with their verses such as were still in use in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Because of their many special traits these
verses cannot be omitted from a study of Gregorian chant. Yet other Re-
sponsories can be found in a collection entitled Variae Preces (VP; So-
lesmes, 1901), which is also useful as a source for Hymns, Antiphons, and
Sequences not included in the standard publications.
The rite of Rome has not been completely adopted by some of the
monastic orders, such as the Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans, and
Premonstratensians, who have retained their individual medieval tradi-
tion. The Office Hours especially, as observed by them, differ from the
Roman usage in many particulars, liturgically as well as musically. The
chants of the Cistercians, Dominicans, and Premonstratensians are of little
interest from our point of view, since they represent late versions of the
Roman chant, dating from the twelfth or thirteenth centuries,* Of no small
importance, however, is the Antiphonale monasticum * * . ordinte Sancti
Benedict! (AM)> which was published in 1934 by the same Benedictine
monks of Solesmes who prepared the books of the Roman usage. This
often gives more authentic versions, particularly for the Hymns, and abo
2 See, e.g., J. Borrexnans, Lt Chant liturgiquc traditional des Pr4montr& (1914); IX
Delalande, Lc Graduel des Pr&cheurs (1949).
The Structure of the Liturgy 17
contains a number of Antiphons and Hymns not found in the standard
publications. 3
The Gradual and the Antiphonal appeared in various editions which
differ in many details:
1. Liber Gradualis a Gregorio Magno olim ordinatus ... en usum Con-
gregationis Benedictinae . . . editus (Tournai, 1883).
2. Liber Gradualis juxta antiquorum codicum fidem restitutus . . . edttio
altera (Solesmes, 1895).
3. Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae de Tempore et de Sanctis
SS. D. N. Pit X jussu restitutum et editum (Vatican Press, Rome,
1908).
4. Graduale [etc., as under 3.] et rhythmicis signis a Solesmenstbus mo-
nachis diligenter ornatum (Desctee et die., Tournai, 1908, 1924, 1945).
5. Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae pro diurnis horis SS. D.
N. Pit X jussu restitutum et editum (Vatican Press, Rome, 1912).
6. Antiphonale [etc., as under 5.] et rhythmicis signis a Solesmensibus
monachis diligenter ornatum (Desctee et Cie., Tournai, 1949).
Numbers 3 and 5 are known as the Vatican edition. Numbers 4 and 6 con-
tain the "rhythmic signs" (episema, ictus, phrase marks, etc.) of Dom
Mocquereau. All the other books were edited under the leadership of
Dom Pothier.
ORDINARY AND PROPER
In our previous discussion of the liturgical day attention has been called
to the division of the services into those of the Office Hours and those of
the Mass. Another distinction, of almost equal importance, is that between
Ordinary and Proper (Ordinarium, Proprium). This results from the fact
that a great number of chants exist which can be, and are, used on many
different occasions, and that there are also numerous others which are sung
on only one specific occasion. Both types occur in the Office as well as in
the Mass, so that there results a four-fold classification of the chants (and
also, to a certain extent, of the spoken texts): Ordinary of the Office, Proper
of the Office, Ordinary of the Mass, Proper of the Mass.
In the case of the Mass this distinction is well known and, indeed, of
basic importance. Thus, the Kyrie belongs to the Ordinary of the Mass
because it occurs in every Mass with the same text and with a limited num-
ber of melodies which vary only according to certain general categories of
Eeasts. The Introit, on the other hand, is an item of the Proper of the
Mass, because each Mass has its own Introit with individual text and mel-
3 See J. Gajard, "Quelques precisions au sujet de 1'Antiphonaire Monastique" (JRG,
XIX, 207); J. Jeanneteau, "L'Antiphonaire Monastique" (RG, XXXI, 209).
GREGORIAN CHANT
ody (aside from the possibility of an occasional transfer of an Introit
melody from an older Mass to a more recent one).
In the Office we find essentially the same distinction, though less clearly
indicated and much more varied in detail. For instance, the four Antiphons
to the Blessed Virgin Mary belong strictly to the Ordinary; they are sung
at Compline of Sundays and Feasts with an invariable text and melody,
one during each of the four seasons of the year [S73-276]. 1 The Responses
ries, on the other hand, which are sung at Matins (e.g., Nativity [375ff] or
Maundy Thursday [628ff]), usually three for each Nocturn, are strictly
Proper.
Greater variation exists in the Hymns, Those for the Lesser Hours and
for Compline are strictly Ordinary; Jam lucis for Prime, Nunc Sancte for
Terce, Rector potens for Sext, Rerum Deus for None, and Te lucis for
Compline [224, 235, etc.). Lauds and Vespers, however, not only have a
different Hymn for each day of the week, 2 but also Proper ones for nearly
all the feasts of the Temporals and the Sanctorale.
Many Office chants are partly Ordinary and partly Proper, in that the
melodies are standard but the texts variable. An example of this kind are
the Short Responsories (responsoria brevia, in distinction from the Great
Responsories, responsoria prolixa, of Matins), which are sung at the Day
Hours, from Prime to Compline. From the musical point of view these
are Ordinary, there being mainly three melodies: one for Advent, one for
Paschal Time, and one for the remaining part of the year, with different
texts for Prime [aagf], Terce [37f]> etc. Many feasts, however, have their
own Proper texts, particularly in the Sanctorale [e.g., 1174* 1X 75 **44>
1403, etc.],
Even more complex is the picture presented by the five Psalms of Vespers.
Basically, these are Ordinary, Psalms 109, no, in, m, 113 being assigned
to each Sunday [asoff], nos. 1 14, 115, 119, 120, m to each Monday [*8off],
etc. However, on some feasts the plan is varied to a certain extent, as ap-
pears from the following examples:
Sunday, Holy Name [451] Ps. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, i is, 1 15
Sunday, Holy Family [467] Ps, 109, i i*, 1*1, 1*6, 147
Sunday, Holy Trinity [907] Ps. 109, 110,111,112,116
Nativity, First Vespers [364] P$. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, i i * 1 16
Nativity, Second Vespers [41 1] Ps. 109, 110,11 1, 139, 131
Ascension [850] Ps. 109, 1 10, 1 1 1, 1 12, 116
The last three examples show that the Psalms for Sunday (with 1 16 instead
of 113) are also used on feasts such as the Nativity, which may fall on any
day of the week, or Ascension, which always falls on a Thursday.
1 These Antiphons are sung at the end of every Office Hour, unless this i* immediately
followed by another Hour.
2 The hymns for the weekdays are given in the Antiphonate.
The Structure of the Liturgy 19
Even more important than these deviations is the element of variety
introduced into the Psalms through the Antiphons with which they are
connected. For instance, for Vespers of Sunday there are five Ordinary
Antiphons "During the Year 5 ': Dixit Dominus, Magna opera, Qui timet,
Sit nomerij and Deus autem [25 iff]; these are used on most Sundays, an
exception being, e.g., the four Sundays of Advent which have Proper Anti-
phons [323, 331, 338, 356]. Similarly, there are Ordinary Antiphons for all
the days of the week, but many of the Feasts of Saints that occur throughout
the year have their Proper Antiphons which replace the Ordinary ones.
In conclusion it may be remarked that the term "Proper" is used in two
somewhat different meanings; one in opposition to Ordinary, the other
in opposition to Common. The former is indicated when we speak of
Proper of the Mass (or Office) as distinguished from Ordinary of the Mass
(or Office), while the latter is indicated by the terms Proper of Saints and
Common of Saints. Actually, all the chants of these two categories, as well
as those of the Proper of the Lord, are "Proper" in the former meaning
of the word. Were it not for the clumsiness of expression, one could desig-
nate them as "Proper of the Proper of the Lord/' "Proper of the Proper
of Saints," and "Proper of the Common of Saints"; or, to push the dis-
tinctions even further, one might speak of "Proper of the Mass for the
Proper of Saints" (in the Gradual), "Proper of the Office for the Proper of
the Lord" (in the Antiphonal), "Proper of the Mass and Office for the
Common of Saints" (in the Liber), etc. All these are in opposition to "Ordi-
nary of the Mass" and "Ordinary of the Office," categories in which, of
course, no similar distinctions are possible.
THE OFFICE HOURS
In the earliest days of Christian worship the service consisted only of
psalm-singing. The Book of Psalms became the most precious heritage
which the Christians received from the Jews. In fact, it acquired a much
greater importance in Christian worship than it had ever had before.
Among the numerous reports telling us about psalm-singing among the
early Christians, that of St. Chrysostom (3477-407) is particularly im-
pressive:
When the faithful keep the vigil in the church during night, David is first, middle,
and last. When hymns are sung at dawn, David is first, middle, and last At the
funeral processions and burials, David is first, middle, and last. In the holy
monasteries, among the ranks of the heavenly hosts, David is first, middle, and last.
In the monasteries of the virgins, imitators of St. Mary, David is first, middle, and
last.*
Such was the enthusiasm for psalm-singing that some oriental monks sang
thirty and more psalms during one night. When, in the fourth or fifth
i Gerbert, De cantu et musica sacra (2 vols., 1774), I, 64; Wagner 1, 9.
2O GREGORIAN CHANT
centuries, the liturgy was regulated, Psalms were assigned to every Office
Hour in numbers varying from as few as three to as many as eighteen. 2
To the present day the Psalms form the nucleus of the Office Hours, there
being nine for Matins, five for Vespers, four for Lauds, and three for each
of the other Hours. Several of the longer Psalms, however, are subdivided
into two, three, or more sections, each of which is counted as an individual
Psalm. For instance, for Vespers of Saturday [307] only two Psalms, Ps. 143
and 144, are used, but the former is divided into two parts, 143.!, 143.!!,
the latter into three, 144.!, 144.!!, 144.1!!, so that the total number is five,
as required for Vespers. With rare exceptions, the Psalms are connected
with an Antiphon, that is, a short text sung to an individual melody before
and after each Psalm or, at the Lesser Hours and Compline, before and
after the entire group of Psalms. A special place is reserved for Ps. 94,
Venite exsultemus Domino, called Invitatory Psalm because it invites the
faithful to "come and rejoice unto the Lord." It is sung at the beginning
of Matins.
At an early time there were added to the Psalms a number of scriptural
texts known as Canticles (cantica), which resemble the Psalms in their
lyric and hymnic character. A distinction is made between the major
Canticles, that is, those taken from the New Testament, and the lesser
Canticles which are found in the Old Testament. The major Canticles are
three, namely:
I: Canticle of the Virgin Mary, Magnificat anima mea Dominum (My
soul doth magnify the Lord; Luke 1:46-55); also called Canticle of the
B. V. M. (Blessed Virgin Mary) or Canticum B.M.V. (Beatae Mariae
Virginis).
II: Canticle of Simeon, Nunc dimittis servum tuum (Lord, now lettest
thou thy servant depart in peace; Luke 2:29-32).
Ill: Canticle of Zachary, Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel (Blessed be the
Lord God of Israel; Luke 1:68-79).
Each of these is assigned to a specific Office Hour: the Magnificat to
Vespers, the Nunc dimittis to Compline, and the Benedictus Dominus to
Lauds. They stand at the close of the service, apart from the Psalms (which
stand at its beginning), and are enframed by their own Antiphon*
The lesser Canticles are fourteen in number. They all belong to Lauds
where, however, they occupy a different position from that of the major
Cantides, being placed between the third and the fourth Psalm and thus
bringing up the "Psalms" for Lauds to the same total number, five, as for
Vespers. Two lesser Canticles are assigned to each day of the week, a
2 Gastou, Origines, p. $07.
The Structure of the Liturgy 21
normal one used throughout the major part of the year, and a substitute
employed mainly during Lent: 8
Sunday:
I. Canticle of Daniel (Canticle of the Three Children, second part):
Benedicite omnia opera (Daniel 3:56-58) [A 4].
la. Canticle of the Three Children, first part: Benedictus es, Domine
Deuspatrum (Daniel 3:52-57) [A 12],
Monday:
II. Canticle of David: Benedictus es, Domine Deus Israel (I Chron-
icles 29:10-13) [A 72].
Ha. Canticle of Isaiah: Confitebor tibi Domine (Isaiah 12:1-6) [A 76],
Tuesday:
III. Canticle of Tobias (Tobit): Magnus es Domine (Book of Tobit
13:1-10) [A 108].
Ilia. Canticle of Ezechias, Ego dixi (Isaiah 38:10-20) [A 112].
Wednesday:
IV. Canticle of Judith: Hymnum cantemus Domino (Book of Judith
16:15-21) [A 127].
IVa. Canticle of Anna: Exsultavit cor meum (I Samuel 2:1-10) [A 130],
Thursday:
V. Canticle of Jeremiah: Audite verbum (Jeremiah 31:10-14) [A 147].
Va. Canticle of Moses: Cantemus Domino (Exodus 15:1-19) [A 151].
Friday:
VI. Canticle of Isaiah: Vere tu es (Isaiah 45:15-26) [A 167].
Via. Canticle of Habacuc: Domine audivi (Habakkuk 3:1-19) [A 171].
Saturday:
VII. Canticle of Ecclesiastes: Miserere nostri (Eccl. 36: 1-16) [A 189].
Vila. Canticle of Moses: Audite coeli (Deuteronomy 32: 1-43) [A 192].
As mentioned previously, these Canticles are used at the beginning of
Lauds between the third and fourth Psalms; in other words, as the fourth
of the five Psalms. Thus, for Lauds of Friday we have: Ps. 98, Ps. 142, Ps.
84, Cant. VI, Ps. 147; and for the same during Lent: Ps. 50, Ps. 142, Ps,
84, Cant. Via, Ps. 147.* In the Liber, which represents Lauds very in-
completely, only four of the lesser Canticles appear; that of Sunday (I) for
"Lauds of Feasts" [222], also for the Nativity [398] and the Burial of
Very Young Children [1830]; that of Thursday in Lent (Va) for Maundy
3 Since Lauds of ordinary Sundays and of weekdays are not represented in the Liber,
reference is made to the Antiphonale.
4 See A 164-168; 170-175.
22 GREGORIAN CHANT
Thursday [649]; that of Friday in Lent (Via) for Good Friday [692]; and,
deviating from the general scheme, that of Tuesday in Lent (Ilia) for Holy
Saturday [736] and the Office of the Dead [1803] the reason for the re-
placement being that this Canticle was considered as a prophetic descrip-
tion of the suffering of Christ.
To the Psalms and Canticles were added, perhaps as early as the third
century, readings from the Scriptures, the so-called Lessons (lectio) and
Chapters (capitulum). These terms are somewhat confusing, since actually
a Lesson is a lengthy section from Scripture, while a Chapter is no more
than a single sentence. Lessons and Chapters are always followed by a
chant, usually a Responsory (responsorium); the former by a Great Respon-
sory (responsorium prolixum), a chant of considerable extension and
elaboration; the latter, by a Short Responsory (responsorium breve), a fair-
ly short and simple type of chant.
Lessons followed by Great Responsories form the major part of the
liturgy of Matins, which normally includes nine of them, three for each
Nocturn [375*?; 6s>6ff; 66gff; 7158^ 774*!; 873!!; 935*!; 17856^ In the other
Office Hours reading from Scripture plays a much less prominent role,
being limited to a single Chapter followed by a Short Responsory, except
at Lauds and Vespers, where it is followed by a Hymn. Short Responsories
as well as Hymns are concluded by a Versicle (versiculum), a very short
sentence with an answer. There is also a hymn in the four Lesser Hours
and at Compline, but in a different position, that is, as the opening chant of
the service.
Psalms and Canticles with Antiphons, Lessons and Chapters with Re-
sponsories, and Hymns constitute the nucleus of the Office Hours. In addi-
tion, there is an introduction consisting of prayers, Pater nosier, Ave Maria^
etc. [L xlix], followed by the Versicle Deus in adjutorium [250 and else-
where]; and a conclusion including, among other items, the Benedicamus
Domino [124], which was to play an important role in the early develop-
ment of polyphonic music. 6 Disregarding these items as well as others such
as the Commemoration of Saints at Vespers [s62ffj, the structure of the
Office Hours of Sunday is shown in the following table, in which the
musical items are italicized: 7
s On feasts not falling in Lent the last Responsory was followed, and later replaced* by
the jPe Dtum [Nativity, 39*; Whit Sunday, 876; Corpus Christi, 939]. Easter Sunday and
Whit Sunday have only one Nocturn. In early medieval practices the number of Responso-
ries was often considerably greater. Thus, the ninth-century Antiphonal of Corapiegne [see
p. 53, no. 10] has seventeen Responsories for the Third Nocturn of the Nativity (Pafr, lat.
78, p. 734). The monastic rites usually have four Responsories for each Nocturn, at least
for feast days. See, e.g., the Antiphonal of Worcester, Pal. mus., XII, Text, 148. Also the
Liber responsorialis (LR).
e See Davison and Apel, Historical Anthology of Music (HAM}, I, no* a8.
7 The full Offices of all the weekdays are given in the Antiphonal*.
The Structure of the Liturgy 23
MATINS Invitatory Ps. 94 with A ntiphon Hymn.
Nocturn I: 3 Psalms with 3 Antiphons 3 Lessons with 3 Great
Responsories.
Nocturn II: same
Nocturn III: same
LAUDS 4 Psalms and i Canticle with 5 Antiphons Chapter with Hymn
and Versicle Canticle of Zachary with Antiphon.
PRIME Hymn 3 Psalms with i Antiphon Chapter with Short Re-
sponsory and Versicle.
TERCE Same as Prime
SEXT Same as Prime
NONE Same as Prime
VESPERS 5 Psalms with 5 Antiphons Chapter with Hymn and Versicle
Canticle B.V.M. (Magnificat) with Antiphon.
COMPLINE 3 Psalms with i Antiphon Hymn Chapter with Short Re-
sponsory Canticle of Simeon with Antiphon Antiphon
B.VM.
The last item of this list, the Antiphons of the B.V.M., also called Marian
Antiphons, are four chants of a relatively late date, probably not before the
eleventh century. These are of great beauty and importance, and have
played a particularly prominent role in the field of polyphonic composi-
tion. They are not Antiphons in the proper sense of the word, since they
are not in any way connected with a Psalm or a Canticle. Rather they are
independent chants of considerably greater extension and elaboration
than the Antiphons proper, a characterization that also applies to the
processional Antiphons sung during the Processions before Mass at such
feasts as Palm Sunday or Purification [584, 1359]- Each of the four Anti-
phons of the B.V.M. is sung during one quarter of the year: the Alma
redemptoris mater (Gracious Mother of the Redeemer) from Advent to
February i; Ave regina caelorum (Hail, Queen of the Heavens) from
February 2 till Wednesday in Holy Week; Regina caeli laetare (Rejoice,
Queen of the Heavens) from Holy Saturday till the week after Pentecost;
and Salve regina (Hail, oh Queen), the most celebrated of all, from then till
Advent [273-276; the "Simple Tones" given on pp. 2772 seem to be melo-
dies of a fairly recent date].
THE MASS
The Mass has a considerably more complex, but also more fully inte-
grated, structure than the Office Hours. In contrast to their seriate form,
the Mass has a centric plan, organized around a text commemorating the
Last Supper during which Christ referred to the bread and wine as eternal
symbols of the flesh and blood of His body which was to be crucified on the
24 GREGORIAN CHANT
next day. This is the so-called Canon of the Mass, beginning with the
words: Te igitur, clementissime Pater, and culminating in the sentences:
Hoc est enim corpus meum (For this is My Body) and Hie est enim calix
sanguinis mei, novi et aeterni testamenti: mysterium fidei: qui pro vobis
et pro multis effundetur in remissionem peccatorum (For this is the chalice
of My blood, of the new and eternal testament: the mystery of faith; which
shall be shed for you and for many unto the remission of sins). The Canon
is preceded by the Preface, both of which constitute the Eucharistic Prayer
(prayer of thanksgiving). They are separated by the Sanctus, which forms
the conclusion of the Preface.
The Eucharistic Prayer (though not, of course, in its present-day form)
is a very ancient part of the Mass. Perhaps even older are the items adopted
from the Jewish rites, that is, congregational prayers and readings from
Scripture, The former survive in the oratio or Collect (prayer of the col-
lected faithful, offered by the priest), the latter in the Lectio, Epistle, and
Gospel (Evangelium), that is, readings from the Old Testament, from the
Epistles and from the four Gospels. 1 Normally the Mass has two readings,
one from the Epistles and one from the Gospels, but on ferial days outside
of Paschal Time the first reading is from the Old Testament [see, e.g.,
L 603]. Originally there were three readings, but this full scheme survives
only on a few occasions: the Wednesdays of the four Ember Weeks, the
Wednesday in the Fourth Week of Lent, and the Wednesday and Friday
of Holy Week. From its inception the Mass included the Offering of bread
and wine, the Eucharistic Prayer, and the Communion* The above items
are very nearly those mentioned in the earliest description o the Mass
by the Roman philosopher and martyr Justin, 2 which dates from the mid-
second century.
At an undetermined time it became customary to sing Psalms between
the three readings. 3 The first Lesson, from the Old Testament, was fol-
lowed by a Psalm sung responsorially and later called responsorium
graduate or simply Gradual. 4 Another Psalm, sung entirely by a soloist,
was inserted between the second and the third reading, the Epistle and
1 The readings from the Gospels are called Stqucntia (continuation), because originally
they followed in a continuous order, of which, however, very little has remained,
2 See the List of Data, p. 39, no. 7.
3 According to Duchesne, Christian Worship, p. 168, the "practice of chanting psalms
between the lections in the Mass is as old as these lections themselves, and both go back
in direct line to the religious service of the Jewish Synagogue/' However, no Psalms are
mentioned by Justin.
* The term graduate is usually explained as referring to the fact that this chant was
sung from the steps (gradus) leading to the pulpit. Gastou6 (Origines, p. 247) prefers to
think that the original term, at least for the collection of Mass chants, was Gradate, Liber
gradalis, derived from an adjective gradalis meaning "distinguished," "more beautiful,"
Cf. Oddo, De Musica: in gradalibus (GS, 1, 276a) and the Alia musica; antiphona gradalis
for the Introit (OS, I, ugb)*
The Structure of the Liturgy 25
Gospel. This is the cantus tractus or Tract, 5 which, in the fifth or sixth cen-
tury, was largely replaced by the Alleluia. When, during the fifth century,
the reading from the Old Testament was suppressed, both the Gradual and
the Tract (or the Alleluia) were placed, in immediate succession, between
the Epistle and the Gospel.
In the course of time Psalms were also introduced to accompany the
three main actions of the Mass the entrance of the priest, the offering of
bread and wine, and the distribution of bread and wine among the faith-
ful. These are the Introit, the Offertory, and the Communion. Finally,
there are a number of chants based on non-psalmodic texts, the Kyrie,
Gloria, Sanctus, Credo, and Agnus Dei, which form the Ordinary of the
Mass. Of these, the Sanctus is the only one which forms an integral part of
the early Mass and, at the same time, the only one which has a text taken
from the Old Testament (Isaiah 6:3). The Credo, on the other hand, is a
very late accretion, dating approximately from the eleventh century.
In its late-medieval (nth/isth-century) and present-day form the Mass
includes ten musical items; five of these are Ordinary, being common
to all Masses, while the other five are Proper, i.e., varying from Mass to
Mass. The Ordinary consists of the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and
Agnus Dei; the Proper includes the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia (or Tract),
Offertory, and Communion. Actually, there are two more Ordinary chants
of the Mass, the Asperges me and the lie, missa est, but these are usually not
included among the Mass chants because they represent a prelude and
postlude to the Mass rather than a part of it. The Asperges me, classified
as an Antiphon, is sung during the aspersion of Holy Water, a ceremony
preceding the Mass on Sunday. The lie, missa est is a closing benediction,
interesting mainly for the fact that its word missa (dismissal) has led to the
term Mass, replacing the older name Eucharistia.
In addition to these ten musical items, the Mass includes others that,
depending upon the solemnity and circumstances, are either said or sung
to a recitation tone. Thus, there are "tones" for the Prayers [98], the
Prophecy [102], the Epistle [104], the Gospel [106], and the Preface [109].
The full text of the Ordinary of the Mass is found in the Liber, pages i
to 7. The items with variable texts such as the Introit, Gradual, etc., are
mentioned in their respective places, except for the Communion, which
comes after the second Ablution (before the rubric "After the last Postcom-
munion"). The following table shows the items of the Mass arranged in
four groups.
5 According to Wagner 1, 87, the term is the Latin translation of the Greek word
hirmos which in Byzantine liturgy denotes a model melody. Late medieval writers
(Durandus, i4th century) interpret it to mean "slow," "drawn-out*' (from Lat. trahere,
to draw). J. M. Tommasi (1649-1713; his Opera omnia, including Oregon" Magni opera
omnia re-edited, in 1747-53, by A. F. Vezzosi), interprets it as meaning tractim, continu-
ously, i.e., without interruption by an antiphon or respond.
26 GREGORIAN CHANT
CHANTS SPOKEN OR RECITED
PROPER ORDINARY PROPER ORDINARY
i. Introit
2. Kyrie
3. Gloria
4. Collect
5. Epistle
6. Gradual
7. Alleluia
or Tract
8. Gospel
9, Credo
10. Offertory
11. Offertory Prayers
is. Secret
13. Preface
14. Sanctus
15, Canon
16. Pater Noster
17. Agnus Dei
18. Communion
19. Postcommunion
Of the ten chants of the Mass the five making up the Proper are not
only much older than the other five, but are also more important liturgically
and more interesting musically. From the point of view of Gregorian
chant, Mass plain and simple invariably means the Proper, in opposition to
the prevailing terminology of the past five centuries according to which
Mass means the Ordinary, as, for example, Bach's B-minor Mass or a Mass
by Palestrina. The change of meaning occurred about 1300, when the items
of the Ordinary were preferred for polyphonic composition, obviously be-
cause a polyphonic Kyrie or Gloria could be performed on practically
every feast, while a polyphonic Gradual or Alleluia could be used only once
a year.
The items of the Proper were in general use probably as early as 500, and
by the time of Gregory this part of the Mass was fully standardized. Quite
a different situation is presented by the Ordinary. The Kyrie, Gloria, and
Sanctus were known in the earliest centuries of the Christian era but were
used in the Office rather than in the Mass. The introduction of the Gloria
into the Roman Mass is ascribed to Pope Symmachus (498-514); that of the
Kyrie, to Pope Gregory I; while the Sanctus is said to have been instituted
by Pope Sixtus I (c. iso). The Agnus Dei became a part of the Mass under
The Structure of the Liturgy 27
the Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701); tie Credo, although used at a much
earlier time in the Mozarabic, Ambrosian, and Gallican rites, was not
definitely introduced into the Roman Mass until the eleventh century,
under Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24). Considering this situation, it is no
wonder that the chants of the Ordinary are completely absent in -the
earliest manuscripts of Gregorian chant. They first appear sporadically in
collections of tropes and sequences; later they form an appendix to the
repertory of the Proper, and are usually given in separate divisions, one
containing the Kyries, the next the Glorias, etc., a practice preserved to the
present day for the Credos.
Most, if not all, of the items of the Ordinary originated in the Eastern
Greek Church (Byzantium). Except for the Gloria, they were all originally
sung by the congregation, a practice reflected in the simple style of the
oldest melodies. Later, in the ninth century, they were taken over by the
schola (church choir) and, in consequence, melodies of a somewhat more
elaborate character appeared. The development and fixation of these
chants remained largely an affair of individual churches or regional
authorities, the Church of Rome being no longer interested in this matter
or able to exercise control. As a result, during the later Middle Ages, there
accrued a large repertory of chants for the Ordinary. An idea of its size
can be formed from the fact that, according to recent research, there exist
almost 300 different melodies for the Agnus Dei. 6 Throughout this period
only sporadic efforts were made to combine specific melodies into a fixed
cycle, in other words, to form definite Ordinaries assigned to certain cate-
gories of feasts [see p. 420]. The liturgical books of the present day contain
eighteen such cycles; one for Paschal Time, one for Solemn Feasts, etc.;
but most of these were not fixed until the issuance of the Editio Vaticana,
in 1908. Thus Pope Pius X, who authorized the publication, may be said
to have played a similar role for the Ordinary of the Mass as did Pope
Gregory I for the Proper, thirteen hundred years earlier.
The present-day group of Ordinaries includes one for Paschal Time, two
for Solemn Feasts, five for Double Feasts, two for Feasts of the Blessed
Virgin, one for Sundays throughout the Year, two for Semi-doubles, one
during Octaves, one for Simple Feasts, one for Ferias throughout the Year,
one for the Sundays of Advent and Lent, and one for the Ferias throughout
Advent and Lent, with six Credos being given separately [64, 90]. A note
on p. 73 says expressly that "this Ordinary is not meant to be a matter of
hard and fast rule" and that "in order to add greater solemnity, one or more
of the following 'Chants ad libitum' may be employed." The names, such
as Lux et origo, Kyrie fons bonitatis, etc., given to most of these Ordinaries
and to the ad libitum Kyries, refer to the fact that in the tenth and later
centuries the Kyrie melodies were provided with additional words, such
eSee the article "Agnus Dei" (Stablein) in MGG.
GREGORIAN CHANT
as Kyrie lux et origo eleison (Lord, origin and light, . . .) or Kyrie fons
bonitatis eleison (Lord, fountain of goodness . . .), the so-called tropes.
Even after the tropes had been abolished the names survived.
EXCEPTIONAL MASSES
The statement that the Proper of the Mass consists of five items, Introit,
Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, and Communion, is not unreservedly cor-
rect. There exist exceptions in greater number and variety than is com-
monly thought to be the case. As was previously intimated, the chants of
the Proper are of two types; those that follow a lesson and those that
accompany an action. To the former category belong the Gradual and
Alleluia; to the latter, the Introit, Offertory, and Communion. There is
practically no variation in the action-chants. Introit, Offertory, and Com-
munion form a part of every Mass, the only exceptions being those of
Good Friday and Holy Saturday, which have none of them, and that of
Whitsun Eve, which lacks the Introit.
Considerable variation, however, occurs in the field of the lesson-chants,
mainly in connection with three liturgical periods of a special character,
namely, the Season before Easter, Paschal Time, and the four Ember Weeks.
In the pre-Easter Season the Alleluia is omitted (or, to express it correctly
from the historical standpoint, was never introduced), in conformity with
the somber character of the period leading up to the "darkest days'* o the
liturgical year, Good Friday and Holy Saturday. On the Sundays, Mon-
days, Wednesdays, and Fridays (Dominica, Feria II, IV, VI} of this period,
that is, from Septuagesima Sunday till Wednesday in Holy Week, it is
replaced by a Tract, but not on the other week days (Feria III, IV, Sab-
bato), on which there remains only one lesson-chant, the Gradual* An ex-
ception to this organization occurs on the Wednesday before Passion
Sunday (Per. IV. p. Dora. IV. Quad.; G 145), which has two Graduals and
a Tract. This is indeed a special day, the Day of the Great Scrutiny, that
is, of examination of the catechumens for admission to baptism* The idea
of replacing the Alleluia by a Tract was adopted for two special occasions
of a somber character, the Feast of the Holy Innocents and the Mass for the
Dead.
As if in recompense for the omission of the Alleluia in the pre-Easter
Season, there follows shortly, from Saturday in Easter Week till Friday
after Pentecost (Paschal Time), a period during which two Alleluias are
sung, one of them in the place of the Gradual The underlying principle
of the Masses for Ember Days appears most clearly in those of Advent and
September. In both these weeks the lesson-chants are: two Graduals for the
Wednesday; one Gradual for the Friday; and four Graduals, a Hymn, and
The Structure of the Liturgy 29
a Tract for the Saturday. In the Ember Week of Lent, which falls into the
pre-Easter Season, the Wednesday and Friday each have a Gradual and a
Tract, while in the Ember Week of Pentecost these two days have the two
Alleluias customary in that period. Finally, the Saturday of this week of
Pentecost has five Alleluias and a Tract. The following table shows the
lesson-chants of these twelve days.
THE LESSON-CHANTS OF THE EMBER WEEKS
FER. IV. PER. VI. SABBATO
Advent 2 Graduate i Gradual 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract
Lent i Gradual, i Tract i Gradual, i Tract 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract
Pentecost 2 Alleluias 2 Alleluias 5 Alleluias, i Tract
September 2 Graduals i Gradual 4 Graduals, i Hymn, i Tract
The use of a hymn in the Mass is, of course, quite contrary to expecta-
tion. Actually, the chant in question is the Benedictus es Domine, which is
not a hymn at all, in the proper sense of the word, comparable to the
hymns of the Office. While these have texts dating from the fourth century
or later, written in strict verse, the Benedictus es is a scriptural text taken
from the Book of Daniel, chapter 3, which (in an apocryphal section) tells
the story of the three young Hebrews ("children") who were thrown into a
fiery furnace because they refused to adore the statue of Nebuchadnezzar,
and who were miraculously rescued by an angel, whereupon they sing an
extended song of praise, known as the Song of the Three Children (Cantus
or Hymnus trium puerorum). Its first five verses (Daniel 3:52-56) form
the basis for the Mass chant Benedictus es Domine, while the continu-
ation (y. 57-88) is used for the Canticle of Daniel, Benedicite omnia opera
[see p. 21]. The use of the Benedictus in the above-mentioned three Masses
is explained by the fact that their fifth Lesson relates the story of the
three children, ending with the words et benedicebant Deum in fornace,
dicentes (and they praised the Lord in the furnace, saying:), whereupon
their song of praise follows in the form of a closing chant. 1
Whatever type the lesson-chants may be, their number depends upon
the number of readings, there being one chant between two readings. This,
at least, was the original state of affairs when the Mass normally had three
Lessons separated by two chants, an organization which is still preserved
on the four Ember Wednesdays, e.g., that of Lent:
Lesson (Exodus) Gradual Epistle Tract Gospel
or in the Masses of Wednesday in Holy Week [613] and of Good Friday
i For special studies of the Benedictus es see: Wagner IH f 361; Ferretti, p. 206; Pal.
mt/$.,XIV, 222 (Gajard).
JO GREGORIAN CHANT
[694], The connection between Lessons and chants is particularly evident
in the Masses of the four Ember Saturdays, which have seven readings five
from the Old Testament, an Epistle, and a Gospel with six chants between
them. There are two other Masses with six chants, on Holy Saturday and
on Whitsun Eve. The former has twelve Lessons (all "Prophecies" from
the Old Testament), the latter eight. Originally, the four Ember Saturdays
must also have had twelve Lessons, since in all the earliest manuscripts
they are designated as Sabbato in xii lectionibus. 2
The following table shows all the exceptional Masses, arranged according
to number of lesson-chants.
GRAD, HYMN ALL. TRACT
A. MASSES WITH TWO LESSON-CHANTS
(Normally) (i o i o)
i. Sundays from Septuagesima to Palm Sunday")
s. Mondays, Wednesdays; Fridays from Ash
Wednesday to Wednesday in Holy Week
3. Holy Innocents 3
4. Mass of the Dead
5. From Saturday after Easter to Friday after
Pentecost (Paschal Time) 00*0
6. Feria IV. Quat Temp. Adv., Sept. * o o o
7. Good Friday coos
B. MASSES WITH ONE LESSON-CHANT
8. Feriae III,, V., and Sabbato from Feria
post Cineres to Maundy Thursday
9. Feria VI. Quat Temp, Adv., Sept.
10. Christmas Eve 8
11. Rogation Days o o I O
C. MASSES WITH THREE LESSON-CHANTS
12. Feria IV* post Dom. IV. Quad. 9001
D. MASSES WITH SIX LESSON-CHANTS
13. Ember Saturdays of Advent Lent, and
September 4101
14. Ember Saturday after Pentecost 0051
15. Holy Saturday, Whitsun Eve 4 0015
Feasts given with their English names are found in the Liber usualis; those with Latin
names, in the Graduate.
2 Hesbert (Scxtuplcx, p. xl) offers the explanation that the Ember Saturdays had six
readings (no Gospel), each of which was read in Latin as well as in Greek.
8 The Masses of Holy Innocents and Christmas Eve have an Alleluia if they fall on a
Sunday.
4 By a recent decree the Mass for Whitsun Eve has been changed to a normal Mass.
The Structure of the Liturgy 31
The two main variants in the structure of the Proper are those given
in the above table under nos. i, 2, and 5, the first two being valid for the
period from Septuagesima to shortly before Easter, the third for the period
of Paschal Time. Naturally these variants also apply to the Masses of the
Common and Proper of Saints whenever they fall into these periods. Thus,
for the Common of Holy Popes there is provided a Gradual, an Alleluia, a
Tract, and a second Alleluia, with the remark that after Septuagesima the
first Alleluia is to be replaced by the Tract, and in Paschal Time, the
Gradual by the first Alleluia [i is>2 2 ff|.
Yet another variation in the structure of the Proper of the Mass is the
addition, on certain feasts, of a sequence. The present-day books contain
five sequences, Victimae paschali for Easter and Easter Week, Vent Sancte
Spiritus for Whit Sunday and Whitsun Week, Lauda Sion for Corpus
Christi, Stabat Mater for the Feast of Seven Dolours, and Dies irae for the
Mass of the Dead. These have not been included in the above tabulation.
They are later additions which do not occur in the earliest manuscripts
(Sextuplex, St. Gall 555^ 33^). On the other hand, in the heyday of the
sequence (twelfth century and later) practically every Mass had one, so
that, in this period, its presence was as normal a feature as was its absence
before that time. Only after the Council of Trent (1545-63), which abolished
nearly all the sequences, did the sequence become an exceptional compo-
nent of certain Masses.
Regarding the Ordinary of the Mass, the only variants are the occasional
omission of the Gloria and the Credo. The Gloria is omitted in Advent and
Lent (except Maundy Thursday and Holy Saturday), on Holy Innocents,
and certain other occasions; the Credo, on feasts of Martyrs, Virgins, Holy
Women, among others. A few Masses, e.g., those of the Rogation Days and
for the Dead, have neither Gloria nor Credo.
Entirely different from all the other Masses are those of Good Friday and
Holy Saturday. The former is called Mass of the Presanctified, because the
priest uses the Host consecrated on the previous day. It lacks all the action-
chants as well as the chants of the Mass Ordinary. The Mass of Holy
Saturday has none of the action-chants, and only the Kyrie, Gloria, and
Sanctus of the Ordinary. With its numerous readings (twelve Prophecies),
Prayers and special ceremonies of the Blessing of the Paschal Candle, Bless-
ing of the Font, and Litany of Saints, the Mass of Holy Saturday is the most
extended and elaborate of all.
Finally, mention may be made of special ceremonies celebrated before
or after the Mass on certain feasts, such as the Blessing of the Ashes on
Ash Wednesday [523], the Blessing of the Candles and the Procession on
the Feast of Purification [1356], the Distribution of Palms and the Proces-
sion on Palm Sunday [583], the Adoration of the Cross on Good Friday
32 GREGORIAN CHANT
[704], and the Processions on Rogation Days [835] and Corpus Christi [950].
The chants sung during the ceremonies are mainly elaborate Antiphons
(similar to the Antiphons to the B. V. M. in that they are not connected
with a Psalm), Responsories, and Hymns, the latter especially during the
Procession on Corpus Christi.
CHAPTER THREE
Origin and Development to c. 600
A DETAILED description of the development of Roman chant or of the
related bodies of Christian chant lies outside the scope of this book,
which is primarily devoted to investigations of style and form; nor would
such a description be in line with the general principles of research on
which our studies are based. Because of the scarcity of factual information
regarding the development of chant, a large amount of conjecture and
inductive Reasoning is necessary in order to fill the wide areas abouT winch
weliave no certain knowledge, and to answer, at least with a certain degree
of probability, the numerous questions about which we have no docu-
mentary evidence. In fact, the various books that have been written on this
subject consist to a considerable extent of such conjectural material. This
in no way means that they are without validity or without value. One might
single out for mention the first volume of P. Wagner's Einfiihrung in die
Gregorianischen Melodien, entitled Ursprung und Entwicklung der
liturgischen Gesangsformen (and edition, 1901) which contains an excellent
description of the historical development, combining the actual data with
sound reasoning. The fact that this volume is available in an English
translation 1 is one more reason for forgoing a presentation which, at best,
would be nothing more than a rehash. The present chapter, then, is no
more than a survey designed to provide the reader with the most neces-
sary information about the evolutionary processes of which the Gregorian
repertory is the final result. Short sketches dealing with the development of
individual forms, such as the Responsories, Alleluias, etc., are included
in the later chapters.
l Introduction to the Gregorian Melodies (1907). Also very useful, and extremely
readable, is Duchesne's Christian Worship, which treats the development primarily from
the liturgical point of view. More detailed, but also more controversial, are the explana-
tions offered in Gastou's Les Origines du chant romain (1907).
34 GREGORIAN CHANT
THE PRE-CHRISTIAN ROOTS
,The Christian rite and its chant are rooted in the Jewish liturgy. 1 Dif-
ferent though the new message was from the teaching of the Synagogue, it
was presented to the Jewish people in the forms to which they had been
accustomed by a long tradition. Only a few of the many indications of this
connection can be mentioned here. Thus, the Office Hours of the Church
are modelled after the prayer hours of the Jews, which began with the
evening prayer at sunset, thejmcestpr of Vespers in the Roman Office.
Even the Mass, the main embodiment of the new faith, contains a Jewish
element. It is the mystic repetition of the Last Supper which Christ cele-
brated with his disciples in imitation of the Jewish Passover* Perhaps the
strongest and least varied bond exists in the Book of Psalms, which formed
an important part of the Jewish service and was raised to even greater
importance in the Christian liturgy. A number of Psalms actually retained
their position, e.g., Ps. 94, Venite exsultemus, which served as an in-
troductory Psalm for the evening service of the Jewish Sabbath, and which
appears in the same function at the Night Service (Matins) of the Roman
liturgy. It is hardly necessary to point out that the Amen and Alleluia are
of Jewish origin, but less known is the fact that the Sanctus of the Mass,
with its triple acclamation "Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus," is derived, together
with the Greek-Byzantine Trishagion ("Hagios, hagios, hagios") from the
Jewish Kedusha, "Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh."
In view of these numerous bonds between the two rituals, it is only
natural to assume that there also existed a musical tradition leading from
the Jewish to the earliest Christian chant. This surmise, formerly based
only on inductive reasoning, has been scientifically established through
the work of Idelsohn who, some thirty years ago, studied the religious
chants of Jewish tribes in various parts of the East, mainly Yemen (South
Arabia), Babylonia, Persia, and Syria. 2 An examination of these traditions
revealed many striking similarities, clearly indicative of a common bond*
Since it is impossible to assume that these tribes, living in the strictest
isolation and in widely distant places, could have had any contacts
sufficient to establish cultural relationships, the inevitable conclusion is
that their musical tradition goes back to the time before they separated,
that is, before the destruction of the second Temple of Jerusalem (70
B.C.) and the ensuing dispersion of the Jews, Thus we can form at least a
1 See, e.g., A. Gastoue, "Les Origines h^brafcjues de liturgie et du chant Chretien"
(RCG, XXXIV, XXXV); I. Schuster, "Delle origin! e dello sviluppo del canto Hturgico"
(Ross. Greg., XI, XII); C. Vivell, "Directe Entwicklung des rdmischen Kirchengesanges
aus der vorchristlichen Musik" (KJ, XXIV); E. Werner, "The Common Ground in the
Chant of Church and Synagogue" (AG1, p. 134).
2 A. Z. Idelsohn, Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies, 10 vols., 1914-5*.
Origin and Development to c. 600 35
general idea of Jewish chant as it existed shortly before the rise of Chris-
tianity. The most important result from our point of view is the fact that
there is a striking similarity of style between the ancient Jewish melodies
and those of . the Gregorian repertory, indicated by such basic traits as
absence of regular meter, responsorial and antiphonal performance, pre-
vailingly conjunct motion, psalmodic recitation, syllabic style mixed with
melismas, and use of standard formulae. In the field of psalm recitation
the principles and, occasionally, even the melodies themselves, are prac-
tically identical. The basic elements of the Gregorian psalm tones, that is,
unison recitation (tenor) for each half of the verse with initial and con-
cluding formulae before and after each recitation (intonation, mediant,
termination), are found particularly among the Jews of Yemen, who em-
ploy them not only for the Psalms but also for the Pentateuch and other
books of Scripture. The Yemenite psalm melody shown in Fig. ia 3 is prac-
tically identical with the first Gregorian psalm tone shown under b (termi-
nation on f ; see Lug):
FIGURE i
I J3 JffjH
A* sar ceno bode- ho al basso- mo-jim.
Another remarkable example of parallelism exists in the Lamentations
of Jeremiah, which are sung at Matins of the three days before Easter
(Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday), the verses being
numbered by the Hebrew letters, Aleph, Beth, Ghimel, etc. [626]. Manu-
scripts of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries give various recitation melo-
dies for this text, and one of them (Fig. sa), remarkable for its archaic
flavor, is strikingly similar to a melody used by the Yemenite Jews for the
same text (Fig. sb), 4
FIGURE 2
/^ M * ^ -----~ w 9< I -"-' 7!. J "J ^ ^ J ' * * I m & * * * + *'
Several other Jewish parallels for Gregorian melodies have been pointed
out by E. Werner: 5 for example, the tonus peregrinus which is employed
3 Idelsohn, Thesaurus, I, 64. lie text is Ps. 8, beginning of -fl. 2.
4 Given in Wagner 111, 239!, from (a) O. Fleischer, Neumenstudien, II (1897), 41; and
(b) Idelsohn, Thesaurus, I, 88.
GSeefn. i.
36 GREGORIAN CHANT
for the Psalm In exitu Israel and which recurs almost identically in a
psalm formula employed by the Yemenite Jews for the same text; or the
archaic melodies for the Te deum [Simple Tone; L 1834] and the Gloria
XV [57], both written in a pentatonic E-tonality which Clement of Alex-
andria (c. 150-0. 220) calls tropos spondeiakos, adding that it is in use in
Jewish psalmody and recommending it as a model for Christian singers.
Several other examples of this kind have been found. On the whole, how-
ever, the main argument rests not so much on individual examples as on
the identity of the general premises of musical style. 6
The validity of this argument becomes even more apparent if we turn
to the examination of another question, that is, whether and to what ex-
tent elements of ancient Greek music entered into the formation of Chris-
tian chant. A Greek-Gregorian line of connection exists, without doubt,
In the theoretical field of the scale systems, although to the present day
scholars disagree as to whether the "Greek" end of this line is represented
by pre-Christian Greek antiquity or by the Greek-Byzantine tradition of
the sixth or seventh century after Christ. This fact has led to attempts to
establish a similar relationship between the melodies of the ancient Greeks
and those of the Gregorian repertory. Although only a few melodies of
Greek antiquity have come down to us, they are sufficient to give a general
impression of the stylistic principles of this tradition and, at the same time,
show that these principles are almost diametrically opposed to those under-
lying the music of Christian worship. Not only are the ancient Greek
melodies strictly metrical and almost completely syllabic but also indic-
ative of an entirely different approach to melodic design* A typically
Greek melody, such as the Delphic Hymn or the Hymn to the Sun, T is
essentially a speech delivered in distinct musical pitches which are rather
haphazardly selected and combined. The result is a musical line that is
not (or only incidentally) subject to such general principles of melodic
design as balance of rising and falling tendencies or reference to a tonal
center, principles which are of basic importance in Gregorian chant Pas-
sages like the beginning of the Hymn to the Sun (Fig. 3) are as un-Gregorian
as possible, not only rhythmically but also melodically.
FIGURE 3
I
r p p J
.- .... r , , , r r
Chi -o- no* ble-pht-rou p -r A * out, rho- ts * ita hoi - ty .gt po- too
Actually, the case made for the Greek-origin theory rests upon a single
piece of evidence, that is, the melodic similarity between the Seikilos Song,
6 See pp. 180, 186, and
7 See HAM, nos. ya, b.
Origin and Development to c. 600 37
Hoson zes, and the Antiphon Hosanna filio David from Palm Sunday. 8
However, in spite of a few striking details, the proof of identity is, on the
whole, hardly more convincing than the attempt to derive the melody of
God save the King from the Antiphon Unxerunt Salomonem [987]. At
any rate, it goes without saying that such an isolated case proves nothing.
A somewhat better case can be made for the theory of a Graeco-Christian
and, later on, Byzantine influence. An isolated example of a very early
period is the Oxyrhynchos Hymn, 10 a Christian hymn in the Greek lan-
guage, dating from the end of the third century: ". . . Let all the waves of
the rushing rivers give praise to our Father and Son and Holy Spirit, let
all powers sing with them: amen, amen. Power, praise [and glory unto
God], the only Giver of all goods: amen, amen." On the whole, the music
for this hymn (Fig. 4) is written in the ancient Greek style, with its strik-
ingly "atomic" design resulting, as it were, from the mere addition of
pitches. Formations such as the two descending fifths that occur in close
succession on hymnounton d'hemon or the leap of a sixth on pasai are as
foreign to Gregorian style as can be. Different trends, however, are notice-
FIGURE 4
* lJ * fj -^ * ^^ *^ -I J ^ W r V LJ V M
hym-noun- con d'he - mon pa te- ra k'hyi -on k'ha- gi - on pneu - ma. Pa- sei
dy na-meis . . . pan- eon a ga -thon. A- men,
able in the closing part of the hymn, particularly in the final cadence on
"amen, amen," which shows an unmistakable similarity to a Gregorian
cadence.
In a recent publication, Eastern Elements in Western Chant (1947), E.
Wellesz has tried to demonstrate the existence of musical relationships
between the Eastern (Byzantine) and Western (Ambrosian, Gregorian)
repertory of chant, interpreting them as influence from the East to the
West. His proofs are rarely conclusive and his claims of priority on behalf
of the Eastern chant are often arbitrary. We do not mean to deny that
Eastern and Western chant have something in common, but this common
bond must be sought not so much in their finished repertories of the
eighth or ninth century as in their primeval stages during the first four
centuries of the Christian era. Thus we wholly agree with the following
8 See HAM, no. 70; L 578. Both melodies are shown simultaneously in G. Reese,
Music in the Middle Ages (1940), p. 115.
a Times (London), Sept. 5, 1931.
10 So called because it is contained in a group of papyri found near Oxyrhynchos in
Middle Egypt. See the article "Oxyrhynchos Hymn" in HDM. Our version is taken from
E. Wellesz, A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography (1949), pp. is6f.
38 GREGORIAN CHANT
statement found in Wellesz' A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnog-
raphy (1949): "It is obvious that the oldest versions of both Byzantine
and Gregorian melodies go back to a common source, the music of the
Churches of Antioch and Jerusalem, which in their turn derived from the
music of the Jews" (p. 35),
HISTORICAL DATA FROM THE FIRST
TO THE EIGHTH CENTURIES
We have previously alluded to the scarcity of documentary evidence
concerning the early development of Christian chant. 1 What little there
is, however, is all the more valuable and indispensable since it forms the
basis for all inferences, conclusions, and hypotheses that can be, and have
been, made in order to arrive at a more complete and coherent picture.
Following is a succinct presentation of these data, in the form of a chrono-
logical list. 2
LIST OF DOCUMENTARY DATA
FIRST CENTURY
1. . 60: Philo of Alexandria (born c. so), a Jewish chronicler, describes antiph-
onal singing, performed by men and women, among the Thcrapcutae, a Jewish
sect whose faith was a mixture of Biblical and Platonic elements [W 14 (17); R
60], See nos. 5, 17, si, 30.
2. C. 90: Pope Clement I refers in a letter (written m Greek) to the use of
the "Hagios, Hagios, Hagios" (Trishagion), the Greek form of the Sanctus [R
115], See nos. 6, 44*
3. C. 90: In the same letter Pope Clement gives evidence of psalm-singing (in
1 Perhaps we should say: scarcity of relevant documentary evidence* Thousands of
references to singing exist in the writings of the Church Fathers and of early chroniclers.
In fact, Gerbert's De cantu et musica sacra (s vols., 1774) is nothing but a gigantic com-
pilation (still occasionally useful) of such references. Very little of this, however, is of
actual importance from our point of view.
2 Compiled from a number of books which may be consulted for source indications and
further details: D: Duchesne, Christian Worship; O: Gastou, Les Origins . . ,; Oil
G^rold, Histoire de la musiquc (1936); Ger: Gerbert, De Cantu; L: Lang, Music in West-
ern Civilization; M: G. Morin, Les veritable* origines du chant grtgorien (i9i); R:
Reese, Music in the Middle Ages; W: Wagner, Introduction to Gregorian Chant, with
page references to the German edition, Einfuhrung, vol. I (31901), in parentheses.
The present writer assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of these data or of their
interpretation. Some of them may well turn out to be unreliable. The most recent
studies of the early development of Christian music are: H, Hucke, "Die Entwicklung des
christlichen Kultgesangs sum Grcgorianischen Choral" (Rtimische Qu&rtalschrift fur
Christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte, XLVXII [1953], 147); and B St&blein,
article "Frtihchristliche Musik" (MGG).
Origin and Development to c. 600 39
Rome?) by warning the faithful not to sing the Psalms at the feasts of the pagans,
lest they should appear similar to the music of the kithara players and minstrels
4. The Apocryphal Acts of John the Evangelist (died c. 100) contain a refer-
ence to aulos playing and dancing in connection with the singing of hymns [G^
135]. See no. 9.
SECOND CENTURY
5. C. 115: Pliny, the Younger, in a letter to the Roman emperor Trajan, men-
tions the Night Office (Vigils, Matins) and, possibly, antiphonal singing among
the Christians of Bithynia [W 109 (127); R 60; L 43; G 45]. See nos. 11, 23, 27, 41.
6. C. 120: Pope Sixtus I is reported to have introduced the Sanctus into the
Mass [W gg (116)].
7. C. 150: Justin Martyr (d. 162) describes the Mass at Rome as consisting of
readings from the Old and New Testament, a sermon, an offering of bread and
wine, prayer of the faithful, the "kiss of peace," eucharistic (thanksgiving) prayer,
and communion [L 45; D 50]. Notice the absence of psalm-singing (Introit,
Gradual, etc.). See nos. 33, 34.
8. Early Latin translations of the Bible, now collectively referred to as the Itala.
However, Greek remains the official language of the Church until the third cen-
tury, even in Rome. See nos. 12, 31, 54.
9. Clement of Alexandria (c. i5o-c. 220) forbids the use of instruments and of
chromatic music in the churches [W 12, 13 (14, 16); R 61; G 45].
10. The Church Father Tertullian (c. 155-^. 222), active in Carthage, mentions
responsorial psalmody (cantus responsorius), probably with reference to Rome
[W 16 (19); R 62]. See nos. 15, 24, 53.
11. Tertullian mentions the three earliest Office Hours, Vigils, Lauds, and Ves-
pers, in Carthage [L 44]; also Terce, Sext, and None as private prayer hours [D
447]-
THIRD CENTURY
12. First indications of Latin liturgy in Rome [W 44 (51); L 49; G 46]-
13. The Syrian Bardesanes (d. 223) and his son, Harmonios, write a Gnostic
Psalter, i.e., hymn-like versions of the Psalms written from the point of view of
Gnosticism (a combination of Christian doctrine with oriental and hellenistic
elements) [W 38 (44); R 70]. See nos. 14, 20, 22, 25, 28.
14. 269: Council of Antioch. The great popularity of hymn-singing appears
from the fact that the Council reproached the bishop Paul of Samosata for abolish-
ing them in his church [W 37 (43)].
15. Athanasius (259-313), on the occasion of a persecution of Christians in
Alexandria, orders the singing of a Psalm with the people responding: "quoniam
in aeternum misericordia eius." [W i$t (19)]-
16. Athanasius (according to St. Augustine) insisted that the Psalms should be
sung with such moderate inflexion (tarn modico flexu vocis) that it sounded like
speech rather than singing [W 27 (31); R 62], This has been considered as in-
4O GREGORIAN CHANT
direct evidence that fairly elaborate methods of singing existed at that time. See
nos. 18, 32.
17. Eusebius (c. a6o-c. 340), bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, mentions Philo's
report (see no. i) and says that the same practice exists among the Christians of
his time [W 14 (17)].
18. Eusebius bears witness that the Psalms were sung "in melodious tone/' i.e.,
not merely recited [R 62].
FOURTH CENTURY
19. 313: Edict of Constantinople, which raised the Christian faith to the status
of an officially recognized religion, thus making an end to the persecutions and
removing any obstacles to free development in liturgy or chant.
20. C. 340: St. Ephraim (306-73) of Syria writes the first Christian hymns (in
Greek), in order to combat the heretical hymns of Bardesanes (see no. 13) [W 38
(45); ^ 69].
21. C. 350: Two monks, Flavianus and Diodorus, import antiphonal psalmody
from the heretical Syrian Church into the Christian-orthodox Church of Antioch
(Syria) [W 18 (22); R 68; L 46; G 50; D 114].
22. C. 350: Hilarius (d. 367), bishop of Poitiers (France) writes the first Latin
hymns, after the model of St. Ephraim (see no. 20) [W 39 (46); L 48].
23. Hilarius mentions Vespers, Nocturns, and Lauds in France [W MI (129)].
24. C. 375: St. Basil (c. 330-79), in a letter to the people of Caesarea, speaks of
the singing of Psalms, both antiphonally and responsorially, in all parts of the
Orient [W 21 (241); R 63; G 137],
25. The Council of Laodicea (c. 360-81) forbids the singing of hymns [W 38
(44); L 47].
26. The Council of Laodicea established a schola cantorum [L 52], See nos, 36,
49-
27. C. 385: The Spanish abbess Etheria (formerly called Sylvia or Egeria) makes
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and gives a detailed report about the liturgy there, men-
tioning a full Office (Vigils, Lauds, Terce, Sext, None, and Vespers) with Psalms,
Antiphons, Hymns, Lessons, Responds, and Collects; also an incipient cycle of
the year including Nativity, Lent, Palm Sunday, Holy Week, Easter, and Pente-
cost [R 65; L 44; D 54iff; G^ 138].
28. St. Ambrose (340-97) introduces antiphonal psalmody and hymns into
Milan [W 22 (26); R 104; L 46, 48].
29. Pope Damasus I (366-84), advised by St. Jerome (530-420), undertakes the
first organization of the liturgy and chant in Rome, after the model of the Church
of Jerusalem [W 167 (191); R 119; G 51; M 79].
30. Damasus introduces antiphonal singing and the Alleluia into Rome [W 81
(95)* R % L 46; see, however, pp. 3763. See nos. 37, 45, 47.
31. C. 400: St. Jerome finishes the first complete Latin translation o the Bible,
the Vulgata (Vulgate), which supersedes the Jtala.
32* C. 400: Cassian gives evidence of ornate methods of singing in some men*
asteries of the Orient [W 29 (34); G 209], and mentions the Gloria Patri as a
closing verse for antiphonal Psalms [Ger 43].
Origin and Development to c. 600 41
33. C. 400: Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo in North Africa, makes refer-
ence to various Mass chants: (a) the Gradual as a (complete) Psalm between the
readings from Scripture and from the Gospels [W 72 (84)]; (b) the Alleluia as an
extended vocalization, though without specific reference to the Mass [W 32 (38)];
and (c) the chants of the Offertory and the Communion which he introduced into
Carthage [W 93, 103 (109, 120); R 64; D 173^.
FIFTH CENTURY
34. Celestine I (422-32) is said to have ordered the singing of antiphonal Psalms
before the Offering. This has been interpreted as the earliest, though rather ques-
tionable, evidence of the Introit [W 57 (67); R 119; G 81; M 54].
35. Pope Leo I (440-61) is said to have been the first to institute an annalis
cantus, i.e., a cycle of chants for the whole year [W 167 (191); M 79). Also ascribed
to him is a Sacramentary, known as the Leonine Sacramentary [D 1352]. See nos.
38, 39* 50 55> 56.
36. Leo I founded a monastery for the training of singers, the earliest indication
of a schola cantorum in Rome [L 53]. See no. 49.
37. The Greek church historian Sozomenos (c. 450) reports that the Alleluia
was sung in Rome only once each year, on Easter Sunday [Migne, Patrologia
graeca 67, p. 1475].
38. Pope Gelasius (492-96) is mentioned in connection with another annalis
cantus [W i6>j (192); M 79] and another Sacramentary, the Gelasian [W 167 (192);
D
SIXTH CENTURY
39. Popes Symmachus (498-514), Johannes (523-26), and Bonifacius (530-32)
all are said to have worked on a cantus annalis (or cantilena anni circuit), a cycle
of chants for the whole year [W 168 (192); M 79],
40. C. 510: Pope Symmachus extends the use of the Gloria of the Mass over
the entire year, Sundays and Feasts of Martyrs [W 67 (80)].
41. C. 530: St. Benedict (died c. 543) establishes a complete liturgy for the
Offices of the entire year (Benedictine Rule) with Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce,
Sext, None, Vespers and Compline [W 112 (131)]-
42. St. Benedict mentions (introduces?) the psalmus in directum [W 23f (*7f)].
43. 529: The Council of Vaison (France) introduces the Kyrie eleison into the
Galilean Mass, in a statement which implies that it had been introduced some
time before into the Roman Mass [W 64 (75); D 165]. See no. 48.
44. 529: The Council of Vaison orders the use of the Sanctus in all Masses [W
99* (11?)]-
45. Cassiodorus (c. 485-580) describes the Alleluia as a jubilus, i.e., an extended
vocalization (without mentioning a verse) [W 33 (39)].
46. 589: The Council of Toledo (Spain) adopts the Credo of the Greek Church
for use in the Mozarabic liturgy [W 89 (105)].
47. C. 600: Pope Gregory I (590-604) orders the use of the Alleluia for the en-
tire year, except for the period of Lent [W 81 (95); R 180].
4% GREGORIANCHANT
48. Gregory adds the Christe eleison to the Kyrie [W 65 (76)].
49. Gregory establishes (or reorganizes; see no. 36) the Roman schola cantorum
[W 172 (197); R 121].
50. Gregory is said to have edited a cantus anni circuit nobilis (a famous cycle
of chants for the year) [W 168 (192)].
51. Gregory is said to have written a cento antiphonarius (compilation [liter-
ally, patch-work] of chants) [W 172 (197)]-
SEVENTH CENTURY
52. 608: Introduction of the Feast of the Dedication of a Church [ W 182, fn. 3
53. Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636) gives a clear description of responsorial psalm-
ody [W 16 (20)].
54. Isidore says that the Vulgate (see no. 31) is now universally employed [M
45]-
55. Pope Martinus (649-55) is said to have edited a cantus annali$ [W 168
56. C. 650: Three Roman abbots, Catolenus, Maurianus, and Virbonus, are each
reported to have written a cantus annalis nobilis [W 168 (192); M 81].
57. The Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701; Council of Trullo, 692) introduces the
Processions for three Feasts of the Virgin: Annunciation, Assumption, and Na-
tivity [W 182 (209)].
58. Pope Sergius introduces the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross [W 182
(209)].
59. Pope Sergius introduces the Agnus Dei into the Roman Mass [W 101 (1x9);
D 186].
EIGHTH CENTURY
60. C. 725: Pope Gregory II (715-31) introduces the Masses for all the Thurs-
days of Lent [W 181 (207); D 246].
It is understood that these data should not be taken at their face value-
They must be carefully evaluated both as to their reliability and as to their
meaning before they can be used as the foundation material for a study of
the development of chant, a study which also has to take into considera-
tion many other things, such as facts of a purely liturgical character or
internal evidence derived from an analysis of the melodies. Perhaps it is
not superfluous to illustrate this situation by a few examples* A typical
case of questionable reliability is no. 6 of the above list, according to which
Pope Sixtus I introduced the Sanctus into the Mass, This information
comes from a Liber Pontificate (a book describing the deeds o the popes)
which was compiled from c. 600 to c, 800, that is, nearly five hundred years
after the event to which it refers. Even admitting the accuracy of the report,
Origin and Development to c. 600 43
we have no evidence that the Sanctus was sung at this remote time or, if it
was sung, that the melody had any connection with extant Sanctus melodies
preserved in manuscripts of the tenth or eleventh centuries. Another fact
worthy of note is that in the chronological list hymns appear centuries
before any mention is made of, for instance, the Graduals (see nos. 14 and
33). They are indeed a considerably older item of the liturgy, at least in
the East, but this statement implies nothing regarding the antiquity of
their melodies as compared with those of the Graduals. The fact that
hymns existed in the third century, Antiphons in the fourth (see no. 27), or
the Introit in the fifth (see no. 34) is of interest and importance from the
liturgical point of view, but is of little value for the investigation of the
development of the musical repertory, for which we have to rely on en-
tirely different criteria.
On the basis of historical data such as those given above and other con-
siderations, scholars have been able to trace with a reasonable degree of
certitude the development of liturgy and chant. For our purpose a sum-
mary description will suffice.
FROM THE FIRST CENTURY TO C. 380
Th^ earliest development took place in the East, particularly in Jeru-
salem and A&lioch. The most primitive service was the Night Office of
Saturday (the Jewish Sabbath), held in the hours before dawn, between
cock-crow and sun-rise. It was followed by the Mass, which therefore fell
in the early hours of Sunday. Thus, Sunday became the Day of the Lord
and assumed the function of the weekly feast day. The Night Service con-
sisted of readings, prayers, and Psalms, the latter of which were probably
sung by a soloist, with congregational responses. The Mass consisted mainly
of readings from the Old and New Testaments, a sermon, offerings, and
communion (see Data, no. 7), possibly without any singing. As early as
the second century we find three Offices: Vespers at the beginning of the
night, the Vigil (later called Nocturn or Matins) during the last hours of
the night, and Lauds in the first hours of the morning. The Lesser Hours
Terce, Sext, and None existed at an early time as hours for private prayers
(as in a family), but later became an official institution.
We are very fortunate to possess a detailed account of the complete serv-
ice as it was celebrated in Jerusalem about A. D. 385, at the very end of the
period we are here concerned with. This information is contained in a
unique document known as the Peregrinatio Etheriae (formerly, Silviae)
which is the account of a pilgrimage to the holy places of the East under-
taken by the nun Etheria, who wrote the report for the sisters of her nun-
nery, which was probably in north-west Spain. After detailed descriptions
of her journey to various places (Mount Sinai, Mount Nebo, return to
44 GREGORIAN CHANT
Constantinople) she informs her sisters about the "operatio singulis diebus
cotidle in locis sanctis," the order of the liturgy day by day in the Holy
Places. 1 Here we find most interesting details about the Daily Offices at
Matins, Sext, None, and Vespers; the Vigils and the Mass of Sunday; and
the special celebrations for Epiphany (the section for Nativity is lost), the
Feast of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple (not adopted into the
Roman rite), the period of Lent with celebrations on all weekdays except
the Thursdays [see Data, no. 60], Holy Week, Easter Sunday, Ascension,
and Whit Sunday. For most of these services special places of worship are
mentioned, such as the various churches in Jerusalem (Anastasis, Church
of the Resurrection with the Holy Sepulchre; Crux, Church of the Holy
Cross; Martyrium, the Great Basilica; Sion, the Church on Mount Sion);
or outside, in Bethlehem, Bethany, Gethsemane, or on the Mount of Olives.
Thus, at Epiphany the Vigils were celebrated in Bethlehem, the Mass in
Jerusalem; on Palm Sunday the Vigils were held in the Anastasis and at
the Cross, Mass was celebrated in the Martyrium, and there was an evening
procession to the Mount of Olives; Maundy Thursday had a night service
on the Mount of Olives? and a morning service at Gethsemane; etc. These
customs had a profound influence on the organization of the service in
Rome, where the feasts were also assigned to different churches, known as
Stations (Statio ad Grucem, Statio ad Sanctam Mariarri), some of them built
in direct imitation of those of Jerusalem. Finally, there was a special feast,
celebrated with great solemnity, for the Dedication of Churches, in com-
memoration of the day when the churches of Anastasis and Martyriu
